PERIODIC MOTION

h
15
Questions and Problems

15.1. The wings are least likely to be blurry when they are in the highest or lowest positions that the bird’s wings
ever reach. At these moments the vertical motion of the wing is momentarily zero.

15.2.

15.3.

Points on the plot have been labeled to show which cell in Principles Figure 15.2 each point corresponds to. The
units of x and vx are arbitrary.

© Copyright 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. This material is protected under all copyright laws as they currently exist.
No portion of this material may be reproduced, in any form or by any means, without permission in writing from the publisher.
15-1
15-2 Chapter 15

15.4. (a) We know that in simple harmonic motion, the energy is transformed from kinetic to potential and back
again. In the absence of dissipation, the maximum kinetic energy should be the same as the maximum spring
1 1
potential energy, which can of course be written as U max = k (Δ x) 2max = kA2 . Obviously, half the maximum kinetic
2 2
K max U max 1 2 1 A
energy is half the maximum potential energy: = = kA = k (Δ xhalf ) 2 ⇒ Δxhalf = . (b) We can write
2 2 4 2 2
K 1 2 1 2 v
half the maximum kinetic energy in two different ways, and equate them: max = mvhalf = mvmax ⇒ vhalf = max .
2 2 4 2

15.5. We see that if a moving object moves to the left of x = 0.5, it will continue moving to the left indefinitely. On
the right hand side, if an oscillation were to carry the object past the point x = 3.5, it would pass the x = 0.5 point
upon swinging back to the left. Thus 0.5 < x < 3.5.

15.6. We can start counting oscillations at any initial position of the oscillator; we choose one point of maximum
displacement. Each oscillation consists of a displacement of A toward equilibrium, then a displacement of A to the
other side away from equilibrium, and then back to the initial position. This is a distance of 4 A. Thus 2.5 such
oscillations would involve the oscillating object covering a distance of 10 A.

15.7. The period is 5 s. Although the shape of the wave is complicated, we can see that the shape repeats itself
every 5 s.

15.8. In order for the piston to have perfectly simple harmonic motion, its motion in the y direction would have to
exactly match the y component of the pin on the motor that is moving in a circle. As it is, the rod connecting the pin
on the motor to the piston makes various angles as a circle is completed. It is the length of this rod that is held
constant, rather than the vertical distance between the pin and the piston. In order to better approximate simple
harmonic motion, a longer rod should be used to join the pin and the piston.

15.9. It is periodic, in that it repeats after some time. It is not simple harmonic motion, because its position and
velocity cannot be described by a simple sine or cosine function. As it rises and falls, not all of its potential energy is
converted into translational kinetic energy. Some of it becomes rotational kinetic energy.

15.10. (a) If no energy is lost, then the ball with return up to its initial height. This is required by conservation of
energy applied between the first time the ball is at its peak height and the second. But there is nothing special about
the first and second peak positions; as long as no energy is lost in the collision or to air, this should continue
indefinitely. (b) We can determine how much time is required for the ball to fall by using kinematics. We use
1 2Δ y
Δ y = v y ,i Δ t + a y (Δt ) 2 , noting that the ball is dropped, not thrown downward. Thus Δ t = . A complete
2 ay
oscillation consists of the ball falling to the ground and rising back to its peak height. Since the path is symmetric in
2Δ y 2(− 2.0 m)
time, we can write T = 2Δt = 2 =2 = 1.3 s. (c) No, this is not simple harmonic motion. The
ay (− 9.8 m/s 2 )
velocity goes from its peak negative value instantly to its peak positive value. This cannot be described by a
sinusoidal function.

15.11. We know from the text that all higher harmonics must be integer multiples of the fundamental frequency.
From this is follows that the difference between any two harmonics must also be an integer multiple of the
fundamental frequency. This means the smallest possible difference between two harmonics would be
f n +1 − f n = (n + 1) f1 − nf1 = f1. Note that the second and third frequencies have a difference of (1270 Hz) −
(1143 Hz) = 127 Hz. Since we are told f1 > 100 Hz, this difference of 127 Hz cannot be only be 1 × f1. Thus
f1 = 127 Hz. It is worth nothing that the difference between the first and second frequencies listed is
(1143 Hz) − (889 Hz) = 254 Hz = 2 f1.

© Copyright 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. This material is protected under all copyright laws as they currently exist.
No portion of this material may be reproduced, in any form or by any means, without permission in writing from the publisher.
 Periodic Motion 15-3

15.12. Sound difference is due to difference in higher harmonics emitted, which consist of superposition of many
sinusoidal waves; different shape of piano and trumpet cause differences in form of the superposed waves, yielding
different sounds for a given frequency.

15.13. There appear to be three harmonics. There is a low frequency (the fundamental frequency) that is peaked at 0 s, 5
s, 10 s, etc. The second harmonic adds to the peaks of the fundamental frequency, but also produces a peak at 2.5 s, and
7.5 s. The third harmonic produces the small peaks between the times already noted, such as near 1.5 s, and near 4.0 s.

15.14. (a) Because the amplitudes of the higher-frequency components decrease rapidly, one could visualize this
function as a basic sine function with smaller and smaller “ripples” added to it. Superposing the ripples and the
fundamental sine curve will increase the magnitude in some locations and decrease it at other locations. Only odd
multiples of the fundamental frequency are used, which share all the zeroes of the fundamental frequency but
alternate maxima and minima. Subtracting every other term will therefore tend to reinforce the fundamental maxima
as well. The result will be a somewhat triangular wave shape (if all odd terms are included, the shape will be exactly
triangular). The period will be T = 1/ f , so the function will have zeroes and maxima at all the same locations as
sin(2π ft ). (b) The general shape between each pair of zeroes is triangular, so the function is alternating triangles of
positive and negative displacement, as shown here:

15.15. The square wave looks like a sine function with the smooth curves replaced by flat regions. The zeroes and
maxima of a sine curve of fundamental frequency f equal to that of the desired square wave, thus make a good
starting point. In order to beef up the low-amplitude portions of the fundamental sine wave without increasing the
maxima as much, we will need to add terms with zeroes in the same locations but with alternating maxima and
minima. This suggests an odd sequence of frequencies is needed, similar to that in Problem 15.14 above. This time
we will need to add each term rather than subtracting every other term, so that the alternating maxima and minima
can produce cancellation rather than reinforcement of maxima and minima. To get the specific series that produces a
square wave, we might Google “square wave”, or derive the series as follows:
Any given a periodic function f (t ) can be written as a (possibly infinite) sum of sine and cosine terms. Specifically:
a0 N ⎛ ⎛ 2π nt ⎞ ⎛ 2π nt ⎞ ⎞
f (t ) = + ∑ ⎜ an cos ⎜ ⎟ + bn sin ⎜ ⎟⎟ (1)
2 n =1 ⎝ ⎝ T ⎠ ⎝ T ⎠⎠
Where the coefficients are
t0 + T
2 ⎛ 2π nt ⎞
an =
T ∫ f (t )cos ⎜
⎝ T ⎟⎠
dt (2)
t0

t0 + T
2 ⎛ 2π nt ⎞
bn =
T ∫ f (t )sin ⎜
⎝ T ⎟⎠
dt (3)
t0

In this case the function we wish to treat is the square wave function in Figure P15.15, which can be expressed
mathematically as
⎛T ⎞ ⎛ T⎞
f (t ) = Aθ ⎜ − t ⎟ − Aθ ⎜ t − ⎟ (4)
⎝2 ⎠ ⎝ 2⎠
on the interval 0 ≤ t ≤ T , where T is the period of one full square well “oscillation”, and
⎧1 if x ≥ 0
θ ( x) = ⎨
⎩0 if x < 0

© Copyright 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. This material is protected under all copyright laws as they currently exist.
No portion of this material may be reproduced, in any form or by any means, without permission in writing from the publisher.
15-4 Chapter 15

is called the Heavyside function. Using the functional form (4) in the equations for the coefficients (2) and (3) yields
t0 + T
2 ⎡ ⎛T ⎞ ⎛ T ⎞⎤ ⎛ 2π nt ⎞ 2 A(cos(nπ ) − 1)sin(nπ )
an =
T ∫ A ⎢θ ⎜ − t ⎟ − θ ⎜ t − ⎟ ⎥ cos ⎜
⎣ 2⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠
2 ⎦ ⎝ T ⎟
⎠
dt = −
nπ
=0 (5)
t0

⎛ nπ ⎞
t0 + T 4 A(cos(nπ ) − 1)sin 2 ⎜ ⎟ ⎧ 4 A(− 1) n
2 ⎡ ⎛T ⎞ ⎛ T ⎞ ⎤ ⎛ 2π nt ⎞ ⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎪− n odd
bn =
T ∫ A ⎢θ ⎜ − t ⎟ − θ ⎜ t − ⎟ ⎥ sin ⎜
⎣ 2⎝ ⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎦ ⎝ T ⎟⎠
dt = −
nπ
=⎨ nπ (6)
t0 ⎪ 0 n even
⎩
Inserting these results into equation (1) yields
4 ∞
1 ⎡ 2π t ⎤
f (t ) =
π
∑ 2n − 1 sin ⎢⎣(2n − 1)
n =1 T ⎥⎦

15.16. In order for a force to produce simple harmonic motion, the force must be in the opposite direction of the
displacement (to return an oscillator to equilibrium), and the force must be linear in displacement. Options (b) and (e)
satisfy this constraints, and therefore forces (b) and (e) could produce simple harmonic motion.

