Aviation Technical Training

Aviation Technical Training
Training Manual Fundamentals

M7 Maintenance Practices
PART 66
CAT B2 - B1LE V1.0
An EASA Part-147 Approved Training Organisation Approval No UK.147.0046
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MAINTENANCE PRACTICES
M7.6 Fits and Clearances PART-66 M7 CAT B1
M7.6 FITS AND CLEARANCES

Sub-Module Level
7.6 Fits and Clearances
Drill sizes for bolt holes, classes of fits; Common system of fits and 2
clearances;
Schedule of fits and clearances for aircraft and engines;
Limits for bow, twist and wear;
Standard methods for checking shafts, bearings and other parts.
1. KNOWLEDGE LEVELS- CATEGORY A, B1, B2 AND C AIRCRAFT MAINTENANCE LICENCE

Basic knowledge for categories A, B1 and B2 are indicated by the allocation of knowledge levels indicators (1, 2 or 3) against each applicable subject.
Category C applicants must meet either the category B1 or the category B2 basic knowledge levels.
The knowledge level indicators are defined as follows:
LEVEL 1
A familiarisation with the principal elements of the subject.
Objectives: The applicant should be familiar with the basic elements of the subject.
The applicant should be able to give a simple description of the whole subject, using common words and examples.
The applicant should be able to use typical terms.
LEVEL 2
A general knowledge of the theoretical and practical aspects of the subject. An ability to apply that knowledge.
Objectives: The applicant should be able to understand the theoretical fundamentals of the subject.
The applicant should be able to give a general description of the subject using, as appropriate, typical examples.
The applicant should be able to use mathematical formulae in conjunction with physical laws describing the subject.
The applicant should be able to read and understand sketches, drawings and schematics describing the subject.
The applicant should be able to apply his knowledge in a practical manner using detailed procedures.
LEVEL 3
A detailed knowledge of the theoretical and practical aspects of the subject.
A capacity to combine and apply the separate elements of knowledge in a logical and comprehensive manner.
Objectives: The applicant should know the theory of the subject and interrelationships with other subjects.
The applicant should be able to give a detailed description of the subject using theoretical fundamentals and specific examples.
The applicant should understand and be able to use mathematical formulae related to the subject.
The applicant should be able to read, understand and prepare sketches, simple drawings and schematics describing the subject.
The applicant should be able to apply his knowledge in a practical manner using manufacturer’s instructions.
The applicant should be able to interpret results from various sources and measurements and apply corrective action where appropriate.
Extracts from Annex III Part 66 Appendix 1 (Basic Knowledge Requirements) issued by EASA
© LRTT Ltd. Trading as Resource Group
For Training Purposes Only Page: 341 expert solutions, adding value
SYSTEMS OF FITS
Limits
The largest acceptable size for a particular dimension is known as the
”high limit”. The smallest acceptable size for the same dimension is called the
”low limit”. The difference between the high and low limits is known as the
”tolerance”.
When two components are to be fitted together, such as a shaft and a bearing,
the difference between the high limit of the inside component and the low limit
of the surrounding component is known as the ”allowance”.
The allowance is the smallest clearance which can occur between the two
components when assembled. The largest clearance which can occur is equal
to the total of the allowance, the tolerance of the inside component and the
tolerance of the outside component.
This permitted difference in size for the two components determines the class
of ”fit” between the mating parts.
Note: the tolerances and allowance are very small compared with the overall
size- the drawing opposite is exaggerated for clarity.
Dimension
A dimension is a reference size printed on a drawing, which refers to the perfect
size for a component.

Figure 152 Limits

KINDS OF FIT shown in the diagram. If both parts are within the stated tolerances, the shaft
will be between 0.001mm and 0.042mm larger than the hole. These dimensions
According to their purpose the work pieces to be fitted are made with a different
are typical of an interference fit.
play or interference. This is why we distinguish between several kinds of fit.
There is an extreme interference fit called a ”shrink” fit. This is when the shaft
CLEARANCE FIT is so much larger than the hole that it cannot be assembled by the application
In cases of clearance fit you will always have some play after assembly, eg in of force alone. Assembly is achieved by heating the outer component so that
bearings. it expands. The cold shaft is forced into the heat expanded hole, which is then
shrunk onto the shaft by cooling.
Clearance fits can be further divided into ”running” and ”free running”.
Components which have clearance fit can be assembled together by light hand
pressure or even without any force at all.
Consider a shaft and a bearing of nominal diameter 30mm with the tolerances
shown in the diagram. If both parts are within the stated tolerances, the hole
must always be at least 0.025mm larger than the shaft and could be as much
as 0.080mm. This will enable the components to be fitted together easily and is
typical of a clearance fit.
TRANSITION FIT
In the case of transition fit, play or interference can occur between the parts,
depending on the size of their actual sizes. The tolerances of bore and shaft
overlap.
Transition Fit can be sub-divided into ”light press” and ”push” fits. As the
tolerances are such that the parts may have slight interference or a very small
clearance, they may need a light press or taps from a hammer to assemble
them.
shown in the diagram. If both parts are within the stated tolerances, the shaft
may be up to 0.018mm larger than the hole or as much as 0.016mm smaller
than the hole. This sort of variation is typical of a transition fit.
INTERFERENCE FIT
In case of interference fit the hole is smaller than the item being fitted (for
example in the case of a bearing bushing and its housing).
This can also be referred to as a ”drive”, ”press” or ”force” fit. The inner compo-
nent is always larger than the outer component and assembly can only be
achieved by the application of considerable force.

Figure 153 Types Of Fit

ISO SYSTEM
There is an ISO system for specifying fit between shafts and bearings or similar
mating components. A brief description of the system follows, but refer to BS
4500 for further details.
The outer component (the bearing or hole) is described by a capital letter
followed by a number, eg H6. The inner component (the shaft) is described by a
lower case letter followed by a number, eg h6.
The letters specify the fundamental deviation of the actual dimensions from
the nominal dimensions- this is sometimes called the ”tolerance position”. The
letter H (and also h) specifies zero fundamental deviation (in other words the
tolerance ranges from the nominal size).
• Example: An h6 shaft of nominal diameter 25mm can vary between
24.987mm and 25.000mm.
Note, however, that an H6 bearing (or hole) of nominal diameter 25mm can
vary between 25.000mm and 25.013mm. The tolerance on both shaft and
bearing is in the direction which increases clearance between the two. The
shaft can be smaller than its fundamental deviation by the amount of the
tolerance and the hole can be larger than its fundamental deviation by the
amount of the tolerance.

Figure 154 BS 4500: Limits and Fits For Engineering

ISO SYSTEM (CONT’D)

On the previous page we considered bearings and shafts for which the
fundamental deviation was zero (H and h). This combination can never give
a shaft which is larger than the bearing; the shaft can be the same size as
the bearing or smaller by the amount of the tolerances. The fit will always be
clearance.
Tighter or looser fits can be specified by moving the fundamental deviation of
either the shaft or the bearing, or both. Letters beyond H in the alphabet spec-
ify a shift of fundamental deviation to always give oversize shafts and under-
size holes. The further the designating letter is from H the greater the amount of
oversize in the shaft or undersize in the hole and therefore the tighter the fit.
For a 25mm diameter shaft, the table below gives examples of the minimum
diameters that are within tolerance for different fundamental deviations:
Note that the actual value of fundamental deviation for each designating letter
varies with the nominal diameter of the shaft (see the table on the next page).


Conversely, an ISO designating letter that comes before H in the alphabet
specifies a shift of fundamental deviation in the direction which gives undersize
shafts and oversize holes- a looser fit.
For a 25mm diameter shaft, the table below gives examples of the maximum
diameters that are within tolerance for different fundamental deviations.
The actual value of fundamental deviation designated by each letter varies with
the nominal diameter of the shaft or hole. Examples:


Tolerances
In the ISO system, the number which follows the fundamental deviation letter
specifies the tolerance which is acceptable. The tolerance is the amount
of variation which is permitted between individual parts made to the same
specification. The combination of nominal size, fundamental deviation and
tolerance specifies the maximum dimensions which are acceptable.
The number specifying tolerance is on a scale 1 to 16- the smaller the number
the tighter the tolerance. The value of the tolerance for each designating
number varies with the diameter of the shaft or hole. The table gives examples
of tolerance for three particular sizes of shaft.
Note that the tolerance ranges from the fundamental deviation in a direction
away from the nominal size (see diagram). This applies foe both shafts and
bearings (holes).


Fits
In the ISO system, the fit of a shaft and a bearing is described by stating the
designation of the hole followed by the designation of the shaft.
• Example: H8- e7 or H8/e7
A bearing of nominal size 25mm and H8 specification will have a minimum
size of 25.000mm and a maximum size of 25.033mm. This is made up of zero
fundamental deviation and a tolerance of 0.033mm.
A shaft of nominal size 25mm and e7 specification will have a maximum size of
24.960mm and a minimum size of 24.939mm. This is made up of a fundamental
deviation of 0.040mm and a tolerance of 0.021mm.
This combination will give a clearance fit. The minimum clearance will be
0.040mm and the maximum clearance will be 0.094mm, depending upon where
the individual components lie within the range of tolerance.
Using the data given in the tables on the previous 2 pages, work out the
answers to the following:

FASTENERS- HOLE AND DRILL DATA- METALLIC

STRUCTURE
The following tables are an example of extracts from a typical aircraft Structural
Repair Manual (in this case an Airbus A340-200/300).
They give the permitted tolerances for holes for fasteners, depending on the
type of fastener and kind of fit, as follows.
Table Holes For:

1 standard and oversize dia solid rivets in metallic structures

Figure 155 Extracts From Airbus SRM- 1

Figure 156 Extracts From Airbus SRM- 2

THIS PAGE INTENTIONALLY LEFT BLANK

WEAR LIMITS
A300 Outer Airbrake Attachments
This is an example from the Maintenance Manual of wear limits.

Figure 157 Outer Airbrakes- Wear Limits (A300)

TWIST LIMITS
A300 Twist Check
This is an example from the Maintenance Manual of twist limits.
• Record height of the points of fuselage horizontal datum using the two sight
tubes placed on either side of the fuselage.
• Z variations of the fuselage horizontal datum points indicate fuselage twist.
NOTE :The values in the table are actual measurements recorded on aircraft
at zero flight hours and must only be used as guidelines for alignment checks.
Deviation from the values and tolerances given does not automatically mean
that the aircraft is not serviceable.

Figure 158 Twist Check

STANDARD METHODS FOR CHECKING SHAFTS &

BEARINGS
Dial Test Indicator (DTI)
Dial test indicators are precision measuring instruments that can be used to
determine the amount of movement between certain engine and airframe parts.
They may also be used to determine and out-of-round condition on a shaft or
the plane of rotation of a disk.
Checking Method
Engine crankshaft runout is checked with a DTI by assembling the instrument
onto a stand and positioning it onto a smooth part of the crankshaft.
A preload is then applied to the DTI by pressing it against the shaft so that the
pointer deflects by a few thousandths of an inch.
The DTI is then zeroed and, as the crankshaft is turned, the DTI will indicate the
amount of deviation in both directions.

Figure 159 Using Dial Test Indicators


M7.8 Riveting PART-66 M7 CAT B1
M7.8 RIVETING
Sub-Module Level
7.8 Riveting
Riveted joints, rivet spacing and pitch; Tools used for riveting 2
and dimpling; Inspection of riveted joints.

