CHAPTER 6: WEATHERING & SOILS

Weathering – involves disintegration and decomposition of rock at or near Earth’s surface.

1. Mechanical weathering – physical forces break down the rock into smaller pieces without
changing the rock’s mineral composition.
2. Chemical weathering – chemical transformation of rock into new compounds.

MECHANICAL WEATHERING

1. Frost Wedging – water in the cracks expands thus enlarging the fracture. Creates angular rock
fragments that accumulate to form talus slopes.
2. Frost Heaving – occurs when moist soils freeze due to the growth of ice lenses. These masses of
ice grow larger because they are supplied with water migrating from unfrozen areas.
3. Salt Crystal Growth – common in rocky shorelines and arid regions. It begins when sea spray
from waves or groundwater penetrates crevices and pore spaces in rock. As this water
evaporates, crystals gradually grow larger thus weaken the rock.
4. Sheeting – common in granite, where concentric slabs are exposed by erosion and expansion of
crystalline rock producing onion-like layers. It takes place due to the reduction in pressure that
occurs as the overlying rock is eroded away, known as unloading. Continued weathering will
create exfoliation dome.

5. Biological Activity – plants may enlarge the fractures present, and animals remove the fresh
material on the surface thus weakening the body.

CHEMICAL WEATHERING

Pure water is nonreactive. It will be reactive if it contains a small amount of dissolved material.
1. Oxidation – electrons are lost from one element during a reaction.
2. Carbonic Acid – CO2 + H2O  H2CO3
  Carbonic acid ionizes to form the very reactive hydrogen ion (H+) and the bicarbonate
ion (HCO3-).
 Rain dissolves carbon dioxide and as it percolates through the soil, additional CO2 is
released by decaying organic matter.

WEATHERING OF POTASSIUM FELDSPAR IN GRANITE IS AS FOLLOWS:

2 KAlSi3O8 2 (H+ + HCO3-) H2O  Al2Si2O5(OH)4 2 K+ 2 HCO3- 4 SiO2

K-felds Carbonic acid Water Clay mineral Potassium ion Bicarbonate Silica
ion ion

In this reaction, the hydrogen ions (H+) attack and replace potassium ions (K+) in the feldspar structure,
thereby disrupting the crystalline network. Once the potassium is removed, it is available as a nutrient for
plants or becomes the soluble salt potassium bicarbonate (KHCO 3), which may be incorporated into other
minerals or carried to the ocean in dissolved form by streams.

The most abundant products of the chemical breakdown of feldspar are residual clay minerals. Clay
minerals are the end products of weathering and are very stable under surface conditions. Consequently,
clay minerals make up a high percentage of the inorganic material in soils. Moreover, the most abundant
sedimentary rock, shale, contains a high proportion of clay minerals.

The weathering of potassium feldspar generates a residual clay mineral (potassium bicarbonate) and
some silica, which enters into solution.

Products of Chemical Weathering

Silica Mineral Residual Products Material in Solution
Quartz Quartz grains Silica
Feldspar Clay minerals Silica, K+, Na+, Ca2+
Amphibole (Hornblende) Clay minerals Silica, Ca2+, Mg2+
Limonite
Hematite
Olivine Limonite Silica
Hematite Mg2+

SPHEROIDAL WEATHERING

As mechanical
weathering break
rocks into smaller
pieces, more
surface area is
exposed to
chemical
weathering.
Differential weathering is a phenomenon when masses of rock do not weather uniformly.

SOIL: AN INDISPENSABLE RESOURCE

Regolith is a layer of rock and mineral fragments that covers the land; it is produced by weathering.

Soil is a combination of mineral and organic matter, water, and air – which also supports plants. It is
composed of 45% mineral matter, 25% air, 25% water, and 5% organic matter.

Sometimes soils become buried and preserved. Later, if these ancient soils, called paleosols, are
uncovered, they can provide useful clues to climates and the nature of landscapes thousands or millions
of years ago.

We can consider the soil as an interface as it is a boundary where the geosphere, atmosphere,
hydrosphere, and biosphere meet.

Humus are decayed remains of organic matter which enhance the soil’s ability to retain water.

CONTROLS OF SOIL FORMATION:

1. Parent Material – the source of the weathered mineral matter. It influences the soil with the
type of weathering, rate of soil formation, and soil fertility.
a. Residual soil – if the parent material is a bedrock.
b. Transported soils – unconsolidated sediment that form in place on parent materials that
have been transported.
2. Climate – determines what type of weathering will occur.
3. Plants and Animals – the organic acids from humus hasten the weathering process, and animals
such as earthworms act to mix the mineral and organic portions of the soil.
4. Time – the longer a soil has been forming, the thicker it becomes and the less it resembles the
parent material. It usually takes between 80 and 400 years for soil-forming processes to create 1
cm (less than 1/2 in) of topsoil.
5. Topography – it affects soil formation due to the length and steepness of slopes that significantly
affect the amount of erosion and water content of the soil.
a. Slope orientation is the direction a slope is facing.

