PHY114 URE#1

#
-503
2023 -

between classical and quantum

-> Main difference and particles)
mechanise,dynamice of
waves

(i) determinism
deterministic
classical mechanics
in
is principle
mechanics even
in principle
ahneas quantum
the that
sense
indeterministic
is in

evolution cannot be predicted

its future

where photon hits

a seren
Example: a

she doubt
after passing stage
uncertain
slit i scompletely

(ii) Effect ofmeasurement

classical:
measurementdoes
act of
an
not
affect the system
-

1) does affect the system

"1""
-
quarter:

=man
Equation ofmotion Newtonare
(iii) terms
real
of
variables
-
classical: in

wave
equation
-

dx2 22

terms of
a
complex quantity.
-

Quantur: in

Schrodinger equation
-

th+
V4=
it-

(iv) Superposition principles: which implies

based on
division ofamolitude
classical:Interference
is
-

division of energy. which does

division of
care function,
based on
quantum:Interference
is

of
-

imply
not division energy.

(v) wone-particle duality particle or a

wave

behaves either simultaneously

as a

- classical:Asystem behaves as a wave

and a
particle
-
quantum:
Asystem
114 URE
#2
27-03-2023
-

Need for quantum mechanics??

with the question:what light?

all started
is
· It
comes out of
what a lightbulb?

farent

made p
of article ten corouscular
entryis
->

s et
rubber ball
A reflects off from
a surface
(ii) Reflection
-

attracta particb differently

iii) Refraction
-

differentmedia
differentcolors.
of
lightparticles
are

Livs dispersion
-

like water
w astaggedan
madeof
coves, e

iscentwage ispredictions
!
= couldn't
as
well but his theory
Chen were some
new

So, newton's theory widely accepted

was

at that
time.
-

be tested it.
challenge
not able to
and was
Huygen

double
->

stupement slit open, there was

uniform illumination
interference

>Moton's
slide open, there
an
wa s
-with both
->
it
could not explain
terry it
theory explained
->
ButHuygen's
->

now.
wave
lightis
a
So,
-
 effect
photoelectric effect,
compton
radiation,
Blackbody explain
it
19008: could not
>
theory could
- >

Hugger's
oflight duality
particle picture
-

-
But
a

wave as well as particle-wave-particle

So, light
is
-

that
is,
&- Broglie show wave-particle duality,
material particles
1924:
=

simultaneously.
coaves
Even and
particle
as
=

behave as

Chey
Equation
Newton's
properties of system: a

Summary:particle-only
wave equation
Maxwell's
wame-only properties
of system: a

--
-
Mechanics
wave-particle duality: need-I -
Quantum
particles
for non-relativistic
dirger's equation

+iE V4 =

pointed out strange feature

paradox Podolsky and Rosen a
EPR Einstein,
1935:
-

mechanics is
-

in quantum theory and thereby question ifquantum

a complete theory.

mathematical the experimental

Bell worked
out
a inequality,
1964:John which could test Einstein's objection
of
-

violation's

making photon sources

advancement
in

with modern technological

of Bell'sinequality
was
violations
1990s:
=

and detectors, experimental

demonstrated.
violations ofBell'sinequality
Nobel prize for experimental
2022:
=

Present:
-

but theory
successful
very
mechanics a
is strange quantum theory.
the validity of
Duartum which chattery
no experiment
-

there i s
- so far,
mechanical correlations, such as
entanglement, one being
Quantum technologies quantum
viewed as a resource for next-generation
-

communication/crptography, sensing. quantum

computation, quartum
 -
Tut-see
URE3
-

yes
-
# -
lecture
H
notes

all started -

theory?-how
it Tut-newell
m
for quantum
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need
The
#

development bed to
that quantum questions.
details
look at the historic
and then go into the
Will
# first the mathematical framework
look at
will then
mechanics.
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to make better lightbulbs? filament be heated

so

How what temperature should

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radiation
body
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interest is
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rediation
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Typical
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ow =

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 #4
PHY114 TURE

EM modes
to

mode?
what
isan electromagnetic In one-D
the equation
is

Marwell'swave equation.
->

satisfies
The EM field

= what
is debutcos at EGS (h2
(known
=
+wt)

a re possible solutions
if
u
i(na-cot)

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we canverify thatEiknut

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relation
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endem, we have
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medium with au
In

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called modes.
the
to wave equations are
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convenience
mathematical
illnewil are
taken justfor
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cos (kox1wt)
-> complex 2

with the connection:Re(eilkn1ct)]=

 mode?
EM
do we represent
How

x
2
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k
w
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vd
2HV
2 c
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5 =

how
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many
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El
labels?
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one:K.
Only
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total no.
Ris the
angal no. of
ofallowed moder

vector
/
But electric field
a
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as
direction
15]
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can have two different

which the electric
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oscillate. The
direction
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called

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oscillation is

of each K, ther
polarization
and for
can be two different
polarization.

xx

-
two independent
polarization
directions
 3D space

↑2
EM- modes in

the electric field E(4, 4,2,4)

The wave equation for
given by

e
3D
in
is

+ -I

er ** =

:when I state
-uft
areDe be
Posen solution? Iti

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x

i (x yy zi)
=
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relation?
what i sthe dispersion

I
-

medium
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indee

↳ w (k) =

attky
= r
the EM mode?
independent labels for
her many
->

and kn
three:Ka, K,
-

Only W.
also be Ka, ky,
On it can
-

nature of
the vectorial
when we incorporate labels
-

have four
the field,then we

k, be
and polarization
kn,

3D space

ar yar vinival"
EM mode
in

too independent
with
directions.
polarization
I
 -
PHY114 RE
#5

N(r) du
Calcutting
one-dimensional
case

Electric field inside the cavity E x a

=

20=

+24Vt =2EEKnoS (24Vt)

Sin(kx-2HV+) + Es Sin(kx

sin) at 7
E(x,t) Es
=

Si=2
(metallic (SeiA+
-conditions 0
0
=

(i) F(x 0,t) 0 =

0
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Sinks
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allowed frequencies

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)
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also
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des
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So, how many

modes are allowed up to
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mir)=x= antennaeaI
-
allowed
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de
modes?There was
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Why only stats of
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Polarization is two-dimension two polarization
ofonly
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Ans: represserted
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be
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modes?
Are K and -k two different modes. One
: we are
using standing wave

the above formulation So, although

general
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Am. In
mode
consists ofKand-k
both.
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standing when we define the
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ils-ws
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n
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of
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She wave-vector an EM mode 3D
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-
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=

terms of its
be described in

ofthe EM mode can

So, thepropagation
components:Rx, ky &KE. Cherfan
conditions and
metallic boundary
Now each componentseen directions, we get
wave propagation
along a

for the
at

since ata and

to
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as z-directingen
Similar

raisedin
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B

z
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Ty

·t
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itu m =

>
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between 02 v,
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So,
number
of modes
a xs
the total
medics
the sphere with
of
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=>

it became
Including polarization,

*() x
2

↳eachmodecanvibrate messagein
:
Mu)=

L differentpolarization
So too

3 needs to be positive,
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- U are allowed
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only ofthe sphere.
only 8th
(v
a
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=volume ofde
carity which means

dr is
range
and +
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Therefore, the number ofmodes in
frequency

n(v dr)
n(v)
N(r)dv
+
-
=
=

(+du-v)
8 πV

(+ 34)-v)
=-
323

- -
8πV
(v'(2 - r1 (v
+
=

- x3dvr= Vd
Vud
 the when is stat
it

calculating the number of

modes in 3D case,
&In
becomes equal to the volume
the number of solution-points

As In 1D
->
- - --

/ro=
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i
N

·2 Ro
n =

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ofpoints
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when u 0
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e
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relices.
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to
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ShebetaNo. Asolution
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I

n(V) =

/Eu.)"XX== Vv
 PHY114 URE6
#
-

mode
energy of
an EM

now calculate the average

we

quantify I is given by
The expectation
value of
a

p
the usabilite saleene
de
5
Is d5-whau
P is
-

fb(z) d = 1
=

theory
al wave

the energy. The energy of

any
for
value
have
de amplitude
mode
Es, where Es
can is
An EM to
Es mode proportional
is
an EM

electric field.
ofthe

↑ Es amplitude REs amplitude

~
with with

*
increases i increases

-
(
ever every

temperature the
shermal equilibrium at probability (E)dE
- At
the and E+de given
is

system with ranges

in
energy
offinding
a

by

-(2)
=
=
k+
KT
Plans
t E
 the given
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therefore average energy

eatene
di
-

I b/e-(E I
-ElkT
de
E d5=

7
-
EIKT
-EIKT

(n
nT
3 e #
n+
+

( k+a+] = kT
=
-
0 0
1
0 -

Fi k +
=

fore

distrator ->Rayleighseamsradiation
we
Therefore

d
with
This formade agrees
at small values
experimentonly
offrequency
V

From
Quantum Physics:Eisberg & Resnick
 solution
Planck proposed
a

take
->

EM mode
a
in
reality ran
only
An
Quantum theory: and thus the
amplitude at
values for its
discute setof energy
Unlike in
at a
given frequency. Es
arbitrary
theory an
Ez

a
classical was

not allowed.
value
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at

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values
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frequency
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v is by
Zo
nhvin 0, 2,2
=

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=

hiscalled

she average energy

the
with quarter theory,
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=

be
is
given by EnP(En) P(3))

in
e
=

->
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n=
; nhr 1kT
5
- -

-
-
=C
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0
n =

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e
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n 0
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nhr/nt
S
-

C
n0
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two problem)
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to
can be evaluated
This sun

hu
5
m+I
=

en

Talamandgateare
-

du
> observations
experimental

-
atomic spectrum and a
the difference between
why is

blackbody spectrum?
*

absorbs
how
about a single actor
atomic spectrum is a dilute gas
; An
radiation. A blackbody the sun fila
never
is

and emits It is
a solid state systems. particular
ofatoms. It
is
happen at
a

mediation thatc an

ofall the
temperature
 rad
: Dmax=0.1
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Sin kg
m 0.01
=

l 0.1m
=

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=
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So, this an
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x
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mgl)1
=

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5x105 Joule
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=>

by
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be increased
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6.626x1534
=

x 156
13 hv
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=

⑰
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small. be
Can't
· This extremely
is
in
Asa result, it seems
observed.

agroscopeallowsee nesameante
ene

this.
possible to see

O’Connell, A. D. et al. Quantum ground state and

single-phonon control of a mechanical resonator.
Nature 464, 697–703 (2010).
 The photodectric effect -

aree
Lenard in
and
Halloachs 1888
in

1902 firstobserved photoelectric effect.

thatwhen light above a cut-off
The effect is

surface, electrons get

frequency falls
on a

with kinetic energy.