15.17. The restoring force is the stiffness or rigidity of the board itself. This comes from bonds on the microscopic scale
behaving similarly to springs. When the board is pulled downward in one direction, some of these bonds are stretched and
they pull the board back into its equilibrium position. When you have left the diving board, the relevant mass is the mass
of the board itself. However, this is slightly more complicated than a single spring and a single point-like object that has
mass. The mass of the diving board is distributed along its length, as are the bonds that give rise to the restoring force.

15.18. The spring-cart system will have exactly the same period as on Earth. The oscillation period of a spring-mass
system depends on the mass of the object, but this is because the spring has to accelerate it back and forth; it has
nothing to do with gravitational acceleration. The pendulum, however, uses gravity as its restoring force. In the
absence of gravity (or in freefall) the pendulum will not oscillate at all. One could refer to the absence of oscillatory
motion in the pendulum as an infinite period.

15.19. (a) In the plot of the force, the slope of the force as a function of position is different in each case. In the
∂Fx
picture of the ground, the concavity of the ground is different in each case. (b) < 0 describes stable equilibrium,
∂x
∂Fx ∂Fx
> 0 describes unstable equilibrium, and = 0 describes neutral equilibrium. (c) These criteria have been
∂x ∂x
established only in one dimension. But in that one dimension, yes, the criteria are general.

15.20. (a) The pendulum clock will run slower at higher altitude. The pendulum uses gravity as its restoring force. As the
altitude is increased, gravity becomes weaker and the pendulum cannot be restored as quickly. (b) It is not possible to say.
The restoring force due to gravity is weaker at higher altitude, but air resistance decreases also. Which effect dominates
cannot be determined without data on atmospheric pressure at different altitudes, as well as the shape of the pendulum.

2π
15.21. We simply insert ω = into each equation to obtain
T
⎛ 2π t ⎞
x(t ) = A sin ⎜ + φi ⎟
⎝ T ⎠
2π A ⎛ 2π t ⎞
vx (t ) = cos ⎜ + φi ⎟
T ⎝ T ⎠
2
⎛ 2π ⎞ ⎛ 2π t ⎞
ax (t ) = − ⎜
T ⎟ A sin ⎜ T + φi ⎟
⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠

© Copyright 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. This material is protected under all copyright laws as they currently exist.
No portion of this material may be reproduced, in any form or by any means, without permission in writing from the publisher.
 Periodic Motion 15-5

15.22. (a) Here the initial phase is zero, because the function appears to be exactly A sin(ωt ). (b) If the argument of
a sine function is slightly negative, the value of the sine function will be negative as is the case here. The initial phase
is negative.

15.23. (a) Yes (b) The horizontal component is increasing, meaning the vertical component must be decreasing. In
order for the vertical component to be approaching zero as the phasors rotate counterclockwise, the vertical
component must be lagging behind the horizontal component. Clearly the two phasors are orthogonal. Thus
φv − φh = −π /2.

15.24. The spring constant is given by

2 2
⎛ 2π ⎞ ⎛ 2π ⎛ 1 day ⎞ ⎛ 1 h ⎞ ⎞
k = ωE2 mE = ⎜ ⎟ mE = ⎜ ×⎜ ⎟ × ⎜ 3600 s ⎟ ⎟ (5.97 × 10 kg) = 2.37 × 10 N/m
24 11

T
⎝ E ⎠ ⎝ (365.25 days) ⎝ 24 h ⎠ ⎝ ⎠ ⎠

15.25. (a) The velocity of the phasor tip is Aω , and the vertical component of this is Aω sin(ϑ ), where ϑ is
measured counterclockwise from the positive x axis. The vertical component of the velocity of the tip is the same as
the speed of an object undergoing simple harmonic motion in the vertical direction with the same rotational speed.
(b) The acceleration of the phasor tip is Aω 2 radially inward. The vertical projection of this acceleration is
Aω 2 cos(ϑ ). This also has exactly the form of the acceleration of an object undergoing simple harmonic motion.

15.26. (a) We simply read off from the function that the amplitude is 20 mm. (b) We compare the given function
to the general equation for an object undergoing simple harmonic motion: A cos(ωt ) = A cos(2π ft ) =
1 1
(20 mm)cos(8π t ) ⇒ 2π f = 8π s −1 or f = 4 Hz. (c) T = = = 0.25 s. (d) The cosine function is zero when
f (4 Hz)
⎛ 1⎞ 1⎛ 1⎞
the argument is ⎜ n + ⎟ π . Thus we set t = ⎜ n + ⎟ ⇒ t0 = 0.063 s, t1 = 0.19 s, t2 = 0.31 s. (e) x(t = 0.75 s) =
⎝ 2⎠ 8⎝ 2⎠
(20 mm)cos(8π (0.75 s)) = 20 mm, vx (t = 0.75 s) = −(8π )(20 mm)sin(8π t ) = 0, ax (t = 0.75 s) = −(8π ) 2 (20 mm)
cos(8π t ) = − 1.3 × 104 mm/s 2 .

15.27. (a) There are several correct ways of writing this. One might use a sine function or a cosine function.
There are also two correct (non-trivial) initial phases that fit the description we are given. This is because we do
not know if the position is increasing or decreasing at t = 0. Correct answers include x (t ) = A cos(ω t + φ ),
2π
A = 25 mm, ω = = 4π rad/s, and φ = 2.5 or 0.59.
T
(b)

© Copyright 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. This material is protected under all copyright laws as they currently exist.
No portion of this material may be reproduced, in any form or by any means, without permission in writing from the publisher.
15-6 Chapter 15

⎛ 33.3 ⎞
15.28. (a) We know that the rotational speed is given by ω = 2π f = 2π ⎜ −1
⎟ = 3.5 s . (b) We found the
⎝ 60 s ⎠
rotational speed in part (a), and the amplitude is clearly the radius of the record (0.15 m). All that remains is to
π
determine the initial phase. We require that y (t = 0) = A or sin(ω (0) + φ ) = 1 ⇒ φ = sin −1 (1) = = 1.6. Thus
2
y (t ) = A sin(ωt + φ ), where A = 0.15 m, ω = 3.5 s −1 , and φ = 1.6.

15.29. The maximum amplitude of the acceleration of an object undergoing simple harmonic motion is amax = Aω 2 .
We can write the total energy as the maximum of the kinetic energy, and insert the given values:
1 2 1 1 1
E = K max = mvmax = m(ω A) 2 = mamax A = (1.0 kg)(5.0 m/s 2 )(0.12 m) = 0.30 J.
2 2 2 2

b (2.00 s −1 ) 1
15.30. (a) 8.00 m (b) b = ω = 2π f ⇒ f = = = 0.318 Hz (c) T = = π s = 3.14 s (d) The speed is
2π 2π f
vx (t ) = − ab sin(bt + π /3), so that vx (t = π /2 s) = − (8.00 m)(2.00 s −1 )sin((2.00 s −1 )(π / 2s) + π /3) = 13.9m/s. The
acceleration is ax (t ) = − ab 2 cos(bt + π /3), so that ax (t = π / 2 s) = −(8.00 m)(2.00 s −1 )2 cos((2.00 s −1 )(π /2s) + π /3) =
16.0m/s 2 . (e) The maximum magnitude of the x component of acceleration is ax ,max = Aω 2 = ab 2 =
2π 2π
(8.00 m)(2.00 s −1 )2 = 32.0 m/s 2 . This occurs when cos(bt + π /3) = −1 ⇒ bt + π /3 = π or t = = =
3b 3(2.00 s −1 )
1.05 s. (f) The maximum magnitude of the x component of the velocity is vx ,max = Aω = ab = (8.00 m)(2.00 s −1 ) =
π π π
16.0 m/s 2 . This occurs when sin(bt + π /3) = 1 ⇒ bt + π /3 = or t = = = 0.262 s.
2 6b 6(2.00 s −1 )

15.31. (a) Simple harmonic motion is used in the text to refer to any system the motion of which can be described
using a sinusoidal function. This can be done using sine or cosine functions. But we can turn x(t ) = β cos(ωt + δ )
into a sine function by shifting the argument by π /2. If we call δ ′ ≡ δ + π /2 then x(t ) = β sin(ωt + δ ′ ). (b) Simply
differentiating the expression for position with respect to time yields vx (t ) = βω cos(ωt + δ ′) and
ax (t ) = −βω 2 sin(ωt + δ ′ ).
(c)

15.32. The path from Boston to Paris constitutes a fraction of a great circle equal to
d Boston-Paris (5.850 × 106 m)
= = 0.146 or 52.55° . Simply geometry tells us that the angle between the path of the
2π RE 2π (6.378 × 106 m)
train and radially inward toward the center of the Earth is then θ max = 63.72 ° . The component of the force of gravity
along the direction of motion will be FxG = mg cos(θ ), but of course the angle θ will change as the train moves.

