Aviation Technical Training

Aviation Technical Training
Training Manual Fundamentals

M3 Electrical Fundamentals
CAT B1/B2 V2.1
An EASA Part-147 Approved Training Organisation Approval No UK.147.0046
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M3 ELECTRICAL FUNDAMENTALS
COMPOSITION OF MATTER PART – 66 M3 CAT B1/B2
GENERAL
1 Composition of Matter
1.1 General 1.2 Distribution of Charges
In nature, each body of matter is electrically neutral. Friction can change the There are different particles in an atom:
neutral state of a body without changing its appearance. The state of charge can  Protons
be explained by the composition of matter: Protons are positively charged particles in the nucleus.
 Neutrons
Neutrons are neutral particles in the nucleus. They ensure that the
positively charged protons do not repel.
 Electrons
Electrons are negatively charged particles travelling on various orbits
(shells) around the atom’s nucleus. To prevent the electrons from
moving away from the nucleus through centrifugal force, they are
attracted towards the positively charged protons.
An atom is electrically neutral, if the number of protons in the nucleus is equal to

the number of electrons orbiting it. The atom then has no electrical charge.
Each electron is negatively charged and each proton is positively charged.
Both particles carry the smallest charge.
The charge of a single electron is:

e = - 0.1602 x 10-18 C (Coulombs) and the charge of a single proton is:
If there are more electrons orbiting the nucleus, than there are protons in the e = + 0.1602 x 10-18 C
nucleus, the atom’s charge is negative. If there are fewer electrons, the atom’s
charge is positive. They are therefore positively or negatively charged atoms Protons and neutrons make up the mass of an atom, whereas electrons have
and are called ions. A charged atom is said to be ’ionised’. practically no mass.
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COMPOSITION OF MATTER PART – 66 M3 CAT B1/B2
MOLECULAR STRUCTURE
1.3 Molecular Structure 1.3.2 Semiconductors
In the molecular structure of semiconductors, several atoms share the electrons

1.3.1 Conductors
on the outer layer in such a way that each atom is provided with eight electrons.
This arrangement of atoms with four electrons in the valence orbit is chemically
Metals are a good example to explain the structure of conductors. very stable.
In a metallic bond the atoms are close packed and have a crystal lattice.
This sharing principle applies only if there are exactly eight electrons in the outer
This high density allows the electrons on the outer layer to separate from their layer, i.e. only atoms of group 14 (e.g. Silicon, Germanium) can combine among
atoms and to move freely within the atomic structure, i.e. electrons jump from themselves or atoms of group 13 (Gallium) and group 15 (Arsenic).
one (fixed) atom to the next.
Conductivity is produced by adding other foreign atoms (doping), by heat
The reason for the good conductivity of metal is the high mobility of its electrons. (increase mobility of electrons) or by light.
Generally good conductors have less than four electrons in the outer or valence
orbit.
Examples: Copper, aluminium and carbon
Examples: Silicon, Germanium.
1.3.3 Insulators / Non-Conductors
In the molecular structure of insulators electrons are tightly connected to the

atoms/molecules which prevent them from breaking away.
They have more than four electrons in the valence orbit and as there are no free
electrons, current cannot be conducted.
Examples: Mica, Porcelain

ELECTRICAL TERMINOLOGY PART – 66 M3 CAT B1/B2
POTENTIAL DIFFERENCE
2 Electrical Terminology
2.1 Potential Difference 2.2 Electrical Charge
A potential difference always arises between two differently charged points. The sum of all electrical charges (billions of electrons and charges are involved
An electrical voltage occurs, as soon as there is a deficiency of electrons at one in every electrical process) is the quantity of electricity, also called electrical
point and an excess of electrons in another point. charge.
Separating positive and negative charges will generate voltage. Its symbol is Q, its unit is coulomb [C].
1C = 6.24 x 1018 electrons
As defined:
Charge (Q)
Current (I) =
Time (t)
By expressing this equation in terms of Q, Q = I x t, the electrical charge Q can

be determined from the current I and the time t.
The unit of charge 1 [As], which is the same as 1 [C], results from filling in the
units, current I in [A] (ampere) and time (t) in seconds (s).
1 coulomb = 1 ampere-second
A device which separates charges is called a generator. It draws electrons from
the positive pole and transports them to the negative pole in such a way that a
1C = 1As
potential difference is maintained. Generators produce electrical voltage.
However, this is not the only method of generating voltage. A voltage also
Example
arises, for example, between two points having an excess of electrons, if the
A secondary cell is charged with a current of 2.5A. What is the quantity of
number of surplus electrons in each point is different. In this case, only the
electricity (electrical charge) of the secondary cell after a charging time of 10
potential values have changed.
hours?
Solution:
Q =I xt
Q = 2.5A x 10h = 25Ah

1Ah = 3600As
25Ah = 90000As = 90000C

ELECTROMOTIVE FORCE (EMF)
2.3 Electromotive Force (EMF)

Normally, a force acts in such a way that a body is pushed, pulled or lifted. An electromotive force (EMF) will not arise unless two fields act on one another,
In the natural environment we experience that bodies, in exerting force on each i.e. two charges are necessary.
other, have direct contact. If two charges come near each other, they create their own common field at a
certain distance.
To lift a weight, you have to touch it. Before throwing a stone, you have to take it
in your hand. To push a heavy trolley, you brace your body against it.
Electrical charges will exert a push or pull force on each other without coming
into contact with one another.
Scientists wondered for a long time how the force of one charge was transmitted
to the other without them touching each other.
The physicist Coulomb imagined that the forces of one charge would jump to the
other. However, the reason for this jumping and why a force could jump at all
remained unknown.
Faraday, the English chemist and physicist (1791-1867), developed a theory

about the forces acting between electrical charges. His “Electric Field Theory” is
still valid today.
Electrical attraction and repulsion can be shown by means of electric flux lines,
which are invisible. Electric flux lines take the shortest means possible to get
from a positive to a negative charge.
The density of flux lines represents the quantity of the electrical excitation
between both charges. This is designated as electric field strength.

ELECTRICAL VOLTAGE
2.4 Electrical Voltage

A voltage is the difference in energy between electrical charges or potentials Two kinds of electrical voltage can be distinguished:
DC voltage and AC voltage
The pressure which acts on the electrons causes them to move.
As you already know, the electrons travel in several layers around the nucleus.
The greater the distance between the electron and nucleus, the stronger the
potential energy of the electron.
The electrical attraction of the electrons on the outer layer (valence electrons)
towards their nucleus is relatively weak. This is because the distance between
these electrons and their nucleus is at its greatest.
In a metallic bond (for instance copper) the outer electrons are not bound to a
specific nucleus. Metal atoms combine in such a way as to release all their
valence electrons.
The new structure formed is called an ion. As conductors, metals play a main
role in electrical engineering.
If a voltage always has the same size and polarity in a certain period of time it is
The unit Volt for the basic quantity of electrical voltage has been chosen in called DC voltage.
honour of A. Volta, the Italian physicist (1745-1827).
If, within this time, size and polarity of the voltage changes, it is defined as AC
The symbol of voltage is V. voltage. As shown in figure 2 the voltage ranges between +3V and -3V.

ELECTRICAL VOLTAGE
2.4.1 Voltage Measurements Common Voltages:
A voltmeter is connected in parallel with the terminals of a power source and/or Radio-Aerial: 0.1uV .........5Mv
a load.
Telephone Circuit Voltage: 1mV ...........800mV
Care should be taken to ensure that the measuring range of the voltmeter is
adequate. If the choice is too small, the measuring device may become Single-Cell Battery: 1.5V
overloaded or damaged. Supply Voltage: 230V.........400V
There are two different ways to indicate the measured voltage, either by using a Overhead-Line: 6kV ......... 380kV (Kilo Volt)
pointer deflection (analogue meter) or numerical read out (digital meter). Lightning: Several MV (Mega Volt)
Instruments for these kinds of measurements have the highest possible Measuring Power Sources and Electrical Loads
resistance.
The unit of electrical voltage is the Volt (V).
1V = 1000mV, 1mV = 0.001V

ELECTRICAL CURRENT
2.5 Electric Current

In an electric circuit all electrical charges (electrons) move or flow in one 2.5.1 Current and Current Measurements
direction.
In the outer part of the circuit (conductive connection between the terminals of a The unit Ampere for the basic quantity electric current has been chosen in
power supply) the electrons flow from the negative to the positive pole. In the honour of A. M. Ampere, a French physicist (1775-1836). The electrical current
inner part of the circuit (power supply) the electro motive force pushes the is symbolised by the letter in I.
electrons from the positive to the negative pole.
Two kinds of electric current can be distinguished:
Electric current is the flow of electrical charges in a certain direction.
- Direct Current (DC)
The number of moved charge carriers depends on the EMF. If the EMF in a
power supply is high, many electrons are “displaced” and in the outer part of the - Alternating Current (AC)
circuit many electrons will flow from the negative to the positive pole.
In the case of DC the charge carriers constantly flow in the same direction at the
If a large number of electrons flow, the current I per second is high, if it is a same current. If the flow of charges repeatedly changes direction and current in
small number, the current I per second is low. a certain period of time, it is designated as AC.
Q
The current I is 1 ampere (A), if a charge of 1 coulomb (C) flows through a
I=
t conductor cross section in 1 second
An electrical current is not necessarily a flow of electrons. There are also other
charge carriers which can generate an electric current. In metals and generally
in all solid conductive bodies only the so called free electrons are able to flow
whereas ions can move in liquids and gases.
Possible types of movement or flow of charge carriers:

1. In solid conductive bodies (mainly in metals): electron currents
2. In conductive liquids: ion currents
3. In conductive gases: electron and ion currents
4. In vacuum: electron currents
The speed of movement of charges (electrons) depends on:

1. Conductor material
2. Conductor cross section To measure an electric current, the charge carriers have to flow through a series
3. Current connected ammeter (ampere meter) or current meter.
4. Temperature For this purpose, the circuit is disconnected at any point to insert an ammeter.
The proper polarity must be chosen for DC ammeters – positive to positive pole
and negative to negative pole. In AC ammeters this is not necessary.
1A = 1000mA
1mA = 0,001A

ELECTRICAL CURRENT
Commonly used Current Ratings: Electrical Current, Characteristics of Electricity

Electronics / Radio, TV: 1nA ....100uA
As you already know, electricity itself is invisible and only its effects are
Electronics / Telecommunications: 1mA....10A perceptible.
Electrical Appliances / Household, Workshop: 100mA.... 50A
Such effects are:
Energy Transfer: 100A....10kA
Lightning up to approximately: 200kA
Nuclear Technology up to approximately: 1MA
Current Measurements of a Bulb

ELECTRICAL RESISTANCE
2.6 Electrical Resistance

In a copper conductor the electrons are free to move due to the metal bond of The “braking action” of a conductive material is therefore dependent on the
the copper atoms. By applying an Electromotive Force (EMF) to these atoms, it atomic density of the material. The greater the spacing of the ions, the smaller
is possible to move them inside the conductor. the braking action becomes.
Due to the applied voltage in the outer part of an electrical circuit the electrons The closer together the ions are to one another, the greater the braking action
move from the negative to the positive pole. If there were only electrons in the becomes.
conductor, their movement speed would get higher and higher and that would
mean an accelerated movement. However, the ions of the conductor prevent the
continuous increase of the electrons’ speed. Once the electrons are moving,
they collide with the ions.
These collisions cause the electrons to lose speed. This process in the
conductor can be compared to the behaviour of an aircraft in the air. As soon as
an aircraft starts to move, it collides with the air molecules. The effect of these
collisions is called friction. The friction of the air causes the aircraft to decelerate.
An aircraft flies at a constant speed, if the braking action is equal to the driving
force.
The speed of an aircraft can only be increased as long as the power of its
engines exceeds the braking action of the air. The aircraft reaches its top speed
if both forces are equal.
The higher the aircraft climbs, the thinner the air becomes. There are fewer
collisions and less braking action, so the aircraft speed is higher. In space where
there is a vacuum, an aircraft does not need an engine, because there is no air
friction. Without engine power, the aircraft continues to move constantly at the
speed at which it left the earth’s atmosphere.

ELECTRICAL RESISTANCE
2.6.1 Definitions and Units

2.6.2 Resistance Measurements
The electrical resistance is the obstruction of the electron flow caused by a
certain material. By means of voltmeters and ammeters, the electrical resistance can also be
determined. In the illustrated circuit the current in the resistor is measured with
The unit of the electrical resistance is Ohm (symbol Ω). Ω is a letter of the Greek the ammeter and the voltage applied to the resistor with the voltmeter.
alphabet and is designated as Omega.
Resistance is not measured directly, but is calculated by values of current and

voltage. This is accomplished by the application of Ohm’s Law V = R x I, which
will be discussed later.
If there is a voltage of 1 Volt and a current of 1 Ampere at the resistor, it has a

resistance of 1 Ohm.
With these measurements the resistance can be measured by way of Ohm’s
Law
R = V / I.
Measurements of resistance are also carried out at plants and installations with
no applied voltage and current. A distinction is made between measurements of
high resistances and low resistances.
Low-impedance measurement in measuring range “mΩ” e.g.:

- Continuity check or measurement of resistances across electrical
connections
High-impedance measurement in measuring range “MΩ” e.g.:
- Insulation measurement (insulation protection)
For carrying out these measurements, meters with internal batteries are used
(During these measurement the measured voltage may exceed 1500V).

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METHODS OF VOLTAGE GENERATION PART – 66 M3 CAT B1/B2
VOLTAGE GENERATION BY LIGHT
3 Methods of Voltage Generation

3.1 Voltage Generation by Light
If light impinges upon certain semiconductor materials like silicon or germanium, The colour of the light also has a certain influence. The energy of the light
the result is a charge separation. The intrinsic conductivity of a semiconductor particles depends on the colour of the light, i.e. on the wavelength of the light.
material depends on how much crystal bonding is broken up in a certain period
of time. During the breaking up of the crystal bonding, an electron and a “hole” If light particles enter the depletion layer of a semiconductor junction, charge
are released. The primary cause of breaking up of the crystal bonding is the carriers are released, and crystal bonding breaks up. Thus, the released charge
vibrations of the atoms, caused by the energy supplied by heat. This is also the carriers are moved away from the depletion layer by the forces of the electric
case for thermionic emission, which will be discussed later. field. Hence, a current flows.
Energy input increases the intrinsic conductivity of high-purity These optoelectronic components are called photocells.
semiconductor materials.
Photocells function as generators of electrical voltage. They are energy
Light irradiation means energy input. It can be imagined that the light particles, converters.
or photons, break up the crystal bonding.
Thus, the bound charge carriers become free charge carriers. The number of
released charge carriers during a certain period of time increases with the
luminance.

VOLTAGE GENERATION BY LIGHT
3.1.1 Principle of Operation of Photocells
If a photocell is exposed to light, then voltage is generated. A photocell

(depletion layer photocell) consists of a metallic base plate with good
conductivity, which is attached to a semiconductor layer. A thin translucent metal
skin is vaporised onto this layer as a counter electrode.
Exposing to light releases electrons from the semiconductor layer, which then
flow to the metal skin. Thus, the base plate is positively charged and the metal
skin is negatively charged, hence a voltage is generated.
The voltage depends on the light intensity, the frequency of the light and the
depletion layer type.
Silicon and Selenium-photocells are common; nowadays particularly Silicon

photocells with large surface areas have become increasingly important. These
are used as solar cells. When exposed to sunlight, solar cells can produce a
voltage of approx. 0.6V and a power of approx.10mW per cm 2 of active area.
Photocells are used in exposure meters, alarm systems, counters and also in
solar cells for the direct supply of gadgets with low power consumption, like
pocket calculators. By using small solar panels in gadgets, mains-independent
energy storage and power supply is achieved. Solar panels are solar cells
combined with a secondary cell.

VOLTAGE GENERATION BY FRICTION
3.2 Voltage Generation by Friction

If an insulator is rubbed, electrical charges are separated and voltage is
generated (Static electricity). The voltages can reach high values up to the kV
range, which is normally not intended. This can be seen in the forces actions,
e.g. regarding charged plastic films that attract each other and the forcible
balancing movement of charges. Examples are the movement of charges
between electrostatically charged humans and door handles (spark, shock) and
between electronic components (destruction). Staff working with such electronic
components usually wear a bonding braid around the wrist, which is connected
to earth.
Unintended static electricity is generated when dealing with paper, plastics, foils,
tables, plastic chairs, vinyl floors, fabrics made of chemical fibres, vehicles,
combs, and aircraft. Static electricity also occurs when insulating liquids and
gases flow.
These electrostatic occurrences are experienced in everyday life.

VOLTAGE GENERATION BY PRESSURE
3.3 Voltage Generation by Pressure

If a Piezo crystal is deformed by using pressure, a voltage is generated.
This is referred to as the Piezoelectric effect:
With certain crystals negative or positive charges and therefore voltages are
generated, if pressure or tension loads are exerted on the crystal surfaces.
The charges are tapped using aluminium foil for example.
The Piezoelectric effect is applied in crystal pick-ups of record players, in crystal

microphones, crystal loudspeakers, lighters, gas lighters, pressure gauges and
dynamometers.

VOLTAGE GENERATION BY HEAT
3.4 Voltage Generation by Heat

In a metal, the valence electrons are in a near to free state. They are not bound The force required to separate, which is stored by the electron as potential
to an atom any more, but the crystal structure of the metal is riddled with the energy during its escape from the metal surface, is referred to as electric
valence electrons like a gas. As equal charges repel, the electrons tend to potential. The voltage grows with the potential.
spread evenly in the available space.
The separation of electrons from a metal bonding is referred to as electron

emission. The term “emission” derives from the Latin word emittere (~emit).
This tendency to diffuse is the cause for the generation of contact voltages. Heating is one method to emit electrons. This form of emission is referred to as
However, the electron gas is locked up in the metal like in a container. Despite thermionic emission. The heating causes the emission and the emission causes
the mutual repulsion of the electrons, i.e. the tendency to diffuse, the electron the voltage generation. Thus the voltage depends on the degree of heating, i.e.
gas cannot easily escape from the metal. For an electron to leave the metallic on the temperature.
bonding or to be removed, a force has to act. This force cancels the electrical
attracting force (nucleus, electrons). In order to move an electron away from the Voltage generation by heat is used for measuring the Exhaust Gas Temperature
metal, work is required. This energy is referred to as work function and is stored (EGT) of an aircraft turbine engine.
as potential energy by the electron. The work function is measured in electron
Volt (eV).

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3.4.1 Design and Principle of Operation of Thermocouples
As you already know, if heat is applied to metals, their temperatures increase,

the vibration of the atoms in the metal lattice increase and the proper motion of
the electrons increase, too. The electrons in a heated metal behave in the same
way as the particles in a gas, moving faster and faster when heated.
At a certain temperature the electrons can move away from the metal.
Increasing the temperature can even accelerate this process.
Different metals have different numbers of free electrons and therefore a

different electron density. If metals with different electron densities touch each
other, the electrons can pass from the metal with the higher density into the
metal with the lower density, if they give the required energy. This energy can be
heat.
Two different metals (e.g. Copper and Iron) are connected at one end, by
soldering for example. If their junction is then heated, you notice that a voltage is
generated between the two free ends. This voltage is referred to as
thermoelectric voltage.
This kind of power supply is referred to as a thermocouple.
The thermoelectric voltage depends on the temperature difference between the

junction and the two free ends as well as on the combination of metals:
Chromel – Alumel 4.2mV per 100°C
Bismuth – Antimony 10.0mV per 100°C
Constantan – Copper 4.2mV per 100°C
Platinum – Platinum Rhodium 1.0mV per 100°C
Thermocouples are used to measure temperatures (temperature range from -

200 to 2300°C) e.g. for remote measurements of temperatures at hard to reach
places, e.g. ovens and windings.
In aviation, thermocouples are mainly used to measure exhaust gas

temperatures of engines. For modern engines the metals Chromel and Alumel
are used.

VOLTAGE GENERATION BY CHEMICAL REACTION
3.5 Voltage Generation by Chemical Reaction

Remember: The generation of electrical voltage is based on the separation and
3.5.1 Voltage Generation by Electrochemical Series
the moving of charge. Thus, a difference in charge between two points occurs,
i.e. a potential difference.
Electrochemical reactions can cause electrical voltage. A galvanic cell consists
of an electrolyte and electrodes made of two differently conducting materials.
If two different pieces of metal (e.g. Copper and Zinc) are immersed into an
electrically conducting liquid (e.g. water with added Sulphuric Acid), a voltage
An electrical voltage occurs between a metal and an electrolyte. The electrical
between the two electrodes (metals) is generated.
voltage of different substances was measured. A common electrode is used as
a second electrode and thus the series is obtained.
The greater the distance between both substances of the galvanic cell in the
series, the higher the voltage between them in an electrolyte. The voltage
depends on the material of the electrodes and on the type and concentration of
the electrolyte. The polarity of the electrodes is determined by the
electrochemical series.
In each combination, the metal with the higher negative voltage is consumed,
because it dissolves.
Certain metals like Zinc tend to force positive metal ions into the solution.
As a result, the metals are negatively charged. Other metals like Copper tend to
extract positive metal ions from the solution. Compared to the solution, the
metals are positively charged. Thus, there is a charge difference between the
two metals, i.e. a voltage.
Voltage generators based on these chemical principles are referred to as

galvanic cells (primary and secondary cells) e.g. batteries.

VOLTAGE GENERATION BY CHEMICAL REACTION

VOLTAGE GENERATION BY INDUCTION
3.6 Voltage Generation by Induction

If a coil enters the magnetic field of a magnet, an electrical voltage is generated Induction is the most important form of voltage generation in engineering. Being
in the coil during the movement. This kind of voltage generation is referred to as the operating principle of all generators, it is also referred to as the generator
induction. principle. The induced voltage increases at the same rate as the magnetic field
strength, the movement speed and the effective length of the conductor.
Due to the movement of the conductor and the influence of the magnetic field,
the free electrons of a conductor are deflected in one direction. These electrons
form a magnetic field, which superimposes on the external magnetic field. This
causes the electrons to deflect in the longitudinal direction of the conductor. The
result is a charge difference at the ends of the conductor; on one side of the
conductor there is a deficiency and on the other side an excess of electrons, i.e.
an electrical voltage is generated.
The direction of the induced voltage depends on the movement direction and
the direction of the magnetic field.
Applications of induction can be found in generators, magnetic pick-up devices,

moving-coil microphones and field telephones.