LEVEL 1
LEVEL 2
LEVEL 3


INTRODUCTION Material
Aircraft structure consists of various components manufactured separately and Aircraft structure is made up of many materials, including steel and titanium.
subsequently joined together. The designer must consider various factors (weight, heat, load etc) when
deciding which material to use only sacrificing weight when it is necessary.
Joining Methods
For its excellent strength-to-weight ratio, the most common material used in an
Modern materials, particularly composites, use adhesive to form a permanent aircraft structure is aluminium alloy.
bond.
This section will concentrate on aluminium alloy solid rivets (as opposed to
Traditionally, aluminium alloy (and other metal) parts are joined using rivets. steel and titanium, which are rarely encountered).
Rivets To prevent dissimilar metal corrosion and other stresses, rivets are composed
of the same alloys as the structures they are joining together.
A rivet is a metal pin with a formed head at one end; either protruding or
countersunk. As covered in Module 6, aluminium is alloyed with various other elements,
depending on where it is fitted and what loads it is subjected to.
A hole is drilled through the parts to be joined, the rivet is inserted into the hole
and the end opposite the head is hammered to hold the components together. Heat Treatment
As the rivet tail is hammered down, its cross-sectional area increases together D-, DD- and E-rivets are very hard and brittle and must be annealed (softened)
with its bearing and shearing strengths (its resistance to the force of the prior to fitting to prevent them cracking.
components trying to slide apart). This process creates a union between the
Once this heat-treatment (also known as ’solution treatment’) and subsequent
parts at least as strong as the individual parts.
quenching has been carried out, the rivets must be installed within 2 hours.
Because weight is an important factor when constructing aircraft, the solid-
One further ’cook’ is permissable if time runs out, but then the rivets must be
shank rivet is the most preferred method when joining metal parts together.
discarded.
Sizes
Hardening
The most common diameters of solid rivets fitted in aircraft are:
Annealed rivets regain their full strength and hardness after several hours (’age
• 3/32in (2.4mm) hardening’).
• 1/8in(3.2mm) This process can be delayed by storing the annealed rivets (within 15 minutes
• 5/32in (4.0mm) of quenching) in a freezer.
• 3/16in (4.8mm) The storage life varies depending on the temperature:
Different lengths are available in 1/16“ increments. Storage Temperature (°C) Storage Time (Hours)
0 48
Types
-6 72
There are essentially two types of rivet head; one that protrudes and one that
sits flush with the material. These are known as universal and countersunk -15 150
heads. The most common countersink angle is 100°. -40 Infinite

Figure 280 Solid Rivets

RIVETED JOINTS
Layout
When a sheet metal repair is to be done, there are certain minimums that must
be attained for rivet spacing, edge margin and fastener diameter.
The fastener spacing and margin data applicable to metallic and composite
structures are given in the Structural Repair Manual (SRM) Chapter 51.
Pitch
The bolt and pin hole pitch values are from the centre of one fastener hole to
the centre of the next fastener hole in a row and are quoted in terms of the
fastener nominal shank diameter ‘D’. For example, factor 4.0 x ‘D’ = pitch.
Edge Distance
The bolt and pin hole edge distance values are from the centre of one fastener
hole to the nearest edge of the component.
The edge distance values applicable to the protruding head fasteners for the
wing structure are quoted in terms of the fastener nominal shank diameter ‘D’.
For example, factor 2.0 x ‘D’ = edge distance .
The edge distance values applicable to protruding and countersunk head
fasteners are given in the repair instructions provided by the SRM.
Edge Margin
Use 2 to 2.5 D as a rule of thumb.
Spacing
Spacing is the distance between fastener rows, taken from the hole centres.
Use 4 to 5 D as a rule of thumb.
Sphere of Influence
The area of sheet metal over which a rivet will achieve a water-tight joint
(typically 5D).
Allowance
The amount of protrusion of the rivet shank that is sufficient to form the shop
head (’tail’).

Figure 281 Fastener Edge Distance

Figure 282 Dimensions for Driving Non-Fluid-Tight Solid Rivets (Boeing)

Figure 283 Grip Ranges/Recommended Lengths: Standard Aluminium Alloy Rivets (Boeing)

Figure 284 Dimensions for Driving Non-Fluid-Tight Solid Rivets (Boeing)

Figure 285 Dimensions for Driving Fluid-Tight Solid Rivets (Boeing)

UNITS OF MEASUREMENT
Because the aircraft engineer will encounter both metric and Imperial units of
measurement (particularly when carrying out structural repair work), a pocket-
sized manual (such as the Zeus book) is an invaluable aid for quick conversion
work.

Figure 286 Standard Drill Sizes & Decimal Equivalents

INTER-RIVET BUCKLING
Pressurised Fuselage
To prevent skin plates buckling, the maximum permissable rivet spacing of a
pressurised fuselage should be 6D or 18t (whichever is the smaller).
Wing Structure
Maximum rivet spacing of the wing structure is deemed to be 3.75D (solid rivet)
or 4.5D (or 10t, whichever is smaller) for a Hi-Lok rivet.

Figure 287 Fuel Tank Fastener Spacing

DIMPLING
Introduction
If skin is too thin to cut-countersink, it is shaped (dented) to accept the head of
a countersunk fastener by dimpling.
There are three methods of dimpling.
• Coin Dimpling. A male die fits through the rivet hole and the coining ram in
the female exerts a controlled pressure on the underside of the hole whilst the
male is forced into the upper side.
The pressure on the dies forges the edges of the hole to exactly fit the shape
of the dies.
Coin dimpling gives the hole sharply-defined edges that closely resemble
machine dimpling. The top and bottom of the dimple are formed to a 100°
angle, enabling dimpled skins to be stacked (or ’nested’).
• Radius Dimpling. The pilot on the male die passes through the hole in the
material and presses into the female die. The dimple formed does not have
parallel sides as the lower side has an angle greater than 100°, therefore
these dimples cannot be nested.
Radius dimpling equipment is smaller than that used for coin dimpling and can
be used in locations too tight for coin dimpling.
• Hot Dimpling. Magnesium and some of the harder aluminium alloys (such
as 7075) cannot be successfully cold-dimpled, as the material is so brittle that
cracks will form during the process.
To prevent this cracking, the material is heated during the process.
The equipment is similar to that used for coin or radius dimpling except that
the dies are heated.
The material is put in place and heat and pressure applied. The metal
softens under the heat and the pressure then increased to form the dimple.
The amount of heat and duration it is applied is carefully controlled to
prevent the temper condition of the metal being destroyed.

Figure 288 Dimpling

TOOLS USED FOR SOLID RIVETING

Riveting Methods
For the installation of rivets, the following methods can be employed:
• pneumatic rivet gun
• hand hammering
• continuous squeeze-riveting.
Gun Riveting
The rivet gun, used with a back-up dolly (bucking bar), forms the upset head.
This is known as reaction riveting.
A correctly-shaped rivet set (rivet snap) is held in the gun and located on the
manufactured head end of the rivet. At the same time the dolly is held against
the end of the rivet to be upset.
When the gun operates, the dolly reaction to the pneumatic hammering of the
gun forms the upset head.

Figure 289 Rivet Guns

Hand Riveting
Hand hammering (also known as ’percussion riveting’) is the basic method
used to make the upset head of a rivet. For this method follow these steps:
1. Support the manufactured head with a correctly-shaped rivet set
2. Hold a dolly against the end of the rivet and hit it until the upset head has
achieved the correct shape.
NOTE: MAKE SURE THAT THE HAMMER BLOWS ARE HEAVY AND
AS FEW AS POSSIBLE BECAUSE A LARGE NUMBER OF
LIGHT BLOWS WORK-HARDEN THE RIVET. THIS CAN
RESULT IN CRACKS IN THE UPSET HEAD.
Make sure that the tools are sufficiently large to quickly form the upset head.
The subsequent times for the formation of the upset head are recommended:
• three or four seconds is the optimum time,
• seven seconds is the maximum time.
Hold the back-up dolly in position until the rivet is fully installed.
Before you install rivets in the aircraft structure, make some test pieces to
check the rivet and tool precision. These test pieces must be the same type
of material and thickness as the parts to be riveted, and the rivets must be the
same type of material, length and diameter as the rivets to be used.
Visually check rivets before they are installed. If a rivet appears defective (eg
deep scores or indication of wire drawing) reject it. Some apparent defects (eg
isolated nicks, abrasions, die marks or fins) are acceptable up to a maximum
depth of 0.10mm (0.004 in).
Rivets made from 2017 and 2024 materials must be kept in a refrigerator after
they have been heat-treated.

Figure 290 Rivet Sets

Squeeze Riveting
The continuous squeeze method is the preferred method for riveting, but if this
method is not available then pneumatic hammering is the next recommended
method.
The hand hammering method is used primarily for small repairs that include
very few rivets. It can also be used if other methods are not available.
A squeeze riveting tool makes the upset head of a rivet in a single continuous
action. Tools to perform this are either hydraulically or pneumatically operated.
Static and portable types of tools are available.

Figure 291 Rivet Squeezers

HOLE PREPARATION Flush Rivets

The use of a countersunk fastener requires a countersunk recess in the surface
Introduction
of the material. The countersunk recess receives the head of the fastener and
The dimensions of a fastener hole have an important relation to the strength of therefore gives a smooth surface.
the fastened joint.
The tools, used to produce the countersunk recess, are of various types:
CLearance fit, transition fit or interference fit fasteners are used depending on
• a countersink bit with an integral pilot pin, a cutting edge to produce the
the loading.
required internal corner radius and an adapter for use with a drilling machine,
Deburr the hole using a suitable deburring tool.
• a countersink bit with a replaceable pilot pin and an adapter for use with a
NOTE: A twist-drill is not permitted for this step. drilling machine,
Hole Diameter - Solid Rivets • an adjustable countersink tool with an integral pilot pin and a cutting edge to
produce the required internal corner radius,
• an adjustable countersink tool with a replaceable pilot pin.
NOTE: The diameter of the pilot pin must fit the diameter of the fastener hole.
The diameter of the countersink bit must be larger than the maximum diameter
of the required countersunk recess.
Before countersinking, observe the minimum part thickness (see table
opposite).

Figure 292 Minimum Part Thickness for 100° Countersinking

HOLE PREPARATION (CONT’D)

Flush Rivets (Cont’d)
CAUTION: CARE SHOULD BE TAKEN THROUGHOUT THIS PROCEDURE
TO ENSURE THAT THE COUNTERSINK PRODUCED IS NOT TO DEEP.
Obtain a piece of scrap metal to use as a test piece, similar in type and thick-
ness to the material that is to be used for the repair. Also obtain a fastener of
the same type and diameter as the ones to be installed.
Drill several holes to the required diameter in the test piece.
Adjust the micro stop on the countersinking tool to give a minimum countersink.
Make a countersink on the test piece. Gradually increase the amount of
countersink by adjusting the micro stop until the required depth is obtained.
Check the depth with the correct fastener. Refer to Chapter 51-10-00 of the
SRM for the required Aerodynamic Smoothness for the type of fastener.
When the required depth of countersink has been obtained, check that the
remaining parallel portion (excluding the de-burred area) of the hole is at least
0.2 mm (0.008 in.) long.
Complete the test by fully installing a fastener in the test piece and check for
correctness.
NOTE: When using a micro-adjustable countersinking tool, ensure that the stop
on the tool does not rotate when countersinking. Rotation of the stop can cause
damage to the surface of the material around the countersink.
NOTE: If a large number of countersinks are to be made, the adjustment of the
tool must be checked from time to time.
To achieve adequate seating of the fastener, the edge of the countersunk
recess/hole must be chamfered (see opposite).
Some countersinking tools produce a chamfer (radius) in a one-step operation
with the countersinking. If the produced radius has the correct dimension for
the required fastener (refer to Chapter 51-44-11), no further chamfering is
necessary.