© Copyright 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. This material is protected under all copyright laws as they currently exist.
No portion of this material may be reproduced, in any form or by any means, without permission in writing from the publisher.
 Periodic Motion 15-7

Thus the maximum force that gravity exerts in that direction is FxG,max = mg cos(θ max ), meaning that the
maximum acceleration in that direction will be ax ,max = g cos(θ max ). We are assuming that the train will move
A4π 2 RE sin((52.55 °)/2)4π 2
in simple harmonic motion, such that amax = Aω 2 , also. Thus T = = =
g cos(θ max ) g cos(θ max )
(6.378 × 106 m)sin((52.55 °)/2)4π 2
= 5068 s or 84.5 minutes. This is the entire period for an oscillation from
(9.8m/s 2 )cos(63.72°)
Boston to Paris, and back to Boston again. The one-way trip would take only 42.2 minutes.

15.33. Call the axis along which the shaker oscillates the x axis. Then ∑F x , on penny = Fxs = max ⇒ (ax ) max =
1 s
( Fx ) max = g μ s . But we also know the maximum acceleration in simple harmonic motion is given by ax ,max = Aω 2 .
m
A (0.050 m)
Thus μ s = (2π f ) 2 = (2π (1.85 Hz)) 2 = 0.69.
g (9.8 m/s 2 )

15.34. Because the spring has inertia; the inertia of the material at the bottom of a vertically hanging spring requires
a nonzero time interval to be accelerated up and down by the rest of the spring.

1 k
15.35. From the initial condition we have f = , and from the second condition (after the second block is
2π m1
f 1 k
added) we have = . Dividing the first expression by the second, we obtain:
2 2π m1 + m2
m1 + m2 m 1
2= ⇒ 1 =
m1 m2 3

15.36. They are equal; the ratio is 1:1. The effect of the additional inertia on the second spring is to lower its
equilibrium position, and to decrease the maximum speed.

15.37. (a) We know that the frequency increases if the spring constant increases. In this arrangement, a
displacement Δx now requires that both springs be compressed (or stretched) by Δ x. So clearly, the effective spring
constant of the arrangement is doubled by adding the second spring in parallel. Thus the frequency increases. (b)
Now a displacement of Δx requires that each spring be compressed (or stretched) by only Δ x/2. So causing the
same displacement as before will now lead to a restoring force that is half as large. Clearly the effective spring
constant for this arrangement is decreased. Thus the frequency decreases.

15.38. We refer to the balls as A and B. The two balls stretch their respective springs by the same amount as they
reach equilibrium. In order for the spring restoring force to counteract gravity, we know
m g
Δ yA = − A
kA
mB g
Δ yB = −
kB
mA g m g mA mB
Thus we can equate − =− B ⇒ = ⇒ ω A = ω B . Thus the two balls oscillate with the same
kA kB kA kB
frequency.

15.39. The cup will lose contact with the table only if the table accelerates downward away from the cup faster than
gravity can accelerate the cup downward.

© Copyright 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. This material is protected under all copyright laws as they currently exist.
No portion of this material may be reproduced, in any form or by any means, without permission in writing from the publisher.
15-8 Chapter 15

(a) Yes. Acceleration increases with amplitude. So an increase in amplitude could cause the maximum acceleration to
exceed the acceleration due to gravity. (b) No. Increasing the period decreases the angular frequency. Since a ∼ ω 2 , this
will decrease the acceleration. (c) Yes. Decreasing the period increases the angular frequency. Since a ∼ ω 2 , this will
k
increase the acceleration. (d) Yes. Since a ∼ ω 2 ∼ , decreasing the mass of the table would increase the acceleration.
m
(e) No. As discussed in (d), this would decrease the acceleration. (f) No. This has no effect on the maximum
acceleration. (g) If the cup is glued to the table, the answers do not change. If the cup is free to move, then the coffee
would not fly out of the cup even if the cup flew into the air in free fall (at least until it hit the table again).

1
15.40. (a) We set U max
spring
= kA2 = Etotal = K i + U ispring , such that
2
1 2 1 2 1 m 2 (2.0 kg)
vi + ( Δ x )i =
2
kA = mvi + k ( Δx)i2 ⇒ A = (2.0 m/s)2 + (0.24 m) 2 = 0.47 m
2 2 2 k (50 N/m)
(b) At the equilibrium position, all energy is kinetic energy. Thus we can write
1 2 1 2 k (50 N/m)
mveq = kA ⇒ veq = A = (0.466 m) = 2.3 m/s
2 2 m (2.0 kg)
(c) The answers would not change at all.

1
15.41. (a) We set U max
spring
= kA2 = Etotal = K i + U ispring , such that
2
1 2 1 2 1
kA = mvi + k (Δ x)i2
2 2 2
2 2
m 2 ⎛ T ⎞ 2 ⎛ (2.3 s) ⎞
⇒ A= vi + (Δ x)i2 = ⎜ ⎟ vi + ( Δx)i = ⎜ 2π ⎟ (0.12 m/s) + (0.040 m) = 0.059 m
2 2 2

k ⎝ 2π ⎠ ⎝ ⎠
2π 2π 1 1 1
(b) ω = = = 2.7 s −1 (c) E = kA2 = mω 2 A2 = (0.35 kg)(2.73 s −1 )2 (0.0594 m) 2 = 4.6 mJ (d) k =
T (2.3 s) 2 2 2
mω 2 = (0.35)(2.73 s −1 ) 2 = 2.6 N/m (e) The initial vertical position is y (t = 0) = −0.040 m. We require that
⎛ y (t = 0) ⎞ ⎛ − 0.040 m ⎞
y (t = 0) = A sin(φ ) ⇒ φ = sin −1 ⎜ ⎟ = sin −1 ⎜ ⎟ = 3.9 rad or 5.5 rad. Both are valid solutions to the
⎝ A ⎠ ⎝ (0.0594 m) ⎠
constraints we put on the position. However, we also require that the block is moving up toward equilibrium at time
t = 0. This additional information limits our solution to φ = 5.5 rad. (f) Using the results of parts (a), (b), and (e), we
can write y (t ) = A sin(ωt + φ ) where A = 0.059 m, ω = 2.7 s −1 , and φ = 5.5 rad.

15.42. The amplitude is exactly 0.050 m; the magnitude of the maximum displacement from equilibrium is the
definition of the amplitude. We can find the period by using the sum of all forces in the vertical direction at
m −Δ yeq
equilibrium. Call vertically upward the + y direction. Then ∑ Fy = − k Δyeq − mg = 0 ⇒ = . We can insert
k g
m −Δyeq − (− 0.10 m)
this result into the know expression for the period: T = 2π = 2π = 2π = 0.63 s.
k g (9.8 m/s 2 )

15.43. Let us begin by writing the sum of all forces in the vertical direction at the moment the block is brought to
m −Δ yeq
rest. Call the upward direction + y. Then ∑F y = − k Δyeq − mg = 0 ⇒
k
=
g
. This allows us to write the period

m −Δyeq T 2g (0.50 s) 2 (9.8 m/s 2 )

of the oscillation as T = 2π = 2π or Δyeq = − 2 = − = − 0.062 m. So the spring
k g 4π 4π 2
length is reduced by 0.062 m upon removing the block.
© Copyright 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. This material is protected under all copyright laws as they currently exist.
No portion of this material may be reproduced, in any form or by any means, without permission in writing from the publisher.
 Periodic Motion 15-9

15.44. (a) The system is not specified, so there could be many answers. However, looking at later parts of the
problem it is clear that at some point we must include Earth in the system, so let’s just do that from the start.
(Without Earth as a part of the system, there will be no gravitational potential energy. This means that as the spring-
object system oscillates vertically, the force of gravity will do work on it, changing the energy of the system.)
However, Earth has other forms of energy, such as kinetic energy, that are hard to compute and have no bearing on
the motion of the suspended object (because these other forms of energy remain constant during the oscillatory
motion—Earth does not expend some of its kinetic energy to increase the motion of the object, for example). Thus
we include Earth in our system, but ignore any forms of energy unavailable to influence the motion of the object.
This leaves us with the kinetic energy of the oscillating object, the gravitational potential energy of the Earth-object-
spring system, and the potential energy stored in the spring. The sum of these energies is the energy of the system,
and this sum remains constant during the motion (in the absence of dissipation). We are free to choose the location
of zero gravitational potential energy, but must choose the zero of spring potential energy at its unstretched position
(in this case, the highest point in the motion). Choosing the gravitational potential energy to be zero at the lowest
point in the motion, we can compute the system energy at the highest point by summing the three terms. Because the
kinetic energy of the object is zero at the highest point, two of those terms are zero:
E = K object + U spring + U G = 0 + 0 + mgh = (4.0 kg)(9.8 m/s 2 )(1.0 m) = 39 J
We made use of the fact that the height measured from lowest to highest positions is double the amplitude, or one
full meter. (b) As mentioned in part (a), we are told that at the object’s highest point the spring returns to its
equilibrium length and therefore stores no potential energy. Now consider the equilibrium position. We know the
sum of all forces in the vertical direction is zero at that point. Calling the upward direction + y, we can write
mg (4.0 kg)(9.8 m/s 2 )
∑F y = −k Δ yeq − mg = 0 ⇒ k =
−Δ yeq
=
−(− 0.50 m)
= 78.4 N/m. Thus, as the object passes through its

1 2 1
equilibrium position, the spring potential energy is U eqspring = kA = (78.4 N/m)(0.50 m) 2 = 9.8 J. Finally, at the
2 2
1 1
object’s lowest point, the spring potential energy of the system is U lowest spring
= k (2 A) 2 = (78.4 N/m)(2(0.50 m)) 2 =
2 2
spring
39 J. Thus the spring potential energies are U lowest = 39 J, U eqspring = 9.8 J, and U highest
spring
= 0.0. (c) Clearly, the kinetic
energy at the top and at the bottom of the object’s path is zero. The system energy must be conserved between, for
example, the highest point and the equilibrium position. Thus we can equate:
K highest + U highest
spring
+ U highest
G
= K eq + U eqspring + U eqG
K eq = U highest
G
− U eqG − U eqspring
1 1
K eq = mgA − kA2 = (4.0 kg)(9.8 m/s 2 )(0.50 m) − (78.4 N/m)(0.50m) 2
2 2
K eq = 9.8 J
Thus, the kinetic energies are K lowest = 0.0, K eq = 9.8 J, and K highest = 0.0. (d) One can choose to put the zero point
of gravitational potential energy at any point, but we have previously selected the lowest point in the motion. At any
position y, then, the gravitational potential energy will be given by U G = mg ( y − ylowest ). Thus, the gravitational
G
potential energies are U lowest = 0, U eqG = mg ( yeq − ylowest ) = (4.0 kg)(9.8 m/s 2 )(0.50 m) = 20 J, and G
U highest =
mg ( yhighest − ylowest ) = (4.0 kg)(9.8 m/s 2 )(1.0 m) = 39 J.