VOLTAGE GENERATION BY INDUCTION
ENGINE GENERATOR

STATIC ELECTRICITY AND CONDUCTION PART – 66 M3 CAT B1/B2
STATIC ELECTRICITY
The method of charging a metal bar by induction is shown below:

4 Static Electricity & Conduction A positively charged rod is brought near the metal bar without touching it. The
electrons of the metal bar are attracted towards the charged rod. Thus, one end
4.1 Static Electricity of the bar is charged positively, the other end is charged negatively. The
distribution of charges is not the same in the bar. When touching the bar with a
Static electricity can be produced by contact, friction or induction. As an finger as shown, electrons are drawn off the finger and into the bar. After
example, a glass rod that is rubbed with fur becomes negatively charged, but if removing the finger from the bar and then removing the rod, the bar is charged
rubbed with silk, becomes positively charged. When two materials are rubbed negatively due to the excess of electrons. The bar is charged by induction.
together, some electrons of one of the materials are handed over to the other
material. The electrons transferred are those in the outer layer. They are called
free electrons or valence electrons.
When a glass rod is rubbed with silk, the glass rod gives up electrons and
becomes positively charged. The source of this charge is friction. The charged
glass rod may be used to charge other substances. For example, if an
uncharged metal bar is used as shown below, some of the rod’s charge can be
transferred to the bar by touching it with the rod. The bar is charged by contact.

CURRENT CONDUCTION PART – 66 M3 CAT B1/B2
THE DIRECTION OF ELECTRIC CURRENT
4.2 Electrostatic Field

A force field exists around every charged body. The force can be made visible The lines of force extend in all directions from the charged body and terminate
when charging two pendant pithballs with a rod, as shown below. It will be where there is an opposite charge.
discovered that like bodies repel while unlike bodies attract.

CURRENT IN METALLIC CONDUCTORS
5 Current Conduction A Current (A)

Current Density ( )=
mm² Cross-sectional Area (mm2 )
5.1 Current in Metallic Conductors
I
As you already know, there are a vast number of free electrons available for J=
conduction in metals. A
The greater the current density, the more heat is produced in a wire or
conductor. The permitted current density in a wire depends on the material (for
example Copper or Aluminium), on its cross sectional area and on the possible
method of cooling.
In order to prevent a fire hazard, the current density in wiring, in the windings of
coils, transformers and motors must not exceed certain maximum values for
extended periods of time.
Cables must not be heated over 60°C. Therefore, a maximum permitted load is
specified for each given cable cross section at an ambient temperature of 25°C.
By applying a voltage, these electrons flow from the negative to the positive
pole.
As the metal is riddled with electrons, the conductor does not need an initial
charge. When an electron enters a conductor, another electron at the opposite
end of the conductor is pushed out.
5.1.1 Current Density in Conductors
The current flowing through an electric light bulb brings the thin helical filament
to white heat but hardly heats the thicker leads.
If the current remains constant, the same number of electrons per second flows
through a conductor regardless of its cross sectional area.
In a lead with a small cross sectional area the electrons are, however, more
closely packed than in a lead with a larger cross sectional area. Therefore, the
heating in the small cross section is higher. If the current is increasingly
compressed in the conductor, electron-ion collisions occur more often and with
higher intensity, hence the heating increases.
The current per mm2 conductor cross-section is called current density J.

THE DIRECTION OF ELECTRIC CURRENT
5.2 The Direction of Electric Current The direction of the electrons flowing through a conductor depends on the
polarity of the applied voltage. If this polarity is not changed, the electrons
Direction of Electron Flow always travel in the same direction through the circuit. Thus, the current flows
constantly in one direction and is called DC.
During the experimentation with electrical fundamentals in the last century the
flow direction of positive ions was defined as the general current flow, but the By reversing the power supply, i.e. if it is connected the other way around, the
details were still unknown. Therefore, it was determined that the electric current electrons in the conductor immediately change direction. If the polarity reversal
flows from the positive to the negative pole. This flow direction is designated as of the power supply occurs periodically, i.e. at equal intervals, the electrons
Conventional Current Flow. periodically change flow direction, which means the electrons reciprocate.
Positive Conventional Current Flow or Technical Current Flow A current which periodically changes its flow direction is designated as AC.
Mobile positive charges are found in liquids and gases.
Conventional current flow is the direction of movement of positive charges.
The positive charges in metals, however, are fixed.
In metals, only negative charges i.e. electrons move. For this reason, electron
flow actually occurs in the opposite direction of the conventional current flow.
The flow direction from negative to positive is called electron flow or electron
current flow.
Electron Flow or Physical Current Flow

LIQUIDS AS ELECTRICAL CONDUCTORS
5.3 Liquids as Electrical Conductors 5.3.1 Chemical Effect of Current

Chemically pure water is not a conductor. Tap water consists of Hydrogen and
Oxygen.
A current decomposes water through its components Hydrogen and Oxygen. If

DC is applied, Hydrogen is generated at the negative pole and Oxygen at the
positive pole. The Hydrogen accounts for two thirds of the gas (high
development of gas) and the Oxygen for one third (low development of gas).
However, by adding acids, bases or salt water becomes a conductor and the
solution decomposes. The decomposition of chemical compounds by passing
an electric current through a liquid is called electrolysis.
The conducting substance is called electrolyte (lyo = Greek: I solve). Apart from
the electrolysis, this chemical effect of current is also used in electroplating and
when charging batteries.

APPLICATION OF GASES
5.4 Application of Gases

Ion Currents and Electron Currents
The application of gases in the field of electrical engineering can already be

found in filament bulbs with a higher electrical output (>60W). In order to
effectively protect the filament from burning, oxidising or vaporising, the glass
bulb is filled with gases like Nitrogen, Argon or Krypton. In the case of high-
capacity lamps such as Halogen bulbs, halogens like Iodine or Bromine are
inserted additionally to the other gas fillings in the bulb. The extra fillings have
the effect that vaporised tungsten returns to the metal filament, which ensures a
longer lifespan.
The electrical continuity in gases or metal vapour results in the production of

light. This process is designated as a gas discharge and occurs in gas
discharge tubes such as fluorescent tubes. Gases such as Neon and Helium are
used.
Looking at the atom model of a gas, its structure resembles an accumulation of

freely moving bodies, which appear massive and spherical from the outside.
Due to heat these molecules or atoms (in noble gases) move to and from
random layers without combining with each other. Under normal conditions, the
major part of the gas atoms enclosed in the bulb is electrically neutral. The
electrons of a few atoms, however, are split up by means of external energy
supply (heat, light, and radioactivity). During this process, freely moving charge
carriers (electrons and positive gas ions) are generated. The current increases
in such a way that it has to be limited with a series resistance.
Hence, during the process of gas discharge the current arises from electrons
and positive ions.

ELECTRON CURRENT IN A VACUUM
5.5 Electron Current in a Vacuum

Oscillographs or oscilloscopes provide a visualisation of rapidly varying
processes in electrical engineering, electronics and other sciences.
With the oscillograph, rapidly varying electrical processes can be permanently

recorded. Using an oscilloscope these processes can be visualised but not
recorded.
The electron beam oscilloscope is mainly used today because it is easy to

operate, versatile and shock-resistant.
The technology originates from an invention of K. F. Braun, a German physicist

(1850-1918), the electron beam tube, also called the “Braun” tube.
A simple model of such a tube is an evacuated glass bulb with a cathode

(negatively charged) on one side and an anode (positively charged) on the
opposite side. If the cathode is heated, electrons will be emitted from the
cathode and be attracted to the positive "anode" plate whilst being accelerated
(charge equilibrium).
The German physicist A. R. Wehnelt (1871-1944) developed the technology

further by bundling the electrons and creating an “electron gun”. Today the
benefits can be seen in a variety of applications based on this technique e.g. a
television tube.

CATHODE RAY TUBE CATHODE RAY TUBE

SPECIFIC RESISTANCE PART – 66 M3 CAT B1/B2
6 Specific Resistance
Resistivity, Resistance of Conductors
As all material has an atomic and molecular structure, it opposes the flow of an The resistivity is used to calculate the resistance of conductors of any size.
electric current to a different extent. In order to compare resistances of various
materials, it is necessary to use bodies from these materials, which have exactly
the same dimensions.
The following dimensions are specified for these bodies:
Length: L = 1m
Cross sectional area: q = 1mm2

Temperature 20°C
The resultant resistances values are known as electrical resistivity or specific At a temperature of 20°C a copper wire with the length of 1m and a cross
electrical resistance. It is the lower case Greek letter Rho (ϱ). sectional area of 1mm2 has a resistivity of 0.0178Ω. If the length of the copper
wire is doubled while the cross sectional area of 1mm 2 remains constant, the
Ω x mm² resistivity is twice as high, i.e. 0.0356Ω. A wire three times as long will have a
[ϱ ]= resistivity, which is three times higher.
m
The resistance value R is proportional to the length of the conductor providing
Notice that the unit of the resistivity is not ohm. As the dimensions of the wire is that the cross sectional area remains constant.
L = 1m, q = 1mm². The unit is Ω per m, Ω per mm².
R ̴L
F ̴ Symbol for proportional.

SPECIFIC RESISTANCE PART – 66 M3 CAT B1/B2
ELECTRICAL CONDUCTANCE
6.1 Electrical Conductance

As you are aware, electrical resistance indicates to what extent an electrical This unit is referred to as “Siemens”, the symbol for it is “S”.
current is restricted. The higher the resistance, the more the current is restricted. To indicate components that represent the conductance in a circuit diagram, the
conventional resistor symbol is used. This is because the conductance is the
It can also indicate how effectively current is conducted. This is expressed by reciprocal of the resistance.
the electrical conductance.
Example
High resistance - low conductance
A conductor has a resistance of 5 ohm. What is its conductance?
Low resistance - high conductance
1 1
G = R
= = 0.2S
5Ω
The conductance is 0.2 Siemens.
Ernst Werner v. Siemens (1816-1892), German engineer
Georg Simon Ohm (1789-1854), German physicist
Schematic of Current Path
The conductance is the reciprocal of the resistance.
The symbol of the conductance is G.
1
G=
R

RESISTORS AND THEIR CHARACTERISTICS PART – 66 M3 CAT B1/B2
COLOUR CODES (RESISTORS & CAPACITORS)
7 Resistors & Their Characteristics

7.1 Colour Codes (Resistors and Capacitors)
If you buy a resistor, you are normally not interested in its characteristics like its
material or its dimensions; you only want to know the resistance. Resistor
manufacturers help us by indicating the resistance value and the tolerance value
with a colour code on small resistors. On big resistors the resistance value may
also be printed on.
Each colour represents a value:

WATT SPECIFICATIONS, LOAD CAPACITY OF RESISTORS
7.2 Watt Specifications, Load Capacity of

Resistors
The electrical energy applied to a resistor is converted completely into heat. Due However, these measures cannot be carried out infinitely – that means the load
to the energy supplied the temperature of a resistor material increases. capacity of resistors is limited. The load capacity of such components is defined
as the power that can be applied to the resistor without affecting its function.
The technological and physical properties of the resistor material deteriorate if The load capacity decreases if the component is exposed to a higher ambient
too much heat is applied to it. To avoid destruction, e.g. by burning or melting, it temperature (e.g. thermal problems in circuits). DIN 44050 (Deutsche Industrie
must be possible for the resistor to release heat to its environment. Norm → German Industrial Standard) standardises the power rating values. For
small components these values range between 50mW and 500mW; large wire-
This can be achieved, for example, by increasing the surface while maintaining wound resistors can cope with 100W and more. Besides the rated value of the
the cross-sectional area of the resistor or by thick leads. resistor the load capacity at the ambient temperatures of 40°C and 70°C is often
stated.

TOLERANCES, RESISTOR RANGES
7.3 Tolerances, Resistor Ranges

Resistors are produced with particular rated values according to the IEC
standard range. Each of the ranges has its own particular factor or percentage,
which determines how much bigger a value is than its predecessor, thus
defining the difference between one value and the successive value.
Preferred values are those of the E12 and the E24 range.
Within a decade (i.e. from 1 to 10 Ohm) of these ranges there are 12 or 24

values.
These numbers result from the increase factors associated with the decades.
For the E12 range this factor is 1.2, for the E24 range it is 1.12.
If, for example, the result of a calculation is 500 Ohm, the closest standard
value, i.e. 470, must be used (see figure 2). The same rule applies to the other
standard ranges.
The tolerance of a resistor indicates to what extent it may differ from the rated
value. Hence there is a close connection between IEC–range and tolerance.
The allocation is done in such a way that the sections overlap one another, i.e.
basically no waste is produced.
For the E12- range, for example, the tolerance is 10%.

Tolerance Limit of the E12-Range
IEC-Ranges



POTENTIOMETERS AND RHEOSTATS
7.4 Potentiometers and Rheostats

7.4.2 Rheostats
7.4.1 Potentiometer
A rheostat is used for calibration purposes i.e. one-time settings. It can be
For some purposes it may be necessary to vary the resistance e.g. the volume compared with a potentiometer without a setting knob. Rheostats can be set to a
control of an entertainment system. This type of resistor is called a specific value, using for instance a screwdriver, and then are not touched again.
potentiometer. One example is compass compensation.
So a potentiometer is a variable resistor. In low load potentiometers the resistor

path (a-b) is made from carbon. (C) is just a “pick- up”.

POTENTIOMETERS AND RHEOSTATS

NON-LINEAR RESISTANCE
7.5 Non-Linear Resistance

7.5.1 Voltage-Dependent Resistors (VDR – Varistor)
Principle of operation: In the case of voltage dependent resistors, the resistance

value changes according to the applied voltage.
The resistance of a VDR resistor decreases as the voltage increases, not

depending on the polarity of the voltage.
Schematic symbols:

7.5.2 Temperature Dependent Resistance (Thermistors)

Graph of Resistance versus Temperature
7.5.3 General
Normally, resistors have the same resistance over a wide range of temperature.
They do not change.
For some special purposes a change of resistance with temperature might be

desirable e.g. for the TAT-probe (measuring the air temperature outside an
aircraft).
Generally, there are two possible responses to a rise in temperature: the

resistance either increases or decreases.
Depending on these thermal characteristics there are two thermistor types:
 NTC Resistors (negative temperature coefficient)
 PTC Resistors (positive temperature coefficient)
7.5.4 NTC Resistors
NTC resistors have a negative temperature coefficient (α), so that their

resistance decreases as the temperature increases.
Schematic Symbols The materials used for the production of NTC resistors belong to the group of
semiconductor materials. NTC resistors are polycrystalline mixed crystals made
of iron oxides, cobalt oxides, titanium compounds and specific impurities. If the
temperature rises, more and more electrons escape from their orbits. This
means that the conductivity of the material increases.
NTC resistors are reliable temperature sensors and are largely used for
temperature stabilisation in semiconductor connections.

7.5.5 PTC Resistors

Resistance versus Temperature
PTC resistors have a positive temperature coefficient, so that their resistance
increases as the temperature increases.
Schematic Symbols
PTC resistors are made of certain types of polycrystalline titanate ceramics.
Certain impurities are added to the titanate ceramic. This process is called
doping. If the temperature increases, a depletion zone develops between the
crystals of the material. This depletion zone then causes the resistance to rise.

In aircraft, for example, PTCs are used to measure the ambient

temperature.

ELECTRIC CIRCUITS WITH SEVERAL RESISTORS PART – 66 M3 CAT B1/B2
SERIES CONNECTIONS
8 Electric Circuits with Several So, there are three typical items to a series connection:
Resistors  The voltage provided by the battery is divided between the resistors,
depending on their individual resistance.
8.1 Series Connections  There is only one current.
If resistors are connected in series, the current has to pass all the resistors in
series like water running through hoses. The current, therefore, has only one  The individual resistances should be added together.
way to go. The current is the same in each resistor.
A series connection is also designated as voltage divider. Each resistor has only
a part of the total voltage. This part of the input voltage can be tapped at a
certain point called the “pick-up”.
Here it can be seen that the current has to overcome all three resistors.
That means that the resistances should be added together. The overall
resistance will be:
R TOTAL = R1 + R2 + R3 +…
As Ohm’s Law is always valid, the voltages of each single resistor can be
calculated:
V1 = I x R1; V2 = I x R2; V3 = I x R3…

As the resistors are connected in series the voltages are also in series.
This means that the voltages should be added together in the same way the
resistances are added:
V TOTAL = V1 + V2 + V3 +…

SERIES CONNECTIONS
8.1.1 Kirchhoff’s 2nd Law (Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law)
In a closed path in a circuit the voltage is divided among the resistors in series. When comparing the generated voltages with the voltage drops, it becomes
obvious that they are equal, i.e. all voltages are distributed within the whole
This voltage division is defined in a formula. circuit.
Circuit with Two Power Supplies This voltage division leads to Kirchhoff’s voltage law:
The sum of the voltage drops around a single closed path equals the sum
of the voltage sources.
The voltages of the two power supplies Vq1 and Vq2 are added because they act
in the same direction.
They cause one current I corresponding to the resistors R1, R2 and R3.
The current I then causes voltage decrease in the resistors R1, R2 and R3.
V1 = I x R1; V1 = 0,2A x 20Ω = 4V
V2 = I x R2; V2 = 0,2A x 40Ω = 8V
V3 = I x R3; V3 = 0,2A x 60Ω = 12V

PARALLEL CONNECTIONS
8.2 Parallel Connections

Connecting resistors in parallel offers more than one path for the current. There are three typical items to a parallel connection:
So the current splits up and flows through all available paths. (Instead of only  Voltage is the same to every individual resistor
one path there are several paths) which means an increasing conductor cross
section.  The total current is the sum of all individual currents
 The total resistance is lower than the lowest individual resistance
Each resistor receives part of the current. (With resistors in parallel the area
through which the current can flow increases. That means that the resistance
decreases.)
The total resistance is lower than the lowest individual resistance.

PARALLEL CONNECTIONS
8.2.1 Kirchhoff’s 1ST Law (Kirchhoff’s Current Law)
In a parallel connection there are branch points, called nodes. At such points a Current law
current splits up according to specific principles:
At any point in an electrical circuit, the sum of currents flowing towards
Current Branching that point is equal to the sum of currents flowing away from that point.
With the help of the current law, unknown currents in a node can be calculated.
For example, looking at node A the currents I1 and I2 flow into the node whereas
currents I3, I4 and I5 flow out of the node.
As it turns out, the currents flowing into the node have the same current value
as the currents flowing out of the node.

WHEATSTONE BRIDGE
8.3 Wheatstone Bridge

A Wheatstone Bridge is a type of electrical scale. The voltage at point (a) depends on the ratio of R1 and R2, the voltage at point
It compares the “weight” (resistance) of two resistors and consists of two series (b) Depends on the ratio of R3 and R4. If both ratios are the same the voltage
connections in parallel. measured between (a) and (b) is ZERO. We say the bridge is balanced.
R1 R3
Balance condition is: R2
= R4
In Wheatstone Bridges ratios of resistors are compared. They are used to

measure very small deviations with a very sensitive meter.

WHEATSTONE BRIDGE
Sometimes R1 and R2 are replaced by one potentiometer. This is a common

method of determining the resistance of unknown resistors.

POWER IN CIRCUITS PART – 66 M3 CAT B1/B2
ELECTRICAL POWER
9 Power in Circuits
If the resistance is known, the power can also be calculated without a given
current.
9.1 Electrical Power
V
Power is the rate at which work is performed. For calculations in circuits P = V x I and I = R
electrical power is important. It indicates the amount of energy converted to, for
example, heat (stove) or propulsive output (engine).
I can be replaced by V/R:
Power is an instantaneous value at the time of measurement. Nothing is said
about the total energy consumption (e.g. over 1 hour). V V²
P=Vx R = R
The nameplates of electrical appliances (e.g. electric motors, coffee machines)
basically include the power rating. This is the average value over a particular The power can also be calculated without a given voltage:
period of time. With AC voltage it is necessary to determine the average value,
with DC voltage the power is constant at any time.
P = V x I and V = I x R
If the current is 1 Ampere and the voltage 1 Volt, the converted power is
1 Watt. V is replaced by I x R
Power is the product of voltage and current.

P = I2 x R
P = V x I; [W = V x A]
Example: Hair Dryer
Assume a hair dryer for 230V has a current consumption of 4A.
Its power is 230V x 4A = 920W
What happens if the hair dryer is operated in the USA (115V)?
Since the voltage is cut down by half (according to Ohms’ Law), the current also
has to be cut down by half:
P = 115V x 2A = 230W
If you reduce the voltage by half, you obtain a quarter of the power. If you
double the voltage, you obtain four times the power.

ELECTRICAL POWER
There are two different ways of measuring the electrical power:
 Using a wattmeter:
This is a special meter which consists of a voltmeter and an ammeter in
one housing. It does the multiplying automatically; the indication is in
Watts.
This is known as direct measurement.
 Measuring voltage and current with a voltmeter and an ammeter:

Two separate measurements have to be carried out. The results have to
be multiplied manually. This method of measuring is referred to as
indirect measurement of the power.

ELECTRICAL EFFICIENCY
9.2 Electrical Efficiency

Common Values of Efficiency are:
The efficiency is a measurement of how well a machine converts energy from
one form to another.  Electric-Motor: 80%-90%
Example  Diesel-Engine: 60%-70 %
With regard to a motor, electrical energy is supplied to it and mechanical energy  Petrol-Engine: 50%-60%
is delivered. Hence, the motor converts electrical energy into mechanical
energy.  Aircraft-Engine (Turbine): 50%
This is expressed as efficiency η (eta).  Light bulb: 5%
The efficiency describes the ratio of energy output divided by the energy input.  Loudspeaker: 2%
In other words, it describes the percentage of the supplied energy which is
converted into usable energy. Example
Pout An electric motor has a power consumption of 1000W (according to the

η= nameplate) and the efficiency is 80%. Therefore the power delivered at the
Pin shaft is:
The efficiency can either be expressed as a percentage or as a factor (without a 1000W x 0.8 = 800W
unit).
According to the principle of energy conservation (Physics), energy cannot be

lost. Thus, the energy that cannot be used has to be converted to another
energy form, which is mostly heat.
Since a machine can NEVER deliver more energy than supplied to it, the
efficiency can never exceed 1 (100%)!