DESCRIBING AND CLASSIFYING SOILS

Because soil-forming processes operate from the sur- face downward, soil composition, texture,
structure, and color gradually evolve differently at varying depths.

Soil profile is a vertical section which all of the soil horizons are visible.

Horizons are vertical differences that divide the soil into zones.

Not all soils have a complete soil profile. The characteristics and extent of horizon development vary in
different environments. Thus, different localities exhibit soil profiles that can contrast greatly with one
another.

Soil taxonomy is a system for classifying soils which emphasizes the physical and chemical properties of
the soil profile.
There 6 hierarchical categories of classification – with 12 soil orders and 19,000 soil series.
BASIC SOIL ORDERS:
Soil orders Content or Characteristic
Rich in iron and aluminium. Clay
particles accumulate in a
subsurface layer in response to
1. Alfisol leaching in moist environments.
Fertile, productive soils because
they are neither too wet nor too
dry.
Young soils which parent material
is volcanic ash and cinders,
2. Andisol deposited by recent volcanic
activity. With little profile
development.
May have an accumulation of
calcium carbonate, gypsum, or
3. Aridosol
salt in subsoil; low organic
content.
Young soils having limited
4. Entisol development and exhibiting
properties of the parent material.
5. Gelisol Young soils with little profile
development.
Organic soils. Dark, partially
6. Histosol decomposed organic material
commonly referred to as peat.
Weakly developed young soils in
7. Inceptisol which the beginning profile
development is evident.
Dark, soft soil. Humus-rich surface
8. Mollisol horizon that is rich in calcium and
magnesium. Soil fertility is
excellent.
Rich in iron and aluminum oxides,
oxisols are heavily leached and
9. Oxisol
hence are poor soils for
agricultural activity.
Beneath the dark upper horizon
of weathered organic material lies
10. Spodosol
a light-colored horizon of leached
material.
11. Ultisol Soils that represent the products
of long periods of weathering.
Environment
Moderately weathered soils that form under
boreal forests or broadleaf deciduous forests.
Soils that develop in dry places where there is
insufficient water to remove soluble minerals
Productivity ranges from very high for those
formed on recent river deposits to very low for
those formed on shifting sand or rocky slopes.
Occur in regions with permafrost. Low
temperatures and frozen conditions for much of
the year; slow soil-forming processes.
Little or no climatic implications. Can be found in
any climate where organic debris can accumulate
to form a bog soil.
Most common in humid climates, they exist from
the arctic to the tropics. Native vegetation is most
often forest.
Developed under grass vegetation, generally
found in prairie areas. Also found in hardwood
forests with significant earthworm activity.
Climatic range is boreal or alpine to tropical. Dry
seasons are normal.
Soils that occur on old land surfaces unless parent
materials were strongly weathered before they
were deposited. Generally found in the tropics
and subtropical regions.
Soils found only in humid regions on sandy
material. Common in northern coniferous forests
and cool humid forests.
Restricted to humid climates in the temperate
regions and the tropics, where the growing
 Water percolating through the
soil concentrates clay particles in
the lower horizons (argillic
horizons).
Soils containing large amounts of
12. Vertisol clay, which shrink upon drying
and swell with the addition of
water.
season is long. Abundant water and a long frost-
free period contribute to extensive leaching and,
therefore, poorer soil quality.
Found in subhumid to arid climates, provided
that adequate supplies of water are available to
saturate the soil after periods of drought. Soil
expansion and contraction exert stresses on
human structures.

THE SOIL PROFILE

1. O horizon – mainly decayed organic matter

2. A horizon – mineral + humus

Topsoil = O horizon + A horizon

3. E horizon – it is known as zone of eluviation –

the water moves downward which carries the
dissolved materials and minerals. It is also
known zone of leaching - minerals are
starting to dissolve in this zone.
4. B horizon – also known as the subsoil or zone
of accumulation – this is the zone where clay
and other minerals are being accumulated.

True soil = O + A + E + B horizon

5. C horizon – partially weathered parent

material.
6. R horizon – is the bedrock or the
unweathered parent material which is not
part of the soil profile because it is not
altered.

THE IMPACT OF HUMAN ACTIVITIES ON SOIL

Rainforest soils develop under high temperatures and heavy rainfall, therefore, they are severely leached
and only the insoluble minerals become concentrated in the soil. Also, bacterial activity is highly active in
wet tropics, therefore, the soil contains very little humus and nutrients.