15.45. (a) The effective spring constant is 300 N/m. If this is not clear by inspection, consider displacing the block to the right
by 1.00 m. Spring 1 would be stretched 1.00 m and would therefore exert a restoring force to the left with a magnitude of 100
N. Spring 2 would be compressed 1.00 m and would therefore exert a restoring force to the right with a magnitude of 200 N.
Thus the springs exert 300 N of restoring force for every meter of displacement, which makes the spring constant 300 N/m. (b)
k (300 N/m)
We are told the amplitude explicitly. The angular frequency can be written ω = eff = = 7.1 s −1. Finally, we
m (6.0 kg)

© Copyright 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. This material is protected under all copyright laws as they currently exist.
No portion of this material may be reproduced, in any form or by any means, without permission in writing from the publisher.
15-10 Chapter 15

π
need to choose an initial phase to satisfy the initial condition: x (t = 0) = A sin(φ ) = A ⇒ φ = sin −1 (1) = = 1.6. Thus
2
x (t ) = A sin(ωt + φ ) where A = 0.020 m, ω = 7.1 s −1 , and φ = 1.6.

15.46. (a) Call the time at which block B has a speed of 0.24 m/s and a displacement of 0.060 m t1. Let us simply
equate the energy at t1 to the maximum potential energy, and rearrange terms:
1 2 1 2 1
kA = mv1 + k ( Δx)12
2 2 2
A2 − ( Δx)12 m 1 T
⇒ = = =
v12 k ω 2π
A2 − (Δ x)12 (0.10 m) 2 − (0.060 m) 2
⇒ T = 2π 2
= 2π = 2.1 s
v1 (0.24 m/s) 2
(b) We know that the magnitude of the maximum acceleration that block C will undergo is amax = Aω 2 . The only
force acting on block C to accelerate it is friction. Thus, calling the horizontal direction of acceleration + x, we can
write ∑F Cx = FBC
s
x = mC a x or ( FBC x ) max = mC ( a x ) max ⇒ mC g μs,max = mC Aω . Using steps from part (a) allows us to
s 2

rewrite this as
Aω 2 ⎛ A ⎞ ⎛ v2 ⎞ ⎛ (0.10 m) ⎞ ⎛ (0.24 m/s) 2 ⎞
μs,max = = ⎜ ⎟⎜ 2 1 2 ⎟
=⎜ 2 ⎟⎜ 2 ⎟
= 0.092
⎝ g ⎠ ⎝ A − ( Δx)1 ⎠ ⎝ (9.8 m/s ) ⎠⎝ (0.10 m) − (0.060 m) ⎠
2
g

15.47. Call the lower block A, and the upper block B. Block A will fall off when a force greater than or equal to
20 N is required to accelerate block A along with block B. The acceleration of the blocks is greatest when their
displacement from equilibrium is greatest, so we look at the lowest point in their oscillation. Call the vertically
upward direction the + y direction. Then the sum of all forces acting on block A is ∑ FAy = Fglue
c
A − mA g = mA a y .

Ak
We know that the acceleration at this point is the maximum acceleration a y = a y ,max = Aω 2 = . If this maximizes
m
the force exerted by the glue, then it corresponds to the maximum amplitude. Thus
⎛ Amax k ⎞
A ) max − mA g = mA ⎜
c
( Fglue ⎟
⎝ mA + mB ⎠
⎛ (F c ) ⎞ (m + mB ) ⎛ (20 N) ⎞ ((0.50 kg) + (0.50 kg))
⇒ Amax = ⎜ glue A max − g ⎟ A =⎜ − (9.8m/s 2 ) ⎟ = 0.060 m
⎜ mA ⎟ k ⎝ (0.50 kg) ⎠ (500 N/m)
⎝ ⎠

15.48. (a) The center of mass of the system does not move. No external force is applied to the system. (b) Note first
that the fact that the center of mass does not move implies
m1 x1 (t ) = − m2 x2 (t ) (1)
The same magnitude force must be exerted on each block. Let the + x direction point to the right in Figure P15.48.
d 2 x1 (t ) d 2 x2 (t )
x (t ) = m1 x (t ) = m2
spring spring
Then Fspring,1 2
and Fspring,2 . Since each block undergoes simple harmonic motion, we
dt dt 2
can write x1 (t ) = A1 sin(ωt + φ ) and x2 (t ) = A2 sin(ωt + φ ). Note that the angular frequencies must be the same.
Otherwise the blocks could get out of phase and the center of mass would move. Thus
x (t ) = − m1ω x1 (t )
spring 2
Fspring,1 (2)
F spring
spring,2x (t ) = − m2ω x2 (t )
2
(3)
and of course, the spring force is given by
F spring (t ) = k Δxtotal (t ) = k ( x1 (t ) − x2 (t )) (4)
Setting the magnitudes of the expressions in equations (3) and (4) equal to each other and inserting equation (1)
yields

© Copyright 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. This material is protected under all copyright laws as they currently exist.
No portion of this material may be reproduced, in any form or by any means, without permission in writing from the publisher.
 Periodic Motion 15-11

⎛ m ⎞
m1ω 2 x1 (t ) = kx1 (t ) ⎜1 + 1 ⎟
⎝ m2 ⎠

k ( m1 + m2 )
⇒ω = (5)
m1m2
k (m1 + m2 ) k (m2 ) k 2k
(c) When m2 m1 , then → such that ω = . (d) When m2 = m1 then ω = .
m1m2 m1m2 m1 m1

2 2
⎛ T ⎞ ⎛ (1.0 s) ⎞
15.49. The period is 1.0 s. We know T = 2π ⇒ = g ⎜ ⎟ = (9.8m/s 2 ) ⎜ = 0.25 m.
g ⎝ 2π ⎠ ⎝ 2π ⎟⎠

15.50. The period increases. A pendulum uses gravity as a restoring force, and only the component of gravity in a
direction back toward equilibrium can contribute. When the stand is tilted, the component of gravity in the entire
plane of the pendulum’s motion is decreased. With a smaller restoring force, a pendulum will take longer to swing.

15.51. The simple pendulum (the pendulum on the left) has a greater period. The period of either pendulum can be
I
cm g
written as T = 2π . The rotational inertia per kilogram is larger for the simple pendulum because all its inertia
m
is concentrated far from the pivot. For the same reason, the center of mass distance is larger for the simple pendulum.
Thus the period is larger for the pendulum.

15.52. (a) Small in context of Eq. 15.31 means that the approximation sin(ϑ ) ≈ ϑ holds for the entire range of
motion, which happens when cm is much greater than the arc length over which system center of mass is displaced.
ϑ3
(b) If we expand the sine function in a Taylor series around ϑ ≈ 0, we obtain sin(ϑ ) ≈ ϑ − + O[ϑ 5 ]. Thus the
6
percent different can be approximately written as
ϑ − sin(ϑ ) ϑ3
≈ = 0.01
sin(ϑ ) (6ϑ − ϑ 3 )
6 ( 0.01)
⇒ϑ = ± = ± 0.24 rad
1 + ( 0.01)
The two solutions (positive and negative) simply indicate that the angular displacement could be to either side of
equilibrium. The magnitude at which 1% error is exceeded is 0.24 rad, which is equivalent to 14° .

15.53. We use conservation of energy. Let use choose the zero of our gravitational potential energy to be at the
lowest point in the pendulum’s swing (when the bob is at the equilibrium position). Initially, all energy is
gravitational potential energy, and this initial energy is equal to U iG = mghi = mg (1 − cos ϑ max ). At any other angular
position, the energy will be a combination of kinetic and potential energy. Thus
U iG = U fG + K f
1 2
mg (1 − cos ϑ max ) = mg (1 − cos ϑ ) + mvf
2
⇒ vf = 2 g (cos(ϑ ) − cos(ϑ max ))

15.54. (a) I = mR 2 = (8.00 × 10−4 kg)(0.015 m) 2 = 1.8 × 10−7 kg ⋅ m 2 (b) From equation (15.29) we know κ = ω 2 I =
2 2
⎛ 2π ⎞ ⎛ 2π ⎞
⎜ T ⎟ I , and we know from the description that the period is 0.50 s. Thus κ = ⎜ (0.50 s) ⎟ (1.8 × 10 kg ⋅ m ) =
−7 2

⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠
2.8 × 10−5 kg ⋅ m 2 /s 2 .