The
ejected
gated some

and cause a

electrons towards collector

the
go
applied potential
is
the the
If
current in circuit.
the electron reach the collector.
positive, it helps & Photoelectric effect is
the recoment
if negative potential applied,
is
However,
a
used most
in
photon/light
at potential v Vo.
=

becomes s ome
new
decrease
to and also
detectors. It is
This
iscalled the stopping potential given by the basic principle in

charge solar cells

where the electronic
Kman=eVo,
is
kinetic entige
of
and kman the
is

when v 0

ejected
=

the electron

-
No called the
is
stopping potential

wave theory
d AA time
is
it give a
received by alle in
an
E
ergy
where I is
the intensity
IBAAt,
E
=
i Is
↓
A

photoelectric
Facts about effect
the emitted

e
-
of
kinetic energy
kmaw
1. The maximum the
independentof intensity of
the
electrons is

lightfield
man
because
does not make
sense
wave theory: should give more ·o v
-> intensity (energy) because
electrons
the
Kinetic energy to
amplitude of the electrons.
larger
energy implis
to
more
kinetic energy
and thus larger
the E-field light
of
depends on the
instein: makes sense
because Kman only increases
*

the intensity
function. Increasing
- -
the work
frequency and
does not
but
the
number of photons
the
in
lightfield
the
increase the energy of photons
 there a
is frequency vo,
cut-off
2. For each surface, occur.
X

..
does
which the photo electric effect
not

below

because the W
does not make sense
wave theory: depend on
-> electron should
of
ejection not
a minimum intensity (energy) but
because
on a
frequency
minimum
IAADt
related to intercity:E
energy
=

is

Einstein: because the energy ofa photon

makes sense
- below the cut-off
hV. So,
is to its
related frequency E =

eject
to
photons does not sufficientenergy
frequency vo, the
metal
an electron from surface
the ofthe

instantaneously
almost
surface
the

x
are emitted from
3. Electrons
s
I ③

↳
because
make sense
theory: does not
⑤
wave
the total
->
the
in
wave theory time.
accemulated energy depends on

beam less intense, one

the
if
is
So, for
radiation
collect the
should have to
much
longer.

a photon is a concentrated
because
Einstein makes sense
it
and when it arrives,
-> bundle ofenergy absorbed
arrives as an he burdle of
energy
and
gets
the other atom.
entirely by one or
 effect (1905)

-
Einstein's
photodectric
quantum theory of
of EM wave

hypothesis:
an
planck's The energy
-
can be increased or decreased only
in the multiples of hV. The minimum energy,
have hu
other than zero, thata mode rean is

Planck's view,
the EM
energy,
once rediated,
However, in

specals through space like water waves.

to explain
This
=>
picture, although sufficient explain
able to
wa s not
blackbody radiation,
the photoelectric effect. :
!

i
"
:
=- Ir
ein's theory not
=
#

the radiation is : !

Energy of
EM = -
but also travels as a =

only quantized
i
=
bundles. Einstein assumed sale ↳
"
concentrated
bundle remains localized - = = =
thatthis energy :
hV
E hV. - =
moves and has the energy
:
as it
=

- =
also assumed that the photoelectri
Einstein
in
in -

effect, one photon is

completely absorbed by -
=
one electron in the photocathode. with
There a
is probability
to be found.
photos
where the is

the
always found
as
emitted it
But
So, when
is
electron
the is
hV. T
entire bundle of
energy
it has kinetic
energy, the
a does
observe this he energy,
one

value which isgiven by over

maximum of not have integrate the space
which electric field i sspread.

Kmax=hv-hVs=hr-wo the at

workfunctionof
met
the
called
woes
-

is
So, the stopping potential
vo =rvo
=
PHY114 URE
#
7
-

The compton effect confire

the
to
the firsteffect wa s the second
-

photoelectric effect
wa s
The
radiation. The Compton effect
particlerlike return of nature of
radiation
like
confirm the
particle
dramatically
to
photon by
related to the absorption of a

proteclectric effect ofphotons

was
The
the
related to seattering
adore. The compson effect is
-
an
common phenomenon
Scattering isa very

sausa
an atom.
by electrons in ·
example
Reflection, refraction
as
·

onacaratthe
ofscattering
experiment, xe of
in cordon's original surface,
falls a graphite
wavelength
on
to
beam has two separate
scattered
the X-ray scattering
do and
the other one involve
wavelengths. One
the
is essentially
II
is with
16 be-do
=
the presence
of
x-ray
-
relativit
called the
photon at shifted
the wavelength is

I-er
of
particle of
y man in

I
campton effect. Energy of a

mar energy
rest
the Kinetic energy
-

explain
-

E
=

The
-
wave theory oflightcannot Within ware moc
wavelength. k
+

[P= momentum]
=

emergence of
a new

sheory, an incoming
frequency
lightof I ->
moc
and
electron
oscillate the frequency.
that
at atrest, p=0,
can
that
at
for a particle
And then the electrons, oscillating
m,c
radiation at that frequency E =

emit
frequency ran
photon E
for
1
a

wrote
In

set
mags
quarter theory,
A= h.
photons
The retin is
are considered localized

gives the
Photon (11)

I
= P2
,
Photon(b0) e-(mo)
Eo, Po e -
u

befar
after
prp+pid
⑤ momentum
conservation requires [P.-P.CO-Pst=
aero
P,COSD P2004
- P
Po
+

Sino-psin
+

and 0 P,
=

of
and adding,
we

↳squaring
#Consertation ofenergy gives
- -

=MoC=Es #mo2

=
E, 2P2
Er=C;
=

c2Po-P.)
/moC22
+mo?
Mos= cpmoe
a cP0-412 mo" 2C(00-P.)
+
+

[P.-P.) moc=
<p>
&, cP-P12 + 2 2

p2 2
P4 p.2-20.5, 2m.(Po-P.)
-

a.

comparing P &, get

2P.P, -2MoC(Po-P.)
2POP, COSO
=

or, 1 mos) c00) =

4)
-

[P
=

a
t b-*-* =
=

xo=en
Sets
-mes). ↳ Compton
wavelegth
260, depending on

0 to
Ad
·
varies from
O.
the scattering angle
electron
and compton scattering, an

Note:In photoelectric effect

both
require a description
atom and both
these effects
-

removed from an
incoming
photoelectric effect
is an
In
based on
lightbeing particle. absorbed by the atom
and

photon at a given frequency is completely kinetic energy

with
bound electron gets ejected
as
ansequence
a a

complete transfer of energyto

v hv-hvo.
=

So, photoelectric effect

does not
in

She atom happens. This the reason

why
is
photoelectric effect
happen with electrons since ease, the
that complete transfer
free
in

when
possible) problem 2-1). So,
ofenergy not I
and momentum is

in
with
free electrons carpon scattering sakes place
lightintracts and at
which an electron fromejected
is
the
targetmaterial
continues
with remaining energy (atsmaller frequency)
She same
light
after the scattering.
frequency falls
on an
at certain
Nonetheless, when light
a

it oscillate
out, then just
atom and is not ejecta n election
able to
the
the atom atthat and as a result
She electrons i n frequency called the
This
electron emits rediation at the same frequency. has
is

all around and

it a

Rayleigh
scattering. We see
Rayleigh scattering
description based on considering lightas waves
 it propagates
character. It
wave
has dual is

summary:Light
a

and behaves as a
particle when detected.

BroglieHess
dual character
in

also has
atom when
like, electron, like a particle
butacts
waves when propagating
It behaves like
detected.

he ⑧Planck's hypothesis)
used ampson
scatterin)
light
= in
relativity,
*

p E I from wardength has

photon of
=

5 =I
tk
a

=
= =
-
momention 0 z
=
=

momentum
with
material particle
associated wavelengths.
I
a
->
For material (De-Broglie):3 =
p has
an

particle
for
andene
-
9:
whati sthe
who weigh
de-Broglic wavelength of
66 by and moving
is
a

at10m/? person

3 2A
(51
-

10 16
=

A: 6
=

->
66 X 10
electron
moving
de-Broglie wavelength of
an

what is the
Q:
at1 0 m/S
10
-

6.6x153Y -
(x10-9 14m
=
=

d -
-
# 9-1x,5-3/
6
=

x10

A
it not have It
objectlooks stationary, why does
day-to-day
mu

: A

as infinite Whatlooks stationary is

stationary.
Everything moves.

Nothing day-to-day object

is is
-A: and electrons
inside a

not so. The atom ·here is

actually So corresponding
each momentum,
to the
values
of for
not
stationary. have a lot
wavelength. So, object can the
If
wardegsh.
an

ofde-Broglic
a

hence a lot all

momentum and
if that she sum total of
only
object stationary,zero.
is
means

the momentum is

lot travelling
of
that there a re a

This means
wave packet.
total a standing
waves(de) buttheir sum is
 that:
have seen
So
far
we

photons are waves-Young's double-slitexperiment

compton effect
photoclectric effect,
·

· Photons are particles -

that elections are particles to

the proof according
What is
electrons
move
well-localized points.
cathode ray tube,
#
at
In the
and hit
screen

F q(E X5)
-

waves?
=

thatelections
are
the proof experiment. This
what
->
is
davision Germer
proof is
-

The first which a

is
elections,
of
e

experimentinvolves diffraction
with
cave
phenomenon interference
-
The other proof
isYoung's double-slit
elections.

matter waves (Davisson-Germer experiment)

I dectron gun

itte
difference
between the
two interfering
.ta
wave fronts:
De
detector

Path length
Al 1,
+

12
Emd
=

l,
=

d =>
Sing
-
=
1.

(n 1,cos(π 24)
- -

1,c)(20) =

si2)-
=
=

(2-wx
+

(1 202)
=

:be=1,+lz
-

...
Al=2dSmY
a re
interference is

give
conditionone
 URE8
#
#114

wave-pedduality -

as
hu
-
wave-particle
Einstein decatity for
-

a photon

hi

:.

s
de Broglie
-

-
⑧

-
wave-particle
far a

duality
material particle

behave as wave as well

and the material particle,
So, both, mediation field
the but
behaves as a particle
as particles. When detected
a
quantum system
waves.
when propagating it behaves as

measurement. The
manifested
not
in the same
vice verse
there aspect
Both
a re
nature and
nature
conceals particle
neverts wave
measurement that
called Bohim complimentarily principle
-
This is
is ofmatter was

-
and velocity
v

material particle of
mass me

behave as a plane
Let'sconsider
a

we know
thatit can
and wo ?
and E Imv2 between K
the relation
=

P mv
.

So, what i s
=

wame given by eike-cot).

Here we have v t
E
=and >=

2=
=
2E t =

a
n
== 4
ma- d
=
= =

② - v
m
=

① w
=
r)=
=

I
different
This i s
relation from the disposion

-na
dispersion
en
We
-

↳
phase
the velocity, is
the matter wave, on

The velocity of
wavelengt
Y = v6 --de-Broglic
↳> associated frequency

haveand
we

the
half
phase
the front is

not - the of
velocity
particle
the
velocity of
that
it represents.

make sense??
does this

Me:
when
This issue always arises
we consider a single monochromatic
consider
cave. when
But
we
the
Then
a
group ofwaves.
sense of
to distint
get

:
the phar
we

velocities. One
is

and
the other one
velocity
is group velocity
 #S
LECTURE
#114 -
-

/,
nee
R

we S
⑧8.