ELECTRICAL EFFICIENCY
9.2.1 Efficiency

ENERGY
9.3 Energy
Energy is stored nearly everywhere in nature. For example, if wood is burned, Example
the energy stored in the wood is transformed into heat. Energy can be stored in
several ways. In mechanics two forms are used: An aircraft passenger’s weight is 100kg. The speed of the aircraft is 450km/h.
The speed has to be converted to m/s ⇒ 125m/s
 Kinetic Energy
 1 1 125m 2
Potential Energy W= mv2 = x 100kg x ( ) = 803.75MNm
2 2 s
You will see later on that these two forms of energy are common to electricity
too. Kinetic energy is stored in the electrons whilst current flows (flow of
electrons).
9.3.1 Kinetic Energy
9.3.2 Potential Energy
Kinetic energy is the energy of movement. This means that everything that
moves has energy stored in its motion. It can be calculated: Potential energy is the energy depending on position. If for example a pen is
picked up and lifted 1m, the pen has gained some potential energy. When lifting
1
W= mv² the pen, energy is added to the pen. If the pen is dropped, it gives the energy
2 back as it falls. The potential energy can be calculated like this:
Where W is the energy, m is the mass and v is the velocity. Hence, the energy
stored depends on both mass AND speed. W=mxgxh
Example Where m is the mass, g is the acceleration (9,81m/s2) and h is the height.
An aircraft passenger’s weight is 100kg. The speed of the aircraft is 900km/h. Example
Converted to m/s this equals 250m/s.
An aircraft passenger’s weight is 100kg. If the aircraft flies at an altitude of
1 1 250m 2
10,000m, how much energy is stored in the passenger’s body?
W = 2 mv2 = x 100kg x ( ) = 3125MNm
2 s m
W = m x g x h = 100kg x 9.81 x 10,000m=9.81MNm
If the speed is halved during the approach at the airport, the energy will only be S²
1/4. Potential energy is stored in electrons if there is a voltage (separation of
charges).

ELECTRICAL WORK
9.4 Electrical Work

Work has the same letter and unit as energy. So it is nearly the same. The only
difference is: Work is a change in stored energy.
This means that when passengers are just standing on the ground they do not
store kinetic energy. As the aircraft climbs to 10,000m it performs work.
When the climb is finished, the passengers haves gained 9.81MN of (potential)
energy stored in their bodies.
Electrically this means that the electrical work is the voltage (altitude difference)
multiplied by the charge (weight).
W=VxQ
W is the work, V is the voltage and Q is the charge.
The faster the plane climbs to 10,000m the more power is needed.
W
P=
t
Hence, power is the rate at which work is done OR work is power over a certain
period of time.
Example
The operating time of a motor with 12 Amperes at a voltage of 110 Volt is

2000h/year. What is the price of energy at 10 Pence/kWh?
W = V x I x t = 110V x 12A x 2000h = 2640kWh
2640kWh = £0.10 x 2640
Energy rate = £264/Year

GENERATION OF DC VOLTAGE PART – 66 M3 CAT B1/B2
GALVANIC CELLS
10 Generation of DC Voltage
Example
10.1 Galvanic Cells Zinc-Carbon-Battery
As you already know, in the electrolytes the ions are the carriers of electricity.
Two different materials in an electrolyte give a power supply called a galvanic

cell.
According to their mode of operation, galvanic elements are subdivided

into primary cells and secondary cells.
10.1.1 Primary Cells
Primary cells can immediately supply voltage, without charging them

beforehand; the electrochemical processes taking place are not reversible.
These elements cannot be charged and therefore cannot be reused.
Galvanic cells can only supply a certain current, i.e. a certain charge, over a
certain period of time; their capacity depends on the system and the size.
Capacity is the quantity of electricity (charge Q in Ampere-hours Ah)

GALVANIC CELLS

GALVANIC CELLS
10.1.2 Secondary Cells
Secondary cells are rechargeable. They are used in aircraft, cars, laptops and Lead acid cells have a voltage of 2V when charged and 1.83V final discharge
many other devices. voltage.
In aircraft storage batteries, secondary cells are either lead acid or nickel A lead acid cell consists of positive plates filled with Lead Peroxide (PbO2),
cadmium construction and are connected in series, within the battery case. negative plates filled with pure spongy Lead (Pb) and a liquid electrolyte
consisting of Sulphuric Acid (30%) and Water (70%).
Batteries are capacity rated in Ampere Hours (Ah). For example; a battery with a
capacity of 50Ah supplies a current of 5A for 10 hours. During discharge, the Sulphuric Acid in the electrolyte breaks up into Hydrogen
Ions carrying a positive charge and Sulphate Ions carrying a negative charge.
10.1.3 Lead Acid Cells The Sulphate Ions combine with the negative Lead plate and form Lead
Sulphate.
At the same time they give up their negative charge thus creating an excess of
electrons on the negative plate.
The Hydrogen Ions go to the positive plate and combine with the Oxygen of the
Lead Peroxide and form Water. During this process they also take electrons
from the positive plate.
The final result of this action is that the positive plate has a deficiency of
electrons and the negative plate has an excess of electrons.
When the plates are connected externally by a conductor, conventional current

flows from the positive plate to the negative plate until both plates are coated
with Lead Sulphate and no further chemical action can take place. The battery is
then said to be discharged.
During the charging process current is passed through the storage battery in a
reverse direction.
The Sulphate Ions are driven back into solution in the electrolyte where they
combine with the Hydrogen Ions of the Water, thus forming Sulphuric Acid.
The plates then return to their original composition Lead Peroxide and spongy
Lead and the battery is said to be charged.

GALVANIC CELLS
10.1.4 Nickel Cadmium Cells

Comparison Nickel Cadmium to Lead Acid Battery
Nickel Cadmium cells have a voltage of 1.2V which will fall to 1V when Advantages:
discharged.
 Better power to weight ratio
The external physical structure of a Nickel Cadmium cell is similar to that of a
Lead Acid cell. It is the active material that differs significantly.  Closed circuit voltage remains almost constant throughout discharge
The positive plate is impregnated with Nickel Oxyhydroxide and the negative  Larger capacity
plate is Metallic Cadmium. The electrolyte is Potassium Hydroxide.
Disadvantages:
As the battery discharges, hydrogen Ions from the electrolyte combine with the
negative plates and electrons are released to the plates. The Cadmium is  More costly
converted to Cadmium Hydroxide in the process.
 Larger
At the same time, Hydroxide Ions from the positive Nickel Oxyhydroxide plate go
into the electrolyte carrying extra electrons with them. Thus, electrons are
removed from the positive plate and delivered to the negative plate during
discharge.
The electrolyte remains a solution of Potassium Hydroxide throughout the

process as electrons are being added as quickly as they are being removed.
When a Nickel Cadmium cell is being charged, the Hydroxide Ions are forced
from the negative plate and into the electrolyte. Thus, the Cadmium Hydroxide
of the negative plate reverts to Metallic Cadmium.
Hydroxide Ions from the electrolyte recombine with the Nickel Hydroxide of the
positive plates bringing them back to their original higher level of oxidisation as
Nickel Oxyhydroxide.
The electrolyte level in a Nickel Cadmium battery is at its lowest after discharge.
The level will rise during charging, so must only be refilled when fully charged.

GALVANIC CELLS
10.1.5 Other Galvanic Cells, Round Cells and Flat Cells
There are single cells, designed as round cells and flat cells (coin cells).
The combination of cells is called a battery. Both round cells and flat cells are
manufactured in different sizes and thus different capacities (but with the same
voltage). Depending on their size they have the following trade names and
standard designations according to IEC / JIS (Japan), as well as the stated
dimensions and capacities (e.g. for round cells, see below).
Mercury oxide coin cells: They consist of pressed zinc powder as negative pole
and mercury-oxide (chemical symbol HgO) as positive pole. The electrolyte is
lime potash. The rated voltage is 1.35V. Particular characteristics are a constant
internal resistance during the whole discharging process and a constant voltage
even at continuous operation.
The figure shows the section of a mercury oxide coin cell.
The cell is used for hearing aids, watches, meters, exposure meters, cameras,
pocket calculators etc.
Silver oxide coin cells: They contain silver oxide, lime potash and zinc; they
have a high energy density and a low voltage depression. The rated voltage is
1.55V and they are used for gadgets.
Lithium coin cells: They come in multiple combinations and designs. They have
high rated voltages of up to 3.5V, a high energy density and a high lifespan.
Lithium silver chromate cells are used for pacemakers, for cameras, video
cameras and many other devices.
Nickel Cadmium Batteries: They also come as round cells or coin cells. The
gasses generated during the charging process are bound again.
Hence, the electrolyte does not change. NiCd-batteries are used for notebook
computer, radios, TVs etc.

GALVANIC CELLS

INTERNAL RESISTANCE OF POWER SOURCES
10.2 Internal Resistance of Power Sources

Firstly, the terms “source voltage”, “terminal voltage” and “internal resistance”
with regards to a battery are explained.
A power source (e.g. battery) generates voltage, the so-called source voltage.
Due to the internal resistance of the power source, not the total source voltage
is available at the terminals, but only the so-called terminal voltage.
In a voltage generator operating off-load (open-circuit operation) no current

flows and, therefore, the terminal voltage (V) is the same as the source voltage
V0.
In a voltage generator operates on-load or in other words if current flows

(increasing current flow) the terminal voltage decreases. The terminal voltage
decreases at a higher current, because the internal voltage drop across the
generators internal resistance increases. So this happens because the power
sources have an internal resistance, Ri.
In order to determine the behaviour of a generator in an electric circuit, the

internal resistance is added as a schematic symbol in the circuit diagram. The
result is the equivalent circuit of the generator, i.e. the representation in a
simplified electric circuit.
If the terminals of the battery are short-circuited, i.e. they are directly connected
to each other, a high current flows in the circuit, this is called short-circuit
current.
The short circuit current is only limited by the internal resistance of the battery.
The total source voltage drops at the internal resistance.
The internal resistance of many power sources is very low, which can cause
very high short circuit currents. These currents would quickly destroy the power
source.
To achieve a reasonably stable terminal voltage when there are load variations,
the choice and combination of power sources is important (voltage adjustment
and current adjustment). A power supply unit, for instance, contains additional
components such as voltage regulators and load resistors. These components
ensure a constant voltage and current which is necessary for electrical
equipment.

INTERNAL RESISTANCE OF POWER SOURCES
The terminal voltage V is equivalent to the generated voltage V0 reduced by

the voltage drop
V1: V = V0 – V1 = V0 − I × R1
V
I=
R2
200mV
I=
4kΩ
V 1 = I x R1
V1 = 50µA x 1kΩ
V1 = 50 x 10ˉ6 x 1 x 10³ V
10.2.1 Influence of the Internal Resistance of a Power Source V1 = 50 x 10ˉ³ = 50mV
As mentioned earlier, the resistance of a power source is designated as internal
resistance (Ri). V = V 0 – V1
V0 = V + V1
The size of the internal resistance depends on the type of power source. The V0 = 200mV + 50mV
internal resistance of a battery cell, for example, is 0.01Ω. The voltage between V0 = 250Mv
the terminals of a power source depends on the size of the internal resistance
and the current.

POWER SOURCES IN SERIES & PARALLEL
10.3 Power Sources in Series and Parallel

10.3.1 Voltage Generators (Cells) in Parallel The total current is the sum of the individual currents.
If like terminals of power sources are connected to each other, a parallel The total resistance is lower than the lowest individual resistance.
connection is created.
The voltage across parallel branches is constant.
By connecting like power sources in parallel the voltage remains constant, but
the current in the power sources decreases, i.e. the total current carrying Parallel connection of power sources is applied if the required current exceeds
capacity increases. the permitted load of a single power source (overload).
Note: For this reason, generators in power plants are connected in parallel.
If switch 1 is operated, a current of I2 = 2A flows through the power source. If
Note:
both switches are operated, a current of 1A flows through each of the two power
These rules apply for like power sources, connecting unlike power sources in
sources.
parallel causes an unintended circulating current.
The total current is 2A for both power sources, the total voltage is 2V for each
power source.


10.3.2 Series Connections of Voltage Generators (Cells)
Generally speaking, if power sources or cells are connected in series, parallel or

in both, a battery is created.
Connecting unlike terminals of power sources will create a series connection.
Voltage measurements can easily prove that the total voltage is the sum of the
voltages of all individual [circuit] components.
The series connection of power sources increases the voltage.
The current across a series circuit is constant, i.e. the current carrying
capacity is the same in each cell.
The total resistance of a battery is equivalent to the sum of the internal

resistances of all individual [circuit] components. Therefore a series connection
increases the total resistance.
For a battery with a workload the internal resistance acts on the current,
according to the resistance value.


CAPACITORS PART – 66 M3 CAT B1/B2
CAPACITANCE
11 Capacitors
11.1 Capacitance 11.2 Capacitors
If a voltage is applied to two opposite plates, the plates will become charged and Capacitors are components that have a certain desired capacitance and they
energy will be held between them in an electric field. The amount of charge usually consist of two metal plates or metal foils that are insulated from each
which can be held depends on the plate area, the distance between the plates other by a material which is known as the dielectric. The materials used for the
and on the applied voltage. The absorbed charge is proportional to the applied dielectric increase the strength of the electric field. They increase the charge
voltage (Q~V). The influence of the plate sizes, the distance between the plates, and thus the capacitance of the capacitor. Each material used as a dielectric
and other design dependent factors influencing the capacity of the charge, are has a particular dielectric constant.
summarised in a quantity.
Schematic symbols:
This quantity is referred to as capacitance and its unit is the Farad.
Acronym = F
As
[C]= =F
V
A capacitor has a capacitance of 1 Farad, if the current is 1 Ampere at a voltage
of 1 Volt.
In reality, 1 Farad is a huge value of capacitance, so typical values in electrical

circuits would be in micro, nano or pico Farad.
Capacitance is the proportional factor between Q and V:
Q=CxV

CAPACITOR CONSTRUCTION
11.3 Capacitor Construction

11.3.1 Mechanical Dimensions Another common method of capacitor construction is rolling the plates. In this
case too, both sides of the plates are used and the capacitance is increased.
As you already know, the capacitance depends on three items:
 Area of overlap of the plates
 Distance between the plates
 Dielectric
It is calculated by:
ƐxA
C=
d
As two plates with large surfaces are not practical, the plates are usually cut into
several pieces and arranged side by side. Then the total amount of the area
remains the same but the dimensions of the capacitor change.
The right hand capacitor is more practicable then the left one. But there is
another advantage: both the plates in the centre of the capacitor use both sides.
This is an additional increase of the area used and therefore an increase of

capacitance.

11.3.2 Capacitors in Parallel 11.3.4 The Dielectric
In the previous figure it can be seen that the plates that were cut into smaller The space between the dielectric plates will not be filled with air but with some
pieces are connected in parallel. But it was said that their capacities should be dielectric material. As the dielectric material can (normally) stand higher voltages
added together. Thus, when connecting capacitors in parallel the areas of the than air, the voltage that can be applied to the capacitor is higher.
plates are added together and therefore the individual capacities may also be
simply added together. This principle is also used for measuring the amount of fuel in the tanks of an
aircraft. We use a tubular capacitor consisting of two concentric tubes in which
the fuel is used as the dielectric. It will fill the space between the tubes. As the
dielectric constant of fuel is 2.7 (air has 1), the capacitance varies due to the
amount of fuel or air inside the tube.
The water in the tank has to be drained regularly, because water would highly
falsify the measurement. Water has a dielectric constant of 80.
C = C1 + C2 +….
11.3.3 Capacitors in Series
When capacitors are connected in series it appears to the circuit as if the

individual distances between the plates have been increased. This decreases
the total capacitance.
The sum of the capacitances is smaller than the capacitance of the

smallest individual capacitor.
1 1
C= + +…
C1 C2

11.3.5 Paper or Film Capacitors 11.3.6 Electrolytic Capacitors
Between the paper foil or the plastic film (dielectric) there are two conducting In contrast to the capacitors mentioned above, the electrolytic capacitor has only
layers. These can consist of metal foil or an evaporated metal layer. This type of one aluminium foil as positive electrode. The second conducting layer is a
capacitor is non-polar and can be used with direct or AC voltage. There are thickened or solid electrolyte that makes the conducting connection (negative
paper or film capacitors for all capacitance values. electrode) with the housing possible. The dielectric forms a thin Aluminium
Oxide layer. Therefore the electrolytic capacitor is polarised. If it is connected to
DC voltage with the wrong polarity, or if it is operated with AC voltage, the
dielectric is destroyed (short circuit). Electrolytic capacitors with DC voltage are
used where high capacity is needed in a confined space (flashguns, capacity
filtering of DC voltage etc.).

11.3.7 Variable Capacitors
Capacitors can be used in various circuits to accept or reject certain frequencies

of input. If the capacitance can be varied then the circuit could be tuned to select
a certain frequency or band of frequencies. In the capacitor shown below left the
capacitance can be varied by turning the shaft and varying the area of overlap of
the plates, this would be found in old fashioned radio sets. The variable
capacitor shown below right would be used as a trimmer for setting or calibration
of a component or system.
Variable Capacitors 3 x 500 pF Trimer 50pF

CHARGING / DISCHARGING OF CAPACITORS
11.4 Charging / Discharging of Capacitors 11.4.2 Time Constant of Charge
The higher the capacitance, the longer the charging time will be. The higher the
11.4.1 Principle of Charging
resistance, the longer the charging time will be.
When connecting a completely discharged (new) capacitor to a battery, the
These two items together are called time constant of charge.
initial current will be extremely high, because the capacitor has no voltage.
t=Rx C
So, for limiting this initial current we always use capacitors with a resistor in
series. In that case the initial current depends only on the resistor. This constant also describes how a capacitor is charged. You have already
learnt that the current (speed of charge) decreases with the capacitor’s voltage
increasing. The course of the graph is called e-function.
The charge formula will be:
In a series connection the voltage of the battery is divided between the loads.
When first switching on, the capacitor is empty so it has no voltage so the whole
battery voltage has to be consumed by the resistor. As Ohm’s Law is always
valid, the resistor limits the current. Initial current is:
V
I=
R
In this example, the initial current will be 1A.
As the capacitor gets charged, voltage rises. The voltage of a resistor and
capacitor together are the sum of the battery voltage. This means: The higher As t is a time, we say that after the time t the capacitor is 63% charged.
the capacitor voltage the lower the resistor voltage. After 5 x t it is charged completely.
Example At discharge the current looks the same as above, only the voltage will not rise
but fall the same way the current does.
The capacitor voltage is 4V. So the resistor voltage must be 6V. But this also
affects the current: Accident Prevention Regulations
V 6V
I= = = 0.6A Charged capacitors are sources of danger. They can cause electric shocks,
R 10Ω particularly if the voltage exceeds 65 Volt. Capacitors must always be
discharged before starting to work.
Finally: The more the capacitor gets charged, the lower the current will be.

CAPACITOR TESTING
11.5 Capacitor Testing

Visual inspection of capacitors is limited to looking for bulging of the casing and Another failure which sometimes occurs is excessive equivalent series
electrolyte leakage. resistance.
To test a capacitor, an ohmmeter can be used. The capacitor charges from the This can be caused by a defective lead to plate contact, resistive leads or
internal battery of the ohmmeter. Select [Rx1] or [Rx10] for small values, <1uF) resistive plates and occurs under AC conditions only.
and [Rx100] or above for a large value capacitor (>1uF).
More than 40% of all defective capacitors have excessive leakage current with
First of all, discharge the capacitor by shorting the capacitors leads together. electrolytic capacitors being particularly susceptible.
Place the positive probe of the ohmmeter to the positive lead of the capacitor, Dielectric absorption, which makes up 25% of defects, occurs mainly in
and the negative probe to the negative lead. The meter pointer should move to electrolytic capacitors when they do not completely discharge during use and
zero resistance, then swing to infinity as the capacitor charges. Discharge the retain a residual charge.
capacitor again and repeat the test this time touching the negative probe to the
positive lead. The meters’ pointer should move to zero and then swing close to
infinity. These results indicate that the capacitor is probably OK. If a capacitor
has an open-circuit (fault), you will get an infinity resistance on both readings.
If it is shorted (fault), you will get zero or near zero reading and it will never
swing to infinity on either reading. A good capacitor that can store a charge with
less leakage will show an infinity resistance reading, which means no current
flow, after it is fully charged.
This test is satisfactory unless the capacitor value is very small when the
charging time will be extremely fast. If this is the case then a dedicated LCR
tester is required.
Capacitor failures can be categorised into two main areas:
Catastrophic failures:
Generally caused by a short circuit through dielectric breakdown or open circuits
caused by connection failures.
Degradation failures:
Usually caused by a gradual decrease in leakage resistance resulting in an
increase in leakage current or an increase in equivalent series resistance or
dielectric absorption.

CAPACITOR TESTING

MAGNETISM PART – 66 M3 CAT B1/B2
PERMANENT MAGNETS
12 Magnetism
12.1 Permanent Magnets
Long ago it was found that some materials can exert a force of attraction on Magnets are made of steel, steel alloys or certain other permanent magnet
other materials. This characteristic is called magnetism and the material is materials.
known as a magnet.
All magnets have areas where their attractive force is particularly high which are
called the poles.
In the middle of a magnet, there is an area with no attractive force which is

called the neutral zone.
The cause of this attraction is an invisible magnetic field which originates in the
magnet. These lines of magnetic force are called flux lines and they are closed
loops continuing even inside the magnets, they are said to leave the magnet at
the north pole and enter at the south.
Position of the Poles and Neutral Zone on a Bar Magnet

PERMANENT MAGNETS
Magnets will try to point to the earth’s north pole with one end and to the south
with the other end. This proves that there is a magnetic field around the earth
and that the earth is also a permanent magnet. This characteristic is used for
magnetic compasses and has been used as an essential part of navigation for
centuries.