© Copyright 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. This material is protected under all copyright laws as they currently exist.
No portion of this material may be reproduced, in any form or by any means, without permission in writing from the publisher.
15-12 Chapter 15

15.55. (a) We use the parallel axis theorem to write I = I cm + m(Δx) 2 , where Δx is the distance from the
axis of rotation to the center of mass of the rod (in this case Δ x = ( /2) − (0.0625 m) = 0.0625 m. Thus
1 ⎛ (0.250 m) 2 ⎞
I= m 2
+ m( Δx ) 2 = (0.100 kg) ⎜ + (0.0625 m) 2 ⎟ = 9.11 × 10−4 kg ⋅ m 2 . (b) Equation (15.33) tells us
12 ⎝ 12 ⎠
m g (0.100 kg)(0.0625 m)(9.8 m/s 2 ) 2π 2π
ω= cm
= = 8.198 s −1. We also know T = = = 0.77s.
I (9.115 × 10−4 kg ⋅ m 2 /s 2 ) ω (8.198 s −1 )

I
15.56. We will determine the period by modifying equation (15.33) to give us T = 2π , where
mtotal cm g
I = I rod + I cube = I rod,end + I cube,cm + mcube (Δ x) 2 . Here we have use the parallel axis theorem to write the rotational inertia
of the cube in terms of Δx the distance between the cube’s center of mass and the new axis of rotation. In this case
3 1 1
Δ x = , and we know I rod,end = m 2 and I cube,cm = m 2 . Thus
2 3 6
⎛ 1 1 ⎛ 3 ⎞2 ⎞
⎜ + + ⎜ ⎟ ⎟m 2

I rod,end + I cube,cm + mcube (Δ x) 2 ⎜3 6 ⎝2⎠ ⎟ 11

T = 2π = ⎝ ⎠ =
mtotal cm g 2m cm g 8g

15.57. (a) We choose our gravitational potential energy to be zero at the lowest point in the oscillation. We can use
conservation of energy to write
K i = U fG
1 2
mvi = mg (1 − cosϑmax )
2
⎛ v2 ⎞ ⎛ (0.25 m/s) 2 ⎞
⇒ ϑmax = cos −1 ⎜1 − i ⎟ = cos −1 ⎜1 − 2 ⎟ = 0.15 radians
⎝ 2g ⎠ ⎝ 2(9.8 m/s )(0.30 m) ⎠
(b) Using conservation of energy as in part (a) we can write
K i = U fG + K f
1 2 1
mvi = mg (1 − cos(ϑ max /2)) + mvf2
2 2
⇒ vf = vi2 − 2 g (1 − cos(ϑ max /2)) = (0.25 m/s) 2 − 2(9.8 m/s 2 )(0.30 m)(1 − cos(0.0730)) = 0.22 m/s

15.58. Starting from equation (15.33), we can use the relationship between angular frequency and period to write
I
T = 2π . Here, the rotational of inertia is that around a point other than the center of mass, so we use the
m cm g
parallel axis theorem: I = I cm + m(Δx) 2 where Δx is the distance from the center of mass to the pivot. In this
1
problem we are told Δ x = cm . Since the rotational of inertia of a disk about its center of mass is I cm = mR 2 , it
2
1 1 2
mR 2 + m 2
cm R + 2
cm
follows that T = 2π 2 = 2π 2 .
m cm g cm g

15.59. Starting from equation (15.33), we can use the relationship between angular frequency and period to write
I
T = 2π . Here, the rotational of inertia is that around a point other than the center of mass, so we use the
m cm g
parallel axis theorem: I = I cm + m(Δ x ) 2 where Δx is the distance from the center of mass to the pivot. In this

© Copyright 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. This material is protected under all copyright laws as they currently exist.
No portion of this material may be reproduced, in any form or by any means, without permission in writing from the publisher.
 Periodic Motion 15-13

problem Δ x = R. Since the rotational of inertia of a ring about its center of mass is I cm = mR 2 , it follows that
mR 2 + mR 2 2R 2(0.10 m)
T = 2π = 2π = 2π = 0.90 s.
mRg g (9.8 m/s 2 )

1 m g
15.60. We can write the frequency of any pendulum as f = cm
. To reasonable accuracy, we can model
2π I
1
the swinging leg as a rod, meaning I = m 2 . Let us assume that the length of the leg , the distance from the hip to
3
the leg’s center of mass cm and the inertia of the leg m all scale linearly with the height of the person. This would
mean:
1 (0.8m)(0.8 cm ) g
2π 1
(0.8m)(0.8 ) 2
f short 3 1
= = = 1.12
f average 1 m cm g 0.8
2π 1 m 2
3
So fshort : f average = 1.12 :1.

15.61. Let us first write the period of the pendulum when we ignore the mass of the rod. In this approximation, the
pendulum is a simple pendulum and we can apply the results of example 15.6:

T0 = 2π (1)
g
If we do not ignore the mass of the rod, we obtain a slightly more complicated expression using equation (15.33):
I 1
T = 2π . Here the rotational inertia is I = I rod + I bob = mrod 2 + mb0b 2 . The center of mass in this case is
m cm g 3
⎛⎛ ⎞ ⎞
cm = ⎜ ⎜ ⎟ mrod + mbob ⎟ /(mrod + mbob ). Thus
2
⎝⎝ ⎠ ⎠
⎛ 1 ⎛ mrod ⎞ ⎞
⎛ mrod ⎞ 2 ⎛ mrod ⎞ +1
⎜ 3 + mbob ⎟ ⎜ 3 + mbob ⎟ ⎜⎜ 3 ⎜ mbob ⎟ ⎟⎟
⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎝ ⎠ ⎠
T = 2π = 2π = 2π
( mrod + mbob ) cm g ((mrod /2) + mbob ) g ⎛ 1 ⎛ mrod ⎞ ⎞
⎜⎜ ⎜ ⎟ + 1⎟⎟ g
⎝ 2 ⎝ mbob ⎠ ⎠
mrod mrod
Since we are told that the ratio 1, we can expand this expression in a Taylor series around ≈ 0. This
mbob mbob
yields
⎛ 2
⎡ 3 ⎞
⎤
T = 2π⎜1 − 1 ⎛⎜ mrod ⎞⎟ + 11 ⎛⎜ mrod ⎞⎟ + O ⎢⎛⎜ mrod ⎞⎟ ⎥ ⎟ (2)
g ⎜ 12 ⎝ mbob ⎠ 288 ⎝ mbob ⎠ ⎢⎝ mbob ⎠ ⎥ ⎟
⎝ ⎣ ⎦⎠
To find the difference between the two calculated periods, we subtract equation (1) from equation (2):
⎛ 1 m 11 ⎛ mrod ⎞ ⎞⎟
2

Δ T = T − T0 = 2π ⎜− rod
+ ⎜ ⎟ plus higher order terms.
g ⎜ 12 mbob 288 ⎝ mbob ⎠ ⎟
⎝ ⎠

15.62. The damping constant b has units of kg/s. Hence the quantity m /b has units of kg /(kg/s) = s.

© Copyright 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. This material is protected under all copyright laws as they currently exist.
No portion of this material may be reproduced, in any form or by any means, without permission in writing from the publisher.
15-14 Chapter 15

15.63. The quality factor is related to the undamped frequency through Q = ωτ . In order for Q to increase without
affecting ω (and therefore the undamped period), the time constant τ must increase. The time constant is τ = m/ b,
2
⎛ 1⎞
which allows us to re-write equation (15.38) as ω d = ω 2 − ⎜ ⎟ . Since τ increases, the quantity in the square root
⎝ 2τ ⎠
increases. Thus the angular frequency of the damped motion increases.