Many people do not realize that soil erosion—the removal of topsoil—is a serious environmental
problem. Perhaps this is the case because a substantial amount of soil seems to remain even where soil
erosion is serious.
Every time it rains, raindrops strike the land with surprising force that moves soil particles out of their
positions in the soil mass. Then, water flowing across the surface carries away the dislodged soil particles,
this process is called sheet erosion.

After the water flows as a thin, unconfined sheet for a relatively short distance, threads of current
typically develop, and tiny channels called rills begin to form. Still, deeper cuts in the soil, known as
gullies, are created as rills enlarge.

When normal farm cultivation cannot eliminate the channels, we know the rills have grown large enough
to be called gullies. Although most dislodged soil particles move only a short distance during each rainfall,
substantial quantities eventually leave the fields and make their way downslope to a stream. Once in the
stream channel, these soil particles, which can now be called sediment, are transported downstream and
eventually deposited.

CONTROLLING SOIL EROSION

The steepness of the slope is an important factor in soil erosion. The steeper the slope, the faster the
water runs off and the greater the erosion. It is best to leave steep slopes undisturbed. When such slopes
are farmed, terraces can be constructed. These nearly flat, steplike surfaces slow runoff and thus
decrease soil loss while allowing more water to soak into the ground.

Soil erosion by water also occurs on gentle slopes. A conservation method would be planting the crops
parallel to the contours of the slope. This pattern reduces soil loss by slowing runoff.

Creating grassed waterways is another common

practice. Natural drainageways are shaped to form
smooth, shallow channels and then planted with grass.
The grass prevents the formation of gullies and traps
soil washed from cropland. Frequently crop residues are
also left on fields. This debris protects the surface from
both water and wind erosion.
To protect fields from excessive wind erosion,
rows of trees and shrubs are planted as
windbreaks that slow the wind and deflect it
upward.

WEATHERING AND ORE DEPOSITS

Weathering creates many important mineral

deposits by concentrating minor amounts of
metals that are scattered through unweathered rock into economically valuable concentrations. Such a
transformation, termed secondary enrichment.

SECONDARY ENRICHMENT OCCURS IN TWO WAYS:

1. Chemical weathering coupled with downward-percolating water removes undesired materials

from decomposing rock, leaving the desired elements enriched in the upper zones of the soil.
2. The desirable elements that are found in low concentrations near the surface are removed and
carried to lower zones, where they are redeposited and become more concentrated.

BAUXITE

Bauxite is the principal ore of

aluminum and it is created as a result
of enrichment by weathering process
under tropical conditions. Although
aluminum is the third most abundant
element in Earth’s crust,
economically valuable
concentrations of this important
metal are not common because most
aluminum is tied up in silicate
minerals, from which it is extremely
difficult to extract.

Bauxite forms in rainy tropical

climates. When aluminum-rich
source rocks are subjected to the intense and prolonged chemical weathering of the tropics, most of the
common elements, including calcium, sodium, and potassium, are removed by leaching. Because
aluminum is extremely insoluble, it becomes concentrated in the soil (as bauxite, a hydrated aluminum
oxide).

There is significant concern regarding the mining of bauxite and other residual deposits because they
tend to occur in environmentally sensitive areas of the tropics. Mining is preceded by the removal of
tropical vegetation, thus destroying rainforest ecosystems. Moreover, the thin moisture-retaining layer of
organic matter is also disturbed. When the soil dries out in the hot Sun, as has been mentioned, it
becomes brick- like and loses its moisture-retaining qualities. Such soil cannot be productively farmed,
nor can it support significant forest growth. The long-term consequences of bauxite mining are clearly of
concern for developing countries in the tropics, where this important ore is mined.

Bauxite is a useful indicator of past climates because it records periods of wet tropical climate in the
geologic past.
OTHER DEPOSITS

Many copper and silver deposits result when weathering processes concentrate metals that are
dispersed through a low-grade primary ore. Usually, such enrichment occurs in deposits containing pyrite
(FeS2), the most common and widespread sulfide mineral.

Pyrite is important because when it chemically weathers, sulfuric

acid forms, which enables percolating waters to dissolve the ore
metals. Once dissolved, the metals gradually migrate
downward through the primary ore body until they are
precipitated. Deposition takes place because of changes that
occur in the chemistry of the solution when it reaches the
groundwater zone (the zone beneath the surface, where all pore
spaces are filled with water). In this manner, the small percentage
of dispersed metal can be removed from a large vol- ume of rock and
redeposited as a higher-grade ore in a smaller volume of rock.