PERMANENT MAGNETS
12.1.1 Cause of Magnetism
Some materials in the earth’s crust have magnetism as an inherent quality but It can be seen that the magnetism cannot be isolated in one area, the whole iron
most do not. Some materials, iron for instance, are not naturally magnets but bar is responsible for the magnetic force. Therefore the flux lines must continue
can be made into magnets. Iron consists of many very small magnets, the so- inside the iron (as previously mentioned).
called Weiss domains which are pointing in all directions in a random pattern.
Regardless of how many pieces a magnet is broken into, each piece retains a
From a distance it can be seen that the iron bar is not magnetic, because the north and south pole and is itself a magnet.
magnetic fields cancel each other out.
If a piece of metal is placed inside a magnetic field, the small magnets in the iron
align in one common direction and form a large magnetic field and the effect is
hat the whole material is now a magnet. This is now known as a permanent
magnet.

PERMANENT MAGNETS
12.1.2 Demagnetisation
If magnetism has to be removed from a work piece or a tool, it has to be

demagnetised.
This can be done by the following methods:
The item that is to be demagnetised is slowly moved away from a strong

alternating magnetic field. For large items a very strong field is required. This
procedure is known as degaussing and is often necessary for components after
a lightning strike.
 Mechanical force: By mechanical force (shocks or dropping) the small

magnets are removed from their ordered position and the overall effect
of the permanent magnet is lost. To fully demagnetise an item, the
procedure has to be frequently repeated.
 Heating beyond the Curie temperature. The disadvantage is that the

magnetism may recur, if the temperature falls below the Curie
temperature. For iron this temperature is 769°C. If the magnet is
regularly exposed to high temperatures though, the magnetism can be
permanently lost.

PERMANENT MAGNETS
12.1.3 Safety Precautions for Handling and Storing Magnets 12.1.5 Material Groups
 Strong permanent magnets (magnetically hard materials) are sensitive Materials are divided into three different types depending on their magnetic
to shocks. They lose their magnetism. Avoid intense vibration. characteristics:
 Permanent magnets should be kept away from external magnetic fields.
 Ferromagnets
 Temperatures of up to 250°C can cause a reduction of the magnetic
flow. If the temperature decreases again, the previous state is reached  Paramagnets
again. Higher temperatures (>250°C) can cause a permanent
demagnetisation.  Diamagnets
 If magnets are stored for a longer time, the magnetic circuit must not be
Each type has some special effect on the magnetic lines of force.
changed, e.g. by removing the magnet from its housing. This can be
avoided by short-circuiting the magnet with a ferromagnetic material
Ferromagnets
beforehand. These ferromagnetic components are known as “keepers”.
You have already learnt that ferromagnets are used for magnets as they can be
12.1.4 Magnetic Shielding magnetised and they also attract magnetic lines of force. They have a low
(magnetic) resistance to these lines of force. As the lines of force always try to
A steel ring shows the principle of shielding magnetically sensitive devices from use the easiest path, they run through the ferromagnets instead of through the
external magnetic fields. This method is commonly used in practice. air. Therefore, the lines of force get drawn away from the air and concentrate
inside the ferromagnets.
For this purpose the device is enclosed with a good magnetic conductor.
Typical materials are Iron, Nickel and Cobalt.
The magnetic conductor attracts the flux lines to itself, because it has a high
permeability and thus the component inside the ring should not be subjected to Paramagnets
any magnetic interference.
Paramagnets also have a lower (magnetic) resistance than air, but in contrast to
ferromagnets their resistance is nearly the same as air. So, only very few lines
of force get drawn away from the air and into the paramagnets. The
concentration of these lines of force is, therefore, very weak.
Typical materials are Oxygen, Aluminium and Platinum.
Diamagnets
Diamagnets have a higher resistance than air. So the lines of force try to avoid
passing through that material because they always want to take the easiest
path. They are pushed out of the diamagnets and into the air.
Typical materials are Copper, Gold and Zinc.

PERMANENT MAGNETS
12.1.6 Application Examples
Proximity Switch
Proximity switches monitor the position of components such as the landing gear
and undercarriage doors. When a target (actuator or slug) approaches, a switch
(Reed Switch or Electronic Switch) is operated in a sensor unit without a
mechanically or electrically conducting connection between the target and the
sensor.
Reed Switch
If the target is not in proximity to the sensor unit, the metal tongues of the reed
switch are open. If the permanent magnet of the target is brought close to the
sensor unit, the ends of the reed switch are magnetised and attract each other.
The operation of the reed switch can be tested with an ohmmeter and a
permanent magnet. This test should only be performed with the system power
supply removed.
There are normally open (NO)-type and normally closed (NC)-types.

ELECTRO MAGNETS
12.2 Electro Magnets

12.2.1 Magnetic Effect of Electric Current
If a current flows through a conductor, a magnetic field is generated around the

conductor. Every current produces a magnetic field.
Corkscrew Rule
The corkscrew rule assists in remembering the direction of the magnetic field The convention which is normally used to denote the direction of current flow in
which forms around the conductor. If the corkscrew is viewed from above as it is a conductor is to visualise the current flow as an arrow. When the current is
screwed in it will appear to turn clockwise and this is the direction of the flowing away from the observer and into the page then the view of the arrow
magnetic field. The direction in which it moves, i.e. away from the observer, is would be of the flights and is represented by a cross. When the current is
the direction of current flow in the conductor. flowing out of the page then the view would be of the point of the arrow and
would be represented by a dot.

ELECTRO MAGNETS
12.2.2 Superposition of Magnetic Fields If the currents are flowing in opposite directions, the wires repel.
Having two conductors in close proximity makes their magnetic fields overlap.
Depending on the direction of the current flow, they repel or attract just like
magnets.
If the direction of the current is the same, the magnetic fields overlap and form
one large magnetic field causing the wires to attract.
If a current carrying wire is wound to a coil then the magnetic fields of the
individual windings will be combined to a common stronger magnetic field.
This magnetic field now has a north pole and a south pole like a permanent
magnet.

ELECTRO MAGNETS
12.2.3 Electro Magnets – Units of Magnetism
Magnetomotive Force (Magnetic Tension)
In a current carrying conductor the current is the cause of the magnetic field
around it. If the conductor is wound into a coil the effect is of several conductors
side by side and the magnetic effect is multiplied.
The total field results from the total current multiplied by the number of turns.
Θ = I x N [A]
Magnetomotive force is denoted by the Greek letter theta and the unit is Amps.
Magnetic Field Strength
The magnetomotive force produces a magnetic field in a coil. You can compare
it with an electrical field. As you know, at a constant voltage the field is stronger
the shorter the distance is.
This is valid in a magnetic field, too. At a constant magnetomotive force the field
strength is higher the shorter the lines of magnetic flux are.
Θ IxN A
H= = =
l l m
Field strength is calculated by dividing the current by the length.
Magnetic Field & Average Length of Flux Lines (l)

ELECTRO MAGNETS
Magnetic Flux Density
The flux density is the density of the magnetic flux lines in a coil. Therefore the
flux density is a measure of the energy density in the coil. The flux density
depends directly on the strength of the magnetic field.
The stronger the magnetic field, the higher the flux density.
Magnetic Flux
The overall effect of a magnet can be calculated by multiplying the magnetic flux
density B with the pole area A. The result is then the magnetic flux (phi). The
unit of magnetic flux is the Weber (Wb).
The magnetic field of a current-carrying coil can be amplified by a multiple, if an
iron core is inserted into the coil cavity. ϕ = B x A [Wb]
This core has to be a good magnetic conductor. This property is referred to as
magnetic conductivity (permeability).
The permeability μ indicates the ability of a material to conduct magnetism.
The permeability is included in the magnetic flux density B.
The unit B is called Tesla (T).
Wb
B = H x µ[ ]
m²

ELECTRO MAGNETS
12.2.4 Hysteresis Curve
The hysteresis curve for a material shows the relationship between the field
strength applied (H) and the flux density (B) in the material and is shown on the
graphs (right). By moving the slider on the variable resistor (R) we can vary the
magnitude and direction of the current flowing in the coil (N).
Initially, starting with a core which is new and has no residual magnetism, we
find ourselves at the centre of the graph. As a current is applied to the coil there
will be a magnetic field in the coil which is shown by the increase in the value
H on the graph (movement to the right). This applied current will cause the flux
density in the core to rise as well which is shown by the increase in the value B
(movement up). As the current is increased, the flux density increases until the
core can no longer hold any more flux and is said to be saturated.
This saturation is visible on the graph as a flattening out of the line.

ELECTRO MAGNETS
If the current applied to the coil is now gradually reduced to zero, we can see a
corresponding drop in the field strength and a drop in flux density. However, the
flux density does not reach zero when the current does, it still has some residual
magnetism. This residual magnetism is called magnetic remanence and is
represented by the value Br on the graph. If we were to now remove the core
from the circuit, it would be slightly magnetic.
If the direction of the applied current is changed and the current increased, the
flux density will continue to drop until it reaches zero. The current required to
take the core back to zero is known as the coercive force and is represented
by Hc on the graph.

ELECTRO MAGNETS
The current is increased in the opposite direction until saturation is reached in

the opposite polarity. Again, no matter how much more current is applied there
can be no increase in the flux density.
As the current is decreased to zero again, there is no more current flow. Again,
magnetic remanence remains in the core.
The current flow in the opposite direction removes the residual magnetism – i.e.
the magnetic remanence.

ELECTRO MAGNETS
If the current is further increased, the course of the graph again reaches the Magnetic ability of Materials
saturation point. The diagram shows a loop. It is called the Hysteresis Loop.
Depending on the material it can be rather easy or difficult to magnetise (or
The values H = 0 and B = 0 can no longer be reached together so the curve is demagnetise) a component. This characteristic can be seen from the field
called Initial Magnetisation Curve (shown below). strength that is required to magnetise or demagnetise. Materials that are difficult
to magnetise and demagnetise are known as magnetically hard. Materials that
are easy to magnetise and demagnetise are known as magnetically soft.
Hysteresis Loop of Magnetically Hard Materials
Hysteresis Loop of Magnetically Soft Material

INDUCTION PART – 66 M3 CAT B1/B2
BASIC PRINCIPLE (FARADAY’S LAW)
13 Induction
13.1 Basic Principle (Faraday’s Law)
If a conductor is moved through a magnetic field then a voltage will be induced
into the conductor. This induction will only occur if there is relative movement
between the conductor and the magnetic flux lines.
As this electromagnetic induction is the principle of operation of electrical

generators, it is also often referred to as the generator principle.
The magnitude of the induced voltage depends on:
 Magnetic flux density (B)
 Relative speed between the conductor and the magnetic field
 Effective length of the coil within the magnetic field. This can be
increased by winding the conductor into a coil.
The direction of the induced voltage depends on the direction in which the
conductor is moved and on the direction of the magnetic field.
13.1.1 Construction
Power Generation by Moving a Conductor in a Magnetic Field
A coil consists of wire windings which are either self-supporting or wound onto a
core.
The magnetic properties of a coil can be influenced by the material of the core.
As it has already been explained, a ferromagnetic material can conduct many

more flux lines than the air.

BASIC PRINCIPLE (FARADAY’S LAW)
13.1.2 Direction of Current Flow
Right-Hand Rule
Open your right hand, held in such a way that the flux lines coming from the
north pole hit the palm and thumb pointed in the direction of the conductor
movement.
Now the fingers show the direction of the induced current (conventional current
flow), and thus induced voltage.
Lenz’s Law
When moving the conductor through a magnetic field, a voltage is induced in the
conductor. As a result, a current arises. This current will produce a magnetic
field around the conductor which then overlays the pole field.
The field around the conductor is aligned in such a way that the common
(resultant) field becomes denser in front of the conductor (Figure 2).
Therefore, the resultant field opposes the relative motion of the conductor. Fig 1
Lenz’s Law
The current caused by an induced voltage is always such that it opposes

the cause of the induction.
Fig 2

MUTUAL INDUCTION
13.2 Mutual Induction

13.2.1 Transformer Principle
Two coils are wound around a common soft magnetic iron coil core but have no The material of the core also has an effect on the voltage, because it must
electrical connection (figure). “conduct” the magnetic field.
If the voltage in the first coil (primary) changes, the current will change and the The higher the permeability (magnetic conductivity) of the core, the higher the
strength of the magnetic field established by this coil will also change. induced voltage in the second coil.
The second coil (secondary) is now subjected to a changing magnetic field. The higher the frequency the smaller the components can be at the same
voltage.
This change causes induction into the second coil. According to Lenz’s Law the
current acts opposite to the source.
The induced voltage depends on three factors:

 Amount of current change
 Rate of current change (frequency)
 Effective length of conductor (number of turns)
Graphical Representation of the Flow Changes and the Resultant Voltages
Voltage Generation by Changing of Flow Direction

MUTUAL INDUCTION
Application
Current transformer CT
CTs are single-, two- and three-phase current measuring transformers.

They allow the measurement of AC currents without breaking the current-
carrying leads.
The primary side (input line or feeder line) is the current-carrying lead.
The secondary side is the coil on the iron core. The current is now stepped from
the input coil down to the output coil according to the transformer ratio between
input and output coil.
Caution
CTs must always have a load (ammeter). Otherwise a voltage of 100,000V

would be applied, if the terminals are open. Moreover, the CT would become too
hot and then destroy itself.

SELF INDUCTION
13.3 Self-Induction
After switching on the coil, the current does not immediately reach its maximum
value, because, at first, the current takes some time to establish the magnetic
field.
As the field grows it induces a voltage and consequently a current into the coil
which opposes the supply. This voltage causes a delay in the build-up of circuit
current.
When the current is switched off the magnetic field will collapse and induce a
voltage into the coil, this time current will flow in the direction of the supply
current. This process is known as self-induction.
 Regarding a coil at AC voltage, the self-induced voltage reduces the

current consumption. The faster the magnetic field changes (frequency
f) and the higher the inductance (symbol L), the higher the self-induced
voltage will be.
 A coil has an inductance (L) of 1H (Henry) when current flows through
the coil, changing at the rate of one ampere per second, this induces
one volt across the coil.
 The efficiency of a coil and thus its inductance depends on the square of
the number of turns (N), the permeability (magnetic conductivity of iron),
the cross-sectional area of the coil A and the average length of flux
lines.
13.3.1 Coil Switched Off
When switching off coils, special caution is needed. At the moment of switching
off the coil, the current change is extremely high because the change of the
magnetic field is very rapid. Therefore a collapsing magnetic field will, for a short
time, induce a large amount of energy in the coil. If there is no passage for the
induced current, an extremely high voltage will arise. This voltage can be ten Vs
times higher than the voltage originally applied. µ: permeability in
Am
As a precaution, freewheeling diodes are often integrated parallel to the coil.
N: Number of turns
In normal operating mode they are poled in reverse direction. When switching
off, the voltage is opposite. Therefore the diodes are in forward direction and the L: Average length of flux lines
energy of the magnetic field can flow away. However, sometimes high voltages
are intended, e.g. in the ignition coil of a car. A: Cross-sectional area of coil in m2

SELF INDUCTION

ALTERNATING CURRENT (AC) PART – 66 M3 CAT B1/B2
QUANTITIES OF ALTERNATING CURRENT
14 Alternating Current (AC)

14.1 Quantities of Alternating Current Characteristics of AC: the current I varies in direction (polarity) and in quantity in
AC is the type of current that is commonly used in the mains supply in the field the circuit over a period of time t. In the positive alternation (positive half-wave)
of power engineering. the current flows in one direction, from the 0 reference line up to the positive
peak (+ Ip) and from + Ip down to 0. Then the current flows in the opposite
Characteristics of DC: the current I leads the flow in the same direction at the direction and rises from 0 to a negative peak value (- Ip) and falls from - Ip to the
same quantity (size) over a period of time t. 0 reference line, as shown in the negative alternation (negative half-wave). The
polarity and current change then repeats periodically. An alternation is
equivalent to one-half cycle.
The positive and the negative alternation together constitute one AC cycle.
The graphical representation is called graph or line chart.

QUANTITIES OF ALTERNATING CURRENT
14.1.1 Cycle Time of the AC or Voltage
As shown in the line chart the AC sine waveform repeats according to the cycle
time T. T is also called period of oscillation.
[T] = s
14.1.2 Frequency f
The frequency of AC is the number of complete cycles, i.e. oscillations, in one

second.
Frequency is expressed in Hertz Hz (KHz, MHz, and GHz) and means one
oscillation per second.
Frequency is also defined as the reciprocal of the cycle time T.
1
Frequency (f) =
Cycle Time (T)
1
[f ]= = s¹
s
The time for one cycle to complete is called cycle time T.
The higher the frequency, the shorter the cycle time.
The lower the frequency, the longer the cycle time.
The frequency shows the number of cycles completed in one second.

SINUSODAL AC VOLTAGES & CURRENTS
14.2 Sinusoidal AC Voltages and Currents

14.2.1 Amplitude 14.2.3 Peak-to-Peak Values Vpp
The peak value of a wave in an AC voltage or an AC is called amplitude. Peak-to-peak value means twice the peak value, in other words the value
measured between positive maximum value and negative maximum value of a
It is measured from the zero reference line to the positive or the negative peak sine curve.
value of a voltage or a current. The unit of the amplitude is therefore either volt
or ampere.
ipp = ip x 2
Vpp = Vp x 2
If unknown AC and AC voltages are measured with a measuring oscilloscope,

the following formula applies:
ipp
ip=
2
i(t) is the instantaneous value which results from i(t) = Ip x sin ω t

The same is valid for V(t) = Vp x sin ω t.
v instantaneous voltage
vp peak voltage
sin ω t (or sin α) sine of angle of rotation
14.2.2 Peak values

The positive or negative maximum value which a sine curve can assume is
called the peak value. The peak values are Ip and Vp.
If the peak value of the induced voltage is given, the instantaneous voltage (v),
which is induced at any angle of rotation, can be calculated. The time-
dependent quantities can be identified by using small letters.

SINUSODAL AC VOLTAGES & CURRENTS
14.2.4 Root Mean Square Values (RMS Values)
The root mean square value, also called RMS value, of an alternating current or
alternating voltage is the value which, when applied to the same resistance R,
will produce the same power as an equivalent DC or an equivalent DC voltage.
The RMS value of a sinusoidal AC or an AC voltage is calculated by dividing the

peak value Ip or Vp by √2 or multiplying it by 0.707.

GENERATION SINUSOIDAL VOLTAGE
14.3 Generation of a Sinusoidal Voltage

If a wire loop spins in a magnetic field, a sinusoidal AC voltage is induced in the
wire loop. The size of the AC voltage depends on the angle of the wire loop
[towards the magnetic field]. This voltage is tapped with slip rings.
The generation of a sinusoidal voltage can be shown easily in a vector diagram.

14.3.1 Frequency and Rotational Speed
The frequency of a sinusoidal AC depends on the rotational speed of the

generator. The frequency of the output voltage increases as the generator
speed increases.
If the magnetic wheel of a bipolar device (one pole pair) rotates 50 times per
second, an AC with a frequency of f = 50Hz is generated. If a quadripolar device
with two pole pairs at the same rotational speed is used, the frequency will be
twice as high.
The more pole pairs there are in a generator with the rotational speed remaining
constant, the higher the frequency of the output voltage.
f=p×n
f Frequency ( 1/s )
p Number of Pole pairs
n Rotational speed (revolution frequency f rev = rpm)
Example
As you know, the AC generators of aircraft supply an AC voltage with a

frequency of 400Hz.
How many pole pairs are necessary in a generator of a B737 which is driven at
6000rpm?

14.3.2 Derivation of an AC Phasor
The illustration of the AC phasor is based on the principle of drawing a sine

curve.
When drawing, the length of such a phasor is the peak value, according to the
chosen scale (phasors representing alternating quantities must be marked by
underlining; e.g. Vp).
Imagine the phasor Vp rotating counter-clockwise around its origin with an

angular frequency.
The projection of Vp on the axis a - b then is the instantaneous value.
V = Vp x sin ω t
These instantaneous values, which are drawn over the ω t- axis, show the line
graph.
Hence, the phasor Vp is the simplified representation of the sinusoidal AC

voltage.
To make it even more simple, the voltage phasor can be drawn as an RMS
value (V = 0.707 Vp) in the chosen scale.

14.3.3 Addition of Alternating Quantities
The ACs in the schematic below pass zero at the same time and pass the peak In an AC circuit two sinusoidal quantities – e.g. voltage and current as shown in
value Ip at the same time. Such ACs are said to be in phase. the diagram – are in phase if they both reach their peak values and zero at the
same time.
In a line chart the addition of two ACs is done by adding the two instantaneous
values Ig = I1 + I2.
In the phasor diagram the sum of two phasors is achieved by adding both
phasors regarding size and direction:
Îg = Î1 + Î2

14.3.4 Addition of Out-of-Phase Alternating Quantities
Phase Shift Lagging Phases
In an AC circuit two sinusoidal quantities – e.g. voltage and current as shown in A phase shift can be lagging (-φ) or leading (+φ). There always has to be a
the diagram – are out of phase (time-shifted) if each of them reaches its peak reference phase. In the diagram above V is the reference phase.
values and zero at a different time.
I1 leads the reference phase V by + φ.
The value of the phase shift is expressed as the phase angle ω in degrees.
I2 lags the reference phase V by - φ.


If ACs with the same frequency f or the same angular frequency ω do not pass In the phasor diagram it can be seen which one of the two voltages in spin
the zero passages or the peak values at the same time, they are out of phase direction ω leads or lags. Sine waves do not always start at the zero degree
(with each other). point on the time axis. If a sine wave starts before the zero degree point then it
is said to lead the sine wave that starts at zero degrees.
In our example below the voltages V1 and V2 are out of phase by f = 60°.
In order to add the ACs in the line chart, the associated instantaneous values
Hence V2 leads V1 by f = 60° or, in other words, V1 lags V2 by f = 60°. are added, as described before: Vg = V1 + V2
φ is called phase angle. In the phasor diagram the phasors Vp1 and Vp2 are added according to size and
direction. When doing so, it is not important whether the sum Vptot = Vp1 + Vp2 or
the sum Vptot = Vp2 + Vp1 is used.


14.3.5 Different Alternating Quantities in One Diagram
Different alternating quantities with the same frequency can be illustrated in a

common phasor diagram and in a common line chart.
In the following diagram an AC voltage and the associated AC are illustrated.