>2

By A Ly

=warengetolight
rese
ofthe
act
wave

and ine
eachpoinot nthandapartment
principle:
Meals

mist
icr-wt solution
to the wave equation (9,t) st*(it)
=

C a
is
Ecait--
R
WICK.
relation
the
with dispersion is
the electric field reaching (2,3
So, the amplitude of
a
ice
de 1/
erm13-412
=

(army)
-
wenin) -

ag
2

a 2
the denominate
Approximations: in

etalat
the ramentor
in

(Fresnel approximation)

The
r z(1
=
+

+- ++ -
 nzy') dudy
:vig') be
-

2
ikz
any (fun,en(niye
A

lover the entire aperture)

Assume ka
22
1 and
red
the entireaperture)
&, 2x &
2 (over
(Fraunhaufen approximation

tryi t
fine, ))uesseda
in

y's
*(n',Y') uIx!3) luie,
Intercity=E(xig'
=

(n'+ei)
dady/
-
is
2

e)()v(n.)
e
=(n!' =

V((W(3)
A
and I, thatis, ifV(2,3) =

factorizable in x

field amplitude
is

y
If the

i1(use-dex)
-
den zcni' =
fries
can
write the intensitye

foraonedimensionalacture,
we

So, 2

↳area winher aninthe

be written

on
via man

She field amplitude

which
isde
=)ume
-

v(x) =

Ik1 SinO
Kes
not matter
write
=

E
mean
ofthe
we

-ikndx- amplitude
fucase
the
that
This
v(kn)= transform of
means

v(x) -
field at
2 the Forier
is

the aperture
at
the field
Thiscan be inverted to yield thatthe field amplitude
This means berepresented

Witfunekurden
-

at the apertune
can
a
superposition of
anorweighted C
ikni
 in
Example #1
-

slit
single

een
9/2

vie=

--
in 2/2
-

eisin()-Ts

saines
xamole #3

~
=

-
v(z)
double slit &

-d-
-
---
I
+ a

-
dS
+ -<d

tie-in
r
Gt-h'an
-

v(n)) I
=

-
 =

e+ hidral -

2
ximedtal
22
-

I -
-
mins
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ikal
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---
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(eintase")
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e
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-

I
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to
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sell)

*
 #10
#114 EURE
Theory:
· wave can have
any amplitude/energy
wave
=>
· division of amplitude - division of energy
interference
· Superposition ofamplitudes causes

levels
& Fundamentally incorrect works at
but high
light
have energy
An EM mode
atfrequency can
Quantum theory: in the multiples of
his only

I division ofenergy
a division of wavefunction interference.
superposition ofcoavefunction
causes

lightlevels.
a

at low
but
correct required only very
Fundamentally
is

&

slit)
wave-particle duality (single

(double slit)
wave-particle duality

https://www.youtube.com/watch?
v=igiIUZ8GprQ&list=PLhUfMRDTjsUfr0nJ5rnsGotC-_VcGqyX3

itself Dirac
with
-

interferes
Asingle photon
=>

nature the
less we know of
tendo ofthe particle principle.
> The men
we
complimentarity
verse-Bohn's
nature, and
vice
the wave
 electrons
experimentwith sigh

slit
double

Bach et al. New J. Phys. 15, 033018 (2013)

-

·
double
with
experiment
slit heavy molecule

Fein et al. Nature Physics 15, 1242 (2019)

 #11
#114 RE

Particles
> are dictated by
Newton's theory:
P.) at
(xo,P) atto, M.,
--
given
t, can be determined

dictated by
wave
=>
dynamics are

cave equation:
cave theory, such as Maxwell's at to (E1, B.)
62 B -> given (Es,B.)
YE B
=
& B =
E t,
at can be determined

mechanics.
inquire quantum
wave-particle duality,
we

*For explaining mechanics for:

quantum
There are different formulations of

· masless particles (n 0) =

· massive particles (myo at ulativistic spends (VC)

·
massive particles (m+o) atnon-relativistic speeds (VC).

-
at
quantum mechanics for massive particles (m+0)
of

speedsleaseor
otivistic need oe

wave-particle deality into the Heory

has
incorporate
to

an
(i)
3
satisfy de-Broglie:
=

to
(ii)has

viii)has to satisfy planckEinstein:

consavation:
E hva
=
v
a
=

live has to satisfy energy

where V isthe potential energy
+y
-

=K.E.+ P.E. =>

-
=

- F -
=

22

then
the potential a
is reconstant, thati sV=0,
CVS If and D should also
be constants.
than I
m 0 and
F
de-Broglie
=
-

be
should should
=
a

this solution
the
In case,
wave
ofd b
=
and v
=
 such worked
dynamics
was
the equation for describing

base
debridge
en

i
and
ourigeten cal l e d
and a complex
4(x, iscalled the wave function is

which are real quantities.

2, P, E&B,
-

to
quantity as opposed
determine
t=
at to, Schrodinger equation
-

given 4(xo,tr)
at time t ts.
t.)
=

↑
(x,, any

all
contains
information
the
4(x,1)
-
She wave function but is, it just
is
an abstract
about
the system
as

mathematical quantity.
Schrodinger's theory is if 4, (m.+) and Tel,t)
linear. That
is,
then
two separate solutions schrodinger equation
the
-

one

also a solution.
(4,t) 2,4,(x,t) (24,12,t)
is
4
+

function should represent

a

teen
when visit) =0,
the wave

deBroglieareofata
and
-

at
valued

ofMR*(as
alies
and single
must
be finite

continuous
mustbe
2.4(x)
&
4(n)
(, )("du >

3. 4(2) be square
must integrable

density
Probability -

probability densityconjugate
-

P(2,t)
*
(x,t) 4(x,t) of
the
4
->
=

instantt, measurementis
at
a

associated with
interpretation:If, y
an

Born's
made to particle
locate the that
cavefunction
ofthe 4 (m, A5,
the probability
thecarefunction 2 and
store
between
the particle found is

(m,t) dx
p(n,t)dx 4*(x,t)4
is =
 variaamical
surementofamical ble variables (position, momentumis
obtain
value
certainly
a
measurement, to
one

to
needs be measured. Upon principle
variables. But it i mpossible, even i n

when the
for the dynamical
i s

The only exception

is

outcome of measurement.
predict the any What one can predicta re the
in its eigenstate.
quantum system
is
variable.
expectation values (average value) of
a dynamical

value:
-
Expectation

value on the mean is defined as

expectation
within classical probability theory,
(x)
(xp(a)dx
=

*
value is defined as

expectation
-

mechanics,
quantum

we'll saytoprotectthe
However, in

dre ·
not
(x) =

** (,t) r4(4,t)

value ofany other quantity

the expectation
can be defined in the same way
(x2) f4*(4,t)i4(x,+)dr
=

dre
- I

(x,t)f(x) 4(x),t)
1
*

+
(f(n))
=

defined
-

be
-

I
p and energy can

The expectation
value ofmomentum
=4(x,+)de
the same way:
in

P4(3,+)de&
() (44,,t)
=

<P) 14*(,t)
=

randt,
function of
expressed as a

the wavefunction is
sand t
However, since P and in
I terms of
need do
to express
particle
we

to che free
corresponding
know
wavefunction
thatthe
we
i(kx -
(t)
given by:
is
4 (m,t)= e

given by
this free particle
is

-bait
The momentum of +12,t)
an
p t 3*
=

be written as

free particle
can

ofthis
the energy

E
hv
=
-2πr
=
kw
= Ft+(,t)
=

-
 and I are
given by
... The expectation values ofP

f
dre
<P> =
*(x,+))- it)4(9,t)
+

S** (it t)
+(m,+) di
(*)
(r) =

da
general
4*
In (,t)
(m,t) f(x, -ite) +

Sf(x,P3)
=

-
Operators:
variables (observables) are represented
quantum theory, the dynamical
So, in

as
mathematical operator.

position: Ente
momentum. I
te -

energy.
Entit
the wavefunction, probability
the
above to
is express function ofM.
what have done expressed as a

operators
are
we
values and the
the expectation
density,
This iscalled
the position-basis representation
and other
the wavefunction
-

evores

inwhich
the
Alternatively
can
one are

m
of omentum
-

quantities as afaction
 #12
#114 EURE

relation
inty
variables such as position
theory conjugate
the
In quantum accuracy.
measured arbitrary
with
be
cannot
and momentum
be measured
dictated
is by
The which they
with
can

accuracy
Heisenberg's uncertainty principle

ur), -

when xa))) in)-2x(x))

xx
=
=

->
+(n)(a)

:An
and
sin=-Pa

we also ham: (E

latesame the
similarlyor
 Schrodinger equation
imeindependent
-

i
it4,
(4,5)-
-

(x,) + V(2,)4
stat
is,
has
no
time-dependence,
Assume V(n,t)
v(4,t) V(x)=

the type
have the
solution of
Now, 4(,t)
let to
(t)
4(3,t) 4(x).0
=

the above equation,

we
get
substituting in

it 19)G()
4(2)91) -4
4()4H) + V(x) -

4(n)4(7), we get
divide
both sides by

Em r 4)
+
v(n)- itpit *()

t. Hence
2, RHS depends only on

LHS depends only on

to constant
equal
-

each be
a
both must

D
4(2) VR) G -
+
=
-

it t
= 4H= --
(t) 2t
&

④
(*) fgat
=

o, eng/ -
-

--

-enitade-Drogeeware
be
a,

moving frequency
with
w
E
=

en

has to then its energy

frequency have
mustbe E= tw. Then we

a E =

Taking 4101=1, we
t
get
 E4()
V(2) 4(2)
=

D 24(2)
+

Now, I -

the time-independent
-
This
is

Schrodinger equation

So, the complete solution this

in case is

t- 4(a) e

↳ This
is stationary
called the
solution. Why??

this ease is time-independent

probability density
in

is the *+
i
Hb (4(n)12
-

*(x,t)4(2,t) 4*ca)e 4() e

=

4 =

values are
time-independent
(ii) The expectation
-it die
Sf(x,p)2 (4*(,t) F(,
=
a) + (x,t)

dx

(+ *()f(x, -itex)
Y
(x)
=>
 ded zero potential (free particle) VCRI=0,
EF0(m)
-
becomes
The Schrodinger equation
now
---------------
EO
-

4 (x) E4e)
=

=x
to solve for 4(x).
our aim is
-
iEt/
then:4(x,t) 4(use
=

The total wavefunction is

the solution
know that
From de-Broglie's hypothers,
we
already
should be wave wavelength
with

b mr m-me
a

s =
=
=

Now let's solve the Schrodinga equation

E4r)
-

24(2) =

(2)
-E
+
or,
24(x) =

and the
second-order differential
equation
This
isa
the form
solution of
is
2x
↑
(n) C
get
=

we
the above equation,
it
substituting in

-2

q2e= *
e
-

(Since ecu
+ a)
t 0
=

et0
a
( ) ->
=

afen k:
v int
ik
a
= =

.. =

(a)
thatthem two solutions for 4
find
a re
So, we
ilex
inse
-

and (ii) 4(x) = e

-(x)
essically,
e
(i)
=

free particle

I
any arbitrary
a
mechanics
quantum will undergo
From linearity in

two solution are

also a with
energy
ofthere mode
rection
superposition
lonstant
a e
I
valid solution, thatis, iks
-

ins

↑(u) = Ae I Be
mechanically, a

solution
is 8 quantan
complete becomes
Therefore, the -:(kx wt) +

free particle on a

i(kx-wt) +
Be either a left-going
↑ (x,t) As =

rightgoing
code.
d have
↓ when A B, then
we

left going wave

=

right-grin wave
I a
standing wave.
 A
positions basis wave
function
ells-rot)
-

normalize
the
wavefunction
is
this
:check if Function is not normalizable

-4 dr
-

*() (2)dm
c
n ot
the function
+
= =
is
-
So

square integrable.
physical wavefunction
-
So, thisi s not a

thisisa
but useful wavefunction
-

very
 #13
#114 EURE

The step potential ETV. V(k)

-

I
I ⑳
vo
V(x) Vo =

for x>0

=> 0 for a so ---------------------

>

-
For a classical
particle since ECV fax70,
the barrier
there no
is
possibility for mooring

