Pointers to Review in Statistics and Probability  Population standard deviation (𝝈) is a

parameter which is a measure of variability with

Symbols used in Hypothesis Testing
 A hypothesis is a proposed explanation,
assertion, or assumption about a population
parameter or about the distribution of a random
variable.
 The null hypothesis is an initial claim based on
previous analyses, which the researcher tries to
disprove, reject, or nullify. It shows no significant
difference between two parameters. It is denoted
by 𝐻𝑜.
 The alternative hypothesis is contrary to the null
hypothesis, which shows that observations are
the result of a real effect. It is denoted by 𝐻𝑎.
fixed value calculated from every individual in the
population.
 Sample standard deviation (𝒔) is a statistic
which means that this measure of variability is
calculated from only some of the individuals in a
population.
 Population variance (𝝈𝟐), in the same sense,
indicates how the population data points are
spread out. It is the average of the parameter is a
measure used to describe a population.
 Statistics is a measure used to describe a
sample.
 The terms average and mean are the most
commonly used term in describing a population.
 If the word “increase” is used in the given
problem, the symbol to be used in alternative
hypothesis is “>”.

 Examples of Null and Alternative Hypothesis  If the word “decrease” is used in the given
Null hypothesis using two-tailed test problem, the symbol to be used in alternative
𝐻𝑎 = 12 hypothesis is “<”.
Null hypothesis using left-tailed test
𝐻𝑎 = 12
Null hypothesis using right-tailed test
𝐻𝑎 = 12

Alternative hypothesis using two-tailed test

𝐻𝑎 ≠ 12
Alternative hypothesis using left-tailed test
𝐻𝑎 < 12
Alternative hypothesis using right-tailed test
𝐻𝑎 > 12

 Hypothesis testing is the statistical method used

in making decisions using experimental data.

 The level of significance denoted by alpha or 𝛂

refers to the degree of significance in which we
accept or reject the null hypothesis.
 100% accuracy is not possible in accepting or rejecting
a hypothesis.
 The significance level α is also the probability of
making the wrong decision
when the null hypothesis is true.

 We use 10% significance level if we want a lower

possibility of correct decision.
 standard deviation tells us how the data are
spread from the central tendency,
 A population includes all of the elements from a
set of data.
 A sample consists of one or more observations
drawn from the population.
 Sample mean (𝒙̅) is the mean of sample values
collected.
 Population mean (μ) is the mean of all the
values in the population.
If the sample is randomly selected and sample size is
large, then the sample mean would be a good estimate of
the population mean.
 The rejection region (or critical region) is the set
of all values of the test statistic that causes us to
reject the null hypothesis.
 The non-rejection region (or acceptance region) is
the set of all values of the test statistic that
causes us to fail to reject the null hypothesis.
 The critical value is a point (boundary) on the test
distribution that is compared to the test statistic to
determine if the null hypothesis would be rejected.
  The sign of the alternative hypothesis in a left-
tailed test is always less than.

 If the variance is known, the appropriate test

statistic that must be use is z- test. n≥30

 If the variance is unknown, the appropriate test  Steps in Hypothesis Testing

statistic that must be use is t- test. n<30 In testing hypothesis on the population means, follow the
steps below:
Based on Central Limit Theorem, the z-test for single 1. State the null hypothesis 𝐻𝑜 and the alternative
sample may be used when all the following conditions are hypothesis 𝐻𝑎.
TRUE. 2. Determine the test statistic that will be used to conduct
 Data are normally distributed the hypothesis
 Population standard deviation is known. test. Then, calculate its value.
 Population standard deviation is unknown. 3. Find the critical value for the test and draw the critical
region.
4. Decide and draw a conclusion based on the
comparison of the calculated value of the test statistic and
the critical value of the test.

 Critical value is a value that separates the

acceptance region from the rejection region in a
normal curve when testing the hypothesis.

 Decision Rule
In general |computed value| > |critical value|
Reject the Ho and Support the Ha
|computed value| < |critical value|
Failed to Reject the Ho and Ha is not supported

Right-Tailed Test
computed value > critical value
Reject the Ho and Support the Ha
computed value < critical value
Failed to Reject the Ho and Ha is not supported

Left-Tailed Test
computed value < critical value
Reject the Ho and Support the Ha
computed value > critical value
Failed to Reject the Ho and Ha is not supported
  Population proportion (p) is a part of the
population with a particular attribute or trait
expressed as a fraction, decimal, or percentage of
the whole population.
Examples:
Using the Central Limit Theorem in Testing
Population Proportion
When testing situations involving proportion, a
percentage, or a
probability, the following assumptions must be
considered:
1. The conditions for binomial experiment are met. That
is, there is a fixed number of independent trials with
constant probabilities and each trial has two outcomes
that we usually classify as “success” (p) and “failure”
(q). The sum of p and q is 1. Hence, we can write p + q =
1 or q = 1 – p.
2. The conditions np ≥ 5 and nq ≥ 5 are both satisfied so
that the binomial distribution of sample proportion can be
approximated by a normal distribution with 𝜇 = 𝑛𝑝 and 𝜎 =
√𝑛𝑝𝑞. (However, the specific number varies from source
to source, some authors use 10 instead of 5 depending
on how good an approximation one wants.)