NON-SINUSODAL AC VOLTAGES & CURRENTS
14.4 Non-Sinusoidal AC Voltages and Currents

Periodic voltages and currents, which do not show the sinusoidal waveform in
the voltage time or current time diagram, are referred to as non-sinusoidal AC
voltages or currents.
If the area between the sine curve and the horizontal time axis is the same
above and below this axis, the voltage is an AC voltage and the current is an
AC.

NON-SINUSODAL AC VOLTAGES & CURRENTS
If the area between sine graph and horizontal time axis is not the same above
and below this axis, DC and AC voltage overlay (superimposed voltage) or DC
and AC overlay (superimposed current).
[Positive alternation = area above time axis]
[Negative alternation = area below time axis]
The DC voltage overlays the AC voltage and so a superimposed voltage is created.
The DC overlays the square AC and so a superimposed current is created.

MULTI-PHASE SYSTEMS
14.5 Multi-Phase Systems

So far we have only mentioned single-phase systems. This was necessary to
explain the electrical fundamentals of AC technology in a simple way.
In practice, however, single-phase is not the only system used. It was found that
multi-phase systems produced greater quantities of power than the single-phase
transmission systems.
How can a multi-phase system be constructed?
Three equal coils are attached to the stator of an experimental generator.
Each of these three coils, in which a voltage is to be generated, will be

positioned differently. The three coils are displaced by an angle of 120°.
To each coil a moving coil voltmeter is then attached, the zero point of which is
in the middle of the scale.
The pointers of the three voltmeter will point once to the right and once to the
left during one revolution of the magnetic wheel.
If the magnetic wheel is rotating, an AC voltage is induced in each of the three

coils. Though they have the same quantity, each of the voltages is temporally
out of phase by 120°.
The three coils form the so-called phase windings of the generator. In each of
these phase windings a voltage is generated.
The coils supply three separate single-phase AC circuits.
The start of the coils are denoted by U1, V1, W1 and their ends with U2, V2,
W2.
Outgoing leads are denoted with the letters L1, L2, L3. In aircraft the phases are
denoted with A, B, C.

MULTI-PHASE SYSTEMS
The schematic diagram below shows a so-called three phase open circuit, where,
in the example, each phase is equally (symmetrically) loaded with three bulbs.
This symmetrical load ensures that the same current flows in all six leads. But in
the three circuits, which are independent from each other, the currents like the
voltages are out of phase by 120°.

MULTI-PHASE SYSTEMS
If neutral conductors are connected to the three systems as in the figure below,
a standard three-phase system is obtained with a star or Y connection. Under
symmetrical load, as mentioned earlier, the currents in the neutral conductor
cancel each other. Therefore no current flows.
In aircraft three-phase systems two different voltages can be measured. One

phase referenced to ground is 115V, voltage measured phase to phase is 200V.
Thus, one of the advantages of three phase is that two different voltages are
available.
It can be seen that all three phases are connected to a common return line
which in practice would be the airframe. If all three phases have the same
loading and there is no phase shift in the circuits, then nothing will be flowing in
the neutral line.
If there is a complete imbalance in the three loads but they are all purely ohmic
loads (real loads) then there could be a current flowing in the neutral line equal
to the current in one phase of the generator.
If there is a completely unbalanced load also with a phase shift then it is

possible that the current in the neutral line could be the value of two phase
currents.
This system allows the designer to place a component between one phase and
neutral and get 115V or between two phases and get 200V. It is not possible to
connect all three phases together as this would cause a short circuit of the
generator.

MULTI-PHASE SYSTEMS

AC RESISTORS PART – 66 M3 CAT B1/B2
OHMIC RESISTANCE APPLIED TO AC VOLTAGE
15 AC Resistors
15.1 Ohmic Resistance Applied to AC Voltage
An ohmic resistance (bulb 230V / 60W) is connected in series with an ammeter From the RMS values of voltage and current the effective resistance can be
to a DC voltage source of 230V. At the same time, a similar bulb with an equal determined according to Ohm’s law.
resistance is connected in series with an ammeter to an AC voltage source of
230V / 50Hz. The result is: In an AC circuit with effective resistance Ohm’s law is valid:
Both light bulbs glow with the same brightness and consume the same Effective resistance: R = VR / IR
quantity of electricity. Thus, at both DC voltage and AC voltage, the bulbs
have the same resistance and the same effect. Example
A resistor which has the same effect in both AC circuit and DC circuit, is referred A heating device applied to 230V consumes 2A. What is the resistance?
to as effective resistance R or ohmic resistance R and is said to be a real load.
V = 230V
It shows an effect, i.e. it converts electrical energy into another form of energy
(heat, light, mechanical energy). I = 2A
If the graphs of both current and voltage in an AC circuit with effective resistance
V 230V
are made visible by an oscilloscope, the following is observed: The sinusoidal R= = = 115Ω
voltage causes a sinusoidal current. The zero passages and the peak values of I 2A
voltage and current coincide, [i.e. the course of both graphs is exactly the
same].
In an effective resistance, current and voltage are in phase.

OHMIC RESISTANCE APPLIED TO AC VOLTAGE

INDUCTANCE APPLIED TO AC VOLTAGE
15.2 Inductance Applied to AC Voltage

A coil with a winding resistance of 50 Ohm is connected in series with an The course of current and voltage in an AC circuit with a pure inductive
ammeter to a DC voltage source of 230V. An identical coil is connected in series reactance (ideal coil) is made visible with an oscilloscope.
with an ammeter to an AC voltage with 50Hz.
A coil is wound with such a thick wire that its winding resistance can be
The coil resists the AC to a higher extent than the DC. Besides the ohmic neglected with respect to the inductive reactance.
resistance (winding resistance) R a coil in an AC circuit has another resistance
called inductive reactance XL. The inductive reactance is the result of an AC in a Sinusoidal AC voltage causes sinusoidal AC current.
coil causing a self-induced voltage. This self-induced voltage opposes the
applied voltage and therefore reduces the effective voltage causing the current It can be seen that, regarding their zero passages, current and voltage are out
to decrease, too. This means that an additional resistance is created. of phase.
The inductive reactance is the result of self-induction. Following the [rhythm of] In a circuit with only inductive reactance (ideal coil) the current lags the
frequency, the AC continuously builds up a magnetic field and then breaks it applied voltage by 90° (i.e. 1/4 cycle).
down again. In doing so, the coil draws energy, stores it in the magnetic field for
a short time and then conducts it back to the mains. [The energy is pushed back Phase shift φ = 90°
and forth, without visible effect. Therefore the energy is called reactive energy
and the resistances causing the reactive energy are called reactance, in this The reason for the phase shift is the influence of the self-induction of the coil.
case inductive reactance.]

INDUCTANCE APPLIED TO AC VOLTAGE
As the self-induced voltage opposes the applied voltage, the initial build-up of
current is delayed. In a purely inductive circuit the inductive reactance can be
determined from the RMS values of voltage and current by applying Ohm’s law.
Inductive reactance XL = VL / IL
The inductive reactance increases as the magnetic resistance is increased by
using iron, i.e. as the inductance and also the frequency increases.
The higher the inductance of the coil and the higher the frequency, the higher
the inductive reactance of a coil.
Inductive reactance XL =2πfL

XL Inductive reactance in Ω
f Frequency in Hz
L Inductance in H
With the higher inductance the coil becomes more effective, i.e. in the coil a
higher self-induced voltage is induced opposing the applied voltage.
This causes the current to decrease and therefore the resistance to increase.
The higher the frequency of the AC also means that the current changes more
quickly and again, a higher self-induced voltage occurs.

CAPACITOR APPLIED TO AC VOLTAGE
15.3 Capacitor Applied to AC Voltage

If the graphs of current and voltage of an AC circuit with capacitive reactance
A capacitor with a capacitance (C) of 10μF is connected in series with an are made visible with an oscilloscope, the following becomes evident:
ammeter to a DC voltage source of 230V. An identical capacitor is connected to
an AC voltage source of 230V. The sinusoidal AC voltage causes a sinusoidal current. However, the zero
passages of current and voltage are out of phase.
In a circuit with only capacitive reactance (ideal capacitor) the current

leads the applied voltage by 90° (i.e. ¼ Cycle).
Phase shift φ = 90°
In an AC circuit a capacitor generates a phase shift opposite to that of a coil

(inductor).
The phase shift between current and voltage can be proved as follows:
If a DC voltage is applied to a capacitor, an initial current (charging current)

flows for a short time. Changing the voltage, e.g. increasing it, again causes a
As already mentioned, the capacitor blocks DC (except for the short initial charging current to occur for a short time. A decrease in voltage also causes a
current impulse). In a DC circuit the capacitor has an infinite resistance. current, but in the opposite direction (discharging current).
In an AC circuit the capacitor does not block the current flow but lets it pass, i.e.
the capacitor operates in a similar manner to a resistor.
In an AC circuit a capacitor behaves like a resistance. This resistance is referred

to as capacitive reactance Xc.
Every time the polarity in an AC circuit changes, the capacitor is charged and
discharged. Therefore the initial current permanently rises and falls. The
capacitor in an AC circuit behaves like a resistor, because a constant current
flows.
The capacitive resistance is also referred to as capacitive reactance, because

the capacitor draws energy (reactive energy) during the charging process and
stores it for a short time in the electric field. During the discharging process the
stored energy is conducted back to the supply. The energy is pushed back and
forth, without visible effect.

CAPACITOR APPLIED TO AC VOLTAGE
Basically, a current only flows, if the applied voltage changes. Looking at an The higher the capacitance (the capacity of the capacitor), the easier the
AC voltage it can be seen that it changes continually. As long as the voltage capacitor can be charged with a certain voltage, i.e. the higher the current and
rises, a charging current flows. As soon as the voltage falls, a discharging thus the lower the resistance. A higher frequency means that the voltage
current flows in the opposite direction with respect to the charging current. changes occur more quickly and the capacitor has less time to charge and thus
presents less resistance to current flow in the circuit.
The current has reached its peak value, when the highest change in voltage
occurs, i.e. at the zero passage of the voltage. The current is zero, if the The capacitive reactance of a capacitor decreases as the capacitance of the
supplied voltage does not change. This happens at the peak values of the capacitor increases and as the frequency increases.
voltage.
Thus, the following occurs at the same time: voltage = zero and current = peak,
voltage = peak and current = zero. The capacitive reactance can be determined 1
from the RMS values of the supplied voltage and the current, if Ohm’s law is Xc =
2π x f x C
applied: capacitive reactance XC = VC / Ic
Example
A capacitor with a capacitive reactance of XC = 500 Ohm is applied to an AC

voltage source with V = 400V.
What is the current?
400V
Ic = = 0.8A
500Ω

INFLUENCE OF FREQUENCY ON REACTANCE
15.4 The Influence of the Frequency on the

Reactance
15.4.1 Effective Resistance
In theory, the frequency has no influence on the resistance value of an ohmic

resistor. Nevertheless, slight differences can be found in practice:
Effective resistances have constant values in the range of 0Hz to approximately

1000Hz.
If the frequency is higher than 1000Hz, the resistance rises.
The reason for the increased resistance is the so-called skin effect. This effect is
the result of eddy currents inside the conductor causing a change in AC towards
the conductor’s edge. Thus, the cross sectional area of the conductor decreases
and the resistance increases.
However, the effective resistance is NOT frequency dependent.
15.4.2 Inductive Reactance
The inductive reactance increases in proportion to the frequency of the applied

AC.
XL = 2π x f x C
15.4.3 Capacitive Reactance
The capacitive reactance increases in inverse proportion to the frequency.
1
Xc=
2π x f x C
The effect of changes in frequency on the values of resistance and reactance
can be seen on the graph below.

INFLUENCE OF FREQUENCY ON REACTANCE

INPEDANCE
15.5 Impedance
The total resistance of a coil in an AC circuit consists of the effective resistance It is not that easy to calculate the impedance from the effective resistance and
(winding resistance) and the inductive reactance. the inductive reactance. Basically, you have to deal with two quantities which
are out of phase by 90°. Thus, the calculation rules for magnitudes with phase
This kind of resistance is referred to as impedance, symbol Z. shift apply.
According to Ohm’s law, the impedance can be determined from the RMS
values (measurement values) of total AC voltage and total AC.
Impedance Z = V/I
If you invert this equation to I, you obtain the so-called Ohm’s law for AC circuits.
I = V/Z
Applying this law, total current, total voltage or total resistance (impedance) in
every AC circuit can be determined.
Example
A coil with effective resistance and reactance is applied to 230V AC voltage and
consumes a current I = 0.5A. What is the impedance of the coil?
230V
Z= = 460Ω
0.5A

INPEDANCE

CIRCUITS WITH AC RESISTORS
15.6 Circuits with AC Resistors To make it simpler, RMS values are used for current phasors and voltage
15.6.1 Resistor and Coil in Series phasors. Before drawing phasor diagrams, the scales for current and voltage
are defined. The basis for drawing phasor diagrams is the electrical quantity that
The series connection of an effective resistance and an inductive reactance the resistances have in common, i.e. the quantities which are identical.
shows the equivalent circuit diagram of a coil.
As all other phasors refer to it, this quantity is referred to as reference phasor.
For further examination of the series connection only the RMS values of current
and voltage are used. Regarding series connections, the current is the reference phasor, because it is
the same for all resistances.
Equivalent Circuit Diagram of a Coil
Phasor Diagram for the Series Connection of R and XL
Series Connection of R and XL
The reference phasor, which is the current I here, is placed in the horizontal
reference axis.
The voltage phasor VR (effective voltage) has the same direction as the current
phasor I. The voltage phasor VL (reactive voltage) is perpendicular to the current
phasor and points up (leading the current I).
The same current I flows through both resistors (RMS values).
In the phasor diagram the RMS values and the reactive values are always
The current causes a drop in effective voltage VR across the effective resistance perpendicular to each other.
R and a drop in reactive voltage VL across the reactance XL.
It can be seen from the phasor diagram that the applied total voltage V cannot
The voltage VR acts in the same direction as the current flows through the be determined any more by simply adding the voltage values, but by geometric
resistance R. addition.
Hence, the voltage VR is in phase with the current I. In the reactance the current
A common (algebraic) addition of both voltage values would lead to incorrect
I lags the voltage V by 90° or, in other words, the voltage VR leads the current I results.
by 90°.

Geometric Addition of Voltages Arithmetic Addition of Voltages
For this purpose we draw a parallelogram. The resulting diagonal line represents In a right angled triangle each side can be separately calculated using
a geometrical sum. From this sum the size and the direction can be determined. Pythagoras’ theorem.
The geometric addition of the phasors VR and VL leads to the total voltage V Condition for a voltage triangle:
(applied voltage). The phasor length indicates the amount of voltage V, the
position of the phasor indicates the phase angle between the applied voltage V V² = VR² + VL²
and the current I. The current leads the voltage by a phase angle of 0° and 90°.
Total Voltage
V = √VR ² + VL ²
We invert the equation to obtain: Effective voltage:
VR = √V² - VL²
Reactive Voltage
VL= √V² - VR²
In the phasor diagram of the series connection, the three voltages rotate evenly
around a common centre of rotation. Hence, the position of the three voltages
towards each other stays the same. To make it even simpler, the three voltages
can be combined to a voltage triangle. This is achieved by moving the reactive
voltage VL parallel to the arrowhead of the effective voltage VR. The phasor V
remains the same in both size and direction. As RMS values and reactive values
are always perpendicular to each other in the phasor diagram, the voltage
triangle is always a right angled triangle.

The Voltage Triangle
Another way to calculate the sides and therefore the angles of a right angled
triangle are to use trigonometric functions:
VR
cos φ = V
VL
sin φ =
V
Effective voltage
VR = V x cos φ
Reactive voltage
VL = V x sin φ

The Impedance Triangle
If, in a series connection consisting of an effective resistance and an inductive The impedance (equivalent resistance) of a series connection results from the
reactance, the three voltages are divided by the common current I, the result is: geometric addition of the different individual resistances.
The impedance can be determined by drawing (design of the impedance

 Impedance: triangle to scale) or by calculation (Pythagoras’ theorem or trigonometric
V functions).
Z=
I
Another possibility is to determine the impedance from total current and total
 Effective resistance: voltage.
VR
R= Examples
I
What is the value of the impedance of a coil if the effective resistance is 30 Ohm
 Inductive reactance: and the inductive reactance 90 Ohm?
VL
X L= (Solution by drawing and by calculation)
I
Given: R = 30 XL = 90Ω
The three resistances are proportional to their associated voltages. If all sides of Required Z
the voltage triangle are divided by the amount of the current I, the result is a
right angle triangle (the impedance triangle). This triangle is similar to the
voltage triangle. Using the trigonometric functions gives:
Effective resistance:
R = Z x cos φ
Reactance:
X = Z x sin φ
Z = √R2 + XL²
15.6.2 Resistor and Capacitor in Series Phasor Diagram
If a resistor and a capacitor are placed in series with each other and subjected To make it easier, the phasor diagram can be expressed as a voltage triangle.
to an AC, then the same sinusoidal current with the RMS value I flows through
Regarding the voltage triangle for the series connection of R and X C, all the
both components. This current causes the effective voltage VR to be developed
voltages can be determined by drawing or by calculation. This can be done by
across the resistor and the reactive voltage VC to drop across the reactance. The
applying Pythagoras’ Theorem or the trigonometric functions.
voltage VR is then in phase with the current I. In the capacitor the current I leads
the voltage VC by 90° or, in other words, the voltage lags the current by 90°.
Current I and voltage VC are out of phase by 90°.
Total voltage:
V= √VR2 +VC2
Effective voltage:
VR = V x cos φ
The reference phasor is the current I. It is placed in the horizontal reference

Reactive voltage:
axis. The voltage phasor VR (effective voltage) points in the same direction as
the current phasor; the voltage phasor Vc (reactive voltage) is perpendicular to VC = V x sin φ
the current phasor I and points downwards (lagging the current I). Regarding a
series connection of R and XC, the total voltage (size and direction) results from
the geometric addition of the phasors VR and VC. The current leads the voltage
by a phase angle between 0° and 90°.

The division of the three voltages by the common current I will give the values of
resistance.
Similarly the resistance triangle develops from the voltage triangle by changing
the scale (division by I).
Effective resistance, reactance and impedance can then be determined by

drawing (Pythagoras’ theorem or trigonometric functions).
Impedance:
V
Z= I
Effective Resistance:
VR
R= I
Capacitive Resistance:
VC
XC =
I

15.6.3 Real Capacitors
Connection Current Triangle

The parallel connection of an effective resistance and a capacitive reactance The applied sinusoidal voltage V drives the effective current IR through the
represents the equivalent circuit diagram of a capacitor with loss. For all parallel effective resistance R and the reactive current IC through the reactance XC.
connection the following applies: The total current is the sum of all individual
currents. The voltage at each individual resistance is the terminal voltage.
Effective current IR = V / R
Capacitor with Loss Reactive current IC = V / X C
The current IR acts in the same direction as the applied voltage V, i.e. IR and V
are in phase. The reactive current IC leads the applied voltage by 90º.
For parallel connections the voltage is the reference phasor, because it is the
same for both resistances. The voltage V is placed in the horizontal reference
axis. The current phasor IR (effective current) points in the same direction.
The current phasor IC (reactive current) is perpendicular to the voltage phasor

and points upwards (leading the voltage V).
Parallel Connection of R and XC The geometric addition (parallelogram) of the two individual currents results in
the total current I with size and direction.
Phasor diagram for parallel connection of R and XC
The current leads the voltage by a phase angle between 0° and 90°.

Because the capacitor will always have a loss, the phase angle will always be
less than 90°.
By moving the current phasor IC in the phasor diagram to the arrowhead of the
effective current phasor IR, we obtain the current triangle, which is a right-angled
triangle.
By applying Pythagoras’ theorem or the trigonometric functions, we derive from

the current triangle:
I2 = IR2 + IC2
IR = I x cos φ
If the currents of the parallel connection are divided by the common voltage V,
we obtain the conductance values (admittance, conductance, susceptance),
which can be illustrated in a conductance triangle.
As these conductance issues are not important in practice, they are not further
illustrated in diagrams or in formulae.

15.6.4 Resistor, Coil and Capacitor in Series
Connection
The common sinusoidal current I causes the effective voltage drop VR and the
reactive voltage drops VL and VC. Note that in the coil the voltage leads the
current and in the capacitor the voltage lags the current.
Phasor Diagram
The current I is the reference phasor. The voltage phasors VL and Vc have a
phase angle (with reference to each other) of 180º. They act in opposite
directions to each other and can therefore be subtracted from one another.
Together with the voltage phasor VR, the geometric sum of all individual voltages
represents the phasor of the total voltage. From the right angled triangle, the
following relationships can be seen:
2 2
V = R + (VL - VC)2
V = √VR2 + (VL - VC)² Voltage Triangle

By dividing all individual voltages by I, you obtain all the resistances, and also
for example the impedance (total resistance) Z.
V
Z=
I
In the same way the voltage triangle leads to the similar resistance triangle.
The following equation can be derived for the impedance:
Z = √R2 + (XL - XC)²
From this equation and the three resistance triangles the following can be seen:
If the inductive reactance XL is higher than the capacitive reactance XC, the
circuit is mainly inductive.
If it is opposite, when the capacitive reactance XC is higher than the inductive

reactance XL (XC > XL), the circuit is mainly capacitive. If both reactance’s have
the same size, the circuit operates like an Ohmic load. The total resistance is
then the lowest and the current the highest.

15.6.5 Resistor, Coil and Capacitor in Parallel

From this equation as well as from the three current triangles we can see the
Connection following: If the current in the inductive reactance is higher than in the capacitive
reactance, the circuit is inductive. If it is higher in the capacitive reactance, the
circuit is capacitive. If the reactance’s (currents) have the same size, the circuit
operates purely as an ohmic load. The current in the circuit is then at its
minimum.
Phasor Diagram
By geometric addition of all individual currents, we obtain the phasor of the total
current. From the right angle we can derive: The voltage V is the reference phasor. The current phasors IL and IC have a
phase angle of exactly 180° and can therefore simply be subtracted from each
other. In order to determine the currents, the following equations are used:
Effective Current IR = V / R
Inductive Reactive Current IL = V / X L
Capacitive Reactive Current IC = V / X C
The Conductance Triangle
By dividing the current triangle by the voltage V, we obtain the similar

conductance triangle.


