Physical Quantities and SI units:

Prefix Symbol Multiplying Factor

Tera T 1012

Giga G 109

Mega M 106

Kilo k 103

Deci d 10−1

Centi c 10−2

Milli m 10−3

Micro µ 10−6

Nano n 10−9

Pico p 10−12

Quantity Unit Derived Unit

frequency hertz (Hz) s−1

velocity ms−1 ms−1

acceleration ms−2 ms−2

force newton N kg ms−2

energy joule J kg m2 s−2

power watt W kg m2 s−3

electric charge coulomb C As

potential difference volt V kg m2 s−3 A−1

electric resistance ohm Ω kg m2 s−3 A−2

specific heat capacity J kg −1 K −1 m2 s−2 K −1

1
 Resolution of V ectors:

FH = F cos⁡(θ) and Fv = F sin⁡(θ)

​ ​

Uncertainties:

uncertainty Δx
P ercentage uncertainty = value
​ × 100 = x
​ × 100
0.5
4.5
​ × 100 = 11.11% ≈ ±10%
How to quote a physical quantity?

x ± Δx, e.g., L = 25.0 ± 0.5cm

Combining uncertainties:

There are two rules to determine the final uncertainty:

for quantities being added/subtracted, simply add the absolute uncertainties. For e.g.:

x=y+z
Δx = Δy + Δz

for quantities being multiplied/divided, add the fractional uncertainties. For e.g.:
x=y+z
x
= ∆y
∆x
y
​× ​
∆z
z
​

Combined uncertainties can also be found through the extreme value method: 2
 Using the individual uncertainties, find the maximum and minimum final value. For e.g.:

x=y×z
​

xlow = (y − Δy) × (z − Δz)

​

xhigh = (y + Δy) × (z + Δz)

Find the difference between the maximum and minimum values and divide the result by 2. Valid for
scaling of linear only. For e.g.:
​ ​

(xhigh −xlow )
∆x = 2

Kinematics:

The area under a velocity-time graph is the change in displacement.

The gradient of a displacement-time graph is the {instantaneous} velocity.
The gradient of a velocity-time graph is the acceleration.

Equations of motion:
v = u + at
s = ut + 12 at2 ​

v 2 = u2 + 2 as

Projectile motion:

3
From the above:

The vertical component is:

v↓ = v sin θ
​

The horizontal component is:

v→ = v cos θ
​

Since at the highest point the horizontal velocity is 0ms−1 we can determine the time at which the object
reaches the highest point:

v = u sin θ + a t
0 = u sinθ − g t
u sin θ
t= g ​

The height of the maximum point can be calculated as follows:

v 2 = (u sin θ)2 + 2 as0 =

(u sin θ)2 − 2 gH
(u sin θ)2
H= 2g
​

Dynamics:

Laws of Motion
Newton’s first law of motion states that every object continues in its state of rest, or uniform velocity,
unless acted on by a resultant force.
4
 Newton’s second law of motion states that for an object of constant mass (m), its acceleration (a) is
directly proportional to the applied resultant force (ΣF ) such that:

ΣF = m a
Newton’s third law of motion states that if one object exerts a force on another, the second object
exerts an equal and opposite force on the first.

Buildup of Drag force

Terminal Velocity
The motion of a sky diver can be described through a velocity-time graph:

Since the sky diver jumps from rest, the initial velocity is 0 but increases downwards.
5
The velocity increases due to the downward acceleration produced by the gravitational force.
 As the velocity increases, the air resistance upwards increases therefore reducing the downward
acceleration.

Therefore, the rate of increase of velocity decreases until at point A where velocity becomes constant.
Between A and B, the sky diver reaches terminal velocity as the drag forces cancel out the downward
gravitational force.
At point B the sky diver opens the parachute, increasing upward force producing a downward
deceleration; this reduces the velocity till point C.

At C, the downward force cancels out the upward force thus resulting in a new lower terminal velocity.

Momentum
Linear Momentum: p = mv
We can relate the force applied to an object to the rate of change of its momentum such that:
Δp pf − p i
F = = = mv−mu
= m (v−u) =ma
​ ​

Δt t t t
​ ​ ​

Principles of conservation of momentum

(T otal M omentum) = Δ(M omentum A) + Δ(M omentum B)
Thus, the principle of conservation of momentum states that if there is no external resultant force on a
system, the total momentum of the system is conserved (remains constant).
m1 u1 + m2 u2 = m1 v1 + m2 v2
​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​

m u1 − m u2 = −m v1 + m v2
​ ​ ​ ​

Impulse
Change in momentum can be written as:

Δp = F • Δt
Therefore, change in momentum is equivalent to the Impulse of an object. 6
Elastic collision
The collisions in which both momentum and kinetic energy is conserved are known as Elastic Collisions
and can be presented as:

Relative speed of approach = Relative speed of separation

Moment
Moment of a force = F × d = F × l cos
θ
where θ is the angle between perpendicular distance of the force vector from the turning point and the
moment arm
Torque of a couple is the product of one of the forces and the perpendicular distances between the
forces:

Conditions for Equilibrium

1. The resultant force acting on an object in any direction equals zero.
2. The resultant moment about any point is zero
Principle of Moments: For a body to be in equilibrium,

Sum of all the anticlockwise moments about any point = Sum of all the clockwise moments about
the same point

Density & Pressure

Density, symbolised by the Greek letter ‘ρ’ (rho), of a substance is measured in kg m3 such that:
m
ρ = V
​

Pressure, symbolised by ‘p’, is measured in pascals (P a) or N m2 such that:

F
p = A
​

When measuring pressure, the area considered must be perpendicular to the force applied.