Let'ssolve Schrodinger equation

In region,
2
S0
e
-

t(x) =

solution;
we get
on a possible
Try
as
e
D
Ae
+ Be -

Y(x)
=

in

K. E
=

And inregion

-2 ansea(FYe
solution,
we get
possible
=more
Again, try ect as a

e
a
vo)
=

- = (E -

-Ke
HeR
De
+
- R
..4(x) = CC

Boundary conditions: atx +

0, 4(2) 10

ofthe
wave function: Ke
finiteness
-

(i) () DC
and Shay
=

0
4,
c
=
=>

cavefunction
the
(ii) of
continuity
y, (2)
->
at x 0
=

↑(2) at 2 0
=

->
D A
=
+
B -
B
 derivative
(iii) continuity ofthe

#latm o
=
Alatu=o
*

k2D A
=>
-

B D
=
-
i4A-ikB
=
-

->

0 B +

2A
= =
12
+

i)*.I
3 -

4 2
=
=
(2- its
)
eihn
2)eik+(s- i)
so
(2
a
+() =
+ so

-Ki fax2-
De
=

solution is
The complete i(k,xEt(t) [O
i(k,x Et(h)
-

x
=

Be
+

need
A
4 (x,H)
c

-see
=

=
De

the patches ene

mefee
Reflectance:
m mlistat
=

i(k,x
Et
+

1)]da
1)][Be
+
-

·[*e+(k,m
+

x
-

)](Ae"(ki-EtACD de
=[A*e
-

= is I
reflected
particle
is
that the
probability
The
density of the particle?
-

What the probability

is 2
:
nlt
-in

/ (HE) ein (- ) e

14. I
k= ErE(t
2- 2.
j
De
->

22: No-E) It
 density ofthe region 2.
particle
probability
in

Q: What the
is
-
-

2k2 a
l4z(x)/3

-
4*(a) 4(2) (Die
=

although I
Thismeans that
into
particle can penetrate
2, it ultimately gets
region
reflected.
Penetration depth example in
analogous
--
an
total internal
ge
I
= optics is
reflection

KE(0?
ELV., because
this would mean
-Ki
region how -itek
car
&:In Ki ihre e
P
-

have ():
=>

4
e
=

Ane: In region , we

imaginary
and
-

p=itks. So, the momentum region is

in

This means er=P4m =-tite?/2m.

as a
the
result
kinetic energy negative
is

into the barrier and gets

that
goes
whatdo by saying
D: we mean
-

reflected back? be thoughtofas

is imaginary
the particle cannot
comes
Ar: Since momentum within
the particle
region. Nonethelen,
is
since
=>

moving left
or
right back with R=1, she above statement
from the leftand gets reflected the situation
she bestway of summarizing
 -________
The step potential E>U

solution region
in

iK,

E
ik,
-

Be
4, (n) A e r
↓
= =

Solution region
=r
in
- [K,
ik
4(x) = CC +
De

region -
D =

Constraint:
No reflected come in

continuity wavefundthe
of the
=>

the derivative iK
continuity
of
i4B=
ik,A=

+ lata-**: lafx=s*
->

->
③ R +
=

A
=

(1 i)
+

= =

*
) (- i) i*)
A
8 -
4 + B( =
=

- i(k,x+wt) lo
for
a
2-cot
ik,
)e
. 4(x,t) = Al At +

-- reflected
a
dee
i(k2-(H) 20 transmitted wave

for
a

a)e
A( -
 [K,- k2)2

=
-
2
Reflectance R (a, + k2)
=

"

probability transmission:
of
1
1
=
-
R
ma
=

a
set
the
way
to zero. -
nP(x)
7
E/Vo

x
 #14
#114 EURE
The barrier potential E(V.

.
Vo
0 3x (a
V(x) =

<0 or 2) a
O
=

Solution region
in
D
-
ik,
ik,x
>
Ae Be
↓

(x)
=

4
x a
x0
=
=

region
solution in

ik,
- ik, x, =
=k
De
↑(2) 2e
= +

solution region
in
k2x
-
2m(Vo -E)
--
-
Ka kz =
t
I GC
Fe
↑(2) =

D 0
region (3) -
=

reflected wave in

Constraints: No

at
a 0
=

the wavefunction D
continuity of
Mr 6
-
+

-
+, () Jea==taklota 0
=

o
u =

at
derivative
continuity ofthe 8
-- ReF+ked
-

claturelate to

continuity ofthe fundon set

at
a cete e
ware
use cele et

continesofthedentativeofa
in,
I

one can show that

T =
=

(s+egy-s
funneling
when Esvo, quantum
Quantum
even a
finitesize
-

=>

tunneling through
a

particle has finise probability of

becomes as, there is
no funneling
If the size a
barrier. two
tunneling of plosons crouch
An analogous publem optics
=>
in is

kept for cital internal reflection

prisms
tunneling.
has to eventually worry about
The semiconductor industry
->
 (Live experimental
demol
RE#
15

#
-

/, wee
R

S
⑧8.

>
>2

L
By A y

J = wavelength lightact
of of the wave-Vertee
k 24
=
=

be written
via man

She field amplitude

i de
via)
(via
=
e-

ka
IsinO ISiD
=
=
->

can
critz
we ↳
x A
-

- . . . . . . -

-k
ka !
"kz
⑤

x
>

10 7
2

-y
by
constant.
is
I
a
just a
scaling
write above
the as
can
ofkm,
we
terms
-i kn

I
dx
U(kn)= U(a) e
V(x)

Wit
->

e udem
-

knee
side with and
(via
each a
multiplying to get
respect kn, we

integrating with
"Russia die
-

(fua)e-
irne

frcun)
dka = an
e
de
E)
di 24fu(>d(n-E)
Jucs(e-ika dan
-
=

I
2πU(π)
 -

Fusanse"
as
virl= dka
-
i

attuckaseika
e
drea
uncertainty relation
-
-xDKm>
*

Sure,
-

Fact
and
and momentur

otcarnest an aesination
ene
So,

relation
uncertainty
=>

-x APr]

slit
single

ea
↑

diffraction from
a
-- --
= >

S*
E
> ka = 1kISinD

Ik1
>I l
=>

>

↑4
As
Do * kx max
=
(Insino)
Sin Oman
7 AKm -

.
2π
> =>
jz
Ax 0
=

Akx0 =

demonstrate >s
 (Live experimental
demol
LECTURE#16
PHY114 -
-
-

slit)
wave-particle duality (single

(double slit)
wave-particle duality

often videos:
interference and
ofsingle-photon
links
-
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=UgBvOhsFvKk&list=PLhUfMRDTjsUfr0nJ5rnsGotC-
_VcGqyX3&index=2

https://www.youtube.com/watch?
v=uoQm3Brd7Kw&list=PLhUfMRDTjsUfr0nJ5rnsGotC-
_VcGqyX3&index=3

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=yAotJ8NTBF8&list=PLhUfMRDTjsUfr0nJ5rnsGotC-
_VcGqyX3&index=4

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=yAotJ8NTBF8&list=PLhUfMRDTjsUfr0nJ5rnsGotC-
_VcGqyX3&index=4
 17
PHY114 #RE#
--

density
Probability -

probability densityconjugate
-

P(2,t)
*
(x,t) 4(x,t) of
the
4
->
=

instantt, measurementis
at
a

associated with
interpretation:If, y
an

Born's
made to particle
locate the that
cavefunction
ofthe 4 (4, A5,
the probability
thecarefunction 2 and
store
between
the particle found is

(m,t) dx
p(n,t)dx 4*(x,t)4
is =

value
Expectation
-
and I are
given by
... The expectation values ofP
*

dre
f 3,t))- it)4(9,t)
*

<P3 = +

S** (it t)
+ (m,+) di
(*)
(r) =

da
general
4* f(x, -ite)
In + (,t)
(m,t)
Sf(x,P3)
=

-
Operators:
variables (observables) are represented
quantum theory, the dynamical
So, in

as
mathematical operator.

position: Ente
momentum.
Eit
energy.
Entit the warefaction, probability
the
to express
above is function ofM.
what have done expressed as a

operators
are
we
values the and
the expectation
density,
This called the
is
position-basis representation
and other
the wavefunction
-

evores

inwhich
the
Alternatively
can
one are

m
of omentum
-

quantities as afaction
 Momentum-basisRepresentation the momentum
basis

well quantities
in

express
these
transformation. coordinate
through a

-delta faction
S(n) =

⑧
0 ifx F0
if
x 0 =
and
Isculda 1
=

also f(x a)
-
-
0
if
if
a
at

xa =
and
scalda=a
=

dis f(a)
!
=

f(x) (x a)
Therefore: =
-

mm-
airas-delta function
of

I
S(ex a)
-

representation ofthe
Integral
dirce-delta function
-

S(x x)-
=
weo
Xt
trtexp[-]
-

iRE ')
ze
-

dr

re ni
-
S
and
stato I
erden e
f(n)
Also a
s(an)= substitute y=axe
dyade

[(fascudatfr]
*
because

(f(n)f(an)dn ?
=

proof:
If)
Ifalscaldy
=
-

... asm= =>

f12)
sie de
 LECTURE18
PHY114 -
-
-

momentum
what is basis? but
vectors are nothing
which the basis
A
basis i n
momenture value
definite
-

representing a
states
know that e P* represents
de-Broglic hypothesis,
we
-
From
P.
a wave with momentum
terms
4(x) in

to
want represent wavefunction
position-basisvalues.
So,
a
- we

momentum
definite
of waves carrying

where YCP,5)
the
is weightage
with

P
iPa,
of the mode ein
-
(n)
2 dp, morertem P.

-??
aspectto me, get
we
with
each side withjip/t and integrating
multiplying
eiP
dr=hcose
iPs/t dx
ipat dp
*

(4(n)
-

Te
-

da de
-

ar

0)2πSD)
dp
"4(P) 24+ (P-p')
-
↓

S Ft
+10)
(TIPSCO-PCdD
=

ips /
de
-

(y(n)
e
.. (0) =

-treat
p'c p

nee
-

Recall
-
x

,
R

By Ly

lucase-in
de
v(x) =

kx)

Elvis
InSin
=

1e
eteene
=

v(n) -
-

it
Inverting
gives

representation
momentum-basis
- iPx/t dee
wave function: ↑(P,t) I
I
⑭ -
S94 (a,t) e-

probability dencity: P(y,) =

1 **(p,t)4(P,+)dp
Operators: p P
=

i
=it p
=
E it
t

expectation
value:
(f(, p,t)= 4*(p,t) (itEp,p,t) + 4p,t)dp
moment-basis representation
- This
is called the
what
- >
is the
momentumrepresention
1P.x/
of a wavefunction 4 (9)= e
I
-iPalt
:Put des
r)e
S(n)
iPat
dre
-

4(P) =
e-
- *

2ThS(P.-P) ei S(P.-P)

-
dx=
=

-
-

-
e

momertur-basis
core function

s0--

the momentum-basis represention of

a

what
->
is
at
point particle
se=40
kept
stationary
4(x) S(x -40)
=

ips/t
das
-

+(p) =

-(4(w)e
-
iPut di

(f(x-x)e
x e-ikot
between
has momentum
that the particle
Probability
is
PC and P2
(P2-P.)
02 do=az
Std
/Ep,+coldo
=

to be found
equally probable
P,
-

momentum.
with any
 & solutions
quantum systems
of
yes
E >
V(atx =
=
a
1. When unbound system
solution,
scattering step potential
particle,
·

Ex: free the propagation

one

Necesarytorepresenting
·

8)
V(atx
=

>
2.
When E bound system
solution, Hydrogen atoms
·
Board box. Electron a
in

in
particle
a

Ex:
atoms & molecules
the stability of
· Necessary for

potential
see
finite
v(x) 0
=

for
-

(x31 2 -V(x)
v(z) 0
= otherwise . . .