POWER AND WORK IN AC CIRCUITS
15.7 Power and Work in AC Circuits

This kind of power is hence referred to as true power (also known as effective
15.7.1 Power at True Load power).
The power phase relationship between voltage and current for DC P = V x I is It can be seen that the true power of the AC varies constantly between zero and
also valid for AC, if related to the instantaneous values of current and voltage. its maximum value. At frequencies lower than 50Hz this would lead to light
fluctuation in light bulbs but as the bulb cools down quite slowly, this fluctuation
cannot be detected at 50Hz.
Hence: P=VxI
As V and I are time dependent quantities, P will also depend on the time. True power can be calculated using the formula: P = V x IR;
The diagram below shows the course of voltage and current in a circuit with a P = Power in W
purely ohmic load, ie. No phase shift. Multiplying the related instantaneous
values of voltage and current gives the instantaneous values of the power. V = Voltage in V
IR = Effective Current in A
The unit for true power is Watt (W). The true power of an effective resistance is
the product of the RMS values of voltage and current.

15.7.2 Power at Inductive Load
The current lags the voltage by 90°. Multiplying the related instantaneous values Reactive power: QL = V x I L
of current and voltage leads to the power graph. Again, the power graph has a
sine waveform with twice the frequency, which consists of positive and negative
alternations. As positive power is equivalent to the power drawn from the mains, QL inductive reactive power VAr
negative power must be fed back into the mains accordingly.
V voltage V
IL inductive reactive current in A
The unit of reactive power is VAr.

(VAr = Volt - Ampere - reactive).
15.7.3 Power at Capacitive Load
The current leads the voltage by 90°. Multiplying the related instantaneous
values of current and voltage leads to the power graph. Again, the power graph
has a sine waveform with twice the frequency, which consists of positive and
negative alternations. The positive power builds up an electric field. The power
then is fed back to the mains when the capacitor discharges. The energy
oscillates permanently between supply and load.
The energy is not converted into effective energy (heat, light, mechanical
energy).
Thus, it is called capacitive reactive power. The true power is zero.

The power briefly drawn from the supply builds up a magnetic field. The power,
The average value of the capacitive reactive power is:
which is then fed back into the mains, is generated when the magnetic field
collapses.
Reactive power: Q C = V x IC
The energy permanently oscillates between supply and load.
QC Capacitive reactive power VAr
This power is not converted into effective energy (heat, light, mechanical
energy). V Voltage V
It is called inductive reactive power. The true power is zero. IC Capacitive reactive current in A
The average value of the inductive reactive power is: The capacitive reactive power is the product of the RMS values of voltage and
capacitive reactive current.

15.7.4 Power in Connections with Effective Resistance and

Inductive Reactance
The series connection of effective resistance and inductive reactance represents The current lags the voltage (in this example by 60°).
the equivalent circuit diagram for a coil with loss.
Multiplying the related instantaneous values of current and voltage leads to the
power graph. Again, the power graph has a sine waveform with twice the
frequency. Positive and negative power values occur but they have different
values, the power graph mainly runs above the time axis. This shows us that
more power goes into the circuit than out, so some energy is used by the load
and some is returned to the supply. If the vectors for true power and reactive
power are resolved then, the resultant is apparent power symbol S.
Apparent power: S =VxI
S Apparent power in VA
V Voltage in V
I Current in A
The unit for apparent power is the volt-ampere (VA). It is named apparent
power, because it only apparently power and true power are not the same.

The Power Triangle, Power Equations
The phasor diagram for the series connection of inductive resistance and AC generators and transformers must mainly deliver an output of true and
reactance leads to the voltage triangle. reactive power. Therefore, they must be designed for true and reactive power
i.e. apparent power.
If you multiply the voltage triangle by the current I, you obtain the similar power
For this reason the power of AC generators and transformers is given in VA.
triangle.
Contrary to that, name plates of engines indicate the mechanical output power
It can be concluded that the result of the geometric addition of true and reactive delivered to the shaft, because this is the subject of interest.
power is the apparent power.
The electrical part, including transmission lines, however, must also be designed
By applying Pythagoras’ theorem and the trigonometric functions the following for the apparent power.
relationship becomes clear:
S² = P² + Q²
Apparent Power
S = √P2+ Q²
True Power
P = √S2 - Q²
Reactive Power
Q = √S - P²
2
With S = V x I follows:
P = V x I cos φ
Q = V x I sin φ

15.7.5 Power Factor
As it can be seen in the expression P = S x cos φ the true power depends on

the factor cos φ.
Therefore this factor is called power factor.
(True Power)
Power Factor =
(Apparent Power)
P
cos φ =
S
The power factor indicates the percentage of apparent power S that is converted
into true power P.
The closer the power factor cos φ comes to 1, the higher the true power is.
The closer the power factor comes to zero, the higher is the portion of apparent
power contained in the reactive power.
The power factors are usually the result of an inductive reactive power (motors,
transformers, chokes for fluorescent lamps).
In practice, the aim is a power factor cos φ that is as close as possible to 1,

because the true power then is as high as possible. This means that less
reactive power (reactive current) has to be transported to the load. The reactive
power is an additional load on generators, transformers and the wiring.


RESONANCE IN AC CIRCUITS
15.8 Resonance in AC Circuits

Impedances and apparent currents in AC circuits depend on the reactance’s. 15.8.1 Series Resonance
As these reactance’s themselves depend on the frequency, the impedances and A series resonant circuit consists of a coil and a capacitor connected in series.
apparent currents are determined by the frequency of the applied voltage.
Example
A coil with an iron core and a capacitor have the same reactance at 50Hz. They
XL = 2π x f x L are connected in series and an AC voltage of 230V at 50Hz is applied.
Current, total voltage, voltage of the capacitor and voltage of the coil are all
measured.
1
XC =
2π x F x C
Here, a special case can occur. Inductive reactance’s and capacitive
reactance’s can cancel out each other and therefore current and voltage can be
in phase.
The current is then only limited by the ohmic resistance of the connection.
This special case only occurs at a certain frequency and is referred to as

resonance.
1
fres=
2π x √L x C
As in a series connection the voltages are proportional to their reactance’s, the

inductive reactive voltage must equal the capacitive reactive voltage as long as
the reactance’s are the same, i.e. at resonance.
Conditions for resonances: XL = XC; VL = VC

The two voltages cancel each other out. As the result the series connection at Note
resonance then only acts like a pure effective resistance. The impedance at
resonance is equal to the effective resistance. The resultant resistance of the The voltage across the coil (also called choke) and the voltage across the
resonant circuit is called resonance resistance R Res. capacitor are equal. Every individual voltage is significantly higher than the
applied voltage. The current is high. The procedures in the circuit can be
explained by a phasor diagram or by an impedance triangle. For this purpose,
the equivalent circuit diagram of the series resonant circuit has to be applied.
ZRes = R = RRes
Beside the capacitive and inductive reactance, the equivalent circuit diagram
also includes the loss resistance R, which is represented by the effective
resistance. The loss resistance is almost the same as the winding resistance of
the coil.
The phasor diagram also shows that the phase shift at resonance is zero.
φ = 0°
As the resistance is low at resonance, the current will increase, if the total
voltage remains the same. According to this the inductive voltage drop
VL = I x X L
and the capacitive voltage drop At resonance the total resistance of the series resonant circuit is at its minimum
and the current in the lead is at its maximum. Voltage superelevation (voltage
VC = I x X C resonance) occurs at coil and capacitor.
show maximum values. These voltages are, so to speak, amplified or The voltage superelevation can cause an electric breakdown of the capacitor
superelevated when resonance occurs. Therefore this is designated as voltage and the coil winding.
superelevation or voltage resonance.

Only at resonant frequency XL is equal to XC.
At frequencies below the resonant frequency XL = 2 π f L is lower than The frequency at which resonance occurs can be determined by applying the
XC = 1 / (2 π f C) i.e. the capacitive reactance dominates. At frequencies above condition for series resonance.
the resonant frequency XL is higher than XC and the inductive reactance
dominates. XL = X C
The graphical representation of impedance and current depending on the Then you insert:
frequency gives the resonance curves. For the resonant frequency the series
resonant circuit is, so to speak, a short circuit. If this circuit is connected in XL = 2π x f x L
parallel to the load, the circuit keeps the resonant frequency away from the load.
1
As the circuit absorbs this frequency, it is also called absorption circuit. XC=
2π x f x C
1
2π x f x L=
2π x f x C
Therefore, the resonant frequency is:
1
fres =
2π x √L x C
The resonant frequency is expressed in Thomson’s oscillation formula for series

resonant circuits as well as for parallel resonant circuits.

15.8.2 Parallel Resonance
The parallel resonant circuit consists of a coil and a capacitor connected in The procedures in the circuit can be explained by a phasor diagram or, to be
parallel. more precise, by a current triangle.
Example Beside the capacitive and inductive reactance the equivalent circuit diagram
also includes the loss resistance (effective resistance) R. The loss resistance is
A coil with iron core and a capacitor have the same reactance at 50Hz. They are almost the same as the winding resistance of the coil.
connected in parallel and an AC voltage of 230V at 50Hz is applied.
Total voltage and individual voltages are measured.
Note
The current in the coil and the current in the capacitor are equal.
Each individual current is significantly higher than the total current.

As it is quite difficult to draw a phasor diagram for this equivalent circuit or to If the reactance’s are equal (condition of resonance), the individual inductive
carry out calculations, usually a simplified equivalent circuit diagram is used. and capacitive currents are equal at constant voltage V. The individual currents
act in the exact opposite direction and therefore cancel each other.
The circuit then acts just as a purely ohmic load (effective resistance).
This effective resistance is the resonance resistance as it is given in the
equivalent circuit diagram.
The total current in the lead is lowest at resonance, because the reactive
currents in the parallel resistances cancel each other out completely so that only
a pure effective current remains.
That also means that at resonance the total resistance (resonance resistance) is
highest, in fact significantly higher than the inductive or the capacitive parallel
resistance. Therefore the current passing coil and capacitor is higher than the
current passing the leads.
At resonance the total resistance of the parallel resonant circuit is maximum and
the total current in the leads is minimum. A current superelevation (current
resonance) occurs in coil and capacitor.
Below the resonant frequency the connection is inductive, as the inductive
reactance is lower and hence the inductive current is higher than the capacitive
current.
Above the resonant frequency the capacitive current is higher.

The resonance curves have the same course as the impedance Z and the
current I in the lead depending on the frequency.
The parallel resonant circuit is like an infinite resistance for the resonant
frequency.
If the parallel resonant circuit is series connected to a load, the resonant circuit
will keep the resonant frequency away from the load.
The parallel resonant circuit blocks the frequency and is therefore known as the
rejector circuit.
The parallel resonant circuit can be used to remove a certain frequency

(resonant frequency) out of many frequencies. This is done by short-circuiting all
other frequencies except the resonant frequency.

FREQUENCY DEPENDENT 2-PORT NETWORKS PART – 66 M3 CAT B1/B2
GENERAL
16 Frequency Dependent Two-Port

Networks
16.1 General 16.3 CR-Elements
In electronic circuits (e.g. amplifiers) AC voltage connections often have to be
Looking at the effects of a component, or at a whole circuit rather than looking at made between points with different DC voltage potentials. The following
the component itself, can sometimes simplify electrical engineering. The circuit requirements apply to these connections:
is considered a “black box” with unknown contents. Only the effect of the black
box is regarded. Usually the circuit has an input port and an output port, i.e. four
 The AC voltage should be fully transmitted
terminals. Therefore it is called two-port network.
 There must not be a DC across the connection
So-called coupling capacitors meet these requirements. The capacitor and the
series connected resistor together form a CR-element or RC-element. This
combination is considered as a two-port network.
The frequency independent resistance of the series-connected capacitor results

in a frequency dependent behaviour of letting pass.
The frequency response is graphically represented by the dependency of the

ratio of the output voltage to the frequency VA = f (f).
Many different two-port networks are possible. Only two-port networks

consisting of a capacitor and a resistor are considered below.
16.2 Filters
Filters suppress certain frequencies out of a frequency composition and let
certain other frequencies pass undamped.
Filters are frequency dependent two-port networks that block certain frequencies
and let other frequencies pass only slightly damped.
CR-filters are commonly used because of their compact design and their lower
price. LR-filters are very rarely used.

GENERAL
Example 16.3.1 High-Pass Filters
If a RC / CR series connection is applied to AC voltage, the total voltage is The CR-element is referred to as high-pass filter because it lets voltages with
divided between resistor and capacitor. This division is done proportional to the high frequencies easily pass.
resistances. The value of the effective resistance does not depend on the
frequency, whereas the resistance of the capacitor depends on the frequency.
Hence, the resistance ratio of C and R and the resulting voltage ratio are also
dependent on the frequency.
16.3.2 Low-Pass Filters
At low frequencies the resistance of the capacitor is very high. A very large part
of the voltage will drop across the capacitor.
The RC element lets low frequencies pass and heavily damps high frequencies.
Because the low frequencies can pass, this circuit is called a low-pass filter.

GENERAL
16.3.3 Cut-Off Frequency 16.3.4 Application
It was agreed that the cut-off frequency is the frequency at which the ratio of In the rectifier there are superimposed currents. Smoothing circuits (RC low-
output voltage and input voltage is 0.7. pass filters) are designed to cancel out the unintended AC parts of the
superimposed current as much as possible.
1 VA 1
(0.7= , = ) The aim is to have DC voltage without parts of AC. The residual ripple is
√2 VE √2 referred to as ripple voltage. It should be as low as possible.
The residual ripple can be calculated from the sieving factor (grading factor).
RS
S=
Xcs
SGES = S1 x S2 x S3…….
Phasor diagram of the voltages and the resistances of an RC-element used for
the cut-off frequency.
The cut-off frequency represents a clearly defined border, from which the
high-pass filter gets largely transparent.
1
Fg =
2π x R x C

GENERAL

GENERAL
16.3.5 Filter Types
General
There are four different groups of filters:
 Low-pass filters (LPF) let low frequencies including DC voltages pass,

but block frequencies that are higher than the upper cut-off frequency.
 High-pass filters (HPF) let high frequencies including DC voltages pass,

but block frequencies that are lower than the lower cut-off frequency.
 Band-pass filters (BPF) only let frequencies of a particular frequency

band (channel) pass. They have an upper and a lower cut-off frequency.
 Band-stop filters (BSF) let all frequencies pass, apart from a particular
frequency band (channel). For this band the damping shall be as high
as possible. Band stops also have an upper and a lower cut-off
frequency.
The series connection of a high-pass filter and a low-pass filter is a band-pass

filter.
The parallel connection of a high-pass filter and a low-pass filter is a band-stop

filter.
Band-Pass Filter
The schematic below shows simple high-pass, low-pass and band-pass circuits
built from RC combinations and their respective circuit symbols.
If the cut-off frequency of the low-pass filter is higher than that of the high-pass
filter, a band-pass filter has to be established. The band-pass filter consists of a
high-pass filter and a low-pass filter, which are series connected.
If coils are used instead of resistors, the losses, and therefore the damping in
the pass-band, may be very small. The filter flanks become considerably
steeper.

GENERAL

TRANSFORMER PART – 66 M3 CAT B1/B2
CONSTRUCTION AND MODE OF OPERATION
17 Transformer
17.1 Construction and Mode of Operation
17.1.1 Construction 17.1.2 Operation
Generally, a transformer consists of two coils and an iron core (figure). The input By applying an AC voltage (V1) to an input coil (primary side) N1, an input AC
coil is also called primary winding or the high-voltage winding. The output coil, I1 flows. I1 establishes a changing magnetic field in the iron core. This field has
also called secondary coil or low-voltage winding. The core is composed of a magnetic flux φ (Phi). This magnetic flux is moved through the iron core to the
isolated thin iron layers (laminated core) in order to suppress eddy currents output coil (secondary side). The periodic flux changes result in an induced
which waste power by heating the iron core. Transformers can step up or step voltage (output voltage) in the output coil, i.e. an AC voltage with the same
down voltages, currents and resistances. frequency as the input voltage.

VOLTAGE TRANSFORMATION
17.2 Voltage Transformation 17.3 Current Transformation

As you already know, the effective length of the conductor is an important factor It was assumed that the power output of the transformer is equivalent to the
in the voltage induced in a coil. For the transformer, this means that the output power input: Pin = Pout.
voltage depends on the number of turns.
According to power formula, the current must now be higher at decreasing
The output voltage can be calculated using the following formula: voltage so that the same power is converted. If the output voltage is double the
input voltage, then the input current must be double the output current so that
the ratio is maintained.
V1 N1
= Example
V2 N2
The secondary winding of a transformer with 60 turns consumes a current of
20A.
Example
How many amperes are consumed by a primary winding with 1000 turns?
An AC transformer converts a voltage of 230V to 24V. The secondary coil has
100 turns. How many turns must the primary winding have?
V1: primary voltage I2 N1 N2 x I2

= → I1 = = 1.2A
V2: secondary voltage
I1 N2 N1
N1: number of turns of primary coil
N2: number of turns of secondary coil
N1 V1 V1 x N2 230V x 100
= → N1 = = = 958 Turns
N2 V2 V2 24V

TRANSFORMATION OF RESISTANCE
17.4 Transformation of Resistances

In the field of communications engineering the transformer is often used to
match resistances. The highest power is transmitted, if the internal resistance of
the generator is the same as that of the load. If the resistances of the generator
and the load differ, the transformer is connected as a transmitter in order to
match both resistances.
By Ohm’s Law the transformation of resistance is expressed by the formula:
R1 N1²
= = tr²
R2 N2²
R1 = resistance of the primary side
R2 = resistance of the secondary side
N1 = number of turns of the primary side
N2 = number of turns of the secondary side
tr = transformation ratio

LOSS AND EFFICIENCY
17.5 Loss and Efficiency

The efficiency is the ratio of power output to power input. In a transformer this
means that the input power is equal to the output power plus any losses in the
transformer.
The losses across a transformer are divided into copper losses and iron
losses.
Copper losses occur in the windings and are caused by the heat produced by
the current flow. Copper losses are load-dependent because different currents
flow through the windings depending on the load on the transformer. Iron losses
in the iron core are caused by magnetic reversal and eddy currents.
Iron losses are not dependent on the load. The efficiency η (eta) of small
transformers is 88-92 %.

AUTOTRANSFORMERS
17.6 Autotransformers Transformers can be distinguished by:

An autotransformer has only one coil for both input and output side. Primary and
 Rated power Pr
secondary sides share a part of the windings. With an autotransformer, voltages
can be stepped up or stepped down.  Throughput rating Pt
Stepping down Regarding a transformer with separated windings the throughput rating is equal
to the rated power. Regarding an autotransformer part of the output current can
be tapped by the wire of the input coil. Thus, only a part of the power must be
transmitted through the magnetic flux of the iron core. This total power output is
called throughput rating Pt. The power transmitted by induction is called rated
power Pr.
Pr > Pt
Pt = V1 x I1 = V2 x I2 at V1 > V2
Pr = V2 x (I2 – I1)
Stepping up
The autotransformer is not an inductive voltage divider but a proper transformer.
As regards the voltage, current and resistance calculations, the same rules
apply as for conventional transformers. The major advantage of the
autotransformer is its small design compared to a conventional transformer with
two windings. With a transformer with two windings the total power must be
transmitted from one winding through the magnetic flux to the other winding. Currents in an Autotransformer

SIMPLIFIED SCHEMATIC SYMBOLS
17.7 Simplified Schematic Symbol 17.8 Current Transformers

Current transformers (CTs) are special transformers which allow the
measurement of AC currents without breaking the current-carrying leads.
Current transformers must always have a load (ammeter). Otherwise a voltage

of >100,000V would be applied, if the terminals are open.

ELECTRICAL MACHINES - GENERAL PART – 66 M3 CAT B1/B2
THE MOTOR PRINCIPLE
18 Electrical Machines – General 18.2 Motor Classification and Construction

To understand electrical machines, a good physical knowledge of magnetism is Electrical machines are classified according to their mode of operation, e.g. DC
needed. Moreover, a knowledge of current-carrying, still and moved conductors machines, synchronous machines and asynchronous machines. The principle of
in a magnetic field is essential. operation of the machines is reversible; hence the term “electrical machines” is
generic. Only the application determines whether the electrical machine is a
Generators and motors are summarised in the term “rotating electrical motor or a generator.
machines”.
Transformers are “reposing electrical machines”. They convert high voltages or
Electrical machines make use of magnetism. Generators convert mechanical currents into lower voltages or currents and vice versa.
energy into electrical energy, whereas motors convert supplied electrical energy
into mechanical energy. The stationary part of a rotating electrical machine is referred to as stator and
the rotating part as rotor. The parts of an electrical machine can be
distinguished between structural parts and parts that carry the electrical current
18.1 The Motor Principle or the magnetic flux.
If a current-carrying conductor is surrounded by the magnetic field of a

permanent magnet, the conductor will try to move out of the magnetic field.
The conductor will move at right angles to the magnetic field and to the current
direction.

ELECTRICAL MACHINES - GENERAL PART – 66 M3 CAT B1/B2
THE MOTOR PRINCIPLE

DC MACHINES PART – 66 M3 CAT B1/B2
CONSTRUCTION
19 DC Machines
19.1 Construction
The diagram shows the construction of a DC machine. The stator consists of a
steel ring (yoke), the main poles made of sheet metal with pole core and pole
shoe and the excitation winding.
The purpose of the excitation winding is to generate a stationary magnetic field

in the stator. Machines having a high output will in most cases also have
interpoles and compensating windings (these will be explained later).

CONSTRUCTION
Construction of a DC Machine

CONSTRUCTION
19.1.1 The Armature
The armature, also called rotor, has three parts: The shaft that is fixed on the In this simple example, the commutator consists of two half shells that are
laminated core of the rotor, the armature winding embedded in grooves and the connected to the coils. These two shells are separated from each other with
commutator that is fixed on the shaft. insulation. If the winding rotates through the neutral zone, the commutator
changes the current direction in the coil.
The power supply for the armature is provided by the commutator.
The commutator thus acts as a switch to energise the coil at the appropriate
time in the revolution of the motor.
19.1.2 The Commutator
The individual coils of the armature winding are connected to the commutator
segments.
The coils A to F shown in the schematic below each symbolise one single
winding.
The commutator is made of several hard copper segments that are separated
from each other with mica (see illustration).
The commutator is supplied with current via a set of sliding contacts known as
brushes. These brushes are generally made of carbon.
Operation Principle of Commutators
If the sliding contacts of the “simple” motor shown in the schematic are supplied
with DC current, a force is exerted upon the coil. A torque is generated which
turns the coil, because of the impetus, slightly beyond the horizontal position
(development of the neutral zone).
After half a revolution, the current direction in the armature has to be reversed.
This is necessary to enable the current-carrying wire loop to generate a

permanent torque. The reversal is carried out by the commutator. As the coil
carries on past the horizontal position the commutator contacts the brushes
again and supplies the coil with current. This time the current is flowing in the
opposite direction through the coil and this causes the rotor to turn further.