Pressure in liquid

The difference in pressure due to difference in depth is:

7
Upthrust

An upwards force exerted by a fluid on a submerged or floating object; arises because of the difference in
pressure between the upper and lower surfaces of the object
Upthrust = weight of the fluid displaced by submerged object

U pthrust = V olsubmerged × ρf luid × g

​ ​

W ork, energy and Power

Work done = Force × Displacement in the direction of force
Work done = F s cos⁡θ, where θ is the angle between the force and the displacement vector.

Law of conservation of energy

The law states that energy cannot be created or destroyed; it can only be converted from one form to
another.

Energy Notes

Energy due to position of a mass in a

Gravitational Potential Energy
gravitational field.

Kinetic Energy Energy due to motion.

Solar Energy Electromagnetic radiation from the sun.

Energy stored due to stretching or

Elastic Potential Energy
compressing an object.

Random kinetic energy and potential energy

Internal Energy
of the molecules in an object.

Efficiency is the measure of the useful energy output compared to the total energy output such that:

Useful Output power

Efficiency =
Input Power
​

Power can also be related to force using the definition of work such that:

8
 The gain in gravitational potential energy can be obtained through the equation measuring the work
done such that:

Kinetic Energy for an object with the velocity ‘v’ can be expressed as:

Deformation of Solids
The Hooke’s Law states that, provided the limit of proportionality is not exceeded, the extension of an object
is directly proportional to the applied load, such that:

To remove the proportionality sign, we introduce a constant ‘k’ which is referred to as the spring
constant.

Stress & Strain

Tensile strain(ϵ) is a measure of the extent of deformation experienced by an object, such that:

Tensile stress (σ) refers to the force applied per unit area normal to the force, such that

Young modulus

Since F/e = k, we can say that E = k. AL ​

9
 Elastic Potential Energy

The work done is equal to the area under the curve in a force-extension diagram, therefore the work done
to deform the spring would be the product of half the maximum force (‘F’) and the extension (‘e’), such
that:

Since the work done is equal to the elastic potential energy (Ep), and since force is also equal to the
product of the spring constant and the extension produced, the equation for the elastic potential energy is:

Waves:

10
The main equation for determining wave properties is the

v = fλ

V elocity = F requency × Wavelength

Frequency is related to the time period via the following equation:

CRO:
A cathode ray oscilloscope (CRO) with a calibrated time-base may be used to determine the frequency of
sound. The microphone is connected to the Y -plates of the CRO. A visual output can be obtained by
adjusting the Y -plate sensitivity and the time-base settings.

The distance between peaks or troughs is measured using the scale on the x-axis on the CRO display. The
time-base setting is used to determine the time period T and frequency of the sound.

Intensity:
For constant frequency, intensity is known to be directly proportional to the square of the amplitude of a
wave.

11
Intensity is inversely proportional to the square of the distance travelled by the wave.

Intensity is the amount of power of a wave which falls on a certain area.

Or

Doppler Effect:

The doppler effect refers to the change in wave frequency during the relative motion between a wave source
and its observer. The formula is described as:

fo = Observed Frequency
​

f = Original Frequency
v = velocity of sound waves
vo = velocity of observer
​

vs = velocity of the source

​

Case 1: the observed frequency is equal to the actual frequency of the source provided that the source is
stationary. fobserver ​ = fsource ​

Case 2: where the source is moving towards the stationary observer. In this case the bunched-up waves are
going to be observed at a higher frequency. fobserver ​ > fsource ​

Case 3: when the source is moving away from the stationary observer; the stretched-out waves are going to
be observed at lower frequencies. fobserver ​ < fsource ​

12
EM Spectrum:

In a vacuum (free space) all electromagnetic waves travel at the same speed, 3.00 × 108 ms− 1

Malus’ Law

The intensity of light emerging from the second sheet can be controlled by variating the angle between the
beam and the second polaroid sheet. 13
The angle θ when kept at a value lesser than 90∘ some light is displaced. As the angle is increased the
intensity of the light decreases.

Hence, when θ is equal to zero, intensity is at its max. When θ is 90∘ , the light intensity is at its minimum,
which is zero.

Superposition:

Interference:

Conditions require for interference to occur:

The two waves must meet at a common point
The two waves must be of the same type (e.g., both sound waves)
The two waves must travel in the same plane
The two waves must be classified as coherent sources

Path difference and Phase difference

For in phase:

A path difference of 1λ corresponds with a phase difference of 2π .