D
Vo
=

⑪ ② ③

potential infinite
in
Since the
is

and 2 she save function

uion
vanishes there.
x
-

az 0
alz

solution region
=
in

ine
ike x

A2 Be
+

4(x) =

the wavefunction
atx 1925
=

continuity of
-
-
#eat
Ie
⑧
u-
also Be
-ice_e"* =

-
ika/2 E
E I
-

= - =
- -

i valz e-ikalz o eisinka 0

=

e
 uπ
nT = k a
=

ka=
Sin K 0 -
E
=

intle in/2
P
①
-
=>
Be
- Ae
+

0,2,4..
if
=
n

Ae
-

in= - A
B
=
1,2,3
if
- =

n
=>

+
=
A

Sin(a
nix - in
2 iA
i
5
Ae
=
::4(a) =
-
2

n 0,2,4...
Asin(n) if
=

Afintal
=
Al intra- 2ACOS (*a)
13,5...
+

if n

"as(* a)
=

A
=

check the normalization?

a/2

((+(n)(2d 1 =

9/2
alz

2a)
dx =

1Ax (show)
=

SIAI
Sim
solutions
for even

a/z
A
-

show that
Similarly one can
A

solution is
So, the final iEnt/ n 2,4,6..
een;
- =

EEi ()
n
=

42(x,+) 2,3,5...
odd;
=

-Ent/t n =
M =

=
as() e

what En?

e
is

we have

-
though satisfies the
it
condition
a solution,
Why not even
Q: no
is is Sika =
0?
0.
be a solution
So this cannot
4(2)
get
=

Am. for
we

offinding
no,
because with this, we have
can't
the
probability
to 1.
the electron inside
well
the equal
 RE19
PHY114 #
-
-

the solutions.
of
outogonality need to

solutions to
the Schrodinger equation
- The different
is,
be orthogonal. That

(mit] da=Sans
St. uit Tri

normalized, they are

solutions
are

-> If orstogral
the
called orshonormal.
the
eigensolutions
the of
in 1, all
These
=>
solution

energy operator
En 4r(,)
it*Yn(n,t)
=

a
born quantized
is

the particle
in

betal energy of take

cannotjust any
enogy.
The
2. The particle
=>

Ear man
2
block.
a metal
electron in

conduction
Example to one
ion
electron due
by

w
->
potential faced

to two
ion

W
electron due
Potential faced
by

Lun
to ions
electron due many
Potential faced
by
-
Harmonic potential av(x)

X.
V(x) cx2
S
=

& Resnite
(Appendix IofEisberg
↑ R. Shankar
Section 7.5 of

describe
Simple harmonic
potential can

& small vibrations

any system
thati s executing
stable
abouta pointof
equilibrium.

ubiquitous
Harmonic potential is

molecule
& a diatomic
vibration ofatoms in
his atomic vibration
due to
Thoral
his properties ofsolid
a re vibrations
(iii) EM waves

xically: experience
a
force
moving
under such a potential
· particle
A

V(x)
cx
arc=mi
-

f(x)
=
=

=
-

w
is

The oscillation frequency 40 is

·

with
man
amplitude
the oscillator
The total energy of mode
=I
·

1rx a
=
=

E P+ V
+

particle
as a
the
deneity of
whatabout the probability
deneity offinding
·

function ofposition. probability

The
proportional
=
-

at it is
the particle
P. (n) ? particle
=

the
to its speed. Faster
detection.
its
is moving, less probable is

have
For given energy E, we

-tat
a

E Ima 2 mE
=
+
= E- ca a =

aP(k)
:(
at

x
the

=
=
extremem

=
=
4

"W
 mechanical
Quantum
- the
write Schrodinger
time-independent, we can

since the potential is

equation as

e)
(n) mx
E
-
+ (x) =

solution given
is by
Ent/
The complete -

(n+2) tw
Er =

4(x) -
4(x)4(t) =

1,2,.-.
-(4,t) x 0,
=

and tas:
(i) eup)-**Y in((**x]
(m)x
me , 13) where x
=

k
4

LengI
a
An=
-

Huly) called Hermite polynomials

is are
Hermite
complete solutions the
solutions of
So, the and one

differential equation 0
24H(2)
2yGH)
=

At
+

d2 H(x) -

in) lot dyz

Ane-4a) e o(y) 1
#
=
where is an
is integer

2y
H,(2)
=

H2(3) -
= 2(1 -

zy2)

have is
that the oscillator
can

(expl-
The minimum energy -
442
A.2
4(2)
-

I4w
=
=
Er =

mechanical oscillato
classical oscillar, quantum the
energy
the two. The minimum
the multiples of
So unlike
·
have energy
in

can only has to

have is tw
thatthe system
·
Pusability density
so
--Fr_t

Seet
-P(x) -P(x)
 LECTURE
#20
114
free particle
-

potential,
#

barrier
solutions:step potential,
-> scattering
solution: t2
-
Bound -
n
En =

Infinite -
well potential 2ma2

(n+) two
·

potential En
=

oscillator
·
Harmonic

ga metronaton) orbit
atom
a
in
circular
atom moves
an
· An electron i n potential EM radiation
Conlon's
influence of
under the not radiate an
such arbit does
an orbit
Electrons moving in
moves from
one

electron
only if
·

mediated
an

·
EM energy
is

the
to other.
the
atom with
the
hydrogen
be illustrated by modeling
All these
in
2-item
even
·

potential: vinin,

obtain state solution,

dime-independent, we
stationary
Since potential is
"losing
·

which emplains
the stability of
hydrogenaton I opposed to
(as

energy by accelerating electron-model")

Solution: ↑n,, me
(2,0,P)
where n=

l 0,1,2
=
1, 2, 3...
. . .
n -
1
With
er

l
me =-1,...0...

terby
electron(al an
k
5
=
n

=
E =
nπ2E2
-

2m9L

models
in free-electron
metal-
erectors
a

faced by
ential

XxX=-I -

-
et*or
1
- 2 Na=
 manywas
no inthe -
periodic potential

↳xx ILL-
--

-
↳a +

describe
several new
effects
model van
electron
->Kronig-pennybe described using the free
thatwouldn't periodic potential)
model (without

solving differentquartum systems essentially mean

·
In
general equation for differentpotential.
the schlodings
solving thata r e
solutions
equation given
a setof
the schrdinger
·
solving *N(2)
orthonormal.: 42(4), 42(2).... superposition
is written as a

the quantum system

⑧ The general
state of
states.
the stationary
of
(n 4r(m)
4(x) =

n 1

by
=

stat is
given
evolution of a
stationary
·
The time - iEct/

4, (n,t) 4, (a)
=
e

4(a)
->

by
stat given
general
is

The time evolution of

a

- iEnt/

nucuse
·

(4,t) -

(x)
↑ -
 measurement

of
tionstationary q
state uantum sition

a
is
e

stationary
state
↳n(n) etc.
i En,
Iam Pala with
energy

E(x)
=>

n 1
=

the system, then

the
energy of
make
measurementof state with
the stationary
a

Ifwe in one of
system
is
->

thatthe
we find Ec
as En
either Esc
...

energy

m is equal
has energy
system
thatthe the inner productof
The probability
This
obtained by taking tax onto
estate in(2)
of
->
is

Acull?
which the projection
to
is

↑ (as
Wale),
with

and i sgiven be

Talaldr-Sinest
an

; ties, a

as
tes du
I
=

- *

, Sm =

cm*Cm= Aml
given by p =

The probability therefore

is

value of
energy
is the average
value of
enesy
) Expectation
after many
measurements. (E) E la
=

concepts the

otherquarter
in

t
will wait
->
hisand the
 # 21
-DE
-114
dispersion
Phase velocity, group velocity and group velocity
-_eler t)
given by
2
wave is F(x,H=
plane
A constant
the velocity of
a

velocity
is

wave on phase
the
The velocity of
a
wave
the
phase print of

Me:
point given by
constantphase
is

ka-ct=constant
0

ka
w =

:
vd
=
=
=

and velocity
v

material particle of
mass me

Let'sconsider
a

:P mv
=
and E Imu2
=

the corresponding
matter wave: 2
bev =
=

For

=
V
=
:Up
vd
= E
=
=

the
half
phase
the front is

not - the of
velocity
particle
the
velocity of
that
it represents.

make sense??
does this

when
This issue always arises
we consider a single monochromatic
consider
cave. when
But
we
the
Then
a
group ofwaves.
sense of
to distint
we get the phar
velocities. One
is

and
the other one
velocity
is group velocity
 she ve

K and so,
with
a
given Up=
single wave
given by
only velocity
one
If
->there is

the conceptof
phase
waves
the
with
and w

only
have multiple

g
However, in eneral. Chrisper
re relatives

matter waver?
whati sthe
dispersion
relation for
m-(m)=
-
STE .
=

w(n) GTV
=
=

= relation for an
EM wave
ina dielectric
medium of

-
dispersion is
index in
refractive

E which we
have several plane
waves.

which
situation spread given sin),
consider the
in

vester has
a
we
Now, the
wave
that
also assume width vko.

rem
we
and has a S(k)
centered ofk=ks
is

around new.
expand costs
this we ream taylor
one
in rease,

co(k) ((ko
=
+ k-
W(K)
K) =
+
(k
-

1) no
=

:LIKER.()+cr-ros/=+* In=
phase velocity
Up >=
=
of
velocity
the
the wave packet
velocity-desides
vg=
Egroup
e
desides to
dispension
group velocity
I
-

wave packet spreads

GVD=
 and the
GVD, fet'swrite bunch of
waves as

In order visualize
to up, ve

i(ke-ct) dk-This wave-packet

(n)
a
is

e
(x,+)
-
=

&

: ([Ro+K-KSx
-

[(wo +(x-roSc'+c")t) dr

:E(4,t) ( s(u) e

werere
=

inwinwe
j
de
(kox-wot]
-

scne -
-
-> e
↓ -

This a
is
monochromatic
wave with phase velocity
Up dx
Wo
=
->

To I

For the
-
matter wave case
apresentation,aene
nd
wave-packet.
cock)=
n particle
the velocity)
half
Hrvo?/h Vo
I
vo-
=

I
/h
.. =

jeans
aree
voasahotmenanin
in deser

in a dielectric medium fee

I
M
wave
when sh

I
In situation
in
have:w(K)= material median
we
K

velocity= vp y= lightpropagate
which en
:Phase
=

inden, then we
C
retractive
velocity Ug I have group velocity
also
=
=

group
=

phase velocity and

group velocity dispension 0
=

I finite GVD
(a

wave-vecter speed given by Simulate the

wave-packet
Simulation:for
I
a

enp)-anami fan backme

in
- is

SDR1= rett
#114 RE#22
it that
ifU p=I, does mean
wave
matter
Q:For the behind
-
-

the
matter wave corresponding the
to particle lags
a
to
the particle extends from
-

wave

Are! really.
A single plane
the wave lagging
Not
no
such thing as

there
-
-

is
Therefore
behind.
the velocitybeing
what do we
mean by group equal
0!
--

the
to particle velocity
need the
idea of a

the group velocity

we
to and ris
For defining central
waveverters
E with a
small, and
in

group of waves,
be arbitrarily
width
However,
I can

waves is essentially an

group of
2.

particle velocity
the
the to,
limit see how
man
and sees we

single wave
the velocity.
to group
vo is equal
group of
waves
of
velocity
a

meantby
the place
what
->
is

to
A t t to
=

Em)
=

·
The phase velocity of
is
the group of
caves

fixed
velocity of
x
a
the

" t t1
=
·
phase

The
point (red

group
dots)

velocity theis

of
ofthe peak

EM).
velocity
the envelope (blue dots)
x

"
E(n) t tz

.......
=

"
 "V(k)

:
I
-
E Vo

⑧ ⑳
0
>x
x
=

to she
when whathappens
In a step potential problem E>Vo,
velocities inside the two regions
phase and group