15.64. The sinusoidal factor in equation (15.37) describes the oscillatory behavior, whereas the prefactor describes
the damped amplitude. Thus, we look only at the prefactor and require Ae− bt/ 2 m = A /2. Since τ = m/ b, we can also
⎛ 1⎞
write this as Ae− t/ 2τ = A /2 ⇒ t = −τ ln ⎜ ⎟ .
⎝ 2⎠

15.65. (a) The damping constant b has units of kg/s. Hence the quantity m /b has units of kg/(kg / s) = s. (b)
1/ 2 1/ 2
1 ⎡ 2 ⎛ b ⎞2 ⎤ 1 ⎡ k ⎛ b ⎞2 ⎤
Equation (15.38) tells us the damped angular frequency. So f d = ⎢ω − ⎜ ⎟ ⎥ = ⎢ −⎜ ⎟ ⎥ =
2π ⎢⎣ ⎝ 2m ⎠ ⎥⎦ 2π ⎢⎣ m ⎝ 2m ⎠ ⎥⎦
1/ 2
1 ⎡ (300 N/m) ⎛ (5.00 kg/s) ⎞ 2 ⎤ m (0.400 kg) k
⎢ −⎜ ⎟ ⎥ = 4.24 Hz. (c) τ= = = 0.080 s (d) Q = ωτ = τ=
2π ⎢⎣ (0.400 kg) ⎝ 2(0.400 kg) ⎠ ⎥⎦ b (5.00 kg/s) m

(300 N/m)
(0.080 s) = 2.19 radians
(0.400 kg)

15.66. We can determine the time constant by writing ϑ max,i e− t/ 2τ = ϑ max,f . Thus
−t −(27.0 s)
τ= = = 128 s.
⎛ ϑmax,f ⎞ ⎛ 5.40 ° ⎞
2ln ⎜ 2ln ⎜ 6.00° ⎟
⎜ ϑmax,i ⎟⎟ ⎝ ⎠
⎝ ⎠
m (1.00 kg)
From this it follows immediately that b = = = 7.80 × 10−3 kg/s.
τ (128.1 s)

15.67. (a) We can determine the time constant by writing ϑ max,i e − t/ 2τ = ϑ max,f . Thus
−t −(35 s)
τ= = = 25 s
⎛ϑ ⎞ ⎛1⎞
2ln ⎜ max,f ⎟ 2ln ⎜ ⎟
⎜ ϑmax,i ⎟ ⎝2⎠
⎝ ⎠
⎛ E ⎞ ⎛1⎞
(b) Equation (15.40) shows us E0e − t/τ = E , so t = −τ ln ⎜ ⎟ = −(25.2 s)ln ⎜ ⎟ = 18 s.
E
⎝ 0⎠ ⎝2⎠

15.68. (a) We know that Ae−T/τ = A(0.98). Raising each side of this equation to the 25th power yields e−25T/τ =
(0.98) 25 = 0.603. Thus the amplitude after 25 cycles is Ae−25T/τ = (0.10 m)(0.60) = 0.060 m. (b) Equation (15.40)
E
shows us E0e − t/τ = E. So = e − t/τ = (e −T/τ ) 2t/T = (0.98) 2(6.3 s) /(0.50 s) = 0.60 or 60%.
E0

1/ 2
k (12.5 N/m) ⎡ ⎛ b ⎞ ⎤
2

15.69. (a) ω = = = 5.00 s −1 (b) Equation (15.38) tells us ω d = ⎢ω 2 − ⎜ ⎥ . Rearranging,

m (0.500 kg) ⎢⎣ ⎝ 2m ⎟⎠ ⎥
⎦
we find b = 2m ω 2 − ω d2 = 2(0.500 kg) (5.00 s −1 ) 2 − (4.58 s −1 ) 2 = 2.01 kg/s. (c) y (t ) = Ae− t/ 2τ sin(ωt + φ ) where

© Copyright 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. This material is protected under all copyright laws as they currently exist.
No portion of this material may be reproduced, in any form or by any means, without permission in writing from the publisher.
 Periodic Motion 15-15

m (0.500 kg)
A = 0.100 m, τ= = = 0.249 s, and ω = 4.58 s −1. Or, in terms of the damping constant:
b (2.01 kg/s)
y (t ) = Ae− bt/ 2 m sin(ωt + φ ) where b = 2.01 kg/s.

τ Q
15.70. (a) From equation (15.41) we can write = . The factor by which the energy is decreased each cycle is
T 2π
1/ 2
E ⎡ ⎛ b ⎞ ⎤
2

= e −T/τ = e − ( 2π /Q) = e− ( 2π / 20) = 0.73. (b) Equation (15.38) tells us ω d = ⎢ω 2 − ⎜ ⎥ , such that the percent
E0 ⎢⎣ ⎝ 2m ⎟⎠ ⎥
⎦
difference between the damped and undamped angular frequencies is
2 2 2 2 2 2
ω − ωd ⎛ b ⎞ ⎛ T ⎞ ⎛ 1 ⎞ ⎛ 2π ⎞ ⎛ 1 ⎞ ⎛ 2π ⎞ −4
=1− 1− ⎜ ⎟ = 1 − 1 − ⎜ 4πτ ⎟ = 1 − 1 − ⎜ 4π ⎟ ⎜ Q ⎟ = 1 − 1 − ⎜ 4π ⎟ ⎜ 20 ⎟ = 3.1 × 10
ω ⎝ 2mω ⎠ ⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠
or 0.031%.

τ Q
15.71. (a) From equation (15.41) we can write = . The factor by which the energy is decreased each
T 2π
E
cycle is = e −T/τ = e − (2π /Q ) = e− (2π / 400) = 0.9844. This means that 1.6% of the energy is lost in each cycle. (b)
E0
E
= e − t/τ = (e−T/τ )t/T = (e − (2π /Q ) )t/T = (e− (2π / 400) )(2880 min ) /(54 min) = 0.43 or 43%.
E0

E t (4.0 s)
15.72. (a) Equation (15.40) tells us = e − t/τ so τ = − =− = 25 s. (b) Rearranging equation
E0 ⎛ E ⎞ ln(0.85)
ln ⎜ ⎟
⎝ E0 ⎠
⎛ E ⎞ E
(15.40) we find t = −τ ln ⎜ ⎟ = −(24.6 s)ln(0.25) = 34 s. (c) = e− t/τ = e− (60 s) / (24.6 s) = 0.087 or 8.7%.
E
⎝ 0⎠ E0

15.73. (a) In critical damping, the system does not even complete one oscillation, meaning that the
damped frequency should be zero. Thus we set equation (15.38) to zero when b = bcrit : ω d =
2 2
⎛ bcrit ⎞ k ⎛ bcrit ⎞
ω2 − ⎜ = − = 0. Rearranging, we find bcrit = 2 mk . (b) The Damping occurs so quickly that the
⎝ 2m ⎟⎠ m ⎜⎝ 2m ⎟⎠
spring returns to the equilibrium position before being fully compressed. In a car, this means the system returns
quickly to the normal level rather than oscillating for a long time interval; the negative aspect is that the springs do
not absorb shock from road-bumps as well as a spring system having b ≤ bcrit.

15.74. (a) We are told to assume that the drag force is of the form: Fdrag = −bv . In the case of the falling object, we
can say ∑F y = − mg − bv y = ma y = 0, where we have set the acceleration equal to zero because the object reaches a
terminal speed. Thus
mg
b=− (1)
vy
When the object is set into oscillatory motion, the quality factor is given by equation (15.40): Q = ωτ ⇒
k ⎛ m⎞
Q= . Inserting equation (1) yields
m ⎜⎝ b ⎟⎠
k ⎛ −v y ⎞ (230 N/m) ⎛ −( − 25 m/s) ⎞
Q= ⎜ ⎟= ⎜ ⎟ = 22
m⎝ g ⎠ (3.0 kg) ⎝ (9.8 m/s 2 ) ⎠

© Copyright 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. This material is protected under all copyright laws as they currently exist.
No portion of this material may be reproduced, in any form or by any means, without permission in writing from the publisher.
15-16 Chapter 15

⎛ x (t ) ⎞ ⎛ 2m ⎞ ⎛ xmax (t ) ⎞
(b) We use equation (15.39) to write xmax (t ) = Ae− t/ 2τ ⇒ t = −2τ ln ⎜ max ⎟ = − ⎜ ln . Inserting
⎝ A ⎠ ⎝ b ⎟⎠ ⎜⎝ A ⎟⎠
⎛ 2v ⎞ ⎛ x (t ) ⎞ ⎛ 2(− 25 m/s) ⎞ ⎛ 1 ⎞
equation (1) from part (a) yields t = ⎜ y ⎟ ln ⎜ max ⎟ = ⎜ 2 ⎟ ln ⎜ ⎟ = 3.5 s. (c) Equation (15.40) tells us
⎝ g ⎠ ⎝ A ⎠ ⎝ (9.8 m/s ) ⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎠
E 2
= e − t/τ = e− bt/m = e y = e(9.8 m/s )(3.54 s)/( − 25 m/s) = 0.25. Only 25% of the original energy remains. So the amount of
gt/ v

E0
1 1
energy lost is Δ E = − (0.75) Ei = −(0.75) kA2 = − (0.75) (230 N/m)(0.20 m) 2 = −3.5 J. So 3.5 J of energy is lost.
2 2

15.75. We know that damped oscillations have the general form of equation (15.37): x(t ) = Ae− t/τ sin(ωt + φ ). We
determine the numerical values of all quantities. First, we know the period of one damped oscillation is T = 1.0 s,
which means ω d = 2π s −1. Now let us determine the time constant from the damped energy:
E −Δ t −(tf − ti ) −((2.5 s) − (1.5 s))
= e−Δt/τ ⇒ τ = = = = 7.2 s.
E0 ⎛ E ⎞ ⎛ 2
⎞ ⎛ (0.056 m) 2 ⎞
ln ⎜ ⎟ ln ⎜ ⎡⎣ xmax (tf )⎤⎦ ⎟ ln ⎜ 2 ⎟
⎝ E0 ⎠ ⎜ 2
⎟ ⎝ (0.060 m) ⎠
⎝ ⎡⎣ xmax (ti ) ⎤⎦ ⎠
x (t ) (0.060 m)
This time constant also allows us to determine the initial amplitude (at t = 0): A = max = − (1.5 s) / 2(7.25 s)
e − t/ 2τ e
= 0.067 m. Finally, we determine the initial phase constant by using the condition given at t = 1.5 s. We can say
π
x(t ) = xmax (t )sin(ωt + φ ) = xmax (t ) ⇒ sin(ωt + φ ) = 1 at t = 1.5 s, then φ = sin −1 (1) − ωt = − (2π s −1 )(1.5 s) = −2.5π
2
3π 3π
or . Thus x(t ) = Ae− t/τ sin(ωt + φ ) where A = 67 mm, τ = 7.2 s, ω = 2π s −1 , and φ = .
2 2

15.76. Yes. Since the spring has the same stiffness regardless of which direction the object moves, it will exert the
same force magnitude and do the same amount of work as the object moves from equilibrium to either stopping
point. Thus the force must be applied over the same distance from equilibrium to either stopping point.