Path Difference: 1λ, 2λ, 3λ, 4λ, 5λ

Phase Difference: 2π, 4π, 6π, 8π, 10π

For out of phase: 14

 1 3 5 7
Path Difference: 2λ, 2 λ, 2 λ, 2 λ

​
​
​
​
Phase Difference: π, 3π, 5π, 7π

Constructive and Destructive Interference:

Constructive Interference

A destructive wave is formed when two waves out of phase interact destructively. The resultant wave may
have a reduced or null amplitude.
There must exist a phase difference of 180∘ or π for a wave to interfere destructively and form a null wave.

Destructive interference
15
This is the principle of superposition, where individual points on a wave add up to form a resultant wave.
Since displacement is a vector quantity, the values are simply added by vector addition while taking into
account their direction.

Interference Patterns:

And for destructive interference is given as:

n = 0, 1, 2, 3, …. harmonics

16
 Young’s double-slit experiment:

KeyF ormula :

Where, D is the distance between the double slits and the screen

λ is the wavelength of the light source

a is the distance between the slits S1 and S2
​ ​

X is the fringe separation

Diffraction grating:

So when n = 0 and sin θ = 0, θ is also equal to zero. This means the zero-order diffraction ray is incident
on the surface head on.
17
The relationship between the number of lines per metre and the spacing between the slits is:

Where d = the distance between the slits;

And N = the number of lines per metre.

Stationary Waves:

18
Fig : Harmonics and Overtones:

19
As a generalised formula, we use:

20
Electricity:

This equation is true for both negative and positive charge carriers.

21
Ohm’s Law:

Resistivity :

LDR:

22
 When light is incident on the semiconductor material, the number of electrons in the semiconductor
that are free to conduct increases, this allows for easier flow of current. Hence, as the light intensity
increases, the resistance of the LDR decreases.

Thermistor:

In the graph shown, the resistance is seen to decrease as the temperature increases.

DC Circuits:

Symbols:

23
 ⁍

Resistors:

For Resistors in series

The total resistance is equal to the sum of the individual resistances:

24
For Resistors in parallel
The total current is equal to the sum of the individual currents, hence:

Internal Resistance:

This makes the E.M.F less than the noted value.

Additionally, VR can also be stated as the terminal potential difference.

​

Kirchof
f’ s Second Law:

To summarize: Kirchhoff’s second law states that the algebraic sum of potential drops in a closed
circuit is zero.
25
For the given circuit, the current in the circuit is I and the resistances of the lamp and resistor are R1 ​

and R2 respectively, and the p.d.s can be written as:

​

V1 = IR1 and V2 = IR2 .

​ ​ ​ ​

Since E = V1 + V2 , so
​ ​

E = IR1 + IR2
​ ​

As a general rule, the equation can be written as:

26
Here the total electromotive force in the circuit is:

so,

This is how we can further modify Kirchhoff’s second law according to the circuit provided.

27
Potential Divider Circuit:

Since the current is the same across both resistors, we can equate the equations:

V1 = IR1 andV2 = IR2 .

​ ​ ​ ​

​ ​ ​ ​

Givingtheratio :

So if R1 were twice the magnitude of R2 , then V1 would be 8V and V2 would be 4V

.

28
By monitoring the potential difference (voltage) across the resistor of fixed resistance R, as shown in
the figure, the output voltage will be given by:

Where

V = Output voltage across resistor R

R = Resistor
S = Variable resistor
E = e.m.f

29
The value for Vout is calculated by:
​

Where:

R1 = The first resistor (AC )

​

R2 = The second resistor (CB )

​

V = The total voltage across the rheostat

30
The above setup demonstrates how to use a potentiometer to evaluate the emf of a power source.

Particle and Nuclear Physics:

approximate mass charge position

Proton u +e in nucleus

Neutron u 0 in nucleus

u
Electron 2000
​
−e orbiting nucleus

Representation of nuclides:

Where e = 1.6 × 10 − 19 C and 1u = 1.66 × 10 − 27 kg

Alpha decay:
31
Beta decay:

Gamma radiation:

Quarks:

Flavour charge Strangeness

Up (u) + 32 e
​
0

Down (d) − 31 e
​ 0

Strange (s) − 31 e
​ -1

Charm (c) + 32 e
​
0

Bottom (b) − 31 e
​ 0

Top (t) + 32 e
​ 0

Proton u u d

+1e + 32 e ​ + 23 e
​ − 31 e
​

Neutron u d d

0 + 32 e ​
− 13 e
​
− 31 e
​

32
property α-particle β - particle γ - radiation

mass 4u about u/2000 0

charge +2e −e or +e 0

helium nucleus short-wavelength

negative or positive
nature (2 protons + 2 electromagnetic
electron
nuetrons) waves

penetrating power up to 0.05c more than 0.99c c

relative ionising
few cm of air few mm of aluminum few cm of lead
power

relative ionising
104 102 1
power

affects
yes yes yes
photographic film?

deflected by
electric, magnetic yes, see Figure 26.3 yes, see Figure 26.3 no
fields?

33