One-tailed test is also called directional.

 Rejection region defines the area encompassed

by the values not included in the non-rejection
region or also the area of the tails of the
distribution.

Examples:
Find the critical z values. In each case, assume that the
normal distribution
applies.
1. left-tailed test with α= 0.01 𝒛 = −𝟐. 𝟑𝟑 (based on the
Illustrative Example: table of critical value
For a class project, a Grade 12 STEM student wants to of z)
estimate the percentage of students in his school who are 2. two-tailed test with α=0.05 𝒛 = ±𝟏. 𝟗𝟔
registered voters. From 45% Grade 12 students, he 3. right-tailed test with α=0.025 𝒛 = 𝟏. 𝟗𝟔
surveys 500 students and finds that 200 are registered
voters. Determine the value of p and compute for the
sample proportion.
Solution:
The population proportion is the rate or percent used from
the entire
Grade 12 students. Therefore:
Population Proportion, p = 45% = 0. 45
To find the sample proportion ( ̂ ), identify the ff:
Surveyed Grade 12 students = n = 500
Registered Grade 12 students = x = 200
Therefore, the sample proportion will be computed as
follows:
Sample Proportion, 𝒑̂ =
number of registered Grade 12 students
number of Grade 12 students
200
𝒑̂ =
500
𝒑̂ = 0.4
  The t-distribution table values are critical values
of the t-distribution.
 The column header is the t-distribution
probabilities (alpha).
The row names are the degrees of freedom (df).

 To find critical values for t-distribution:

1. Identify the level of significance.
2. Identify the degrees of freedom, d.f. = n -1.
3. Find the critical value using t-distribution in the row with
n-1 degrees of freedom. If the hypothesis test is:
a. left-tailed, use “α one tail” column with a negative sign.
b. right-tailed, use “α one tail” column with a positive
sign.
c. two-tailed, use “α two tails” column with a negative
and a positive sign.

Examples:
a) Find the critical t-value for a left-tailed test with α= 0.05
and n =21.
Answer: 𝒕 = −𝟏. 𝟕𝟐𝟓
b) Find the critical t-value for a right-tailed test with
α=0.01 and n = 17.
Answer: 𝒕 = 𝟐. 𝟓𝟖𝟑
c) Find the critical t-values for a two-tailed test with
α=0.05 and n =26.
Answer: 𝒕 = ±𝟐. 𝟎𝟔𝟎

Computing Test Statistic

Formulating Null And Alternative Hypothesis on a adjustment of the machine and a mean of 195 is
Population Proportion obtained. For α = 5%, an appropriate decision
rule would be
The null hypothesis usually use “is” or “is equal to”. In _________________________________.
symbols, you are going to use:
HO : p = po
Meanwhile, to formulate alternative hypothesis in
sentence form or in
symbols, you will just remember the following:
When testing for population proportions, there are three
(3) possible alternative hypotheses. They are based on
the wording of the question instructing you what to
hypothesize. (See illustrative examples below.)

Example 1. It has been claimed that 40% of students in a

particular senior high school dislike Mathematics. When a
survey was conducted by a researcher, it showed that
145 of 800 students dislike Mathematics. Test if the claim
was different at α = 0.05 level.
Null Hypothesis (Ho):
In this example, the hypothesized proportion is 40% or
0.40. Hence, the null hypothesis will be,
The proportion of students who dislike Mathematics is
40%.
In symbols, you can write,
Ho: p = 0.40

Alternative Hypothesis (Ha):

Our cue word here is “different” which means “not the
same” or “not equal”. Therefore the alternative hypothesis
is, The proportion of students who dislike Mathematics is
not equal to 40%.
In symbols, you can write,
Ha: p ≠ 0.40

Since the word “different” is used in the given problem,

the symbol to be used in alternative hypothesis is “ ≠ ”.
Note: This is a two-tailed test or non-directional.

Try to answer the following:

 Perform a hypothesis test where the null
hypothesis is that the μ = 6.9. A random sample
of 16 items is selected. The sample mean is 7.1
and the sample standard deviation is 2.4. It can
be assumed that the population is normally
distributed at α = 0.05
 A drink vending machine is adjusted so that, on
average, it dispenses 200ml of fruit juice with a
standard deviation of 13ml into a plastic cup.
However, the machine tends to go out of
adjustment and periodic checks are made to
determine the average amount of fruit juice being
dispensed. The operator thinks that the amount
dispensed is less than 200 ml. So to verify, a
sample of 25 drinks is taken to test the