Skywave

In radio communication, skywave or skip refers to the

propagation of radio waves reflected or refracted back toward
Earth from the ionosphere, an electrically charged layer of the
upper atmosphere. Since it is not limited by the curvature of the
Earth, skywave propagation can be used to communicate
beyond the horizon, at intercontinental distances. It is mostly
used in the shortwave frequency bands.

As a result of skywave propagation, a signal from a distant AM

broadcasting station, a shortwave station, or – during sporadic
E propagation conditions (principally during the summer
Radio waves (black) reflecting off the
months in both hemispheres) – a distant VHF FM or TV
ionosphere (red) during skywave
station can sometimes be received as clearly as local stations.
propagation
Most long-distance shortwave (high frequency) radio
communication – between 3 and 30  MHz – is a result of
skywave propagation. Since the early 1920s amateur radio
operators (or "hams"), limited to lower transmitter power than broadcast stations, have taken advantage of
skywave for long-distance (or "DX") communication.

Skywave propagation is distinct from line-of-sight propagation, in which radio waves travel in a straight
line, and from non-line-of-sight propagation.

Local and distant skywave propagation

Skywave transmissions can be used for long-distance communications (DX) by waves directed at a low
angle as well as relatively local communications via nearly vertically directed waves (Near Vertical
Incidence Skywaves – NVIS).

Low-angle skywaves

The ionosphere is a region of the upper atmosphere,

from about 80  km to 1000  km in altitude, where
neutral air is ionized by solar photons, solar particles,
and cosmic rays. When high-frequency signals enter
the ionosphere at a low angle they are bent back
towards the earth by the ionized layer.[1] If the peak
ionization is strong enough for the chosen frequency, a
wave will exit the bottom of the layer earthwards – as Example of Skywave Propagation taken from PSK
if obliquely reflected from a mirror. Earth's surface Reporter.
(ground or water) then reflects the descending wave
back up again towards the ionosphere.

When operating at frequencies just below the maximum usable frequency, losses can be quite small, so the
radio signal may effectively "bounce" or "skip" between the earth and ionosphere two or more times
(multi-hop propagation), even following the curvature of the earth. Consequently, even signals of only a
few Watts can sometimes be received many thousands of miles away. This is what enables shortwave
broadcasts to travel all over the world. If the ionization is not great enough, the wave only curves slightly
downwards, and subsequently upwards as the ionization peak is passed so that it exits the top of the layer
only slightly displaced. The wave is then lost in space. To prevent this, a lower frequency must be chosen.
With a single "hop", path distances up to 3500 km may be reached. Longer transmissions can occur with
two or more hops.[2]

Near-vertical skywaves

Skywaves directed almost vertically are referred to as near-vertical-incidence skywaves (NVIS). At some
frequencies, generally in the lower shortwave region, the high angle skywaves will be reflected directly
back towards the ground. When the wave returns to ground it is spread out over a wide area, allowing
communications within several hundred miles of the transmitting antenna. NVIS enables local plus regional
communications, even from low-lying valleys, to a large area, for example, an entire state or small country.
Coverage of a similar area via a line-of-sight VHF transmitter would require a very high mountaintop
location. NVIS is thus useful for statewide networks, such as those needed for emergency
communications.[3] In short wave broadcasting, NVIS is very useful for regional broadcasts that are
targeted to an area that extends out from the transmitter location to a few hundred miles, such as would be
the case in a country or language group to be reached from within the borders of that country. This will be
much more economical than using multiple FM (VHF) or AM broadcast transmitters. Suitable antennas are
designed to produce a strong lobe at high angles. When short range skywave is undesirable, as when an
AM broadcaster wishes to avoid interference between the ground wave and sky wave, anti-fading antennas
are used to suppress the waves being propagated at the higher angles.

Intermediate distance coverage

For every distance, from local to maximum

distance transmission, (DX), there is an
optimum "take off" angle for the antenna, as
shown here. For example, using the F layer
during the night, to best reach a receiver 500
miles away, an antenna should be chosen that
has a strong lobe at 40 degrees elevation. One
can also see that for the longest distances, a
lobe at low angles (below 10 degrees) is best.
For NVIS, angles above 45 degrees are
optimum. Suitable antennas for long distance
would be a high Yagi or a rhombic; for NVIS,
a dipole or array of dipoles about .2
wavelengths above ground; and for
intermediate distances, a dipole or Yagi at
about .5 wavelengths above ground. Vertical
patterns for each type of antenna are used to
select the proper antenna.
Antenna vertical angle required vs distance for skywave
propagation
Fading
At any distance sky waves will fade. The layer of ionospheric plasma with sufficient ionization (the
reflective surface) is not fixed, but undulates like the surface of the ocean. Varying reflection efficiency
from this changing surface can cause the reflected signal strength to change, causing "fading" in shortwave
broadcasts. Even more serious fading can occur when signals arrive via two or more paths, for example
when both single-hop and double-hop waves interfere with other, or when a skywave signal and a ground-
wave signal arrive at about the same strength. This is the most common source of fading with nighttime
AM broadcast signals. Fading is always present with sky wave signals, and except for digital signals such
as Digital Radio Mondiale seriously limit the fidelity of shortwave broadcasts.