Region ⑳ Region
Ane:
-
- -

i(k2x -
wt)
i(k,2 cot) 2
-

solection !
&

et
wave-vector:
Ki I
↳
Phan velocity: Up, =
=

Er
e

= Vo

the
-

e
w
4 TM
E
relation:w-
dispension

group velocity: Vys=

-

A =
= I vg =
=

tkz
=>
2πm

=
=
P2
u
V2
=

K, 3k2 Up, 4Vp2

have:
So, we

vgi7 Vgu

v, Ve
relation regionhas
in
a differentform?
dispension
Why does the

Imrvo-e
-

wehave.
REPE=
E=
Am. Inngion,
x)Vo
- -

a,E =

+
 mechanics
ofa
cations

electros
and Chereby an

absorbed conduction
bard.
band to the
is
photon
A valence
Solar cells:excited from a

es
-

Pinch
works on photoelectric effect. effect
Commercial digital
can nas undago photoelectric
are detected
ofthe
camera
- electrons
and the generated
The map of
which pinel
as thesignal. effect is the image
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recorded by the camera.

mediation)
emission of
stimulated
(lightamplification
by
HER

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te -
e ·
e us
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ne
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R = 99%
R 100%
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 LECTURE #23
⑰114 -

Linear
-
dgebre
needed
Background 1
IiIR. Shankar, chap
(ii) Greifishs Appendixe

Background definition of a linear vector space

(multiplications,
transposition, de)
matrix operations
Matrix and
·
matrix
diagonalization of
a
matrix
·

and eigenvectors
of a

values
·
Eigen matrix or a rector

·
basis
charging the of
a

States
algebre
are
everything.
·
why linear
matrix representation vectors. Operator of are

repressed by column matrices and operations

- -

square
represented by multiplication
matric
become

modeling.
Why do it thisway numerical
calculations,
for thisway.
·

-
Convenience easier
to convey
are
concepts
-
certain

with
I. Vector
(state), definition I, B, etc.,
are
written as
rectors ete.
The and 3D letters as A, B
by boldfaced
2D
IV)
·

an
arrowhead or
written as
verter is

Amore general

()
·

-
discrete:
-x

(Y) w()
=

mf:]- =
-
...

-Soi
Wherlis-I ithplace
are
basis vesters
the
·

I
the ill basis vector

·
viis the
weightage of
a discute set of
finite dimensional
space is

So, a vector in a
·
a basis.
numbers in given
 can
be thoughtofa s a

continuous space a
given
basis.
sous: A rector a in

known as a function,
in

number4 (),
continuum of
set

14
(4(n)(x)dx
=

IeI macs))-apital lt...

I

I ~x,) 7 asses de

I
14) = E ·

it
:

basis rector. 12) -

the
· Here it is
atlocationa

the restar (v)

· The function 4 (n) the weightage of
is
 #24
⑰114 ERE

2. Linear Independence in dependent

in) issaid be
to linearly
(2), 12)
...

setof
A vectors
the trivial solution

only
Edili)=0
has
if
of
tomattere
all;
-
for
or columns.
as its a

() 1=(?) enant
verter are

↳desendent (-),
e
-
1s = 12) =

vectors
independent
-

Ex 2(x)
(().1x (j)
=
=
-(x)
(i)
=

#2:
1s
(7,
=

(i),01) (i) =
=

vocal
sin (1,2.
well potential solution
3: Infinite
-

oscillator solutions.
Harmonic
***:

ifitman accomodate
n
in
vector space has dimension
· Dimension:A
vectors.
linearly independent
verter space,
ardimensional called a
basis.
baus:
In an
independentvectorsvector space is
basis
·

a set
of a
lineally
than one
basis
a
in
and a

share can
be more
vectors. In a
place
two perpendicular
not of
consist arthogonal balls. In addition,
need and can form a

independent parallel are

westers linearly and not
perpendicular
on
nos
that
are basis.
vectors form
a
two thus
independent can

also linearly
 y n

3. Inner
productand
dual space a
By------

product:

rat----
COSR
Scalar A.B AB
=

product)
!
(dot
=> AnBx
+

Ay By

Ay)/
(8]
Ba ↳x
[An
=

Ax

magnitude
where IAl is the
of
· E.R AnAn+AyAn=
=
Al2;
each
to
other

E.T 0
A45 are paperdicularorthogonal
·
=

vectors
n-dimensional

an](B?
For
(A., An,
---

+AnBr =
+AnDutrr-
E.B AD,
=

SA)
ofAT
times
-
(transpose positive
real number
rector -

rectal times

·
Role ofinner product:
For complex
be complex.
vector van
in general a real member.
However
a
does yield
not

product Thisisa
·

real
rectors dot
Ac+As ->
only
Ax]
(aY positive member Ay
⑨

E.A CAn
=

Ex: bock An and

if
=

y
real number.
-

are

inner product is defined as

vectors,
So far complex
·

A*A

AgY](A)=
E. - [An* An Ant
-> This always
is

real
a
positive
member.

:-> [An*
A,Y3/A
of AJ Simes SAI
-conjugate
=
[transpose
AIA
=> Ret A (rector
Al

↓
bra-A

[transpose-conjugate (adjoint) ofAT

 (w) is
two rectors (v) and
inner productof
In general un
be
given
4.0, utwnt...

Ivoi)
[u,* v,*-...*] =

of(v))
times (103)
conjugate
-(transpose [1W2)
(v))
dimes

(Adjointof
(inner product)
=

[VIw7
=>

- ↳ ket w
rotation
bra-V
bracket
Dirac's
·
IV)
ret-V or

dual space of
bra-v called the
is

· (v) a
the vector

norm
or magnitude of normalized
vector.

u)
a
means
-

·
--
<VIV>
I
are
obtogoral.
10)
(v) and
vectors
[vIw)
=

0 a
betcoese
=

the difference
(This
main
product I
SWIVY* inner
is

and an

· [UIw]= sectar

and complex
Reverse
the order ofall factors
to
A
adjoint: conjugate
take the all the corefficient.

-> [Ul
8
IV)
-> sula* a* <ul=

alv>

sil*- *
(it
⑧

(r
vi*
=

·
IV) =
(i) -

<4) ( 4*x)(x)de
(4(2)13de
=

->
·
14) =
 #25
RE
-14

4. Orthonormality consists of
with basis that
like work
to
a
rector
arbitrary
quantum mechanics
we
In wants any
basis vectors.
addition, one
In
orthogonal normalized,thatis,
to he
that basis
in

(ili) ifits
->
=0
basis vectors
orthogonal
1.
vector -> [VIV)
=

normalized puton
do these
conditions
outa s to whatextriction
we wantto find vectors
the basis
the inner product of

rete:
XrIv) = 1
where IV) E,":li)
=

need to
ensure
we

vy;(ii)
-, ,
=
or, condition
which the above
only way
in
the
shot for its,
given (ilj) =0

Sii,that
is
when (ili)=
satisfied
can be

ofdiscreteease
thisthedefinition
a

sil) =0 if its
this
I
=> if it;the basis vector of
that
a re
normalizable
type vectors
called proper
unity
to are

continuous:
-
(x(x) = 0, if xFx!
have
1x7d>
this
(4(x)
we
In e ase
where 147 =

we
need to ensure (414)=1
drake' I
*() (2)(x/x')
=

al,
((+
+

which the
above
only way
in
the
that(ala)
=0 if ata', 514-si), thatis
given ahen (2(x)
satisfied
=

is

can be
condition
definition of
an

Thisisthe basis a continuous space

0 ifa
x
=

orhonormal in

x)
(x(n') f(x
ofthis
=
-

at the basis victor

if
=

o
=

that
are normalizable
cype
to a slinae-delta function
vectors
are called improper
 aliras-dette function
definition of
a

ii) sca')= eup(-

einemas
de
↳is d-ns=

basis
5. Expressing
the state (vecter) in an orthonormal

discrete:

Velu)
v2(2) ...
-

812
-

Evili)
+

IV) =

with [51 weget,

side
each
Take the inner productof
vs
V: <j/i) =

(51) =

(i) with IV), Bhat

the inner productof the
- v;i s vector (v) along
.. vi (ilV)
=

is, it i sthe projection of

basis vecter (i)

thatis,
have (VIV)=1,
vector, we

For normalized
wit
a

suIv (,*(il) ( wilis)=E,

=

EwiriSi= Wi
a
=

is
the vector IV)
that
It is
the probability (i).
-

basis vester
Ii=Pi along the
Continuous?
dx
14 = (4(x)(x) side
(a'l.
with We get
each
Take the productof
inner x)dx 4(1)
=

( (n) f(x
-

dx 4

14) (4(2) (ax(x)

-

<x
=

with
(i)
the inner productof
word;yet get
t
4(2) is

4() (x(2) I nother

-

ChevedoIV).
with
:
=

basis
the vector (x).

quantum state
14)
-
So, the projection of a

onto the position (x) i scalled the

basis
4(n)
care function
position-bal's state
the same quantum
The projection of called the
basis (p)
-

is
the
onto momenture
morentum basis representation

(414)=1,that
is
have
have to
For a normalized vector (4), we

34147 =

(/4*()<de))/4(n>/x)dC 41) 4(n)813-a')

dred

()+*)412)(ale)dad'
= ((
=
4

*()4(n)dx 1
(4
=

in
density
f(x)
the
is probability
f(x)
-

::4x(x) (x) (4(2)

+ =

the (n) basis.

da is
mechanic, I (n)
In quantum
she probability
-

interpreted as
between
state 14)
in
is

that the
and 12 + dn).
(n)
 orthonormal basis
6. Completeness of
an

be

completeness means thata n arbitrary

state (vector) can

vectors
expressed completely in terms ofthe basis

discrete:

where wi=
(iIV)
11) E,vili)
=

:(v)
,Silvsr)
=
=

2,) <iDVS
() (in)
=
>

matrix.
I the n-dimensional
is
identity
of
Es(i)(il=
I
·

condition
Thisi sthe completeness
=>

a discrete basis.

Example an
n-dimensional space

=(0.8
in

()-se.........)
123 = :ucs

)(i1=(....etc.Pia
-
-

fai)-iRprac
his =

, =).8)........... (Pa
(a...?]
=
-
PHY(14 #26
LECTURE
-

continuous?
where 4(2) (x14)
=

14) (4(a)1x2dr)
=

:14 ((x)4)(x)dx ((x)(x)4)dr

=
=

((r)(x)dx)(x)
=

materine (in
finite-dimensional
I the identity
is
condition
(1m)suldr
I
-

=>
=

the completenes
·
This
is
basis.
a continuous
in

-erators any
for transforming
operator I
an
is
instruction
An IP
·
another state
into
vector (state) 14)

>147 14') =

both
matrices.
Thisi sbecause
Operators
·
are represented by square
column matrices.
↑4) and (4)
are

7 (9). Basics

is
ofoperator
a -
1
③
- invorce

conjugate) ofoperator
-

(transpose
Net -

Adjoint
-

I called dagger
is

how to
take adjoint
Recap:
*
a - a

14) -> [4

<4) -> 14)

I ->
t
It ->
<41214) - 44)
7 (b). Types ofoperators
state vector.
system represented by
a
is

In quantum mechanics,
a
·
time-evolution)
the system (rotation, propagation,
The evolution of observable (position,
well as the measurementof physical a
the state.
as
of operator an
on

morerture, ess) happens through the

action

have two kinds of operators

correspondingly, we

is
state
n 1
quantum
a

He evolution of
+ -

a
5 U. unitary
Unitary operator: of
a
=

the
action
represented through
i)
Levolution] state.
the
operator on

unitary operators
are

eigenvalues of
a
The
·

with
unit modules
numbers
complex
mutually orthogonal
eigenvectors
are
and the
(Prove)

Hermitian
ii)
operators:*=
(physical observables) to physical
observable,
Corresponding every operator
·
Hamitian are
There a
is
Hermitian operator
eigenvalues of desired
a
The
definitely
·
a

This
is
real (prove!). always
because any physical quantity
is

property
real and not complex.