Figure 293 Underhead Radius/Chamfer Limits

INSTALLATION PROCEDURE
Select the required rivet. If, for any reason, the dimensions of the required rivet
are not known, proceed as follows:
1. Accurately measure the diameter of the hole. If the diameter of the hole is
within the tolerances for a standard rivet (Refer to SRM 51-40-40), select a
rivet of this diameter. If the diameter of the hole is not within the tolerances,
increase the diameter of the hole to suit an oversize rivet if applicable, or
the next standard size.
2. To find the required rivet length, accurately measure the total thickness
of the materials to be joined. Refer to rivet length data tables to find the
correct length that is relevant to the rivet diameter found above.
NOTE: If necessary, the rivet can be shortened to the required length.
This does not apply to titanium rivets.
3. Get the correct rivet set and back-up dolly for the rivet type and dimensions
4. Make sure that the hole, and if applicable, the countersunk portion is in a
satisfactory condition. This includes clean and free from burrs.
5. Clean the parts as necessary. Apply sealant or jointing compound if it is
called for in the related repair drawing, assembly drawing or is normally
used in the area concerned.
NOTE: Install the rivets before the pot-life of the sealant or jointing
compound ends.
6. Make sure that the contact surfaces of the parts are fully together and that
there are no gaps between them. Gaps will prevent the correct forming of
the rivet and reduce the joint strength.
7. Align the holes as necessary and attach the parts together temporarily.
Take care not to cause damage to the local area with tools.
8. Put the rivet fully in the hole. For this operation make sure that the parts are
correctly supported where necessary.
9. Form the upset head. To do this, use one of the methods given in the
general section. Hold the tools perpendicular to the surfaces and do not
compress the rivet too much. If the upset head is over-compressed, it is
possible for the material to crack.

Figure 294 Bucking Bars- Details

INSPECTION AND PERMITTED LIMITS

General
Inspect rivets after they have been installed. This is necessary to make sure
that the joint is tight, and that the rivets are fully seated and correctly formed.
Make sure that the adjacent area has no damage or distortion.
The acceptance limits given in the following tables are applicable to those rivets
that become part of the structural strength after installation. For example, rivets
that fasten skin or formed and extruded sections.
A large number of cracks found in a high percentage of installed rivets indicates
that the rivets have not been correctly heat-treated. It can also mean that
the installation time allowed for heat-treated rivets has been exceeded. It is
necessary to scrap and replace all of these rivets (including those which are
not used) from the batch concerned, or have them heat-treated again.
Deformation or buckling of the plating is only permitted within the limits given in
SRM Chapter 51-10-30. This type of damage is a result of:
• too much tool pressure
• rivets expanded between the sheets
• trapped foreign material.
Make sure that the head of a countersunk rivet is level with or slightly above the
surface of the material. Refer to SRM Chapter 51 for the rivet head protrusion
limits.
Aerodynamic Smoothness
Aircraft designers insist that certain areas of the aircraft surface must be
aerodynamically smooth. It may also be necessary to fit a panel or other com-
ponent over countersunk fasteners, in which case it is important that there is no
protrusion of the fasteners that can result in damage to the component being
fitted.
To achieve a flush finish to a countersunk rivet, a microshaver is used. The
tool is micro-adjustable and should be set up on a piece of spare metal. The
cutter’s height is set so that, upon lowering to the metal surface, no material is
removed. Check the setting by increasing the cutter’s height one step at a time
until material is removed, then backing off again.
The aircraft SRM must be consulted before shaving rivets.

Figure 295 Upset Rivet Dimension (Airbus)

Figure 296 Formed Head Defects and Limits (Airbus) 1

Figure 297 Formed Head Defects and Limits (Airbus) 2

Acceptable Limits
Ovality of the upset head is permitted if the dimensions are within the upset
diameter limits. These limits, together with the applicable rivet material, are
given in the following tables.
Eccentricity of the upset head is permitted if the rivet shank cannot be seen.
Malformation of the upset head is permitted if the shape is within the dimension
limits given in upset rivet dimension tables.
Tool impact damage around the two heads is permitted within the limits given in
sketch.
Cracks in the upset head of aluminium alloy 2017 and 2024 rivets are permitted
within the limits given in the table/sketch. Cracks in the upset head of other
aluminium alloy rivets are not permitted. Cracks in the structure material under
either head are not permitted.
NOTE: Cracks in the heads of titanium and monel rivets are not permitted.
Lack of head/material abutment (seating) is permitted within the limits given in
the SRM.

Figure 298 Acceptable Limits for Cracks (Airbus)

Figure 299 Cracks Analysis: Shop Head (Boeing)

Figure 300 Cracks Analysis: Non-Fluid-Tight Rivets (Boeing)

Figure 301 Cracks Analysis: Fluid-Tight Rivets (Boeing)

Figure 302 Gap Analysis: Rivet Heads/Tails (Boeing)

SOLID RIVET REMOVAL

Caution
Fastener holes are one of the main sources of structural fatigue and failure. It is
vital that they are not damaged during the rivet removal process.
You cannot automatically increase a rivet size if holes are enlarged. In certain
areas, the SRM cannot authorise this and the aircraft’s design department must
be approached for a concession, incurring delays and expense.
Fasteners will not form correctly in enlarged holes, thus reducing their
effectiveness.
Therefore, great care should be taken during this operation.
Safety
• As with all operations involving drills, wear eye protection.
• Check whether there is anything behind the rivet (wire loom, pipes etc).
• Warn anyone in the vicinity you are about to drill.
• Rivet removal generates a lot of debris. Prevent, as far as possible, this
entering cavities.
• Be scrupulous in cleaning your work area.
Method
1. If the head type is protruding and its centre cannot be accurately
established (covered in sealant or paint), file it slightly to produce a flat.
2. Centre-punch the head as a guide for the drill-bit.
NB Alternatively, to prevent undue stress by centre-punching, position the
drill-bit and turn the chuck by hand to create a start for the drill-bit.
3. Carefully drill (using a bit of the same size as the rivet shank diameter) just
to the bottom of the rivet head. To prevent damage to the structure, do NOT
be tempted to chisel off the head. Provided you have drilled centrally, the
head will part easily during the last part of this operation.
4. Support the structure on the reverse side. Using a parallel pin-punch of the
rivet shank diameter, drift out the rivet tail.

Figure 303 Solid Rivet Removal


M7.9 Pipes and Hoses PART-66 M7 CAT B1
M7.9 PIPES AND HOSES

Sub-Module Level
7.9 Pipes and Hoses
Bending and belling/flaring aircraft pipes; Inspection and testing of aircraft 2

pipes and hoses; Installation and clamping of pipes.

LEVEL 1
LEVEL 2
LEVEL 3

TUBES AND PIPES / TUBE ASSEMBLIES The smallest permitted bend radius for the tube assembly is dependent on the
tube material, the wall thickness and the outer diameter.
General
At the same time, the lines must be able to connect to the connections exactly
A tube assembly consists of the tube and both tube fittings. Tube assemblies matching the axis and be free of tension so that they maintain the necessary
are differentiated according to their use as low, medium and high pressure tube seal over longer operating periods.
assemblies.
Cleaning and Pressure-Testing
Extruded tube material of various non-corrosive steels, aluminium and titanium
alloys is available. A manufactured pipe assembly must be cleaned out internally with compressed
air (blown from both directions alternately) and then proof-tested (normally at 1
Their dimensions are determined by the ”external diameter” and the ”wall
1/2 times working pressure) by capping one end.
thickness”.
CAUTION: PRESSURE TESTING IS NORMALLY THE RESPONSIBILITY
The higher the quality of material that is selected for a line, the easier it is to
OF SPECIALISTS. A PIPE THAT BURSTS UNDER
achieve the same operational pressure with reduction of the wall thickness and
PRESSURE CAN CAUSE SERIOUS OR EVEN FATAL
thus less flow resistance due to the larger inner diameter.
INJURIES.
Steel lines are increasingly being used as pressure lines, even if this could be
accomplished with aluminium lines. The reason for this is the greater operating
safety and the longer life expectancy.
• At pressures of over 1500 PSI (105 bar) we speak of high pressure lines,
• under 1500 PSI (105 bar) medium pressure lines
• suction and return lines we speak of low pressure lines.
Medium and low pressure lines are preferably made of aluminium alloys for
weight-saving.
Lines in the engine area, where there is danger of fire, and in the landing gear
area, where there is danger of being hit by stones, must principally be made of
steel. Titanium lines are still the exception; they can be used due to reasons of
weight or as ”flexible metal pipes” instead of hoses.
Installation
Tube assemblies are laid in a manner so that they can yield along their length if
there is movement and vibration, so that there is no significant additional stress
on the fittings. This is achieved by providing suitable bends in the tubing.
For the same reason the vibration of the line itself must also be reduced to a
minimum. This is achieved by clamping at short regular intervals.
The proximity of lines to each other must also be observed to prevent them
damaging each other through contact.

Figure 304 Correct Tube Alignment

CLAMPS
Introduction
For appearance’ sake and ease of attachment, all fluid lines should follow
structural members of the aircraft and be secured with appropriate clamps; ie
all fuel lines must be bonded to the structure with integrally bonded line support
clamps.
It is important that no fluid line be allowed to chafe against any control cable or
aircraft structure, electrical wiring bundles or conduit-carrying electrical wires.
Furthermore, you should avoid routing fluid lines through passenger
compartments. If, however, this is unavoidable, it must be supported and
protected against damage and installed in such a way that it cannot be used as
a hand-hold.
Support Clamps
Support clamps are used to secure fluid lines to the aircraft structure or to
assemblies in the engine nacelle.
In addition to providing support, these clamps prevent chafing and reduce
stress.
The two clamps most commonly-encountered are the rubber cushioned clamp
and the plain clamp.
The rubber cushioned clamp secures lines which are subject to vibration. It
reduces the transmission of vibrations to the line and prevents chafing.
In areas subject to contamination by fuel or hydraulic fluid, cushioned clamps
utilizing Teflon are used, which are highly-resistant to deterioration.
Bonded Clamps
A bonded clamp is used to secure metal fuel, oil or hydraulic lines. It has an
electrical lead connected to the aircraft structure to ground the line.
CAUTION: WHEN INSTALLING A BONDED CLAMP, ENSURE ANY
PAINT OR ANODIZING IS REMOVED FROM THE LINE
WHERE THE CLAMP IS FITTED FOR ELECTRICAL
CONTINUITY.

Figure 305 Clamp Types

TUBE FITTINGS
General
The tube fittings or tube connections form the transition to the fittings on the
units, branches or to other tubes.
In this way they must fit to the various types of tubing and nominal diameters on
the one side and to the various threads and fittings (flared or ball-bush fittings)
on the other side.
There are tube fittings for the various pressure ranges in aluminium and
titanium alloys respectively and in cadmium-plated or stainless steel versions.

Figure 306 Connection Examples

FLARELESS FITTING
The illustrations show versions of the ”flareless tube fittings” now widely in use
which usually achieve their seal by the ”ball-bush principle”.
MS Fitting
The sleeve or O-ring of malleable steel is shaped by pre-stressing in such a
way that its inner cutting edge is pushed over the pipe to seal it. At the same
time the lip of the seal is pushed into the cone of the fitting and forms a seal
line. During this the tube must, in principle, be on the stop support.
Harrison Fitting
The sleeve of solid steel has a ball-bush fitting as a seal and is not moulded.
The tube is moulded, in that it is swaged in the sleeve from inside so that it is
sealed tightly. With this type of fitting, the tube is not allowed to touch the end of
the fitting.
The advantage of this type of fitting is ease of handling, as well as the simple
tool required for installation.