CONSTRUCTION
Armature of a DC Machine
Sectional View of Commutator with Carbon Brushes
Coils with Commutator

Operation of a Commutator

FIELDS OF A DC MACHINE
field. If we consider a motor that is off-load, the main field is distributed

19.2 Fields of a DC Machine symmetrically across the pole shoes. As the load on the motor increases, the
current in the armature and consequently the armature cross field also increase
19.2.1 The Main Field and this causes a displacement of the neutral zone.
In the DC machines used today, the main field is generated by electromagnets. As the armature turns in the main field there is some induction in the coils.
The main field winding is in the stator. The magnetic flux path of the main field is The magnetic induction is highest under the poles and zero between the poles.
completed by the laminated core of the armature. The armature core is
laminated to reduce the formation of eddy currents. In the neutral zone there is an area that is free of induction. The carbon brushes,
which supply current to the armature, have to be located in this area. In the off
19.2.2 The Field of the Armature load condition the coils would meet the brushes in the neutral zone and there
would be no induced current flowing in the coil. As the load on the motor in-
Each current-carrying conductor in the armature also generates a magnetic field creases and the armature reaction increases the neutral zone moves. This
in. As the currents in these parallel-connected conductors have the same makes it possible for the coils to meet the brushes outside the neutral zone
direction, they form a common field which runs perpendicular to the main field. where there may be some induction in the coils causing sparking at the
commutator. This is known as reactive sparking.
19.2.3 The Total Field / Armature Cross Field
Brush sparking causes high wear at the commutator and at the carbon brushes.
As the field of the armature crosses the main field, it is known as the armature
cross field. The higher the current flow in the armature, the stronger the cross To avoid this wear, the carbon brushes would have to be adjusted according to
field. The main field and the armature field overlay and result in one total field. the load to ensure that they are always located in the neutral zone. However,
this is not possible with constantly fluctuating loads. The use of interpoles can
As it runs perpendicular to the main field, the armature field causes a cancel out the displacement of the neutral zone.
displacement of the neutral zone (imaginary zone in which no induced voltage is
generated in the armature). This displacement depends on the magnitude of the
current; the higher the current flow, the greater the displacement of the neutral 19.5 Interpoles and Compensating Windings
zone.
Interpoles are small poles that are located between the main poles. They are
connected in series with the armature and hence oppose the armature cross
19.3 Operating Characteristics field with an interpole field of the same size. The illustration shows that, because
of these interpoles, the neutral zone stays in the same place even under
DC machines develop a high starting torque and allow a variable speed setting. fluctuating load. The armature cross field is then cancelled out in the neutral
zone. As the interpole field cannot cover the total armature cross field, an
The operating characteristics are also heavily dependent on the type of machine additional compensating winding can be placed in the main poles.
and will therefore be discussed in more detail later.
Interpoles and compensating windings are connected in series and are both
supplied with current from the armature thus as the load on the motor in-creases
so does the strength of the interpoles and compensating windings. By cancelling
19.4 Armature Reaction out the armature cross field the brush adjustment in the neutral zone is not
necessary.
The impact of the armature cross field on the main field is referred to as
armature reaction. This reaction displaces the neutral zone and distorts the main
FIELDS OF A DC MACHINE
Fields of a DC Machine
DC Machine with Compensating Winding
DC Machine with Commutating Poles

START-UP METHODS FOR DC MACHINES
19.6 Start-Up Methods for DC Machines

If a DC machine with full supply voltage was directly switched on, the inrush
current would be 10 to 20 times higher than the rated voltage. That is because
an acceleration torque has to be supplied and at standstill only the very low
ohmic resistance of the armature is effective. Only if the armature rotates, an
inverse voltage is generated by crossing the flux lines. The inverse voltage
increases with increasing speed and reduces the current consumption.
Another way to reduce the high start-up current is to connect a start-up resistor
in series (see diagram). This resistance, which is stepped in most cases, is
switched off bit by bit. If the armature has reached full speed, the start-up
resistor can and must be bridged. However, this start-up method is not very
efficient, because the energy absorbed by the resistor is lost as waste heat.
There is another possibility which is more economical: The accelerating of the

machine with a variable power supply. This is done because the power supply
almost works without loss.

SPEED CONTROL OF DC MACHINES
19.7 Speed Control of DC Machines

The speed of a DC machine can be highly variable. Two methods are applied
for speed controls in practice:
19.7.1 Voltage Control
The speed control via the armature voltage is applied where a speed range from
a standstill to rated speed is required. For this purpose the field must have full
excitation. A reduction of the armature voltage and a higher load result in
decrease of speed. In this mode of operation the efficiency is lower because of
heat losses in the series-connected resistor. Starting from rest requires a starter Speed Variation by Controlling the Armature Voltage
that can be set in fine steps.
The thyristor-controlled rectifier provides a different, considerably more efficient

method for speed variation. With this rectifier a variable adjustable DC voltage
can be generated from the supply voltage. This process can be easily achieved
and is almost without loss. However, the excitation winding has to be connected
to a constant operating voltage.
19.7.2 Field Control
We can see from the illustration that a series-connected resistance in the

excitation circuit results in a reduction of the excitation current (field weakening).
Thus, the machine can be operated above its rated speed.

Speed Variation by Thyristor-Controlled Rectifier
However, the field weakening may only be applied to a certain degree, because
the commutator and the armature could be destroyed due to the occurring
centrifugal forces. The excitation current must never be switched off completely,
because otherwise the machine would infinitely increase its speed or, in other
words, “race”. The resistive stress grader method slightly reduces the torque of
the machine.
Speed Increase by Resistive Stress Grader

ROTATING DIRECTION OF DC MACHINES
19.8 Rotating Direction of DC Machines

The definition of the rotating direction of an electrical machine was already
determined.
For all DC machines the rotating direction can be changed by reversing the
current direction in the armature winding or the excitation winding. Preferably the
armature winding is reversed. If both armature and field are reversed the
direction of rotation will be unchanged.
The rotating direction of DC machines cannot be changed by

interchanging the leads!

ROTATING DIRECTION OF DC MACHINES

SHUNT-WOUND DC MACHINES
19.9 Shunt-Wound DC Machines

19.9.1 General
The DC shunt-wound motor is the most commonly used DC motor (apart from in
aircraft). It is used whenever a constant speed at various loads is required, e.g.
for machine tools, hoists or pumps.
19.9.2 Construction
A shunt-wound DC machine mainly consists of a stator with the excitation

winding, a rotor with the armature winding and a set of carbon brushes.
Together with the commutator, the carbon brushes supply the current to the
armature. The excitation winding and the armature winding are connected in
parallel, to the same power supply.
The shunt-wound DC machine can also be operated as a separately excited

motor. The excitation winding then is supplied by its own power supply.
19.9.3 Operating Characteristic when used as a Motor
The speed of the shunt-wound motor is nearly independent from the load, i.e.
the speed only drops slightly at load. At no-load operation the motor reaches its
maximum speed, which is stable. These two characteristics are also referred to
as shunt characteristics.
The current consumption of the excitation winding is exactly the same at no-load
operation as it is at full-load operation. The amount of the armature current
depends on the load on the motor. Hence a change in load results in a change
in armature current. The armature current is proportional to the torque (see load
characteristic of a shunt-wound motor).


19.9.4 Operating Characteristic when used as a Generator
If a voltage is applied to a field winding and the armature is put into rotation, the
machine generates a voltage and works as a generator.
The shunt- wound DC machine can be operated as a self-excited generator or

as a separately excited generator.
Separately Excited Shunt-Wound Generators
Considering the separately excited shunt-wound generator, the field winding is

replaced by an external power supply. The size of the exciting current
determines the generated armature voltage. If there is a load on the armature,
the generated armature voltage falls slightly. However, it can be increased again
to the desired value by increasing the exciting current, as long as the load is in
the permissible range.
Self-Excited Shunt-Wound Generators
Considering the self-excited shunt-wound generator, the field winding is Separately Excited Shunt-Wound Generator
connected in parallel to the armature. If the armature is driven from rest, the
residual magnetism generates a low voltage in the iron core of the machine.
Because of this voltage, a current flows in the machine. This current causes the
magnetism to increase, which results in an increase in excitation and in the self-
excitation of the machine. Conditions for self-excitation are an existing residual
magnetism, correct polarity of the excitation winding and correct rotation
direction of the machine.
If there is a polarity reversal, the residual magnetism is reduced and the

machine cannot excite itself. If there is a load, the voltage at the self-excited
generator falls more than the voltage at the separately excited generator. The
voltage, which heavily depends on the load, is readjusted by a field regulator.
Self-excited Shunt-Wound Generator

Self-Excited DC Shunt-Wound Generator Separately Excited DC Shunt-Wound Generator

SERIES-WOUND DC MACHINES
19.10 Series-Wound DC Machines

19.10.1 General 19.10.4 Operating Characteristic when used as Generator
Series-wound DC machines are used as motors. Series-wound motors have a A series-wound motor in operation is also a generator. This means a voltage is
very high starting torque. They must never be operated without load, because induced in the armature winding of the running motor. This voltage opposes the
they may race in no-load operation. applied voltage (terminal voltage). The terminal voltage and the speed are
strongly dependent on the load.
19.10.2 Construction
If the current flows across the armature and the excitation winding in the
Considering the series-wound machine, the armature winding is connected in opposite direction, the series-wound generator reverses its polarity. The series-
series with the excitation winding. This means that the same current flows wound generator can only be fully excited if the total load current (rated current)
through both windings. The current consumption of the series-wound machine is flows.
particularly high during start-up and has to be limited via the starters.
If there are very high loads, the generator is in danger of a short circuit.
The series-wound machine basically consists of the stator with the excitation
winding, the rotor with the armature winding and the carbon brushes. Together The excitation winding and the armature winding are connected in series. The
with the commutator, the carbon brushes supply current to the armature. load current I at the same time is the excitation current IE and the armature
current IA. The generator can only be fully excited if there is normal load current.
19.10.3 Operating Characteristic when used as a Motor Due to this disadvantage of constant load, the field of application for the series-
wound generator is highly limited. For this reason the generator is not discussed
Considering the series-wound DC machine, the speed highly depends on the in detail.
load. A change of load results in a change of current. By increasing the load, the
current increases and the speed decreases. During the start-up and at high
loads the series-wound motor consumes a high current, which results in the
generation of a high torque.
19.11 Starting-up
A series-wound motor must under no circumstances be operated off-load. At off- The series-wound DC machine must be accelerated by a variable resistor
load operation it would increase its speed until the armature is destroyed. (starter). This ensures that the machine can be slowly accelerated.
In other words, the armature races at no-load operation. Nowadays the starting-up armature voltage for DC machines is increasingly
reduced with electronics, i.e. with phase angle controls via thyristors. The
These characteristics are called series-wound characteristics. advantage of this method is that the starting-up armature voltage can be
controlled almost without losses.
Series-wound motors are applied as car starters, in hoists, trains, trams and
electric vehicles, but also for windscreen wiper motors or shut-off valves.

SERIES-WOUND DC MACHINES
Load Characteristic
Schematic of a Series-Wound Motor for Clockwise Operation
Counter Clockwise Operation

SHUNT-SERIES DC MACHINES
19.12 Shunt-Series DC Machines

Depending on the type of winding, the shunt-series DC machine can be either 19.12.2 Operating Characteristic when used as a Motor
used as a shunt-wound DC machine or as a series-wound DC machine. Hence,
shunt-series machines can be used as motors or as generators. At a no-load operation the shunt-series DC machine behaves like a shunt-
wound motor, i.e. it does not race. Racing can only occur if both excitation fields
A shunt-series DC machine is used where the starting torque of the shunt- fail or if the two fields cancel each other out.
wound motor is too low and where the speed drop of the series-wound motor is
too high. If the motor is on load, the speed does not decrease as much as the series-
wound motor.
A motor with a shunt field and a series field is also referred to as a compound
motor. At low speed the motor generates a high starting torque and behaves like a
series-wound motor.
19.12.1 Construction
The shunt-series DC machine is a combination between a shunt-wound DC

machine and a series-wound DC machine. It has two excitation windings. One of
them is connected in series with the armature (series winding), the other is
connected in parallel with the armature (shunt winding).
The shunt-series DC machine mainly consists of a stator with the two excitation
windings and the rotor with the armature winding and the carbon brushes.
Together with the commutator, the carbon brushes supply current to the
armature. Thereby the windings are connected in such a way that their
excitation fields overlay each other. This overlaying can either strengthen or
weaken the field.
The operational characteristics of the shunt-series DC machine can be

influenced by varying the size of the shunt winding and the series winding.
Therefore either the series behaviour or the shunt behaviour of the machine
prevails.

SHUNT-SERIES DC MACHINES

AC GENERATORS PART – 66 M3 CAT B1/B2
THREE-PHASE GENERATORS
20 AC Generators
If a generator is used in parallel on a grid with others and the excitation is too
20.1 Three-Phase Generators high, the voltage tries to rise. Due to the stiff grid, however, the voltage cannot
be increased. A lagging current arises which delivers inductive reactive power
20.1.1 General and the generator acts like a capacitor on the grid. This behaviour is used in
reactive power compensation.
Asynchronous machines are mainly used as motors whereas synchronous
machines are mainly used as generators. If the excitation is too low, inductive reactive power is consumed from the
electrical grid. The generator then behaves like an inductive load.
20.1.2 Construction
The construction of a generator will be discussed in detail later. 20.1.4 Operating Characteristic when used as a Generator
20.1.3 Types of Excitation in Synchronous Generators The magnetic wheel of a rotating field machine is excited and put into rotation
and this induces a sinusoidal voltage into the stator winding. If the off-load
To generate energy in a generator a magnetic field is required. This field is synchronous generator is loaded, the generated voltage decreases significantly.
established by using DC, which is applied to one of the excitation windings.
Thus the power for excitation must constantly be adjusted to the load of the
The necessary power for exciting the magnet wheel is, depending on the size of generator. The power for excitation must therefore be controlled. Figure 1
the machine, about 5% of the rated value. shows the load characteristic of a synchronous generator in no-load operation.
With synchronous machines three different excitation types can be If the energy generated by the generator is supplied to a three-phase mains, the
distinguished: conditions for synchronisation must be met by all means.
 Self-excitation However, if the generated energy is supplied directly to the load (without mains
supply), it is designated as an isolated operation. Here, the synchronisation
This type of excitation is present, if part of the energy generated by the conditions can be ignored. Voltage and frequency must remain constant or be
generator is used for excitation. adjusted to the load.
 Excitation by a permanent magnet generator Figure 2 shows the load characteristics (control characteristics) of a
synchronous generator during isolated operation. At constant excitation current
The excitation power is generated by an additional generator mounted and isolated operation the output voltage depends on the load type. In order to
on the shaft inside the main generator. This power is finally fed to the maintain a constant voltage, the excitation must be slightly increased for ohmic
main generator. loads, increased for inductive loads and slightly reduced for capacitive loads.
For safety reasons this type of excitation is preferred. Most aircraft systems have inductive loads.
 Separate excitation
In separate excitation, the required excitation energy is delivered by an

external power supply.
THREE-PHASE GENERATORS
Fig 1 Fig 2

PERMANENT MAGNET GENERATORS
20.2 Permanent Magnet Generators

Modern high-output brushless alternators are called permanent magnet The PMG gets its name from the permanent magnet within the generator, which
generators (PMGs). They were developed for the purpose of eliminating some of initiates the production of electric power. There are actually three separate
the problems of alternators that employ slip rings and brushes to carry exciter generators within one case:
current to the rotating field. When AC systems are discussed, the two terms,
alternator and generator, are often considered equivalent.  (1) The permanent magnet generator
Among the advantages of a brushless alternator are the following:  (2) The exciter generator
 Lower maintenance cost, since there is no brush or slip-ring wear.  (3) The main generator
 High stability and consistency of output, because variations of Each of these three units is an essential part of the modern brushless alternator.
resistance and conductivity at the brushes and slip rings are eliminated.
The permanent magnet, which is connected to the rotor, is used to induce an
 Better performance at high altitudes, because arcing at the brushes is alternating current into the stationary PMG three-phase armature winding.
eliminated.
The generator control unit (GCU) rectifies a 1200Hz AC armature current and
The theory behind the brushless alternator is to use electromagnetic induction to sends a DC voltage to the exciter field winding. The exciter field induces an
transfer current from the stationary components of the generator to the rotating alternating current into the exciter armature. The exciter armature is connected
components. The brushless system induces current into the rotor using to the rotating rectifier, which changes the alternating current to direct current
magnetic flux lines. This principle eliminates the need for the rotating contacts of and sends a current to the main generator field. The main field induces an AC
slip rings and brushes. voltage into the main generator armature.
Typically, brushless alternators use a three-phase, star connected armature. The main generator armature is a three-phase winding that produces 120V
across a single phase and 208V across two phases. This armature is connected
The voltage across any single phase is 120V, whereas the voltage across any to the output terminals of the generator and hence supplies the electric power
two of the main output terminals is 208V. One terminal of each separate stator for the aircraft systems. The GCU monitors the main generator output and in
winding is connected to ground, and the other terminal of the winding is the turn regulates the exciter field current as necessary. If more generator output is
main output terminal. For aircraft circuits requiring 115/120V, single-phase required, the GCU will increase the exciter field current; this will, in turn,
power, the circuit is connected between one main phase and ground. For three- increase the exciter armature output and the main field current.
phase power circuits such as those for motors, all three main phases are
connected to the motor. A stronger main field will increase the main armature’s output. If less generator
output is needed, the GCU will weaken the exciter field current, and the
generator output will decrease.

PERMANENT MAGNET GENERATORS

AC MACHINES PART – 66 M3 CAT B1/B2
THREE-PHASE ASYNCHRONOUS MOTORS
21 AC Machines
21.1 Three-Phase Asynchronous Motors
21.1.1 General
Asynchronous motors are the most important three-phase motors. They are
reliable, require a minimum level of maintenance and the manufacturing costs
are low.
They are used as drives for small and medium power machines e.g. machine
tools, fuel pumps and hydraulic pumps. This type of motor can often be found in
aircraft.
The optimal operating behaviour is reached at rated load. The motor has a high
efficiency and a high power factor.
21.1.2 Construction
The motor consists of two major parts, the stator (stationary part) and the rotor
(rotating part).
The fixed part of the three-phase asynchronous motor is known as the stator
and consists of a housing and a laminated core with slots in which the three-
phase windings are laid (see figure). The winding is composed of three coils
displaced from each other by 120°.
The rotor as well as the stator consists of a laminated core with slots. In these
slots aluminium or copper rotor bars are laid or forced by high-pressure
aluminium die casting. The ends of the rotor bars are connected to each other
by end rings.
Rotor bars and end rings together form a so-called squirrel cage and represent
the rotor winding. The figure shows a rotor. The slant arrangement of the bars
ensures an even running.
Fan blades are often attached to the end rings for motor cooling. The drive shaft
is located in the centre of the rotor.

Stator Rotor

21.1.3 Rotating Field Speed
On connecting the motor windings to a three-phase supply, a rotating field is Note: Rotor and rotating field have the same direction of rotation.
established in the stator. This field rotates at synchronous speed, also called the
rotating field speed n0. If the rotor speed were to approach the speed of the magnetic field, there would
be no induction in the bars and the motor torque would drop. If the torque drops
Example then the motor slows down and thus it can never run at the same speed as the
field. As soon as the speed decreases the rotor would lag the rotating field and
50Hz = 50 r/second x 60 = 3000rpm thus flux lines are cut and torque is produced. The fact that the motor is running
at a different speed to the field gives us the name asynchronous.
The number of pole pairs (p) is known as the number of pairs of south and north
poles per phase depending on the stator winding’s design. Note: The rotational speed of the rotor is always lower than the rotational
speed of the rotating field.
Example
21.1.5 Slip of an Asynchronous Motor
A motor with 2 pole pairs = 1500rpm
The lagging of the rotor is called slip. The higher the required torque is, i.e. the
21.1.4 Mode of Operation load of the motor, the higher the slip must be. At full load the slip is
approximately 5%. At idle speed the motor has only little internal losses to
As a simple explanation an example is given. A pole pair N1, S1 has a field Φ1 overcome which is possible with only a low torque. A low torque can already be
that fills air gap and rotor. achieved with a low slip (below 1%).
When the field is rotated, its flux lines will be cross the wires of the rotor winding. Note: The rotational speed of the rotor decreases with increasing load and
increases with decreasing load but never reaches synchronous speed.
In these wires a voltage will be induced and a result, a current will flow
(remember that the wires are connected by end rings at both ends). The slip can be calculated from the rotational speed n1 of the rotating field and
the rotational speed n2 of the rotor.
The direction of current flow can be determined by the right-hand rule.
The current-carrying rotor winding produces a magnetic field Φ2. According to

the corkscrew rule, it has the position as shown on the picture and builds up the
poles N2, S2 in the rotor. These poles will repel from the like poles of the
rotating field and will be attracted by the unlike poles. As a result the rotor and
rotating field rotate in the same direction.


21.1.6 Shaded or Split Pole Motor
A shaded-pole motor is so named because it uses a small shorted “Shading coil”

wound in a small notch in the stator pole piece. In some motors this coil consists
of a single copper ring or copper band. When the electromagnetic field builds up
around the main coil, the flux cuts across the conductors of the shading coil.
Since the shading coil is shorted, current flows which produces a field opposite
that of main field. The main field is then strongest on the side away from the
shading coil. However, the field through the shading coil reaches maximum
intensity much later – at a time when the main field is already decreasing. The
electromagnetic field in the pole piece then appears to be stronger on the side
nearest (or through) the shading coil. This produces a sweeping motion from
side to side in the stator pole piece and, although small, this motion is enough to
maintain an induced voltage in the rotor and start the rotor turning.