Other considerations
VHF signals with frequencies above about 30 MHz usually penetrate the ionosphere and are not returned
to the Earth's surface. E-skip is a notable exception, where VHF signals including FM broadcast and VHF
TV signals are frequently reflected to the Earth during late spring and early summer. E-skip rarely affects
UHF frequencies, except for very rare occurrences below 500 MHz.

Frequencies below approximately 10  MHz (wavelengths longer than 30 meters), including broadcasts in
the mediumwave and shortwave bands (and to some extent longwave), propagate most efficiently by
skywave at night. Frequencies above 10  MHz (wavelengths shorter than 30 meters) typically propagate
most efficiently during the day. Frequencies lower than 3 kHz have a wavelength longer than the distance
between the Earth and the ionosphere. The maximum usable frequency for skywave propagation is
strongly influenced by sunspot number.

Skywave propagation is usually degraded – sometimes seriously – during geomagnetic storms. Skywave
propagation on the sunlit side of the Earth can be entirely disrupted during sudden ionospheric
disturbances.

Because the lower-altitude layers (the E-layer in particular) of the ionosphere largely disappear at night, the
refractive layer of the ionosphere is much higher above the surface of the Earth at night. This leads to an
increase in the "skip" or "hop" distance of the skywave at night.

History of discovery
Amateur radio operators are credited with the discovery of skywave propagation on the shortwave bands.
Early long-distance services used ground wave propagation at very low frequencies,[4] which are
attenuated along the path. Longer distances and higher frequencies using this method meant more signal
attenuation. This, and the difficulties of generating and detecting higher frequencies, made discovery of
shortwave propagation difficult for commercial services.

Radio amateurs conducted the first successful transatlantic tests using waves shorter than those used by
commercial services[5] in December 1921, operating in the 200 meter mediumwave band (1500 kHz)—the
shortest wavelength then available to amateurs. In 1922 hundreds of North American amateurs were heard
in Europe at 200 meters and at least 30 North American amateurs heard amateur signals from Europe. The
first two-way communications between North American and Hawaiian amateurs began in 1922 at 200
meters.

Extreme interference at the upper edge of the 150-200 meter band—the official wavelengths allocated to
amateurs by the Second National Radio Conference[6] in 1923—forced amateurs to shift to shorter and
shorter wavelengths; however, amateurs were limited by regulation to wavelengths longer than 150 meters
(2  MHz). A few fortunate amateurs who obtained special permission for experimental communications
below 150 meters completed hundreds of long-distance two-way contacts on 100 meters (3 MHz) in 1923
including the first transatlantic two-way contacts[7] in November 1923, on 110 meters (2.72 MHz)

By 1924 many additional specially licensed amateurs were routinely making transoceanic contacts at
distances of 6000 miles (~9600 km) and more. On 21 September several amateurs in California completed
two way contacts with an amateur in New Zealand. On 19 October amateurs in New Zealand and England
completed a 90-minute two-way contact nearly halfway around the world. On October 10, the Third
National Radio Conference made three shortwave bands available to U.S. amateurs[8] at 80 meters
(3.75 MHz), 40 meters (7 MHz) and 20 meters (14 MHz). These were allocated worldwide, while the 10-
meter band (28  MHz) was created by the Washington International Radiotelegraph Conference[9] on 25
November 1927. The 15-meter band (21  MHz) was opened to amateurs in the United States on 1 May
1952.

Marconi

Guglielmo Marconi was the first to show that radios could communicate beyond line-of-sight, using the
reflective properties of the ionosphere. On December 12, 1901, he sent a message around 2,200 miles
(3,500 km) from his transmission station in Cornwall, England, to St. John's, Newfoundland (now part of
Canada). However, Marconi believed the radio waves were following the curvature of the Earth – the
reflective properties of the ionosphere that enables 'sky waves' were not yet understood. Skepticism from
the scientific community and his wired telegraph competitors drove Marconi to continue experimenting
with wireless transmissions and associated business ventures over the next few decades. [10]

In June and July 1923, Guglielmo Marconi's land-to-ship transmissions were completed during nights on
97 meters from Poldhu Wireless Station, Cornwall, to his yacht Ellette in the Cape Verde Islands. In
September 1924, Marconi transmitted during daytime and nighttime on 32 meters from Poldhu to his yacht
in Beirut. Marconi, in July 1924, entered into contracts with the British General Post Office (GPO) to
install high speed shortwave telegraphy circuits from London to Australia, India, South Africa and Canada
as the main element of the Imperial Wireless Chain. The UK-to-Canada shortwave "Beam Wireless
Service" went into commercial operation on 25 October 1926. Beam Wireless Services from the UK to
Australia, South Africa and India went into service in 1927.