Figure 307 Flareless Fitting

FLARE-TYPE FITTING Types of Flare

There are two types of flare used in aircraft tubing systems:
Introduction
• Single Flare
With a flare-type fitting a special tool is required to make the flare.
• Double Flare.
By tightening the union nut, a sleeve is pulled against a conical fitting, whereby
the tube is pressed between the fitting and the sleeve. The close fit between the Single Flare
inside of the flared tube and the flare cone of the fitting provides the actual seal,
therefore surfaces must be scrupulously clean and free of cracks, scratches A single flare is formed with either an impact-type flaring tool or one having a
and nicks etc. flaring cone with a rolling action.
The sleeve provides added strength and supports the tube to prevent vibration • Impact-Type
concentrating on the flare and also prevents distortion of the flare when This method involves the tubing being clamped in flaring blocks (the ’grip die’)
tightening the pipe. whilst a plunger is driven into the end of the tube using light hammer blows
This fitting is relatively complicated to manufacture, but has proved its worth for whilst rotating the plunger.
use in engines because it is relatively vibration-resistant. • Roll-Type
Flare Angle This is the preferred method, involving an entirely self-contained unit producing
a good flare.
Aircraft flared fittings have a standard flare angle of 37° and are not
interchangeable with vehicle-type flares, which are 45°. The tube is clamped and the flaring cone is turned into the tube end, expanding
the flare until it reaches the edges of the die. No hammering is required.
Leak Inspection
Dimensions
If a leak is apparent from a correctly-tightened joint, it should be dismantled and
mating surfaces thoroughly inspected for debris or damage. See next page.
CAUTION: DO NOT OVER-TIGHTEN THE JOINT IN ATTEMPTING TO

CURE A LEAK. THIS MAY RESULT IN FAILURE OF A
COMPONENT.

Figure 308 Single Flare Fittings and Tools

Single Flare (Cont’d) Dimensions for Single-Flare Tubing
Dimensions
Single flares must be manufactured to certain tolerances to ensure a strong,
leak-free joint.

Figure 309 Flared Fitting Types

Double Flare
Soft aluminium tubing with an outside diameter of 3/8 in or smaller can be
double-flared to provide a stronger connection.
A double flare is smoother and more concentric than a single flare and thus
provides a better seal. It is also more durable and resistant to the shearing
effect of torque.
Procedure
• The tubing is inserted into the flaring die to a depth determined by the stop-pin
and then clamped.
• The upsetting tool is inserted and, with as few blows as possible, the initial
upset is formed.
• The upsetting tool is then substituted for the flaring tool and then hammered to
form the double flare.

Figure 310 Double Flare

SWAGE FITTING/HARRISON TYPE

For this type of connection, you also need a special tool, which moulds a sleeve
by widening the pipe. The tool can be compared to a thorn that expands in the
tube by a mechanical process.
This type of connection is well suited for thin-walled tubes and is almost totally
vibration-resistant.

Figure 311 Harrison-Type Fitting

PERMASWAGE FITTING
With this type of connection, a steel sleeve is squeezed onto the prepared pipe
end with a hydraulically driven tool.
The advantage of this type of fitting is that is can be made quickly in situ, it is
light, and gives a good seal.
The great disadvantage of this fitting is that is cannot be separated, which can
be very problematic at disassembly.

Figure 312 Permaswage Fitting

BENDING TUBES
Tools
Care must be taken to ensure that the correct tool is used for bending tubes.
The choice of tool depends on the diameter of the tube.
The swivel handle of the larger tube benders has an angled slot. The whole
swivel handle can slide outwards so that the tube can be laid in the guide
groove.
After this the swivel handle is pushed down again and the tube clamp is placed
around the tube. The left side of the swivel handle is now on the zero marking
of the scale.
It is recommended to lightly lubricate the tube at the bend point before bending.
To bend the tube, secure the tube bender with the form wheel handle in a vice.
The tube is bent by pulling both levers together. With steel tubes, you usually
arc the bend a little further than the marking on the scale, as the tube springs
back a little after bending.
This is hardly ever the case with light metal tubes.
After bending, the swivel handle is pushed up over the slot again, the tube
clamp moved back and the tube removed.

Figure 313 Tube Bender

Tools (cont.)
Tube benders for small tube diameters have no slot in the swivel handle;
instead, it is on the reverse side of the lug.
When you open the swivel handle with the lug, the tube can easily be inserted
here too.
With both of these tube benders you are not limited to making 180° bends, you
can also make any open bend to your required angle.

Figure 314 Tube Bender

TUBE BENDING COMING UP TO REQUESTED DIMENSIONS

With an open tube bend, you must ensure that the dimension (X) from the
middle of the tube to the middle of the tube at the desired point is marked
exactly.
First, you bend the right bend to 90°, during which the tube must be held so that
the right marking on the tube covers the marking (L) on the form wheel (see
Figure 207).
Then the tube is pushed further right in the tube bender until the left marking on
the tube covers the marking (R) on the form wheel. Now the second 90° bend
can be made.

Figure 315 Bending


(CONT.)
It is often very advantageous to fabricate the tube bend at the installation site to
ensure that it fits exactly.
Tube bends must be made in such a way that the tubes can be installed totally
tension free with no tension in the clamps and fittings.
Some tube assemblies must be bent with very exact measurements due to the
aircraft structure. This is especially so at an S-bend that must run parallel, i.e. it
is very important at an offset.
First, the required measurement (Y) from tube centre to tube centre must be
determined. You can bend any offset angle.
The tube is bent as widely as possible when a small offset is required. In the
example below, a 15, 30 or 45° angle is shown on the left. Sharper angles of
60, 75 or 90° can easily be used with a larger (Y) measurement.
The manufacturer recommends that a 45° angle is bent where possible.
A table, which you can use to determine the correct dimension of an offset,
comes with the tube bender.

Figure 316 Tube Bending to Requested Dimension 1


(CONT.)
To carry out an offset, you can draw and bend at a certain point according to
the table, using the measurements (X) and (Y).
As an example, assume a required dimension of 2 ½ inches at Y (from tube
centre to tube centre).
If we want to bend an offset of 45° we see from the table, under the offset angle
45°, that the measurement (Y) of 2 ½ inches is next to the measurement (X) of
3 17/32 inches.



(CONT.)
On the straight tube, the measurement (X) is therefore drawn at 3 17/32 inches
at the place where the offset shall be.
To bend a 45° offset, we must bring the first marking on the tube to the 45° line
marking on the tube bender (shoe). Then, we bend an angle of 45°.
Now the tube is repositioned and we bring the second marking on the tube to
the 45° line marking on the tube bender (shoe).
Double-check you are set for the correct bend direction. Then an angle of 45° is
bent again.


TUBING REPAIR
d. Round-bottomed traces of impact:
Permissable Damage and Defects (precis from Airbus AMM)
- maximum: 2 % of tube nominal diameter.
NOTE: not applicable to engine tubes (refer to engine manufacturer).
NOTE : Length or width of trace of impact must not be more than 5 mm
1. Permissible Repair (0.1968 in.). When there is a surface defect with a sign of dent, do an
Generally you repair a tube with a tube made of the same material, but if a tube analysis of each type of damage.
made of the same material is not available, you may repair tubes as follows:
• aluminum alloy (6061-T6) tubes with CRES (21.6.9) or Titanium alloy (Ti A3V
2.5) tubes.
• CRES (21.6.9) tubes with Titanium alloy (TI A3V 2.5) tubes (except in the
pylon).
• Titanium alloy (Ti A3V 2.5) tubes with CRES (21.6.9) tubes.
NOTE : If you repair aluminum alloy or Titanium alloy tubes with CRES
tubes, consider the weight penalty.
2. Permissible Damage and Defects

NOTE : When damage or defects on tubing is more than the permissible limits
given below, tubing shall be discarded or repaired as specified in this topic.
A. Permissible limits for traces of impact and surface defects.
NOTE : Surface defects are discontinuities such as:
- nicks
- scratches
- cracks and forging laps
- scores
- bends
- corrosion pits.
a. Sharp-bottomed surface defects:
- maximum: 5 % of tube wall thickness.
b. Round-bottomed surface defects:
- maximum: 10 % of tube wall thickness.
NOTE : Sharp-bottomed surface defects and traces of impact are damage
with a 90 degrees or less angle at the bottom. All others are round-
bottomed.
c. Sharp-bottomed traces of impact:
- not permitted.


HOSES Construction
Hoses are built up from layers.
General
• The inner layer carries the fluid and therefore must be compatible
Hoses (including fittings) are produced mainly by a manufacturer. It is unusual
(chemically) with the fluid being transported and have the minimum amount of
to fabricate hose assemblies.
porosity.
Fitted hoses must meet the following requirements:
The four main compounds used to construct inner liners are
• there must be a certain amount of slack between both fittings because hoses
Neoprene (for petroleum-based fluids)
reduce their length by between 2% and 4% and expand in diameter when
under pressure. Tensile stress on the fittings is unsafe and therefore not Buna-N (better suited for petroleum-based fluids)
permitted. Butyl (phosphate ester-base hydraulic fluid (Skydrol)
• they must not twist when the end-fittings are tightened. Twisted hoses have a Teflon (compatible with almost every fluid carried).
shortened life and can be damaged or buckle when there is movement. End-
fittings can loosen off. • Reinforcement layers cover the inner liner and determine the hose’s strength.
Common materials used for reinforcement layers are
Why hoses?
cotton
Flexible hoses are used extensively on aircraft to connect stationary to
moving parts and in areas of high vibration. rayon
polyester fabric
Applications
carbon-steel wire
There are essentially three types of hose ratings:
stainless steel wire braid.
• Low pressure ................. up to 600 pounds per square inch (psi)
Diligent design of reinforcement layers can minimise the dimensional changes
• Medium pressure .......... up to 3000 psi of hoses under pressure.
• high pressure ................. 3000 psi + • The protective outer cover is usually made of rubber-impregnated fabric or
stainless steel braid. It is put over the reinforcement to protect from physical
Lay Lines
damage or heat.
Lay lines run along the length of a hose. They are yellow, red or white stripes,
incorporating MIL-SPEC numbers and various other manufacturers’ information. Inspection
Besides identifying the hose, it serves to indicate whether the assembly is At designated intervals, hoses should be inspected for deterioration. Particular
twisted when installed. attention should be paid to indications of leakage and mechanical damage
(braid separation from the covering or broken wire braids).
Damage limits will be found in the AMM.

Figure 319 Flexible Hoses

HOSES (CONT’D)
Reusable Fittings
It is possible to re-manufacture certain hose assemblies by re-using the end
fittings (the socket, nut and nipple).
Prior to this, however, it is important to thoroughly inspect the salvaged fittings
for wear or other damage.
If any doubt exists as to the item’s serviceability, it is to be discarded.
Method
Determine the length of hose required (usually using old assembly as pattern).
Protect the outer covering by wrapping with tape, then cut the hose to length
with a fine-tooth saw, ensuring both ends are square-cut.
1. With the socket held firmly in a vice (using suitable protection for its surface)
and the tape removed, screw the hose into it. Having bottomed the hose in the
socket, back it off approximately half a turn.
2. With the socket still held firmly in the vice, force the lubricated end of the
assembly tool into the hose sufficiently far for the nipple to be inserted.
3. Using the assembly tool, the nipple is then screwed into the socket,
squeezing the hose tightly between socket and nipple.
4. Finally, back off the nipple to leave a gap, permitting the nut to turn freely.
Cleaning and Pressure-Testing

The completed hose assembly must be cleaned out internally with compressed
air (blown from both directions alternately) and then proof-tested (normally at 1
1/2 times working pressure) by capping one end.
CAUTION: PRESSURE TESTING IS NORMALLY THE RESPONSIBILITY
OF SPECIALISTS. A HOSE THAT BURSTS UNDER
PRESSURE CAN CAUSE SERIOUS OR EVEN FATAL
INJURIES.

Figure 320 Reusable Hose Fittings

HOSES (CONT’D)
Hose Installation
There are a number of checks to carry out prior to installing a flexible hose.
Inspect the hose for:
• applicability
• length
• cleanliness
• damage.
Check the hose identification tag for:
• part number
• cure date (within limits)
• assembly date (within limits)
When fitting a hose assembly, it is important:
• not to twist it, thereby placing it under undue strain. Check the lay line printed
along the hose length
• that it is subjected to the minimum of flexing during operation
• that it is supported at least every 24 inches
• that it is not stretched tightly between its fittings
• that the minimum bend radius is observed.