SYNCHRONOUS MACHINES
21.2 Synchronous Machines

21.2.1 General 21.2.4 Rotating Field Machines
Three-phase synchronous machines are used as generators and as motors. The stator of a rotating field machine, just like the asynchronous machine,
carries the three-phase winding. The low excitation power of the rotor (magnetic
With synchronous machines the rotor speed is equal or synchronous to the wheel) is supplied across the slip rings. Rotating field machines are therefore
rotating field speed, i.e. they do not have any slip (s = 0). suitable for high power and voltages (e.g. 21kV). They are designed for a power
output of up to 2.6GVA. The illustration shows the principle of a rotating field
Operated as a generator, the rotating field is generated by a rotating permanent machine.
magnet or electromagnet. Operated as a motor a three-phase current is
supplied to one winding. There are two types of rotating field machines:
Asynchronous machines are mainly operated as motors whereas synchronous  Salient Pole Machines
machines are mainly applied as generators. The generation of electricity in On the salient pole machine the rotor is a magnetic wheel with radial
power plants or emergency power supplies is almost exclusively done by arranged pole shanks. Such a pole shank consists of pole core and pole
synchronous generators. shoe. The excitation winding is attached to the pole shanks. This
machine is especially suitable for low rotational speeds (e.g. water
21.2.2 Construction turbines).
A synchronous machine consists of a stator with a winding and a rotor which  Non-Salient Pole Machines
also carries a winding. On non-salient pole machines (see figure) a cylindrical rotor is used.
The excitation winding is laid in the slots of the rotor. This machine is
Depending on the task or the field of application, synchronous machines have especially suitable for high rotational speeds (e.g. steam or gas turbine).
different designs. Non-salient pole machines are also referred to as cylindrical-rotor
(round-rotor) machines or drum-type machines.
21.2.3 Stationary Field Machines
The design of the stator in a stationary field machine is the same as in a DC 21.2.5 Damper Winding
machine with no commutating poles. The excitation winding is attached to the
poles. The low power for the excitation is supplied via the stator winding Some synchronous machines are equipped with an additional squirrel cage
whereas the high three-phase power is led via the slip rings. The disadvantage (damper winding). The damper winding helps to start the motor from rest and
is that machines with high outputs require large slip rings and brushes and helps it to tolerate load changes without being stopped.
therefore the insulation of the slip rings is very difficult. For this reason stationary
field machines are designed for power requirements up to 50kVA.

Rotating Field Machine with Non-Salient Pole Rotor

21.3 Synchronous Motors

The synchronous motor is used to achieve a constant rotational speed.
21.3.1 Operation of a Synchronous Motor
If the stator winding of a synchronous motor is connected to the three-phase

mains, the rotating field of the stator instantaneously reaches the rotating field
speed. Due to the inertia, the rotor cannot instantaneously follow the rotating
field when starting from a standstill. Even if the excitation is switched on, the
synchronous motor does not start by itself. It has to be warmed up until it is near
the rotating field speed (synchronous speed). Then it can bring itself to the
required rotating field speed.
Another possibility is the damper winding, as described above. With a damper

winding the motor starts up asynchronously and then brings itself into
synchronous operation.
Some synchronous motors have no damper winding and therefore need a

starter motor which drives the synchronous motor up to near the rated rotational
speed.
This is necessary for the motor so that it can run on its own at rotational field
speed when excited. The excitation must be set to zero at first and then slowly
be stepped up until the motor runs.
An overload of the synchronous motor must be avoided, because it then would

operate “out-of-step” and stop. The motor would also be thermally overloaded at
standstill. A motor must only be put on load between no-load operation and
breakdown torque. Depending on the load, the rotor lags the rotating field of the
stator by the load angle. If the load angle is exceeded the breakdown torque is
reached and the motor stops.

The load angle ϑ is used to measure the load

CAPACITOR MOTORS
21.4 Capacitor Motors

21.4.1 General
The capacitor motor is designed using the same principle as the three-phase The capacity of the starting capacitor is always chosen bigger than the capacity
asynchronous motor with squirrel-cage rotor. The capacitor motor is used where of the running capacitor. The dimensioning of the capacitors is based on
there is no three-phase supply and is also referred to as a single-phase AC experience and depends on the starting torque and the capacitor voltage.
motor with capacitor or induction motor. Single-phase AC voltage is required by
washing machines, dishwashers, cooling units, heaters, power tools, office The starting capacitor has a higher capacity. Thus a current that is too high
machines etc. flows across the auxiliary winding and the motor heats up too much. After the
acceleration, the starting capacitor is therefore switched off using a centrifugal
21.4.2 Construction switch. The centrifugal switch is normally set in such a way that it switches the
capacitor off at 70...80% of the rated speed.
The single-phase AC motor with only one winding (see fig.1) cannot start by
itself because the single-phase AC voltage only generates one changing The schematic shows that there is an alternative to the centrifugal switch. The
magnetic field. capacitor motor can also be fitted with a klixon-switch. The current of the motor’s
primary winding flows across the magnet coil. To avoid a loss of power in the
Self-starting is achieved by dividing the stator winding into two phase windings, motor, the coil only has few turns with a large wire cross-section. Only a very
which are separated from each other by 90°. In this way we obtain a primary low voltage may drop across the coil itself. As the starting current is a multiple of
winding and an auxiliary winding. The current between primary winding and the operational current, the relay picks up immediately if the motor is switched
auxiliary winding also has to be out of phase by 90°. That is why a two-phase on.
AC voltage would be required. However, in practice there is no two-phase AC
voltage. This is why the phase-shifted voltage has to be generated from the The relay remains picked up until the motor nearly reaches its rated speed. At
single-phase mains. For this purpose, the primary winding is connected to the that time the starting current decreases to the value of the operational current,
supply and a capacitor (running capacitor CB) is connected in series with an and the relay drops out. The auxiliary winding of the motor is switched off via the
auxiliary winding (see fig. 2). relay contact.
Thus, auxiliary current and principal current are out of phase by 90°.
The terminals of the primary winding are referred to as U1 and U2, the terminals
of the auxiliary winding Z1 and Z2.
If the motor must have a high starting torque, a second capacitor (starting
capacitor CA) is connected in parallel to the running capacitor during the start-
up.
The schematic shows the connection of the AC motor with the running capacitor
and the starting capacitor.

CAPACITOR MOTORS

TABLE OF CONTENTS PART – 66 M3 CAT B1/B2
4 Static Electricity & Conduction ......................................................................... 22

4.1 Static Electricity ........................................................................................ 22
Table of Contents 4.2 Electrostatic Field ..................................................................................... 23
1 Composition of Matter ........................................................................................ 1
5 Current Conduction ......................................................................................... 24
1.1 General ....................................................................................................... 1
5.1 Current in Metallic Conductors ................................................................. 24
1.2 Distribution of Charges ............................................................................... 1
5.1.1 Current Density in Conductors .......................................................... 24
1.3 Molecular Structure ..................................................................................... 2
5.2 The Direction of Electric Current .............................................................. 25
1.3.1 Conductors ........................................................................................... 2
5.3 Liquids as Electrical Conductors .............................................................. 26
1.3.2 Semiconductors ................................................................................... 2
5.4 Application of Gases ................................................................................. 27
1.3.3 Insulators / Non-Conductors ................................................................ 2
5.5 Electron Current in a Vacuum .................................................................. 28
2 Electrical Terminology........................................................................................ 3
6 Specific Resistance ......................................................................................... 30
2.1 Potential Difference ..................................................................................... 3
6.1 Electrical Conductance ............................................................................. 31
2.2 Electrical Charge ......................................................................................... 3
7 Resistors & Their Characteristics .................................................................... 32
2.3 Electromotive Force (EMF) ......................................................................... 4
7.1 Colour Codes (Resistors and Capacitors) ................................................ 32
2.4 Electrical Voltage ........................................................................................ 5
7.2 Watt Specifications, Load Capacity of Resistors ...................................... 33
2.4.1 Voltage Measurements ........................................................................ 6
7.3 Tolerances, Resistor Ranges ................................................................... 34
2.5 Electric Current ........................................................................................... 7
7.4 Potentiometers and Rheostats ................................................................. 38
2.5.1 Current and Current Measurements .................................................... 7
7.4.1 Potentiometer .................................................................................... 38
2.6 Electrical Resistance ................................................................................... 9
7.4.2 Rheostats ........................................................................................... 38
2.6.1 Definitions and Units .......................................................................... 10
7.5 Non-Linear Resistance ............................................................................. 40
2.6.2 Resistance Measurements ................................................................ 10
7.5.1 Voltage-Dependent Resistors (VDR – Varistor) ................................ 40
3 Methods of Voltage Generation ....................................................................... 11
7.5.2 Temperature Dependent Resistance (Thermistors) .......................... 41
3.1 Voltage Generation by Light ..................................................................... 11
7.5.3 General .............................................................................................. 41
3.1.1 Principle of Operation of Photocells ................................................... 12
7.5.4 NTC Resistors ................................................................................... 41
3.2 Voltage Generation by Friction ................................................................. 13
7.5.5 PTC Resistors.................................................................................... 42
3.3 Voltage Generation by Pressure ............................................................... 14
8 Electric Circuits with Several Resistors ........................................................... 44
3.4 Voltage Generation by Heat...................................................................... 15
8.1 Series Connections .................................................................................. 44
3.4.1 Design and Principle of Operation of Thermocouples ....................... 17
8.1.1 Kirchhoff’s 2nd Law (Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law) .................................. 45
3.5 Voltage Generation by Chemical Reaction ............................................... 18
8.2 Parallel Connections ................................................................................. 46
3.5.1 Voltage Generation by Electrochemical Series ................................. 18
8.2.1 Kirchhoff’s 1ST Law (Kirchhoff’s Current Law) ................................... 47
3.6 Voltage Generation by Induction .............................................................. 20
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8.3 Wheatstone Bridge ................................................................................... 48 11.3.7 Variable Capacitors ......................................................................... 72

9 Power in Circuits .............................................................................................. 50 11.4 Charging / Discharging of Capacitors ..................................................... 73
9.1 Electrical Power ........................................................................................ 50 11.4.1 Principle of Charging ....................................................................... 73
9.2 Electrical Efficiency ................................................................................... 52 11.4.2 Time Constant of Charge ................................................................ 73
9.2.1 Efficiency ............................................................................................ 53 11.5 Capacitor Testing ................................................................................... 74
9.3 Energy ....................................................................................................... 54 12 Magnetism ..................................................................................................... 76
9.3.1 Kinetic Energy .................................................................................... 54 12.1 Permanent Magnets ............................................................................... 76
9.3.2 Potential Energy ................................................................................. 54 12.1.1 Cause of Magnetism ........................................................................ 78
9.4 Electrical Work .......................................................................................... 55 12.1.2 Demagnetisation .............................................................................. 79
10 Generation of DC Voltage .............................................................................. 56 12.1.3 Safety Precautions for Handling and Storing Magnets ................... 80
10.1 Galvanic Cells ......................................................................................... 56 12.1.4 Magnetic Shielding .......................................................................... 80
10.1.2 Secondary Cells ............................................................................... 58 12.1.5 Material Groups ............................................................................... 80
10.1.3 Lead Acid Cells ................................................................................ 58 12.1.6 Application Examples ...................................................................... 81
10.1.4 Nickel Cadmium Cells ...................................................................... 59 12.2 Electro Magnets ...................................................................................... 82
10.1.5 Other Galvanic Cells, Round Cells and Flat Cells ........................... 60 12.2.1 Magnetic Effect of Electric Current .................................................. 82
10.2 Internal Resistance of Power Sources .................................................... 62 12.2.2 Superposition of Magnetic Fields .................................................... 83
10.2.1 Influence of the Internal Resistance of a Power Source .................. 63 12.2.3 Electro Magnets – Units of Magnetism ............................................ 84
10.3 Power Sources in Series and Parallel .................................................... 64 12.2.4 Hysteresis Curve ............................................................................. 86
10.3.1 Voltage Generators (Cells) in Parallel ............................................. 64 13 Induction ........................................................................................................ 90
10.3.2 Series Connections of Voltage Generators (Cells) .......................... 66 13.1 Basic Principle (Faraday’s Law) ............................................................. 90
11 Capacitors ...................................................................................................... 68 13.1.1 Construction..................................................................................... 90
11.1 Capacitance ............................................................................................ 68 13.1.2 Direction of Current Flow ................................................................. 91
11.2 Capacitors ............................................................................................... 68 13.2 Mutual Induction ..................................................................................... 92
11.3 Capacitor Construction ........................................................................... 69 13.2.1 Transformer Principle ...................................................................... 92
11.3.1 Mechanical Dimensions ................................................................... 69 13.3 Self-Induction .......................................................................................... 94
11.3.2 Capacitors in Parallel ....................................................................... 70 13.3.1 Coil Switched Off ............................................................................. 94
11.3.3 Capacitors in Series ......................................................................... 70 14 Alternating Current (AC) ................................................................................ 96
11.3.4 The Dielectric ................................................................................... 70 14.1 Quantities of Alternating Current ............................................................ 96
11.3.5 Paper or Film Capacitors ................................................................. 71 14.1.1 Cycle Time of the AC or Voltage ..................................................... 97
11.3.6 Electrolytic Capacitors ..................................................................... 71 14.1.2 Frequency f ...................................................................................... 97

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14.2 Sinusoidal AC Voltages and Currents .................................................... 98 15.7.2 Power at Inductive Load ................................................................ 139
14.2.1 Amplitude ......................................................................................... 98 15.7.3 Power at Capacitive Load .............................................................. 139
14.2.2 Peak values ..................................................................................... 98 15.7.4 Power in Connections with Effective Resistance and Inductive
Reactance ................................................................................................. 140
14.2.3 Peak-to-Peak Values Vpp ................................................................ 98
14.2.4 Root Mean Square Values (RMS Values) ....................................... 99 15.7.5 Power Factor ................................................................................. 142
15.8 Resonance in AC Circuits ..................................................................... 144
14.3 Generation of a Sinusoidal Voltage ...................................................... 100
14.3.1 Frequency and Rotational Speed .................................................. 101 15.8.1 Series Resonance ......................................................................... 144
15.8.2 Parallel Resonance ....................................................................... 147
14.3.2 Derivation of an AC Phasor ........................................................... 102
14.3.3 Addition of Alternating Quantities .................................................. 103 16 Frequency Dependent Two-Port Networks ................................................. 150
16.1 General ................................................................................................. 150
14.3.4 Addition of Out-of-Phase Alternating Quantities ............................ 104
14.3.5 Different Alternating Quantities in One Diagram ........................... 108 16.2 Filters .................................................................................................... 150
16.3 CR-Elements ........................................................................................ 150
14.4 Non-Sinusoidal AC Voltages and Currents........................................... 110
14.5 Multi-Phase Systems ............................................................................ 112 16.3.1 High-Pass Filters ........................................................................... 151
16.3.2 Low-Pass Filters ............................................................................ 151
15 AC Resistors ................................................................................................ 116
15.1 Ohmic Resistance Applied to AC Voltage ............................................ 116 16.3.3 Cut-Off Frequency ......................................................................... 152
16.3.4 Application ..................................................................................... 152
15.2 Inductance Applied to AC Voltage ........................................................ 118
15.3 Capacitor Applied to AC Voltage .......................................................... 120 16.3.5 Filter Types .................................................................................... 154
17 Transformer ................................................................................................. 156
15.4 The Influence of the Frequency on the Reactance ............................... 122
15.4.1 Effective Resistance ...................................................................... 122 17.1 Construction and Mode of Operation ................................................... 156
17.1.1 Construction................................................................................... 156
15.4.2 Inductive Reactance ...................................................................... 122
15.4.3 Capacitive Reactance .................................................................... 122 17.1.2 Operation ....................................................................................... 156
17.2 Voltage Transformation ........................................................................ 157
15.5 Impedance ............................................................................................ 124
15.6 Circuits with AC Resistors..................................................................... 126 17.3 Current Transformation ........................................................................ 157
17.4 Transformation of Resistances ............................................................. 158
15.6.1 Resistor and Coil in Series............................................................. 126
15.6.2 Resistor and Capacitor in Series ................................................... 130 17.5 Loss and Efficiency ............................................................................... 159
17.6 Autotransformers .................................................................................. 160
15.6.3 Real Capacitors ............................................................................. 132
15.6.4 Resistor, Coil and Capacitor in Series ........................................... 134 17.7 Simplified Schematic Symbol ............................................................... 161
17.8 Current Transformers ........................................................................... 161
15.6.5 Resistor, Coil and Capacitor in Parallel ......................................... 136
15.7 Power and Work in AC Circuits ............................................................ 138 18 Electrical Machines – General ..................................................................... 162
18.1 The Motor Principle .............................................................................. 162
15.7.1 Power at True Load ....................................................................... 138
18.2 Motor Classification and Construction .................................................. 162
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19 DC Machines ............................................................................................... 164 20.1 Three-Phase Generators ...................................................................... 182

19.1 Construction .......................................................................................... 164 20.1.1 General .......................................................................................... 182
19.1.1 The Armature ................................................................................. 166 20.1.2 Construction................................................................................... 182
19.1.2 The Commutator ............................................................................ 166 20.1.3 Types of Excitation in Synchronous Generators ........................... 182
19.2 Fields of a DC Machine......................................................................... 168 20.1.4 Operating Characteristic when used as a Generator .................... 182
19.2.1 The Main Field ............................................................................... 168 20.2 Permanent Magnet Generators ............................................................ 184
19.2.2 The Field of the Armature .............................................................. 168 21 AC Machines ............................................................................................... 186
19.2.3 The Total Field / Armature Cross Field .......................................... 168 21.1 Three-Phase Asynchronous Motors ..................................................... 186
19.3 Operating Characteristics ..................................................................... 168 21.1.1 General .......................................................................................... 186
19.4 Armature Reaction ................................................................................ 168 21.1.2 Construction................................................................................... 186
19.5 Interpoles and Compensating Windings ............................................... 168 21.1.3 Rotating Field Speed ..................................................................... 188
19.6 Start-Up Methods for DC Machines ...................................................... 170 21.1.4 Mode of Operation ......................................................................... 188
19.7 Speed Control of DC Machines ............................................................ 171 21.1.5 Slip of an Asynchronous Motor...................................................... 188
19.7.1 Voltage Control .............................................................................. 171 21.1.6 Shaded or Split Pole Motor ............................................................ 190
19.7.2 Field Control ................................................................................... 171 21.2 Synchronous Machines ........................................................................ 192
19.8 Rotating Direction of DC Machines ....................................................... 172 21.2.1 General .......................................................................................... 192
19.9 Shunt-Wound DC Machines ................................................................. 174 21.2.2 Construction................................................................................... 192
19.9.1 General .......................................................................................... 174 21.2.3 Stationary Field Machines ............................................................. 192
19.9.2 Construction ................................................................................... 174 21.2.4 Rotating Field Machines ................................................................ 192
19.9.3 Operating Characteristic when used as a Motor ........................... 174 21.2.5 Damper Winding ............................................................................ 192
19.9.4 Operating Characteristic when used as a Generator .................... 176 21.3 Synchronous Motors ............................................................................. 194
19.10 Series-Wound DC Machines .............................................................. 178 21.3.1 Operation of a Synchronous Motor................................................ 194
19.10.2 Construction ................................................................................. 178 21.4 Capacitor Motors .................................................................................. 196
19.10.3 Operating Characteristic when used as a Motor ......................... 178 21.4.1 General .......................................................................................... 196
19.10.4 Operating Characteristic when used as Generator ..................... 178 21.4.2 Construction................................................................................... 196
19.11 Starting-up .......................................................................................... 178
19.12 Shunt-Series DC Machines ................................................................ 180
19.12.1 Construction ................................................................................. 180
19.12.2 Operating Characteristic when used as a Motor ......................... 180
20 AC Generators ............................................................................................. 182

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Training Manual Fundamentals

CAT B1/B2 V2.1

An EASA Part-147 Approved Training Organisation Approval No UK.147.0046

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Copyright by LRTT Ltd. LRTT Ltd is part of Resource Group. All

Resource Group - Aviation Technical Training

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An atom is electrically neutral, if the number of protons in the nucleus is equal to

Each electron is negatively charged and each proton is positively charged.

Both particles carry the smallest charge.

The charge of a single electron is:

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1.3 Molecular Structure 1.3.2 Semiconductors

In the molecular structure of semiconductors, several atoms share the electrons

Examples: Copper, aluminium and carbon

Examples: Silicon, Germanium.

1.3.3 Insulators / Non-Conductors

In the molecular structure of insulators electrons are tightly connected to the

Examples: Mica, Porcelain

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1C = 6.24 x 1018 electrons

By expressing this equation in terms of Q, Q = I x t, the electrical charge Q can

Q = 2.5A x 10h = 25Ah

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2.3 Electromotive Force (EMF)

Faraday, the English chemist and physicist (1791-1867), developed a theory

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2.4 Electrical Voltage

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2.4.1 Voltage Measurements Common Voltages:

The unit of electrical voltage is the Volt (V).

1V = 1000mV, 1mV = 0.001V

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2.5 Electric Current

Possible types of movement or flow of charge carriers:

The speed of movement of charges (electrons) depends on:

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Commonly used Current Ratings: Electrical Current, Characteristics of Electricity

Current Measurements of a Bulb

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2.6 Electrical Resistance

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2.6.1 Definitions and Units

Resistance is not measured directly, but is calculated by values of current and

If there is a voltage of 1 Volt and a current of 1 Ampere at the resistor, it has a

Low-impedance measurement in measuring range “mΩ” e.g.:

(During these measurement the measured voltage may exceed 1500V).

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3 Methods of Voltage Generation

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3.1.1 Principle of Operation of Photocells

If a photocell is exposed to light, then voltage is generated. A photocell

Silicon and Selenium-photocells are common; nowadays particularly Silicon

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3.2 Voltage Generation by Friction

These electrostatic occurrences are experienced in everyday life.

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3.3 Voltage Generation by Pressure

This is referred to as the Piezoelectric effect:

The charges are tapped using aluminium foil for example.

The Piezoelectric effect is applied in crystal pick-ups of record players, in crystal

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