7(c). Matrix representation of an operator

discrete continuous. So far

a basis a

Operators are represented in

written as
is

basis the matrix elementof

an operator
given
a

discrete: (I11j) -ij =

continuous: (x((x')= Rex'

basis
acts on a
him an operator
product of
knows
So, if
one
and also the
inner

(-3/i)=?)
·

vector find the

(<i/i)=?),
one can

basis
the vectors
thatbasis.
given operator
in
matrin elementof a
 the position basis
8. Matrix representation of operators in

basis vector
what ln)? position
X,
-
is

thatfare a
is position operator and
eigenvale
m eans
This
-> wa s the
which acting on (i) gives
that is
thas (m) the
is eigenvector,

X(x) x(x) basis

is
position
=

the
operator in

He metric representation ofposition n'5(x x)

'(x(x)
-

...

[xk'ke)
a
=

Xans = (x/X(n) =

:Xan
x'f(x x)
=
-

Is Hermitian? x) xf(x x)
-

x) xf(x
[xf(x-x)]* x5(x
- =

I
=

f(x x)
=

xn f(n x)
[
-

=
= -

↳ even function
=Xen

This that
basis
vector. means

momentum the momentum

IP) a
Similarly which when acts
on
,
is

momentum operator thatis,

there a
is
as the
momentum eigenvalue,
eigenket IP) yields
p(b) b(b)
=

the position
momentum operator
in

The matrix representation ofthe

basis is
given
as (withoutproof)

Pan
=(x/P()--its(x-x's da
9. Charge ofbasis the
aboutthe states and
have the basis understanding
state and
now an
we
how to represent
a

spectors.
We also know
know we
representation
the
basis. Now suppose
operator
a
in given some other
the matrix representation in

given basis,
in
can we find
basis

where vi=<i/v)
refe: IV) Eilis
= -
a new
(i), thatis
basis
state
the in
write
wantto
SiN]?
we

whati svit
IV)
,visli;
=

<"'Ix E
(iv) E: Sili)
=

know the inner

·
So, if
we
the 200
a
vi=S,silic product (ili)
basis vectors, we
of
can
write
basis.
the new

the state i n

continuous:
MM) (x14
where
=

14) =
(x()/azda- basis
~
the momentum
write the state in

we
to
want
+(P) [p14)?
whatis
=

14)
(4(P)/P>dp;
=

<PIX CP147
=>
=

.4() <P12) dis

know the
· So, if we

(P/2),

14(r)(p(x)dx
4(P)
inner product
write the
a =

we can
the momentum
vector in

basis.
 <PIn)?
how find
to

we know thatP IP)=P(P)

or (x/PIP) PK/P) =

in the basis, we
get
expanding
b(x(b)
(<x))(6)dx
=

x) da b (x(b)
J-its(n-n'),
=

as ipn/t
Ae
P(/) => (x)
(41)
=

-it
=

iP*/t
a,
& <P1) = (IP)*=A* -
what is A?
S(1-2)
we
have 7ak) =

f(x x)
I
-

! ((P)(P()dp
=

p(x x)/t
x)
-

i
f(x
1ARI
-

e dp =

or.

or, (AP 25f(x -21)

f(x
=
- x) => A
=
pa/t

:alo)-
i

iPx/t des

t)4
_

(n)e
<012)dx
(4(w)
=

(P) 3014)
=

+ =

have
Thus, we

ofthe system
I4) State
=

in/tdx
·

in

)4
-

+(r) () e
P(u) wavefunctionbasis
=

the position
=
·

iPalt in
dp wavefunction
(r(r)e
4(P) =
basis
(x) momerton
·
+ =

the
#124 URE#27

10. Expectation value of

an operator

discrete:(00i)=wiloi)
(0i) (i =10w).
a re much eigenkets
suppose there a

A
(vi) and
the operator
inone of
these eigenkets the observed
Ifa system is
wi as

then it will
that
eigenvalue
yield the the
same
acts will remain
in
on
and the
system
value ofthe observable
state measurement.
after the
best
ina

of the eigenstate
not inone <
what
Now suppose
the
that system
is
the observable A or

value of
State IV). So whati sthe -

IV)
of
A on
the
result of action
will be the

A IV) = ? the (vi)

basis.
state
write the
in

we
thisquestion, projection
the
To answer
Ci = (will) is

(v) 5 ci1vi);
Poi-K
=

[Wilv)*
i1 and
[wilu)
=

=:
=

(ulwi)(wil) -ability
=>

:. IV) A =

ilwi)
-

E,ci(wili)
A1) ((we(we)) 2(w,(0))
+
-...
c(walw))
-

the
=

which
state
not
is

acts
If operators
the
on a
the
into one of
system collapses
·

then the the eigenvalue

eigenstate the
of observable is

The value
eigenstate.
so the eigenstate.
/

measurement
corresponding on
in to up

eigenstate system collapses the that

"which a

However, probability
be predicted.
⑤

is
(wi)
eigenstate
can never
into an

the collapses
system

Poi = (= [VIwi) [wilV]

 value
the
state of observable upon measurement
general
an

Since for a
I

the expectation value an

ofobservable
not
is fined, we look for
value defined as

The
is
expectation
(vIwi)
wi(0: IV)
SET wiPi
=

=
i1

(vIwi) <w:IV)
E,wi
=

(vIA (vi) <w:lvS

E,
=

value basis-independent.
·
Expectation is

(A) (v/A(V)
=

expectation value of
an observable for
state IV).
a
given is
the system
thati sif
· IV)
If 1007,
=

then the
one ofthe eigenstate,theeigenvalue
equal to
in

value i s
expectation wi
[wilwi)=
(w:/* 10i) =
wi
e
I
=

Continuous:
continuous
of
set eigenvalues
127 1017
-

A =

and eigenvectors.
with
action
the ofthe operater
in an eigenstate,
·
If
a system is

fined eigenvalue
yield a
insome arbitrary state IP),
then upon
is
system
the
However, if
·

measurement
we get (w) dw

w1w)1w7dw (4
=
(w) A

142 A(
* =

dw
c(w)
=

(4(r)
with
state (w)
in to the
eigen
collapses
·
system
Therefore the
probability density

(w)4(r) (4/w) [wI4)

*
f(w) 4
=
=
 this becomes
The value rease

expectation
in

(w9(2)dw 1w
dr
<wI4] <4(w)
(A) =
=

ITIA
d
IN) 3U143

S04133wInCd0
=

(y))suldr)
In
=

-
basis independent definition

:(*) 34/*(4) =

expectation position basis

value in the

>AT <4A14) =

drdr'
Ia's (a'l4)
(S <4)<al*
=

dada
()4*(m) Anx4(x)
=>

If
A Y, =
Awn' ad(n-x)

'S(x-x) 4(n)drdie'
(Y) ()4*(n)
=

-(x) (4*(x)x4(n)dx
=

A
If A p, = Paas--it f(x-x) de

<P2 ()x*()[
=
-its(x
-

a)]π(n)drdes'
(n)dx
(* [-it ]
+
*
:. SP) =
(r)
#124 URE#28

IfA f(x,y),
= (alf(X,
Chen p(I) = scn-x) f(xi-it()
:(f(x,y)) ()4*(n)(6(n x)f()!
=
itfa) (n) dade -
-

baris
in the position
(44)f(x,- it)Pad
-

:[f(x,P))
=

momentum basis
the
show that
Similarly,
in
we can

the momentum basis

in

(f(x,5) (u (r)f (itp,0)+odp-

+

12. Commutater and the

Heisenberg uncertainty relation

operators & and B defined as

The commutator oftwo
is

(A,BJ AB BA = -

each other. The

under
A and B commute with
charge the
· (A,B7 0
=
>

ofoperation of
A and is does not

outcome.
measurement
order in
commute and the
a
do not
·
(A,BI to
A
I
=>

which A&B are operated changes

the

measurementresults.

Example
=> (X,P]=?
 (x,)14) (x- PxY)?
=

duda'da"(4)
le<n'lpik" (2"
xpr =
1))(a)cal*
(4)
=
()) (n) scx - x) scs-x") (-ita)(a")dada'da"
dadn' 14)= (inx fit) (alde (4)

()
-
(a) (n- a') al-it,1
143
:: **14):i t( (x > /xfa) (a) de
that
show
Similarly, we can

**14) it((n)) f(x()dx14)

-

<alde 143
=

it((n)) a(t) (e)e]

+

:(* x)(4)
-

(2 xt
+=
+

I feel
f(x)
14)
=

+ n)selde
it(12)
+

:(x x) 14) =

=
it((x)(2)(x)da14) it 14)
14)=
-it
du
it
... (X, p7 =

an uncertainly relation
observables, there is

For of
pair
non-commenting
every

relation
of
Pair non-commenting observables Heisenberg'suncertainly
it
x &
B;(x,] =
xXA >,
t & E
At AE, t
0 &l AOD1
>,
dinger
Equation
written as

dirac notation
is
the
Schrodinger equation
in

The
the
the Hamiltonian of
system
#144)) it/4H))
=
· His
called

4 Y1 kE PE)
I
+

·
=

+ =

basis as
the
position
we write this equation in

it (x14(t)
(x1+14) (x) it(41)
=

*(*,)
s/File')
it
as [e14H)dr'=

S(x-x) H(x,
-it 1,
da
t)
we have [9/4(n) =

it) vait]
s(x-x)(a)-
+

vait]
s-a)(- E
+

it above, we get
substituting
itdn'=
it 4 *,t)
*vsait]
scray(-
it
on
4 ,)
(- +
vias 41,)=
I
basis.
· Schrdinger'sequation
in position
the
 a continuous baris?
think about
in
how to a vector

vectors an idimensional space

discrete is

how represent
to
a

(i)"*
0 if ii
Kj1i7 8ij
=

"Yoma
=>

-
1 ifj 1
=

18 i n
=

lis
basis
a continuous
verter in

represent a continuous
how to

q -(x(x)
-

Hill
=5(xx
0
=
if xFx
->
I =
x
-> ifn

with(8( x)dx 1
=

=
-

x x

I
PHY114 LECTURE #29

state
Time evolution ofa quantum 14 (i).
to be
to ty
state attime
know the quantum te?
epagator:Ifwe
t =

at
a
time
14(2))
How do we find the state

14
Both (i) and 14(2)) are
[(tz,t,)(4(t,1) Schrodinger Equation.
·

the
14(+2) = solutions to
and
· Pltz,ti) called the
is propagator
a
is unitary operator.

do
I gater?
find thewe
state, which is,
evolution for a stationary
time that
if,
know the te,
alreadystate of
state t =

we
a
stationary
14,(i)
is
thatifthe

if -

iEnt, I
14(t 2)) 14)
=
e

by
at
t=te isgiven
Then state
the
iEntz/
1 +n)
-

14n(t2)) = e

-
iEn(tz -

t,)t(4,(t1))
(4n(t)) e
=
:

how find
to
the time evolution of
an

superposition
state
arbitrary a
Now,
expanded as a
be
state can

An arbitrary is
state,that
stationary

(4, (,))4 (t,1)

where
=

disrete: (r
-
14nCti)
14.1 C
=

be written as

van
=te
at time
state
the
Therefor

14(2)) (4, (72)

=

C
[(y(t,1(4(7,))(4n(t2))
=

[4. (tis/4 (t)

[14(t))
-
 -
iEntz/t
14, 12)) 14)
have
=
e
we

eriEnt./t
14n()) (4u) =

Ent./5
[PItis)=(tul
e
:.