15.77. (a) The energy would increase by a factor of 4. Consider an instant at which all energy has been converted to
1 2
potential energy. In the case of a spring-object system, the potential energy is U spring =
kA , which clearly increases
2
with the square of the amplitude. In the case of a pendulum, the gravitational potential energy is
E = U max
G
= mghmax = mg (1 − cos(ϑ max )). The motion of a pendulum is not simple harmonic motion unless the
amplitude of the oscillations are kept small. With that assumption, we can Taylor expand the cosine around small
⎛ ⎛ ϑ2 ⎞ ⎞ mg 2
angle to obtain U G = mgh = mg ⎜1 − ⎜1 − max + O(ϑmax4
)⎟⎟ ≈ ϑmax , which again increases with the square of the
⎜ 2 ⎟ 2
⎝ ⎝ ⎠⎠
amplitude. (b) We have established that the maximum energy increases by a factor of 4. Since the maximum speed
1 2 2E
occurs when all energy is kinetic energy, we can write mvmax = E ⇒ vmax = . So if the energy increases by a
2 m
factor of 4, the maximum speed increases by a factor of 2. (c) The period would not change.

15.78. (a) You know that in an elevator, your apparent weight is greater if you are accelerating upward, than it is
when the elevator is stationary or moving with a constant speed. Similarly, the period of a pendulum decreases, as
though gravity had become stronger. Of course, the strength of the gravitational force and the acceleration due to
gravity have not actually changed. What is actually happening is that you are in a reference frame that is being
accelerated upward. But the effect is the same: the period of the pendulum decreases. (b) The period does not change.
(c) For the same reasons described in part (a), the period decreases.

© Copyright 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. This material is protected under all copyright laws as they currently exist.
No portion of this material may be reproduced, in any form or by any means, without permission in writing from the publisher.
 Periodic Motion 15-17

15.79. The molecules in the material of the spring resist compression and/or shear in a way that cannot change when
you cut the spring. So let us consider the initial spring (length ) as being made of two springs, each of length /2.
In order for the hanging object to move a certain distance Δy, each of the two springs would only need to stretch by
a distance Δ y/2. So the force exerted by the lower spring on the hanging object would be
Fwhole spring = − kwhole spring Δ y/2. When the spring is cut in half, and the hanging object stretches the spring by Δ y, the
spring stretches a distance Δ y, and the force it exerts is Fhalf spring = − khalf spring Δy. Comparing these two forces
ω 1 k f khalf
demonstrates that khalf spring = 2kwhole spring . Now, since f = = , we can write half = = 2.
2π 2π m f whole k whole

15.80. Call the initial compress of the spring Δyi , and call the spring constant k . Including Earth in our system,
and choosing the initial position of the block to correspond to zero gravitational potential energy, we can use
1 1
conservation of energy to write k ( Δyi ) 2 = k (d − Δ y ) 2 + mgd . This equation is quadratic in d and has solutions
2 2
2 gm
d = 0, and d = + 2h. Now, if we double the mass of the block being released and repeat the experiment, we
k
4 gm 2 gm
will find it falls a new distance d ' = + 2h = d + . This can be rewritten in terms of given variables by
k k
m(2π ) 2 mπ 2
noting that the fall described is one half of a full oscillation. So we can write k = mω 2 = = . Inserting
T2 Δt 2
2 g Δt 2
this into our expression above yields d ' = d + .
2
π

15.81. The trajectories will be closed paths as long as there exists some time T after which x(T ) = x(0) and
y (T ) = y (0) (meaning the trajectory returns to its original point). This is satisfied if mωT = 2π p and nωT = 2π p ',
m p
where p and p ' are integers. Dividing one condition by the other yields = . Thus they always be closed paths
n p'
if the ratio m / n is rational. This is obviously satisfied by choosing m and n to be positive integers.
(a)

© Copyright 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. This material is protected under all copyright laws as they currently exist.
No portion of this material may be reproduced, in any form or by any means, without permission in writing from the publisher.
15-18 Chapter 15

(b)

(c)

15.82. Different printings may vary slightly. Let us assume the book is 0.30 m tall, 0.22 m wide, and has a mass of
2.0 kg. The distance from one corner to the center of mass will be
2 2 2 2
⎛ h ⎞ ⎛ w⎞ ⎛ (0.15 m) ⎞ ⎛ (0.11 m) ⎞
= ⎜ ⎟ +⎜ ⎟ = ⎜ ⎟⎠ + ⎜⎝ ⎟⎠ = 0.186 m (1)
cm
⎝ 2⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎝ 2 2
The book will not be rotating around its center of mass, so we need to use the parallel axis theorem to determine the
rotational inertia of the book around one corner.
1 1
I = I cm + m 2cm = m(h 2 + w2 ) + m( 2cm ) = (2.0 kg)((0.30 m) 2 + (0.22 m) 2 ) + (2.0 kg)(0.186 m) 2
12 12
= 0.0923 kg ⋅ m 2 (2)
Rearranging equation (15.33) and inserting these results yields
2π I (0.0923 kg ⋅ m 2 )
T= = 2π = 2π = 1.0 s
ω m cm g (2.0 kg)(0.186 m)(9.8m/s 2 )
Certainly, there can be many correct answers, but they should be close to 1.0 s.

15.83. Rearranging equation (15.33) allows us to write

2π I m cm gT 2 (2.00 kg)(0.20 m)(9.8 m/s 2 )((11 s)/(10)) 2
T= = 2π or I = = = 0.12 kg ⋅ m 2
ω m cm g (2π ) 2 (2π ) 2

1 1 1
15.84. (a) The initial energy can be written as E = U iG + Ki = k (Δxi )2 + mvi2 = (200 N/m)(0.0500 m) 2 +
2 2 2
1
(2.00 kg)(2.00 m/s) 2 = 4.25 J. (b) We know that the general form of this simple harmonic motion is
2

© Copyright 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. This material is protected under all copyright laws as they currently exist.
No portion of this material may be reproduced, in any form or by any means, without permission in writing from the publisher.
 Periodic Motion 15-19

x(t ) = A sin(ωt + φ ). We determine the numerical value of the amplitude, angular frequency and initial phase
constant. When the object reaches its maximum displacement from equilibrium, all the energy will be spring
1 1 2 Ei 2(4.25 J)
potential energy. At that instant, we can write Ei = k (Δ xmax ) 2 = kA2 ⇒ A = = = 0.206 m. The
2 2 k (200 N/m)
k (200 N/m)
angular frequency is given by ω = = = 10.0 s −1. Finally, to determine the initial phase, we look at
m (2.00 kg)
⎛ x(t = 0) ⎞
the displacement at the moment the initial push is given. We know x(t = 0) = A sin(φ ) ⇒ φ = sin −1 ⎜ ⎟=
⎝ A ⎠
⎛ (0.0500 m) ⎞
sin −1 ⎜ ⎟ = 0.245. Thus x(t ) = A sin(ωt + φ ) where A = 0.206 m, ω = 10.0 s , and φ = 0.245.
−1

⎝ (0.2062 m) ⎠

2
2π I ⎛ T ⎞
15.85. (a) Rearranging equation (15.33) allows us to write T = = 2π ⇒I =m g⎜ ⎟ =
ω m cm g
cm
⎝ 2π ⎠
2
⎛ (1.85 s) ⎞
(0.960 kg)((0.670 m) − (0.030 m))(9.8 m/s 2 ) ⎜ = 0.522 kg ⋅ m 2 . (b) Using the parallel axis theorem, we
⎝ 2π ⎟⎠
can write I = I cm + m(Δx) 2 , where Δ x is the distance from the pivot to the center of mass. Thus I cm =
I − m( Δx) 2 = (0.5220 kg ⋅ m 2 ) − (0.960 kg)((0.670 m) − (0.030 m))2 = 0.129 kg ⋅ m 2 . (c) In this case, the distance
from the center of mass to the pivot would be Δ x = (0.670 m) − (0.200 m) = 0.470 m. We can apply the parallel axis
theorem to this new pivot position to obtain I = I cm + m(Δx) 2 = (0.1288 kg ⋅ m 2 ) +
(0.960 kg)(0.470 m) 2 = 0.3408 kg ⋅ m 2 . Inserting this rotational inertia into our rearrangement of equation (15.33)
above, we find
I (0.3408 kg ⋅ m 2 )
T = 2π = 2π = 1.74 s
m cm g (0.960 kg)(0.470 m)(9.8 m/s 2 )

1 m cm g
15.86. (a) From equation (15.33) we know f = . The distance from the pivot to the center of
2π I
mass cm = (0.50m) − x. We know the rotational inertia of a rod around its center of mass, but here it rotates
around a different point. So we need to use the parallel axis theorem. This yields I = I cm + m 2
cm