Far more spectrum is available for long-distance communication in the shortwave bands than in the long
wave bands; and shortwave transmitters, receivers and antennas were orders of magnitude less expensive
than the multi-hundred kilowatt transmitters and monstrous antennas needed for long wave.

Shortwave communications began to grow rapidly in the 1920s,[11] similar to the internet in the late 20th
century. By 1928, more than half of long-distance communications had moved from transoceanic cables
and long-wave wireless services to shortwave "skip" transmission, and the overall volume of transoceanic
shortwave communications had vastly increased. Shortwave also ended the need for multimillion-dollar
investments in new transoceanic telegraph cables and massive long-wave wireless stations, although some
existing transoceanic telegraph cables and commercial long-wave communications stations remained in use
until the 1960s.

The cable companies began to lose large sums of money in 1927, and a serious financial crisis threatened
the viability of cable companies that were vital to strategic British interests. The British government
convened the Imperial Wireless and Cable Conference[12] in 1928 "to examine the situation that had arisen
as a result of the competition of Beam Wireless with the Cable Services". It recommended and received
Government approval for all overseas cable and wireless resources of the Empire to be merged into one
system controlled by a newly formed company in 1929, Imperial and International Communications Ltd.
The name of the company was changed to Cable and Wireless Ltd. in 1934.

See also
Radio propagation
MW DX
TV-FM DX
Near-Vertical Incidence Skywave (NVIS)
F-layer
Over-the-horizon radar
Groundwave
Schumann resonances
Kennelly–Heaviside layer
Skip zone
Project West Ford
Radio frequency
Clear-channel station
Utility station
Tropospheric ducting
Geomagnetic storm
History of radio
Amateur radio history
List of electronics topics

References
1. Wave Handbook. Sony Corporation. 1998. p. 14. OCLC 734041509 (https://www.worldcat.or
g/oclc/734041509).
2. Rawer, K. (1993). Wave Propagation in the Ionosphere. Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic
Publications. ISBN 0-7923-0775-5.
3. Silver, H.L., ed. (2011). The ARRL Handbook for Radio Communications (88th ed.).
Newington, CT: American Radio Relay League.
4. Stormfax. Marconi Wireless on Cape Cod (http://www.stormfax.com/wireless.htm)
5. "1921 - Club Station 1BCG and the Transatlantic Tests" (http://www.radio-club-of-america.or
g/history.php?page=1921.html). Radio Club of America. Retrieved 2009-09-05.
6. "Radio Service Bulletin No. 72" (https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=uiug.30112106763342;
view=1up;seq=63). Bureau of Navigation, Department of Commerce. 1923-04-02. pp. 9–13.
Retrieved 2018-03-05.
7. [1] (http://www.arrl.org/news/features/1998/1102/2/?nc=1) Archived (https://web.archive.org/
web/20091130112737/http://www.arrl.org/news/features/1998/1102/2/?nc=1) November 30,
2009, at the Wayback Machine
8. "Frequency or wave band allocations" (https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=pst.0000155262
12;view=1up;seq=17), Recommendations for Regulation of Radio Adopted by the Third
National Radio Conference (October 6–10, 1924), page 15.
9. "Report" (http://www.twiar.org/aaarchives/WB008.txt). twiar.org.
10. Marconi (https://www.heritage.nf.ca/articles/society/marconi-guglielmo.php) Archived (https://
web.archive.org/web/20221121222955/https://www.heritage.nf.ca/articles/society/marconi-g
uglielmo.php) 2022-11-21 at the Wayback Machine
11. Full text of "Beyond the ionosphere : fifty years of satellite communication" (https://archive.or
g/stream/beyondionosphere00unitrich/beyondionosphere00unitrich_djvu.txt). 1997.
ISBN 9780160490545. Retrieved 2012-08-31.
12. Cable and Wireless Pl c History (http://www.porthcurno.org.uk/page.php?id=104) Archived
(https://web.archive.org/web/20150320053915/http://www.porthcurno.org.uk/page.php?id=1
04) 2015-03-20 at the Wayback Machine

Further reading
Davies, Kenneth (1990). Ionospheric Radio. IEE Electromagnetic Waves Series #31.
London, UK: Peter Peregrinus Ltd/The Institution of Electrical Engineers. ISBN 978-0-
86341-186-1.

External links
Navy - Propagation of Waves (http://www.fas.org/man/dod-101/navy/docs/es310/propagat/Pr
opagat.htm)
Radio wave propagation basics (http://ecjones.org/propag.html)
HFRadio Propagation forums (http://www.hfradio.org/forums/index.php?c=2)
Rare gamma-ray flare disturbed ionosphere (http://www.eurekalert.org/pub_releases/2006-0
2/su-rgf021706.php)
Articles on sporadic E and 50 MHz Radio Propagation (http://www.df5ai.net/Material/articles.
html)
Radio propagation overview (http://www.radio-electronics.com/info/propagation/radio-propa
gation/radio-propagation-overview-tutorial.php) Details of many forms of radio propagation

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