-En(t- ti)/t (4 (,))

:.(4(x) [(4)<4u)e
=

-
iEn(tz-t,) /t
~(t2,ti) 3 14)<4u!e
=

/t
<4(u)/e-"E(r)/tz-ti)
continuous j(tz,) =

f/4(r))

the position basis

ofthe propagator in
Representation
-
iEn(tz-t,) /k

have [itz, to) ?14n) < 4.12

=

we
basis as

the position
can
thisequation
write
in

iEn(tz-ti)/tyx,)
we
-

14) 34.12
(x2) (tz,ti)(2) (x2)
=

- iE(tz-ti)/t
34a1, e

or, (ee,te;x,,t,) =

[(n14)
Emltzti)/t
Tulle tn*(0) e
I oz, ta; ,,t)
=

iE(K) (tz-ti) /t

(4(x,x2)
-

(2, teix,t,) 44r,, e dk

continuous
=
 Representation ofthe propagator equation
14(t))
14t2)) lte,ti)
wehave, =

thisas,
write
can
basis, we

the position (ti) de,

(ez/rte,ti)(vi)(x,14
In

den/stz,ti)/4(4))
=

(x,l4(t)) =

(x,,ti)dx,
(uld,tz;
-- x,,ti) +
+(as2,tr)
=

Summary
the
Hamiltonian), one firstsolves for
ii) Given a potentian (or
solutions.
state
stationary
solutions, one
propagator.
constructs the
state
Using stationary
the
iii)
calculates the
time
found, one can

propagator
is
the
(iii) Once the propagater equation.
state through
evolution ofany given

potentials (Hamiltonian)
propagator for differen
aV(n)

ban (Infinite-well potential)

(1) Particle
a
is
. . . .

v0=

Yn(x) (x14)
= E sin
=

a n

=
0

n 1,2,
= . . . .
En

·Ulen,te;x,ti) =

4a) t**exp)-(2-ts
 oscillates potential

Anerp/H.)*]
(2) Harmonic

Yus (r/4)
=
=

En (n
= 2)b2
+

2)5r(tr- t)
(x)4,*,)ei(n
+

:Ultzis,,ti) =

Sisinity
-

territe]
(3) Free particle! ikx

+(x,x) (x/+(n))
=
-

*2
=(v) =
-

2m
/t
iE(n) (t2-ti)

t(a,x2) 4r,wise
-

dk
-V(en,t;x,t) =

Htz-t) at
ik(z-
x)
-

I
->

*
Stster]
2 t(tz t1)
uan,tei, t)
-

2
on =
 LECTURE # 30
PHY114

measurement
m the
(wi) (i=toal of
discrete:Suppose there
a re neigerket
a

measurement operated . A
(vi) and
the operator
inone
these
of eigenkets the observed
If
a system is
wi as

then it will
that
eigenvalue
yield the the
same
acts will remain
in
on
the
system
observable and
value ofthe
-

state measurement.
after the
↑(wi) wi(wi)
=

best
ina

not inone of the eigenstate

Now suppose
the
that system
is
then
superposition ofIwi),that
is,
IV)=S,cli),
projection
the
Ci (will) is

Cilvi); (will)
=

11) =

and (i=c*C:=(ulwi) of
Prix
the
is
probability
-

(wit
finding the system
in

:(v) A
=

ilwi si(witwit) =

((we(we)) G(w,(0))
=
c(walw))
+
-...
-

value defined as

The
is
expectation
VIA 10) soils
E,
wiPo E,wi(VIwi)(wilUS
=

SE
=

.
A) (V/AIV)
=
Continuous:

continuous
set eigenvalues
of
If (w) -

14)
eigenvectors.
=

and

Chen ↑ 127 1157=

-

be
in theindeterdoatecharge
dw
·However, if142= (4(w) (w)
dw
(w)
(w7dw (4
=
(w) A

142 A(
w(w)
then *

(w)(-(w)dw)
=

(4
=

with
state (w)
in to the
eigen
collapses
·
system
Therefore the
probability density

(w)4(r) (4/w) [wI4)

*
f(w) 4
=
=

Expectation value?
basis
independentdefinition
(A) (4/A4)
-

Ifa f(x,p)
=

baris
in the position
(44)f(x,- it)Pad
-

:[f(x,P))
=

momentum basis
the
show that
Similarly,
in
we can

the momentum basis

in

(f(x,5) (u (r)f (itp,0)+odp-

+

=
 basis always associated with a measurement
Measurementin a is

device beam splitter

polarizing
(H/u):The
a
device is

Polarization
·
i

14 --
BIK 14) -

PBS

45%
a PBS
motated a

(45/us):The
device is

· Polarization
CCD candle
could be a

Position:
The device
·

E with a cap keptat

be less along
could
a

Momenture:
the device
·
The focal place
 and state reconstruction:
measurement
quantum measurement
only
one

when the
system
one
is eigenstates,
the
of
the state
needed
is
to gues/acconstruct

state?
whataboutexperposition
14) ((r) f(v)
=
+
4)8] os)
=
+

measurements are required to get and

Infinite number of
 state
e

Particle
-
quantum
unl)
va12)+...
vs(2)
vii)
+

143 ↳> vector

=

discrete. =

column

continuous: 142
((x)(n)dx
=

↳> column vector

state:
Two-particle quantum
canepording toapartic
e
4 luja
143(47214),
=

rector
- Columb
-
L
"
Column

tensor product

Shem
If
112 (8),
=
(v) (3)
=

· (31) [0l*(0)
=

(i)= ()
=

· 11) (67x(2)
=

40) (i)8
=
=

·
iscns=(i7a(i)=(iii)=?]

isis:(i) (i) (ii) (j)

=

a
=

state given
is by
Suppose
-
a
two particle
BlVe)/Va
(H) (H2)
+

x
14) =
measurement
outcome
the of
a polarization
whatwill be
measurement will
&

state. So, an of
out
a superposition
Am! 14) is
into
=
collapse the quantum system isH-polarized
H-polarized & 2
either IH) (H2) Isparticle -

Vr"
is

.
yV
gst
-

or Iva)IV) - x
 LECTURE # 3 1
PHY114

143 =
x (H) (He)
+
(V)IVe F147,147, - iebteentanglement
Rosen (FPR) Paradon]
Quantum Entanglement (Einstein-Podolsky.

thiskind
to ofphenomenon
Einstein objected

named
eightin
an

system
actu s consider a one-particle

(4) 1Po)

↳oppo!=
=

(x143 (x1P): PN/t

=

8. Not
e
a

& 4(a) = is
thisstate
momentum operator on

The action ofthe momenture

value
The state has fixed
p" 14.7 P0
=
14p.) -

fixed
what aboutposition
is not
position
alter)
-

x 1400) -

14po(a)eth
-

probability density=S(w)
=

have
to
position
equally likely
particle
is
-

any position
 there complete uncutainty
is
momentum,
state with
fixed
So, for a

aboutits position.

Vos,de sowewate ragenuine

14)
=
10) e
(x140)
2, (x14) =

S(1
-

x0)
4(a)
=

a,

value
4.140) The state has fixed position
x14)
= -

momentum
whatabout
-14) Fal4)
probability density
-
iPs/t des
momentum
whati sthe -

ics/tdx=/sr-c)e
T)ta()
e
%(v)
=

- iP26/

=> have
to
equally likely
particle
is
I
14P)=
-

&N position
:S(P) =

any

there complete uncertainty

is

state with
fined position,
So, for a

momentum.
aboutits

-> firstprinciple
ofquantum
In generel: mechanics
AXAP>, E
to non-commenting operators
measured
cannotbe simultaneously
->

with arbitrary accuracy.

-> In other words, a

system cannot simultaneously
both
position and
be in the eigenkets of
momentum.

violation this
to very firstprinciple
-
An apparent
the EPR parador.
referred to
is
as
 PHY114 L ECTURE #32

two particles
Consider a system of

by
The state given
is

dp
(E) (14) (40)
1407 do
(kax,))=(4,140)
=

(5,
basis:
In the position

[inseparable]
-(a,x2) =

ts()UpCedr -4(4R3

x)/t_ of themoreentire
eigenfuncion
iP(esz aree
-

where, to (M2)
= e
2*2

the momentum operator

Ips,/k -
eigenfunction of momentum o
+

up (R1)
with
e
=

it
Pat
-

fe
iP (22-407/t eipe. It de
:(x,x) =

state (3., *2)

the two particle
measurement on

ofthe
form
momentum
Action of collapses
into one
state
the superposition the firstparticle
of
->

momentum
-

iP(n-4)/iP*./ - If the
p, the
momenture of
to
guaranteed
2 be
to
+
found
is
particle
is
second
the
be -p.

Let's rewrite E(x, 4a)

ipse. It
di

e-is-x/t
e

(x)

-Series(a-da)(enAsialde]
-
=

dr
 otoforepeat a
re

or eventsare
-

ext/)
->

x)de

ait(s(x
3)f(x,
-

x2
-
+

-
* with eigenvale (tot

S(x-x2+46)
-
eigenfunction of
1)
1
position operation Ye"
the "
x

f(x) -

x) -

state (3., *2)

the two particle
measurement on

ofthe
form
Action ofposition collapses
into one
state
the superposition the firstparticle
of
->

position
40)f(n, x) Ifthe of

found bethe positioned

-

f(x x, + =>
-

di
to in

be x + 4o

of
apparentviolation
BrnAPn -
an
of
firstprinciples
0
the
=

->
mechanics.
quartim

mechanics complete?
EPRe question:(2) Is quantum hidden variables
additional
does require
it
le) results?
measurement
to
explain

a momentum
Entanglement position
in

Send AP
->

time energy
It Entanglement in

and
-
AF
At "and I
 moving opposite direction.
The
in

particles
not
two are

mean by momentum being pard-p.

whatdo
*

So, then
we

momentum in
positions,
connection with
reation
A:Whenever
we
have.
=
Dr. So, in this case we

mean
always
it
momentum
position
E
-

"nd DR entanglement
-
=
0
Bu

state considered by EPR as

can write

cement
do =0, we
for P,
*
- Pea
rei, dp

e
-

E(,,x) =

ment x)f(x, x)
-

f(x,
stand
-

sse)
-

measurement
-

X 721

..
- x

ax

↓
-
x

--
Erasurement .
P 7
22

N
--
->

-E
-
7
17

<--- P

--
 LECTURE #33
PHY114

the two-dimensional space ofpolarization

we mean
have entanglement in

state!
doo- particle
Consider the state
inseparable
IVIV] FITIV)
- an

(IH31H)
+

15) =

into
collapses
measurementthe system
If
we make a
& the
2ndparticle is H-polarized
H-polarized
a particle is

either IHTH) V- "

-

=
"

"
" Vn's
IVSI) -

basis
as
covelation
in
the HIV
Perfect
=>

a conjugate
basis (451-45)
Is it also correlated in

I a
-
45

2(1) 1v2]
+

145)
=

1 -
45) [(H)
= 1V3] -

>14
1 457]
t(145)
-

11D
=

->
1 45)]
(145)
-

1)
45
=

3 -

that
we can show
itabove,
substituting
1 45)1 -

45)]
(145)(45
-

14) =

into
collapses
measurementthe system
make
particle is 45-polarized
a
If
we
45-polarized & the 2

aparticle
is

either 145)(95) -

1x
-45"
-
45 '
"
-"
or 1-45)(45) the 451-45 basis
covelation
in

Perfect
=>

basis
two conjugate
Simultaneous correlation
in

entanglement
polarization -

-
 mechanics
Hidden variable interpretation ofquantum
I
Nobel prize physics
in

for
given