1
= (m 2 ) + m((0.50 m) − x) 2 . Combining these results, we have
12
1/ 2 1/ 2
⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
1 ⎢ m((0.50 m) − x) g ⎥ 1 ⎢ (0.50 m − x) g ⎥
f = ⎢ 1 ⎥ = ⎢ 1 ⎥
2π ⎢ m(1.0 m) 2 + m((0.50 m) − x) 2 ⎥ 2π ⎢ (1.0 m) 2 + (0.50 m − x ) 2 ⎥
⎣ 12 ⎦ ⎣ 12 ⎦
(b) The period is
−1/ 2
⎡ ⎤
⎢ (0.50 m − x) g ⎥
T = 2π ⎢ ⎥
1
⎢ (1.0 m) 2 + (0.50 m − x) 2 ⎥
⎣ 12 ⎦

© Copyright 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. This material is protected under all copyright laws as they currently exist.
No portion of this material may be reproduced, in any form or by any means, without permission in writing from the publisher.
15-20 Chapter 15

We can find the extrema of this as a function of x by differentiating and setting the first derivative to zero:
⎡ ⎤
⎢ ⎥
g 2 g ((0.50 m) − x) 2
π ⎢− + ⎥
−1/ 2 ⎢ 1 ⎛ 1 ⎞ ⎥
2

⎢ 12 + ((0.50 m) − x)
2
⎡ ⎤ + ((0.50 m) − x) 2 ⎟ ⎥
⎜
dT d ⎢ (0.50 m − x) g ⎥ ⎢ ⎝ 12 ⎠ ⎦⎥
= (2π ) ⎢ ⎥ = ⎣ =0
dx dx ⎢ 1 (1.0 m) 2 + (0.50 m − x) 2 ⎥ g ((0.50m) − x )
⎣ 12 ⎦ 1
+ ((0.50 m) − x) 2
12
This yields two solutions: x = 0.21 m and x = 0.79 m, but they correspond to the same physical position, just from
different ends. Because we are told 0 < x < 0.50 m, we choose x = 0.21 m.

m
15.87. Consider a tiny segment of the spring at a position xseg and of length dxseg with mass dm = dxseg . If we
x
xseg
assume that the spring is uniform and stretches in a uniform way, we can write vseg = v. We can write the kinetic
x
2
1 ⎛ m ⎞⎛ x ⎞
energy of this tiny segment as K seg = dmvseg 2
= ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ seg v ⎟ dxseg . If we integrate the small contributions of such
2 2
⎝ ⎠⎝x x ⎠
segments to the kinetic energy over the entire length of the spring, we obtain:
2
⎛ m ⎞⎛ x ⎞
x x
mv 2 x 2 mv 2
K = ∫ K seg = ∫ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ seg v ⎟ dxseg = 3 ∫ xseg dxseg = mv 2 /6
0 0 ⎝ 2x ⎠⎝ x ⎠ 2x 0 6

15.88. (a) We start from equation (15.7) and find vx ( x) = Aω cos(ωt ) = Aω 1 − sin 2 (ωt ) = ω A2 − A2 sin 2 (ωt ) =
t x x
dx dx dx ' dx '
ω A2 − ( x(t )) 2 . (b) Since vx =
dt
we know dt =
vx
and ∫ dt ' = ∫v x
=∫
ω A 2
− ( x ') 2
. Integrating, we find
0 0 0

1 ⎡ −1 ⎛ x ⎞ ⎤ 1 ⎡ −1 ⎛ x ⎞ ⎤
t= ⎢ tan ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ − φ ⎥ . Taking the difference suggested using equation (15.6) yields t = ⎢sin ⎜ ⎟ − φ ⎥ .
ω ⎢⎣ ⎝ A − x ⎠ ⎥⎦
2 2 ω⎣ ⎝ A⎠ ⎦
It is a trivial geometry problem to show that these two expressions are equivalent. It may be helpful to draw a right
triangle with legs of lengths x and A2 − x 2 , such that the hypotenuse is A. Call the angle between the hypotenuse
⎛ x⎞ −1 ⎛ x ⎞
and the leg of length A2 − x 2 angle θ . Then clearly θ = tan −1 ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ and θ = sin ⎜ ⎟ . Thus the two
⎝ A −x ⎠
2 2 ⎝ A⎠
expressions are equivalent.

15.89. You wish to construct the new pendulum such that it matches the frequency of the spring-object system.
k g
The angular frequencies can be written as ωspring = and ω pendulum = . So we require string of length
m
mg
= . Now, when you hold the spring vertically, and attach the ball, it will eventually come to rest after stretching
k
the spring some through some displacement Δ y. At this new equilibrium position, we can write
mg
∑F y = − mg − k Δy = 0 ⇒ Δ y = −
k
. Thus the length of the pendulum wire must be the same as the distance by

which the ball stretched the spring.

15.90. Total energy of spring-mass-Earth system is

E = 12 mv 2 + 12 I ω 2 + 12 kx 2 + ( kxeq − mg ) x + 12 kxeq − mgxeq
=0

© Copyright 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. This material is protected under all copyright laws as they currently exist.
No portion of this material may be reproduced, in any form or by any means, without permission in writing from the publisher.
 Periodic Motion 15-21

where x is the displacement of the spring and the ball from their equilibrium position xeq . Note that the last two
terms are constants. Using ω = v
R
gives
E = 12 mv 2 + 1 I
2 R2
v 2 + 12 kx 2 + 12 kxeq − mgxeq
Since the total energy is constant, its time derivative must be zero:
dE
dt
= 0 = mva + RI2 va + kxv
= ma + I
R2
a + kx
= (m + I
R2
)a + kx

( m + ) a = −kx
I
R2
meff

This is the equation of motion for a simple harmonic oscillator with an effective mass meff = m + I
R2
, so the
frequency of oscillation of the spring-ball system in the horizontal configuration is
k k
ωhor = =
meff m + RI2
We know the spring constant because we measured the period of the spring-ball system in the vertical configuration:
2
k 2π ⎛ 2π ⎞
= ωvert = ⇒ k =⎜ ⎟ m
m Tvert ⎝ Tvert ⎠
We also know the oscillation frequency ωhor of the spring-ball system in the horizontal configuration:
2π 2π
ωhor = =
Thor 1.1Tvert
Combining these last three equations gives
k ⎛ k ⎞
ω hor = ⇒ I = ⎜ 2 − m⎟ R 2 = (0.50 kg)(1.12 − 1)(0.035 m) 2 = 1.3 × 10−4 kg ⋅ m 2 .
meff ⎝ ω hor ⎠

15.91. We wish to relate periods of oscillation for different systems of different oscillating masses. Let us start by
determining the period for a general system of masses m1 and m2 connected by a spring with spring constant k .
Clearly, since nothing exerts an external force on the system of the two massive objects and spring, the center of
mass cannot accelerate, and for simplicity we assume it is stationary.
Note first that the fact that the center of mass does not move implies
m1 x1 (t ) = − m2 x2 (t ) (1)
The same magnitude force must be exerted on each object. Let the x be parallel to the spring. Then
d 2 x1 (t ) d 2 x2 (t )
x (t ) = m1 x (t ) = m2
spring spring
Fspring,1 2
and Fspring,2 . Since each object undergoes simple harmonic motion, we can
dt dt 2
write x1 (t ) = A1 sin(ωt + φ ) and x2 (t ) = A2 sin(ωt + φ ). Note that the angular frequencies must be the same.
Otherwise the objects could get out of phase and the center of mass would move. Thus
x (t ) = − m1ω x1 (t )
spring 2
Fspring,1 (2)
F spring
spring,2 x (t ) = − m2ω x2 (t )
2
(3)
and of course, the spring force is given by
F spring (t ) = k Δ xtotal (t ) = k ( x1v − x2 (t )) (4)
Setting the magnitudes of the expressions in equations (3) and (4) equal to each other and inserting equation (1)
yields
⎛ m ⎞
m1ω 2 x1 (t ) = kx1 (t ) ⎜1 + 1 ⎟
⎝ m2 ⎠

k ( m1 + m2 )
⇒ω = (5)
m1m2

© Copyright 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. This material is protected under all copyright laws as they currently exist.
No portion of this material may be reproduced, in any form or by any means, without permission in writing from the publisher.
15-22 Chapter 15

Equivalently,
m1m2
T = 2π (6)
k (m1 + m2 )
We apply equation (6) to the two experiments and find the ratios of the two periods:
myou mbox
2π
Tyou box k (myou + mbox ) 2myou
= =
Tbox box 2
mbox (myou + mbox )
2π
k (2mbox )
Thus
2 2
⎛ Tyou box ⎞ ⎛ (2.21 s) ⎞
⎜ ⎟ mbox ⎜ ⎟ (215 kg)
T ⎝ (3.13 s) ⎠
myou = ⎝ box box ⎠ = = 71.4 kg
⎛ ⎛ Tyou box ⎞ ⎞
2
⎛ ⎛ (2.21 s) ⎞ ⎞
2

⎜2−⎜ ⎟ ⎟ ⎜2−⎜ ⎟ ⎟
⎜ ⎝ Tbox box ⎠ ⎟ ⎜ ⎝ (3.13 s) ⎠ ⎟
⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠
Thus your mass is 71.4 kg.

© Copyright 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. This material is protected under all copyright laws as they currently exist.
No portion of this material may be reproduced, in any form or by any means, without permission in writing from the publisher.