Figure 321 Installation Example 1

HOSES (CONT’D)
Hose Installation (Cont’d)
It is possible to replace a short bend radius with an elbow fitting, but the largest
possible bend radius is still preferred.
The minimum permissable bend radius is determined by the operating
pressure, the type of hose and the nominal size. The bend radius required
increases when the hose has to carry out movements in the operating
condition.
If they can move and become twisted, they are to be fixed with clamps to
prevent this.
Clamps are also necessary where there is a danger to the hoses due to
vibration, long lengths or sharp edges.
Protective Sleeves
There are areas on an aircraft that produce wear (from abrasion) or extreme
heat.
Flexible hoses must be protected from these dangers with suitable sleeving.
Sleeving is available in a variety of materials, including
• heat shrink
• nylon spiral wrap
• Teflon.
CAUTION: TAKE CARE WHEN REMOVING FIRE SLEEVES; EARLY
PRODUCTS CONTAINED ASBESTOS.

Figure 322 Installation Example 2

TIGHTENING PRACTICES- HYDRAULIC CONNECTIONS B. Assembly

NOTE : Connection on straight plug-in fitting or bulkhead fittings:
Introduction
Straight plug-in fittings.
To ensure that pipe and hose assemblies do not leak due to loose connections
or deform because of over-tightening, specific torque figures are published in • You must install and torque the straight plug-in fitting to the applicable torque
the relevant AMM and must be adhered to. value before you connect the pipe.
Additionally, parts must be clean and free from defects prior to assembly. Straight bulkhead fittings.
The following is a precis of the hydraulic tightening practices procedure for an • You must install the straight bulkhead fittings and torque the locknut to the
Airbus aircraft. applicable value before you connect the pipe.
Visual Inspection Before Assembly Swivel bulkhead fittings.
1. Make sure that the parts you assemble are clean and free of contamination. • You must connect and torque to the applicable value the pipe sleeve nuts (at
each end of the fitting) before you torque the locknut of the swivel bulkhead
2. Make sure that the parts you assemble are not damaged. Specially, inspect
fitting to the applicable value.
the sealing surfaces (on fittings and pipe ends) and the threads of the
fittings. 1. Position the pipe and make sure that:
• NOTE : Reject any part that shows signs of damage (scratches, nicks, • the pipe you install is not too short or too long
deformation). • the pipe you install can be positioned without too much force on the clamp
blocks
Procedure
• the pipe alignment at unions is correct.
A. Lubrication
NOTE : The force necessary to correct the alignment must not be more than
CAUTION : ONLY USE THE SPECIFIED LUBRICANT TO LUBRICATE THE light finger pressure (1 daN (2.2480 lbf)).
FITTING THREADS AND THE SHOULDER OF THE SLEEVE.
2. Align the pipe and the fitting and insert tube end. The sleeve must be fully
CAUTION : ONLY USE HYDRAULIC FLUID MATERIAL NO. 02-003 TO bottomed against the mating surface of the fitting.
LUBRICATE THE O-RING AND THE THREAD (O-RING SIDE) ON PLUG-IN
FITTINGS. OTHER LUBRICANTS CAN CAUSE DAMAGE TO THE O-RING. 3. Tighten the sleeve nut with your hand until it bottoms against sleeve
shoulder.
1. Lightly lubricate with HYDRAULIC FLUIDS (Material No. 02-003) or
NOTE : the nut must turn freely on the thread. This shows that the tube ends
COMMON GREASE (Material No. 04-015): are correctly aligned.
• the thread on the male fitting
NOTE : You must connect and tighten with your hand all the ends of the pipe
• the shoulder of the sleeve (when possible). before you apply the tightening torque on one end.
NOTE : Lubricate the thread on the male fitting to get the highest possible load NOTE : When you install a pipe on a tee or a cross, you must connect and
on the contact surfaces. Do not apply lubricant on the female thread. tighten with your hand all the connections of the tee or the cross before you
Do not apply lubricant on the contact surfaces between the sleeve and the apply the tightening torque on one end.
sealing surface of the fitting. Lubricant can cause a rotation of the pipe when NOTE : When you connect a flexible hose, make sure that you do not twist the
you torque the sleeve nut. hose during the assembly.
2. Remove excess of lubricant with a clean, dry lint-free cloth. 4. Attach the clamp blocks without tightening.

Figure 323 Lubrication of Hydraulic Connections

C. Tightening Torque Application

• CAUTION : WHEN YOU TORQUE THE NUT, ALWAYS USE A SECOND
WRENCH TO APPLY A COUNTERTORQUE TO THE FITTING.
1. Find the correct torque value.
• NOTE : To find the correct torque value, you must know the material and
the size of the parts you assemble. If the connection has different
materials, you must use the torque value for the weakest material.
2. Get the applicable torque wrench and the applicable wrench adapter for
the nut and an applicable second wrench to apply the countertorque to the
fitting.
3. Set the torque wrench to the applicable value. When you use a wrench
adapter, you must adjust the value.
4. Position the torque wrench on the sleeve nut and the countertorque wrench
on the fitting
• NOTE : We recommend that you install the wrench adapter in the same
axis as the torque wrench.
• NOTE : The torque wrench must always be installed on the nut (female
part) and the countertorque wrench on the fitting (male part).
5. Apply a slow and continous force on the torque wrench until you reach the
set torque value.
• NOTE : Always pull (or push) at right angles to the handle of the torque
wrench. Try to apply load to the center of the hand grip of the torque
wrench. Pull with fingers only. Do not grasp the hand grip.

Figure 324 Adjustment of Torque Value (Hydraulic Fittings)

TIGHTENING TORQUES- HYDRAULIC FITTINGS

The torque figures for hydraulic fittings can be found in the AMM.
The following tables are just two samples, taken from the Airbus A340 AMM.

Once an hydraulic fitting has been torqued, a witness mark is applied with red
paint 2- 4 mm wide. If the component is subsequently disturbed, the original
witness mark must be removed and a fresh one applied post-torqueing.
Figure 325 Torque Witness Marking


M7.10 Springs PART-66 M7 CAT B1
M7.10 SPRINGS
Sub-Module Level
7.10 Springs
Inspection and testing of springs. 2

LEVEL 1
The applicant should be able to give a simple description of the whole subject, using common words and examples. The applicant should be able to use typical
terms.
LEVEL 2
LEVEL 3

INTRODUCTION including: Conical Compression, Barrel, Hourglass and Cylindrical shapes and
may have various spacing or no spacing at all between coils.
Springs are any of several elastic devices used variously to store and to furnish
energy, to absorb shock, to sustain the pressure between contacting surfaces,
and to resist tensional or compressional stress.
Springs are made of an elastic material, eg specially formulated steel alloys
or certain types of rubber or plastic. A torsion spring that stores energy, eg for
operating a watch, is a metal strip wound spirally around a fixed centre.
For reducing concussion in some heavy trucks and railroad cars, helical (or
coil) springs are used. Coil springs are commonly used for the same purpose in
motor cars, as are leaf springs that consist of flat bars clamped together. These
have been replaced in some vehicles by torsion bars that absorb stresses by
twisting.
The helical-coil compression spring provides the force to keep the operating
surfaces together in the friction clutch.
The extension spring is employed for a spring balance; the distance through
which it is extended depends on the weight suspended from it.
The disk spring, which consists of a laminated series of convex discs, is widely
employed for heavy loads.
TYPES OF SPRING
There are basically four types of spring:
1. Compression
Compression Springs
2. Extension (or Tension)
3. Torsion
4. Wireform.
Compression Springs
Compression Springs are open-coil helical springs that offer resistance to
a compressive force applied axially. Helical compression springs are used
to resist applied compression forces or to store energy in a push mode.
Compression springs have the most common configuration and are most
commonly used in automotive, aerospace and consumer applications. Most
compression springs are a straight cylindrical spring made of round wire.
Compression Spring Types: Compression springs come in a variety of types

Extension (or Tension) Springs

Extension Springs are springs which absorb and store energy by offering
resistance to a pulling force. Typically, extension springs are made from round
wire and are close wound with initial tension. Extension applications include
tape cassette players, balance scales, garage doors, washing machines and
applications which requiring various types of tensioning devices. Various types
of ends are used to attach the extension spring to the source of the force.
Initial Tension
Most extension springs are wound with initial tension. This is an internal force
that holds the coils tightly together. Unlike a compression spring, which has
zero load at zero deflection, an extension spring can have a preload at zero
deflection.
This built-in load, called initial tension, can be varied within limits, decreasing
as the spring index increases. There is a range of stress (and therefore force)
for any spring index that can be held without problems. If the designer needs
an extension spring with no initial tension, he will design the spring with space
between the coils.
Unlike compression springs, extension springs don’t have a solid stop to
prevent overloading. Because of this design, stress levels are lower for
extension springs than for compression. A special type of extension spring is
called a drawbar spring. It has a solid stop and is a type of compression spring
with special hooks. Extension Springs

Torsion Springs Wireform Springs

Helical springs used to apply torque or store rotational energy are commonly Wireforms are parts made from round wire that are bent to have specific angles
referred to as torsion or double torsion. Torque, by definition, is a force that and lengths. Most springs have a helix or spiral shape consisting of a group of
produces rotation. A torsion spring exerts a force (torque) in a circular arc, and coils, and wireforms typically do not.
the arms rotate about the central axis. The stress is in bending, not in torsion. The shapes of wireforms are only limited by the imagination of the designer,
Torsion and double torsion, whose ends are rotated in angular deflection, offer equally with the latest CNC forming machines the ability to produce such items
resistance to externally applied torque. The wire itself is subjected to bending is, in many cases, only limited by the skills and imagination of the machine
stresses rather than torsional stresses, as might be expected from the name. setter.
Torsion springs of this type are usually close wound, reduced in coil diameter There are thousands of shapes that could determine what a wireform would
and increase in body length as they are deflected. The designer must consider look like. They perform the same function as a spring, but may not have any
the effects of friction and arm deflection on the torque. coils, relying on the beam affect for energy storage.
Special types of torsion springs include a double torsion spring having a The most common material types for wire forms are cold rolled steel, stainless
space between the coils to minimize friction. Double torsion springs consist steel and hard drawn.
of one right-hand and one left-hand coil section connected together, working
in parallel. The sections are designed separately with the total torque exerted
being the sum of the two, thus called a double torsion.

Figure 326 Torsion and Wireform Springs

MEASURING SPRINGINESS
Springs work due to their properties of elasticity, which is a measure of the
springs ability to return to it’s original shape when any unbalanced external
force is removed.
This property can be measured by using a force extension graph. This is
a graph which plots out how much extension a spring experiences when
subjected to a series of known forces. The plotted graph will show a sloping
straight line which indicates that the spring is within it’s elastic limit and when
the force is removed it will return to it’s original shape. If the line is not straight
then the spring has exceeded it’s elastic limit and will have suffered permanent
deformation, rendering it unserviceable.
HOOKE’S LAW
As long as the spring operates within it’s elastic limit it is said to obey Hooke’s
law which states that force is proportional to extension and as long as this is
true a spring will return to it’s original shape once any load has been removed.


EXAMPLE
Airbus A340 Main Landing Gear Lock Springs - Inspection
1. Ensure that the tension springs (1) are correctly attached to the sidestay
and the lockstay.
2. Examine the tension springs (1) for: A. impact damage
B. distortion
C. scores
D. corrosion.
3. Examine the end fittings of the tension springs (1) for:
A. damage
B. cracks
C. corrosion.
4. Move the tension springs (1) around their longitudinal axis. This will ensure
that the tension springs (1) are free to move in their end bearings.
5. Ensure that the spring eye-ends at the side-stay end are correctly attached
to the inner retainer spring.
6. Ensure that the cotter pins (2) and (3) are serviceable and correctly
installed.
7. Look at the points D. Ensure that the tension springs (1) do not touch the
edges of the side stay.

