Chapter 10-Cavity Theory

San Diego State University- John Cameron White

Chapter 10- Cavity Theory

John Cameron White

Abstract
We want to solve the problem of relating the absorbed dose in a probe in a medium. We will understand the
meaning and motivation for Bragg-Gray (B-G) cavity theory. Know the conditions for B-G cavity theory, and
know how to use B-G theory to compute the absorbed dose in one medium from knowing the absorbed dose in
another medium.
Keywords
Bragg-Gray (B-G theory), Spencer-Attix Theory
1 JohnC.White
*Corresponding author: jocwhite@me.com

Contents
Introduction 2
1 Bragg-Gray (B-G Theory) 2
1.1 Condition 1 for Bragg-Gray . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2
1.2 Bragg-Gray Condition number 2 . . . . . . . . . . . .2
1.3 B-G Theory: Poly-energetic Charged Particles . .2
1.4 B-G Theory: Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3
2 Spencer-Attix Cavity Theory 3
2.1 The Concept of the Spencery-Attix cavity theory 3
2.2 Spencer-Attix in Practice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
2.3 Summary of Cavity Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
Acknowledgments 4

Introduction
Figure 1. Consider a point P with in medium to calculate the
Consider a point P within a medium m within a beam of dose
photon radiation as in figure 1 The absorbed dose at point P
can be calculated by:
If the cavity material differs in atomic number and density
from the medium, then the dose in the cavity will not be equal
"  #
dT
Dm = Φ (1) to the dose in the medium. Dcav 6= Dmed .
ρdx c,m T
Cavities can be in three sizes, small, intermediate, or large
Where Φ = electron fluence, c = collision, m = medium, in comparison with the ranges of secondary charged particles
and T = K.E of the electron. To measure the absorbed at produced by photon in the cavity. As in figure 2. The case
point P in the medium we need a dosimeter that is sensitive to where the medium is small is of special interest.
the radiation. The sensitive medium of the dosimeter is often
called the cavity. In general, the cavity will not be the same
material as the medium.
The measured absorbed dose Dcav within the entire cavity
can be calculated by:

Z Tmax  
dT
Z
Dcav = ΦT,~r (E,~r) dT d~r (2) Figure 2. The three different sizes of cavities
Vcav 0 ρdx c,cav

1
 Chapter 10- Cavity Theory — 2/4

1. Bragg-Gray (B-G Theory)
Consider charged particles going from media w to media g:
Figure 3. A fluence of Φ of charged particles is shown
crossing an interface between media w and g. Assuming Φ to
be continuous across layer g and both interfaces, the dose
ratio Dw /Dg is equal to the corresponding ratio of mass
collision stopping powers
Assuming Φ, the electron fluence, is continuous across
the boundary (i.e ignoring backscattering), we can relate the
ratio of doses by their stopping powers:
Dw (dT /ρdx)c,w
= (3)
Dg (dT /ρdx)c,g
1.1 Condition 1 for Bragg-Gray
Consider charged particles crossing a thin layer of cavity g
sandwiched between w.
assumed to be so small in comparison with the range of the
charged particles striking it that is presence does not perturb
the charged particle fluence. This is often called the “Bragg-
Gray condition”.
• It depends on the scattering properties of w and g being
sufficiently similar that the mean path length (g/cm2 ) of
particles traversing g is practically identical to a layer of
w having the same mass thickness. The backscattering
is similar at all interfaces.
• For electrons Z for w and g must be sufficiently close
because of scattering. Heavy charged particles do not
scatter that much so the condition is not challenged.
• All charged particles must originate outside the cavity
g
• All charged particles do not stop in g.
1.2 Bragg-Gray Condition number 2
A second B-G condition can be written as follows: The ab-
sorbed dose in the cavity is assumed to be deposited entirely
by the charged particles crossing it.
This condition implies that
• Photon interactions in the cavity are assumed negligible
and thus ignored.
• All electrons depositing the dose inside the cavity are
produced outside the cavity and completely cross the
cavity. Such electrons can be called “crossers”
• All charged particles must originate outside the cavity
g
• No secondary electrons are produced inside the cavity
and no electrons stop with in the cavity.

The points above ensure that the electron fluence in the

cavity is the same as in the medium and allow for the dose
in the cavity and medium to be related by using the mass
collision stopping powers.

1.3 B-G Theory: Poly-energetic Charged Particles

Under the two B-G conditions we can say that

Dw m Sw w
= =m Sg (4)
Dg S
m g

For differential energy distribution ΦT the appropriate

Figure 4. A fluence Φ of charged particles passes through a average mass collision stopping power in the cavity medium
thin layer of medium g sandwiched between region w. x is
Assuming Φ to be continuous across layer g and both
interfaces, the dose ratio Dw /Dg is again equal to the R Tmax  
dT
Φ T dT
1 Tmax
0
 
dT Dx
ρdx
Z
corresponding ratio of mass collision stopping powers c,x
m Sx = R Tmax = ΦT dT =
0 ΦT dT Φ 0 ρdx c,x Φ
Condition 1 states that The thickness of the g-layer is (5)
 Chapter 10- Cavity Theory — 3/4

where ΦT = Differential energy distribution (particles per Some of these electrons released in the gas cavity may
cm2 Mev) have sufficient energy to escape from the cavity carrying
If the medium g occupying the cavity is a gas in which a some of their energy with them out of the volume. This
charge Q is produced by the radiation,Dg can be expressed in reduces the energy absorbed in the cavity and requires a mod-
terms of that charge as ification to the stopping powers of the crossers in the gas.
Spencer-Attix cavity theory considers
 