Figure 327 Airbus A340 Main Landing Gear Lock Springs


M7.11 Bearings PART-66 M7 CAT B1
M7.11 BEARINGS
Sub-Module Level
7.11 Bearings
Testing, cleaning and inspection of bearings; Lubrication requirements of bearings; Defects in bearings and their causes. 2

LEVEL 1
LEVEL 2
LEVEL 3

BEARINGS (GENERAL) LUBRICATION

Bearings are used to support the journals of shafts and axles. Correct lubrication is vital in all kinds of bearings. It provides a film that
Bearings for supporting journals, which are designed to accept forces at right- separates the bearing’s moving parts, carries away heat and protects bearing
angles to the drilling axis, are called journal bearings or roller bearings. surfaces from corrosion.
Bearings for pivot journals, which are designed to accept forces in a longitudinal As a bearing rotates, the mating surfaces of its components create a lubricant
direction, are called pivot bearings or axial bearings. These are different to film in the bearing that separates components, preventing metal-to-metal
sliding bearings or anti-friction bearings. contact. This action reduces friction and prevents wear and corrosion.
Bearings are protected with a preservative coating during storage and
SLIDING BEARINGS shipment. This is NOT a lubricant. However, it IS compatible with the relevant
The journal of a sliding bearing operates in a bearing box, a bearing bushing lubricant and need not be washed off prior to installation, but it is essential to
or directly in the bearing body. lubricate the bearing at installation.
Bearings for large journal diameters and bearings that cannot be pushed over Grease is one of the most popular lubricants. It should be packed into the
the shafts during assembly (eg crankshafts) must be two-part bearings. bearing so that it will coat between the rollers and cage. In the case of a
tapered bearing, forcing grease through the bearing from the large to the small
To decrease friction between journal and bearing, a continuous lubrication film
end will ensure correct distribution. Any excess grease should be smeared on
has to exist. For this, bearing play is necessary.
the outside of the rollers.
The amount of bearing play depends on the demands the bearing is subjected
It is important not to over-grease bearings. Too much grease in the housing will
to and the lubricant.
cause excess churning and generate extremely high temperatures; potentially a
Sliding bearings are resistant to push forces, they operate with little noise and fire hazard.
they are suitable for both slow and fast rotational journal speeds.
Their high starting resistance, however, is disadvantageous. They also require
continuous maintenance.
ANTI-FRICTION BEARINGS
There are five basic types of anti-friction bearings:
• tapered, needle, ball, spherical and cylindrical.
Each is named for the type of rolling element it employs.

Figure 328 Common Anti-Friction Bearing Types

BEARING DEFECTS AND THEIR CAUSES True Brinelling

Brinelling occurs when loads exceed the elastic limit of the ring material. Brinell
Excessive Loads
marks show as indentations in the raceways which increase bearing vibration
Excessive loads usually cause premature fatigue. (noise).
Tight fits, brinelling and improper preloading can also bring about early fatigue Severe brinell marks can cause premature fatigue failure. Any static overload or
failure. severe impact can cause brinelling.
This type of failure looks the same as normal fatigue, although heavy ball wear Examples include:
paths, evidence of overheating and a more widespread spalling (fatigue area)
• Using hammers to remove or install bearings
are usually evident with a shortened life.
• dropping or striking assembled equipment, and
The solution is to reduce the load or redesign using a bearing with greater
capacity. • pressing a bearing onto a shaft by applying force only to the ring being
press-fitted, ie do not push the outer ring to force the inner ring onto a shaft.
Overheating
Symptoms are discolouration of the rings, balls and cages from gold to blue. Normal Fatigue Failure
Temperatures in excess of 400°F can anneal the ring and ball materials. The Fatigue failure (usually referred to as spalling) is the fracture of the running
resulting loss in hardness reduces the bearing capacity causing early failure. surfaces and subsequent removal of small, discrete particles of material.
In extreme cases, balls and rings will deform. The temperature rise can also Spalling can occur on the inner ring, outer ring or balls. This type of failure is
degrade or destroy lubricant. progressive and, once initiated, will spread as a result of further operation. It
Common culprits are heavy electrical heat loads, inadequate heat paths and will always be accompanied by a marked increase in vibration, indicating an
insufficient cooling or lubrication when loads and speeds are excessive. abnormality.
Thermal or overload controls, adequate heat paths and supplemental cooling The remedy is to replace the bearing or consider redesigning to use a bearing
are effective cures. having a greater calculated fatigue life.
False Brinelling Reverse Loading

False brinelling (elliptical wear marks in an axial direction at each ball position Angular contact bearings are designed to accept an axial load in one direction
with a bright finish and sharp demarcation, often surrounded by a ring of brown only. When loaded in the opposite direction, the elliptical contact area on the
debris) indicates excessive external vibration. outer ring is truncated by the lower shoulder on that side of the outer ring.
The result is excessive stress and an increase in temperature, followed by
A small relative motion between balls and raceways occurs in non-rotating ball
increased vibration and early failure.
bearings that are subject to external vibration.
Failure mode is very similar to that of heavy interference (tight) fits. The balls
When the bearing isn’t turning, an oil film cannot be formed to prevent raceway
will show a grooved wera band caused by the ball riding over the outer edge of
wear. Wear debris oxidizes and accelerates the wear process.
the raceway.
Correct by isolating bearings from external vibration and using greases
Corrective action is to simply install the bearing correctly. Angular contact
containing antiwear additives (such as molybdenum disulphide) when bearings
bearings must be installed with the resultant thrust on the wide face (which is
only oscillate or reverse rapidly, as in actuator motors.
marked “thrust“) of the outer ring and the opposite face of the inner ring.

Figure 329 Bearing Defects 1

BEARING DEFECTS AND THEIR CAUSES (CONT’D) Misalignment

Contamination Misalignment can be detected on the raceway of the non-rotating ring by a ball
wear path that is not parallel to the raceway edges. If misalignment exceeds
Contamination is one of the leading causes of bearing failure. Contamination
symptoms are denting of the bearing raceways and balls, resulting in high 0.001in/in you can expect an abnormal temperature rise in the bearing and/or
vibration and wear. housing and heavy wear in the cage ball-pockets.
Contaminants include airborne dust, dirt or any abrasive substance that finds The most prevalent causes of misalignment are:
its way into the bearing. Principle sources are dirty tools, contaminated work • bent shafts
areas, dirty hands and foreign matter in lubricants or cleaning solutions. • burrs or dirt on shaft or housing shoulders
Clean work areas, tools, fixtures and hands help reduce contamination failures. • shaft threads that are not square with shaft seats, and
Keep grinding operations away from bearing assembly areas and keep • locking nuts with faces that are not square to the thread axis.
bearings in their original packaging until you are ready to install them. The maximum allowable misalignment varies greatly with different applications,
Seals are critical-damaged or inoperative seals cannot protect bearings from decreasing, for example, with speed. Appropriate corrective action includes:
contamination. • inspecting shafts and housings for runout of shoulders and bearing seats
Lubricant Failure • use of single point-turned or ground threads on non-hardened shafts and
ground threads only on hardened shafts, and
Discoloured (blue/brown) ball tracks and balls are symptoms of lubricant failure. • using precision grade locknuts.
Excessive wear of balls, ring and cages will follow, resulting in overheating and
subsequent catastrophic failure. Loose Fits
Ball bearings depend on the continuous presence of a very thin-millionths of an Loose fits can cause relative motion between mating parts. If the relative motion
inch-film of lubricant between balls and races, and between the cage, bearing between mating parts is slight but continuous, fretting occurs. Fretting is the
rings and balls. generation of fine metal particles which oxidize, leaving a distinctive brown
colour. This material is abrasive and will aggravate the looseness.
Failures are typically caused by restricted lubricant flow or excessive
temperatures that degrade the lubricant’s properties. If the looseness is enough to allow considerable movement of the inner or outer
ring, the mounting surfaces (bores, outer diameters, faces) will wear and heat,
Any steps taken to correct improper fit, control preload better and cool the shafts causing noise and runout problems.
and housings will reduce bearing temperatures and improve lubricant life.
Tight Fits
Corrosion
A heavy ball wear path in the bottom of the raceway around the entire
Red/brown areas on balls, cages or bands of ball bearings are symptoms of circumference of the inner ring and outer ring indicates a tight fit. Where
corrosion. This condition results from exposing bearings to corrosive fluids or a interference fits exceed the radial clearance at operating temperature, the balls
corrosive atmosphere. The usual result is increased vibration followed by wear, will become excessively loaded. This will result in a rapid temperature rise
with subsequent increase in radial clearance or loss of preload. In extreme accompanied by high torque. Continued operation can lead to rapid wear and
cases, corrosion can initiate early fatigue failures. fatigue.
Correct by diverting corrosive fluids away from bearing areas and use integrally Corrective action includes a decrease in total interference- better matching of
sealed bearings whenever possible. If the environment is particularly hostile, bearings to shafts and housings- taking into consideration the differences in
the use of external seals in addition to integral seals should be considered. The materials and operating temperatures. Increased radial clearance will also in-
use of stainless steel bearings is also helpful. crease bearing life under the above conditions.
Figure 330 Bearing Defects 2

GENERAL INSTRUCTIONS
Installation and removal of Boeing aircraft bearings is described in the Boeing
Process Specification BAC 5435.
REMOVAL OF BEARINGS
When removing bearings, the following basic rules must be observed:
• Use the correct removal tools
• Avoid damage to the structure when using the circular cutting guide
• The circular cutting guide must have an exterior diameter which is sufficiently
large so that only the flange will be cut
• The lower and upper tool must be equipped with adequate bushing guides or
guide pins
• If possible, use a column-type drilling machine as the drive. After the flange
has been cut free, the bearing has to be squeezed out with an ejection tool.
INSTALLATION OF BEARINGS
When installing bearings, the following basic rules have to be observed:
• Check drilling surface and bearings for satisfactory condition
• Apply surface protection
• Install bearing with a drawing die and make sure that the projecting length is
central
• Roll the bearing with tools
• Check flange
• Test the bearing with testing load- if necessary seal gap.

Figure 331 Bearing Installation Tooling

INSTALLATION OF ANTI-FRICTION BEARINGS NOTE: DO NOT TOUCH THE BEARINGS WITH BARE HANDS DURING
CLEANING, DRYING AND GREASING. USE RUBBER GLOVES OR
When installing anti-friction bearings in components and aircraft controls
TONGS.
(elevator, aileron and rudder), the following instructions must be observed
unless otherwise defined in special instructions (refer to process specification). AFTER DRYING, THE BEARING HAS TO BE HALF-FILLED WITH
GREASE MIL G-3278+Z. USE A NIROSTA SPATULA.
BEARINGS THAT CANNOT BE DISASSEMBLED BEARINGS HAVE TO BE GREASED WITHIN TWO HOURS
Check bearings manually for smooth operation; bearings that are considered OF THE FINAL RINSE.
satisfactory may be installed. Bearings that don’t operate smoothly or show TREAT THE OUTER BEARING WITH A THIN FILM OF THE
signs of jamming are not suitable for installation. SAME GREASE THAT WAS USED FOR FILLING. RE-INSTALL
COVER PLATES AND CLAMPING RINGS.
BEARINGS THAT CAN BE DISASSEMBLED
Check bearings manually for smooth operation. Bearings that are considered
as satisfactory may be installed. Bearings that do not operate smoothly or show
signs of jamming must be disassembled and subjected to visual inspection and
greasing according to the following instructions:
• The following treatment of bearings has to be performed in a well-ventilated,
dust-free room with a constant temperature (20° C). Optimum cleanliness
during the entire treatment is essential.
- Remove clamping rings and cover plates carefully. Rinse the bearings
manually in a container filled with Inhibisol until all grease and other residue
has been removed.
- Rinse the cleaned bearings in a second container filled with the same
cleaning solution, and then rinse for a third time in another container with the
same cleaning solution.
- Cleaning fluids which are used for cleaning and rinsing have to be
renewed depending on the number of bearings to be treated, but a minimum
of one change per day must be carried out.
- In the case of filtering used cleaning fluids for reuse, filter systems that will
remove 98% of all foreign material larger than 10 microns must be used.
- Dry the completely clean bearings with a gentle stream of air. The bearing
should not be allowed to rotate.