Q W
Dg = (6) 1. Considers the delta electrons δ
m e g
2. Operates under the same two conditions as the Bragg-
By using equation 6 and 4 we obtain the B-G relation
Gray cavity theory
expressed in terms of cavity ionization:
3. However, these conditions are now applied also to the
Q

W

w fluence of the δ
Dg = ·m Sg (7)
m e g
2.1 The Concept of the Spencery-Attix cavity the-
This allows one to calculate the absorbed dose in the ory
medium immediately surrounding a B-G cavity, on the basis The total secondary electron fluence (crossers and δ electrons)
of the charged produced in the cavity gas. Note that Q is is divided into two components bases on a user-defined energy
generally greater than the charge Q0 collected form the ion threshold δ
chamber because of ionic recombination

1.4 B-G Theory: Summary

Neither CPE nor a homogeneous field of radiation required
for B-G relation as long as
w
1. m Sg would have to be evaluated for ΦT that crosses the
cavity
2. ΦT must be the same in both the medium and the cavity
where Dw is to be determined
w
The calculation of ΦT and hence m Sg is simplified in the
presence of CPE. Figure 6
The B-G relation states that the dose ratio between the
cavity and the medium of interest is determined by a ratio of All of the secondary electrons with energies T>∆ are
the average mass collision stopping powers of the medium treated as crossers. Such δ electrons with T>∆ must be
and cavity. The theory has two assumptions: included in the entire electron spectrum
1. Dose is solely due to charged particles crossing the
Z Tmax  
cavtiy dT
D1,cav = ΦδT (T ) · dT (8)
2. Particle fluence is not perturbed by the cavity. ∆ ρdx c.cav

However, this is not a correct equation because the energy

2. Spencer-Attix Cavity Theory
Bragg-Gray cavity theory does not take into account the cre-
ation of secondary (delta) electrons generated from the slow-
ing down of the primary electrons in the cavity.
of the δ electrons are counted twice: 1. As part of the
spectrum of electrons. 2. In the unrestricted stopping power
as the energy lost ranging up to the maximum energy lost
(including that larger than ∆). We are over estimating the dose
to a small object or thin foil traversed by charged particles. To
fix this we use restricted stopping power

Z Tmax  ∆
dT
D1,cav = ΦδT (T ) · dT (9)
∆ ρdx c.cav

Secondary electrons with kinetic energies T < ∆ are con-

sidered slow electrons that deposit their energy “locally”. In
other words they can be treated as so-called stoppers → D2,cav
Figure 5 is sometimes called the “track end term”.
 Chapter 10- Cavity Theory — 4/4

1. Energy deposition of the “stoppers” cannot be described 2.3 Summary of Cavity Theory
by stopping power. Our goal was to perform accurate relative measurements of
absorbed dose in a phantom where the energy of the electrons
2. This is because their energy lost is simply their (local)
changes significantly.
kinetic energy.
Measurements fo relative dose in air changes with depth.
This means that the does = Energy of the stoppers per unit Ionization chambers always provide a depth-ionization curve.
mass. As we can see in figure 7, the depth-ionization curve of
For practical calculations, the track-end term TE was ap- electrons differs from the depth-dose curve by the water-to-
proximated as: air stopping power ratio.
S(∆) To do this, Spencer-Attix required the restricted collision
T E = ΦδT (∆) · ·∆ (10) stopping powers. However, due to the energy distribution of
ρ
electrons at each point along the depths of measurement, one
Finally we can combine equation 9 and 10 to get cannot directly use the stopping power ratios for monoener-
getic electrons.
Z Tmax  ∆
dT
ΦδT (T ) · dT + T E (11)
∆ ρdx c.cav
We can now take the ratio of the Spencer-Attix cavity
theory, the stopping power ratio is therefore obtained by:

R Tmax ∆

dT
ΦδT (T ) ·
ρdx c,med dT + T E
 med
Dmed ∆ L
= =
Dcav
 ∆
R Tmax δ dT ρ cav
∆ ΦT (T ) · ρdx c,cav dT + T E

(12)

2.2 Spencer-Attix in Practice

1. The energy threshold ∆ is typically set at 1- keV.
Figure 7
2. Sensitive volume of the dosimeter can be identified as
the “cavity”, which may contain a gaseous, liquid or
One must determine them for the energy distribution of
solid medium.
electrons in realistic linac beams:
3. In ionization chambers, air is used as the sensitive
medium, since it allows a relatively simple electrical
means for collection of charges released in the sensitive
medium by radiation.
The ionization chamber is used in a phantom without a
build-up material. The typical thickness of the chamber wall
are much thinner than the range of the secondary electrons.
Hence, proportion of the cavity dose due to electrons gener-
ated in the phantom greatly exceed the dose contribution from
the wall. Hence, the phantom medium serves as the medium
and the wall is treated as a perturbation.
Taking into account all further small perturbations, the Figure 8. Restricted stopping power ratios (∆ = 10keV ) of
dose in medium w in determined with a thin walled ionization water to air for electron beams as a function of depth in water.
chamber in a high energy or electron beam by:
In photon beams, average restricted stopping power ratio
  SA
of water to air of secondary electrons do NOT vary sigificantly

Q W L
Dw = · · · p f l · pdis · pwall · pcell (13) as a function of depth. The only exception is at or near the
m e g ρ w,g
surface.
Where p f l is the electron fluence perturbation correction
factor (electron in-scatter), pdis is the displacement of medium
with cavity material (reduced attenuation and reduced scatter),
Acknowledgments
pwall is wall correction factor, pcell is the central electrode I would like to thank me, myself, and I for the article.
correction factor.