Figure 332 Bearing Lubrication


M7.12 Transmissions PART-66 M7 CAT B1
M7.12 TRANSMISSIONS
Sub-Module Level
7.12 Transmissions
Inspection of gears, backlash; 2
Inspection of belts and pulleys, chains and sprockets;
Inspection of screw jacks, lever devices, push-pull rod systems.

LEVEL 1
LEVEL 2
LEVEL 3

CONTROL CHAINS AND SPROCKETS

Introduction
Chains provide strong, flexible and positive connections and are generally
used wherever it becomes necessary to change the direction of control runs in
systems where considerable force is exerted.
The change of direction is achieved by the use of sprockets and bi-planar
blocks.
Chains may be found in
• control column installations
• aileron and elevator controls
• trim control systems.
Chains may be used solely in control runs or in conjunction with cable
assemblies.
Incorrect assembly of chains should be rendered impossible by the use of non-
reversible chains in conjunction with the appropriate types of wheels, guards
and connectors.
Specifications
Chains used for aircraft purposes are generally of the simple roller type to
British Standard 228.
Chain assemblies are produced to standards prepared by the Society of British
Aircraft Constructors (SBAC). These standards provide a range of chains
built up in various combinations with standard fittings, eg end connectors
with internal or external threads, with bi-planer blocks used to change the
articulation of a chain through 90° and cable spools for connecting chains to
cables having eye-splices.

Figure 333 Standard Chain Fittings

Chain Assemblies
A simple roller chain consists of outer and inner plates, rollers, bearing pins and
bushes.
The chain has three principle dimensions (known as gearing dimensions):
• pitch
• width between inner plates
• roller diameter.
The pitch of the chain is the distance between the centres of the rollers. For
aircraft purposes, four sizes of chain are standardised by the SBAC. The proof-
load for a chain should be 1/3rd of the minimum breaking load.
WARNING: 1. NO ATTEMPT SHOULD BE MADE TO BREAK AND

REASSEMBLE RIVETED LINKS OR ATTACHMENTS. IF IT IS
NECESSARY TO DISCONNECT A CHAIN, THIS SHOULD BE
UNDERTAKEN ONLY AT THE BOLTED OR
SCREWED ATTACHMENTS.
2. THE USE OF CRANKED LINKS FOR THE ATTACHMENT
OF THE CHAIN TO END FITTINGS, ETC, IS NOT
PERMITTED. THUS WHERE A CHAIN IS REQUIRED TO
TERMINATE IN A SIMILAR MANNER AT EACH END, THE
LENGTH SHOULD BE AN ODD NUMBER OF PITCHES.
FOR THE SAME REASON, AN ENDLESS CHAIN SHOULD
HAVE AN EVEN NUMBER OF PITCHES.
3. THE USE OF SPRING CLIP CONNECTING LINKS IS
PROHIBITED AND THE ATTACHMENT OF CHAINS TO
OTHER PARTS OF THE SYSTEM SHOULD BE EFFECTED
BY POSITIVE METHODS SUCH AS PRE-RIVETED OR
BOLTED JOINTS.

Figure 334 Chain Details

Installation of Chain Assemblies

New chain assemblies will come prelubricated, this lubrication should not be
removed. If a chain assembly is being refitted then it should be lubricated with
an approved lubricant as detailed in the AMM.
After installation it is important to check the chain for twist and alignment with
the sprocket. The chain should run smoothly over the teeth of the sprocket and
there should be no tendency for the chain to ride up over the sprocket.
Chains need to be pretensioned enough to prevent backlash but not over
tensioned. Chain guards should be fitted in such a way that they don’t rub
against the chain or allow the chain to jump off it’s sprockets if it loosens off.
The figure opposite illustrates typical arrangements of chain assemblies.
(a) shows the simple transfer of straight-line to rotary motion.
(b) illustrates how a change of direction of straight-line motion is obtained.
(c) shows a change of direction of motion in two planes by the use of a bi-
planer block.
A range of non-interchangeable end fittings is available as a safeguard against
the crossing of controls. However, these connectors do not always prevent
the possibility of reversing the chain end to end on its wheel. Neither do they
prevent the possibility of the chain being assembled to gear on the wrong face
where two wheels are operated by the same chain.
Such contingencies can be overcome by the use of non-reversible chains.
Installation of Sprockets
During installation, Sprockets should be checked to ensure that they are
attached in the manner and method specified by the relevant drawings this
should include alignment and positive engagement on the drive shaft. The drive
shaft bearings should also be checked for play.
The correct positioning of sprockets is of particular importance when non-
reversible chains are used.
During maintenance, sprockets should be checked for security and wear on the
teeth. Pulleys should be checked for damage and excessive wear on the walls
and on the chain guide section.

Figure 335 Typical Chain Assembly Arrangements

Non-Reversible Chains
Non-reversible chains are similar to standard chains except that every second
outer plate is extended in one direction in order to break up the symmetry of the
chain.
The complete system of non-reversibility involves the use of five features:
• the non-reversible chain
• the shroud on the wheel
• correct positioning of the wheel on its shaft
• the chain guard
• non-reversible connectors.
By providing a shroud on one side of the wheel and making use of the chain
guard (see illustration opposite), the reversing of the chain end-to-end on its
wheel is not possible.
NOTE: A SPECIAL FEATURE, SUCH AS AN ATTACHMENT COLLAR, KEY
OR FLAT ON THE SHAFT IN CONJUNCTION WITH A SPECIALLY-
SHAPED HOLE IS INCORPORATED IN THE WHEEL MOUNTING TO
ENSURE THAT IT CAN BE ASSEMBLED ON ITS SHAFT IN ONE
DEFINITE POSITION ONLY.
(See lower illustration opposite) this is an instance where the use of jockeys is
necessary or where contra-rotation of the wheels is required.
It can be seen that the feature of non-reversibility does not affect the ability of
the chain to gear on both sides.

Figure 336 Non-Reversible Chain Assemblies

Maintenance Inspection Checking Elongation. If elongation through wear is suspected, the following
Chain assemblies should be inspected for serviceability at the periods specified procedure is to be followed:
in the relevant Maintenance Schedule. 1. The chains should be cleaned by immersion in clean paraffin and brushed
Recommended methods for checking chains is as follows: with a stiff brush. After cleaning, they should be immediately dried by hot
air to ensure that no paraffin remains, otherwise corrosion will occur. The
• The continued smoothness of operation between the chain and the chain chains should be measured when clean but before any oil is applied.
wheel or pulley should be checked. If the chain does not pass freely round the
wheel or pulley, it should be removed and checked (see ’Inspection of Chain 2. The chains should be placed on a flat surface and stretched by the
Assemblies’). application of a tensile load (see table). The length should then be
measured between the centres of the bearing pins, elongation being
• The chain should be checked for wear. If it is worn so that the links are calculated by the formula given in the next paragraph.
loose and can be lifted away from the wheel teeth, it should be removed and
checked for excessive elongation (see ’Inspection of Chain Assemblies’).
• The chain should be checked for damage, cleanliness, adequacy of
lubrication and freedom from corrosion. If the inspection reveals the chain to
be corroded or otherwise defective, it should be replaced.
• In instances where it becomes necessary to adjust the tension of the chain in
systems incorporating turnbuckles or screwed end connectors, care should
be taken to ensure that the chain itself is not twisted during adjustment. The
connectors should be held firmly while the locknuts are being slackened or 3. The percentage extension over the nominal length should be calculated by
tightened. the following formula:-
Inspection of Chain Assemblies

Percentage extension =
General. Chain assemblies should be removed from the aircraft for complete
M = Measured length under load in inches
inspection at the periods specified in the appropriate Maintenance Schedule.
X = Number of pitches measured
Removal. When it is necessary to disconnect the chains, the assemblies must
be removed at design breakdown points. P = Pitch of chain in inches.
Checking Articulation. The chain should be checked for tight joints by 4. If the extension is in excess of 2% on any section of the chain the whole run
articulating each link through approximately 180°. should be replaced.
Checking for Deterioration. The chain should be examined for damage, 5. If kinks or twists exist the chain should be rejected.
cracks and wear to plates and rollers and for evidence of corrosion and pitting. Protection and Storage. After the chain has been cleaned, inspected and
Proof-Loading. It is not necessary to proof-load a chain after removal for found to be acceptable, it should be thoroughly soaked in an appropriate oil,
routine examination. However, if it is desired to replace a portion only of the time being allowed fro the lubricant to penetrate to the bearing surfaces.
assembly, proof-loading of the complete assembly is necessary. If not required for immediate use, the chain should be laid on a flat surface,
The proof-load table should be evenly applied and, unless this can be assured, carefully coiled and wrapped in greaseproof paper, care being taken to ensure
it is considered preferable to fit a complete new assembly. the exclusion of dirt and the prevention of distortion, during storage.


INSPECTION OF BELTS, CHAINS AND Inspection

The following is a precis from the Aircraft Maintenance Manual detailing the
CABLES inspection of the system belts, chains and cables.
EXAMPLE 1. Ensure that the following components of the mechanical pitch-trim control
loop are in the correct condition:
A340 Detailed Visual Inspection of the Trimmable Horizontal Stabilizer A. pitch-trim control mechanism
(THS) Mechanical Control Loop.
B. chains and gears of the pitch-trim control mechanism and of the THS
Background actuator
The Airbus A340 has a Trimmable Horizontal Stabilizer (THS), which has two C. pulleys
elevators for pitch trim control. The elevators are attached to the trailing edge of D. cable tension regulator
the THS.The THS is attached to the rear fuselage and moves about an axis to
permit pitch trim. E. control cables
The hydromechanical operation system of the THS (referred to as THS F. THS input shaft.
actuator) is controlled electrically (by the Flight Control Primary Computers WARNING: ENSURE THAT THE FLIGHT CONTROL SURFACES ARE
(FCPC)) and mechanically. CLEAR; MOVEMENT OF FLIGHT CONTROLS CAN CAUSE
The THS has a mechanical control system which has the function of a standby DAMAGE AND/OR PERSONAL INJURY.
system. the pilots can use two control wheels, which are installed in the cockpit 2. In the cockpit, slowly turn the pitch trim control wheels from one stop to the
centre pedestal, to operate the THS mechanically. opposite stop.
Cables transmit the mechanical commands from the control wheels to the 3. In the avionics compartment, ensure that the toothed belts (View B) have no
mechanical input shaft of the THS actuator. An override mechanism ensures cracks, delamination of teeth and no wear marks over the full length.
that the mechanical pitch trim commands cancel the electronic pitch trim 4. Ensure that the chain and the cable can move freely.
commands.

Figure 337 Location of THS Drive Belts

INSPECTION OF SCREWJACKS
EXAMPLE
B737 Stabilizer Ball Nut and Jackscrew Inspection.
Examine the parts for wear, using a micrometer or a vernier caliper. Compare
the dimensions with the permitted dimensions shown in Fig. 601. Replace the
parts that are out of tolerance.

Figure 338 B737 Stabilizer Ball Nut and Jackscrew Inspection

GEARS


MAINTENANCE OF GEARS contact on both sides of their teeth simultaneously. A small amount of backlash
When inspecting gear mechanisms, the following lists of defects may be found: is also desirable to provide for lubricant space and differential expansion
between the gear components and the housing.
• Corrosion - unlikely to affect gears as they are continually working in a well-
lubricated environment. If corrosion is found the gear is unserviceable. On the other hand, excessive backlash is objectionable, particularly if the drive
is frequently reversing or if there is an overrunning load.
• Cracks - will lead to the gear being replaced.
• Erosion- caused by cavitation and will effect gears over extended periods of Backlash in a Gear Train
time. Erosion requires gear replacement. Backlash can be measured in a gear train by locking one end of the train, and
• Chipped/missing teeth - will require replacement. then measuring the limits of movement at the other end of the gear train. The
measurement can be made using a DTI that is placed against the so that it
• Wear limits are laid down in the relevant AMM (Aircraft Maintenance Manual).
measures tangential movement.
• Uneven wear as shown opposite.
In the example below, if the backlash in each gear is 0.001mm then the total
• Backlash is backlash would be .003mm.
- the amount by which the width of a tooth space exceeds the thickness of
the engaging tooth on the pitch circles
- the play between mating tooth surfaces at the tightest point of mesh in a
direction normal to the tooth surface when the gears are mounted in their
specified positions.
- The amount of backlash in a pair of mating gears can be affected by:
- changes in centre distance
- variance in tooth thickness
- temperature ranges causing differential expansion of the gears and
mountings.
Definitions
Minimum backlash: occurs when all tolerances give the shortest centre
distance and the thickest teeth at the highest point of pitch line runout.
Maximum backlash: occurs when all tolerances give the greatest centre
distance and the thinnest teeth at the lowest point of pitch line runout.
Backlash Tolerance: the allowable amount of backlash.
Backlash Variation: the difference between the maximum and minimum
backlash occurring in a whole revolution of the larger of a mating pair of gears.
Purpose of Backlash
The general purpose of backlash is to prevent gears from jamming and making

Figure 339 Uneven Gear Wear


M7.13 Control Cables PART-66 M7 CAT B1
M7.13 CONTROL CABLES

Sub-Module Level
7.13 Control Cables
Swaging of end fittings; 2
Inspection and testing of control cables;
Bowden cables; aircraft flexible control systems.

LEVEL 1
LEVEL 2
LEVEL 3

CABLE LINES (GENERAL)

Cable lines have advantages over other mechanical actuators (such as
linkages, shafts and chains), predominantly weight-saving.
Cable lines are used in many applications and can be routed into almost every
space via guiding pulleys or deflector rolls.
Handling, checking, adjustment and stretching are relatively easy.
Cables used in airplane construction normally consist of individual cable wires
with a minimum tensile strength of 1200N/mm2 at a breaking elongation of
2-7%.
The steel wires are twisted into strands and these are twisted into cables.
Normally the wires are twisted in one direction and strands the opposite. The
number of steel wires in one strand and the number of strands in one cable are
the result of the following calculation:
• 3/32 - 7x7
or
• 1/8- 7x19
In this calculation the fractional numbers stand for the diameter (in inches) of
the cable.
The first figure tells you that the cable consists of 7 strands and the last figure
tells you how many steel wires there are in a strand.

Figure 340 Build-Up of Control Cables

CONTROL CABLE HANDLING

Control cables must be handled and stored carefully in order to avoid kinking in
the cable. New cable should be supplied on wooden drums that are at least 40
times the diameter of the individual cable itself.
Cable should be unwound from a reel that has been mounted on a spindle.
After cutting lengths of cable off the drum they should be coiled into radii of
not less than 50 times the cable diameter and never in a diameter of less than
150mm (6in).
Cable should always be cut with cable cutters or heavy duty pliers but or alter-
natively, they can be cut using an anvil, hammer and chisel. Cable should never
be cut using a flame (e.g. an oxyacetylene cutting torch).
After cutting, the cable ends on both the cut length and the drum should be tied
with strong cord to prevent their ends from splaying.

Figure 341 Tying Cable Ends

INSPECTION OF CABLES Note: the number of permissible worn wires in a same one-inch (25.4 mm)
length of cable is decreased by one wire for every broken wire.
All cables in an aircraft, especially control cables, require careful inspection at
regular intervals in order to ensure their satisfactory function and serviceability A maximum of two one-inch (25.4 mm) lengths of cable with wear (within
at all times. the limits specified above) is permissible on the total length of the cable
(between the two cable terminals) on the condition that the wear is not on two
(Extract from Airbus A340 AMM)
consecutive one-inch (25.4 mm) lengths of cable.
Check of Control Cables and Pulleys If a wire is worn to more than 60 % of its diameter, you must call it a broken
WARNING: WEAR GLOVES WHEN YOU TOUCH THE CABLES. wire.
BROKEN STRANDS CAN INJURE YOU. 3. Internal cable wear.
1. Check for broken wires. A. In some areas (for example around pulleys and quadrants) the cable can
A. The very important areas where the wires can break are the lengths of the wear internally more than it wears externally. To find such wear, move the
cable that go through fairleads and around pulleys. strands apart to examine the cable internally.
B. Examine the cables. Ensure that there are no broken wires. To do this: 4. Corrosion.
–– move a cloth along the cable, in two directions. Note: Corrosion of cables specially occurs in these areas:
–– If the cloth catches on the cable: • battery compartments
• make a visual inspection to find the broken wires. • toilets
–– The permitted limits for the cables with broken wires are: • landing gear wells
• for class 7 x 19 cable, 6 broken wires in a same one-inch (25.4 mm) length of • other areas where fumes, vapours and liquids that can cause corrosion can
cable with not more than 3 broken wires for each strand. collect.
• for class 7 x 7 cable, 3 broken wires in a same one-inch (25.4 mm) length of A. If a cable has a broken wire in a length that does not touch airframe
cable with not more than 2 broken wires for each strand. Note: there must not components which can make it wear (pulleys, fairleads etc):
be broken wires in two consecutive one-inch (25.4 mm) lengths of cable. –– carefully examine the cable. Ensure that it has no corrosion.
For the lengths of cables which can touch pulleys or go through fairleads and –– If necessary, remove the cable. Bend the cable to make sure that the
pressure seals, not more than 3 broken wires is permitted. internal strands do not have corrosion.
2. Check of the external wear of the cable. B. If you find surface corrosion:
A. Make a visual inspection of the cables, especially the lengths that can –– loosen the cable,
touch pulleys, fairleads or pressure seals. Ensure that they are not worn.
–– make a full inspection of the inner strands.
–– The permitted wear limits in a same one-inch (25.4 mm) length of cable
C. Discard the cable if you find corrosion on the inner strands.
are:
D. If you find light surface corrosion, remove it and protect the cable again.
• for class 7 x 19 cable, a maximum of 6 wires worn to 50% or more of
Cables should also be inspected for kinks, bird caging, and stretching
their diameter
(beyond limits)
• for class 7 x 7 cable, a maximum of 3 wires worn to 50% or more of their
diameter, if there are no broken wires.

Figure 342 Cable Inspection (A320)

INSPECTION OF PULLEYS
(Extract from Airbus A340 AMM)
1. Examine pulleys for cracked edges, signs of incorrect wear in the bottom of
the groove, cracked hub, excessive play.
2. Examine the pulleys while in operation:
• ensure that the pulleys turn freely
• ensure that the cable does not skid in the groove.
3. Ensure that the eccentricity agrees with the values shown in this table:
4. Inspection of pulley wobble

A. Do a wobble check at each turn of the pulley.
• For pulley with a diameter less than 80 mm (3.1496 in.), the wobble must not
be more than 0.25 mm (0.0098 in.).
• For pulleys with a diameter of 80 mm (3.1496 in.) or more, the wobble must
not be more than 0.30 mm (0.0118 in.).

Figure 343 Pulley Inspection (AMM A320)

ROLLING ON TERMINALS
Description of Tools
Equipment for rolling on terminals consists of
• Several sets of rolling discs
• Several sets of “Swaging Rolls“ for balls
• A caliper gauge for terminals
• A caliper gauge for balls
• Allen key for the screws of the rolling disc mountings.
Rolling discs for terminals and balls are made for several cable diameters and
are marked accordingly.
“LOWER“ is the designation for the rolling disc with two pins. “UPPER“ is the
designation for the rolling disk with two holes.
When the expanding machine is placed on the two shanks, the “LOWER“ disc
is down and the “UPPER“ disc is up.
NOTE: IT IS IMPORTANT TO POSITION THESE DISCS CORRECTLY.
TRANSPOSING THEM WILL RESULT IN THE TRANSITION AT
THE SLEEVE OF THE TERMINAL BEING SHARP-EDGED, WHICH
IS NOT PERMITTED UNDER ANY CIRCUMSTANCES.
After the rolling discs have been installed on the support shaft of the expanding
machine, they are mounted with discs and bolts.
The rolling disc with two pins can only be turned counter-clockwise. When the
shanks of the machine are moved away from each other, the rolling discs will
not turn.
When the shanks are pressed together, the rolling discs move in opposite
directions via a pair of gear wheels with a ratchet.
The shanks are opened and closed until the sleeve of the terminal has rounded
the circumference of the rolling disc.

Figure 344 Hand-Operated Rolling Tool

ROLLING OF SLEEVE TERMINALS

Roll on a sleeve terminal as follows:
• Check the sleeve diameter of the terminal using the caliper gauge. The
terminal sleeve must fit into the respective test hole of the gauge marked
“SLEEVES“. The ball must fit into the test hole marked “BALLS“. The cable
diameters are marked on the gauge at the respective holes.
• Select and clean the rolling discs suitable for the respective cable diameter.
• Install the rolling disc with the two pins and the inscription “LOWER“ in the
lower support shaft, and the rolling disc with the inscription “UPPER“ and the
two holes in the upper support shaft of the expanding machine. Fix both discs
with the washers and screws.
• Install the guide.
• Make sure that the correct adapter for the cable diameter is installed.
NOTE: THE CABLE DIAMETER IS INDICATED AT THE FRONT OF THE
ADAPTER. MOVE A SHORT PART OF THE CABLE INTO THE
TERMINAL AND BEND IT. THE END OF THE CABLE WILL BE TIGHT
WHEN COMPLETELY PUSHED INTO THE TERMINAL.

Figure 345 Inserting Cable in Terminal

ROLLING OF SLEEVE TERMINALS (CONT.)

• Mark the cable which has been completely inserted into the terminal at the
end of the sleeve of the terminal with chalk or tape in order to indicate if the
cable slips out.
• Turn the rolling discs into the starting position, using the two pins.
• Press the terminal against the conical guide of the adapter and clamp the
cable into the clip at the guiding-device.
• Push the guiding device with the terminal into the starting position for the
rolling procedure.
• Turn the rolling discs using the two pins until the terminal is clamped.
CAUTION: IT IS NOT PERMITTED TO PERFORM MORE THAN FOUR
ROLLING SEQUENCES. EXCESSIVE ROLLING CAUSES BRITTLENESS
AND HARDENING OF THE MATERIAL OF THE TERMINAL.
• Perform the rolling procedure quickly.
• After the first operational sequence, a rolling mark will appear on the sleeve of
the terminal. Turn the terminal about 90° to compensate for this rolling mark
and perform a second operational sequence as described. After the second
operational sequence, the terminal sleeve must not show deep impressions.
• Check the diameter of the terminal sleeve with the caliper gauge as described.
A slight rolling mark is permitted. The diameter of this rolling mark must not
exceed the sleeve diameter by more than 0.010 in.
• If the diameter of the sleeve terminal has not been tapered sufficiently, a third
operation sequence must be carried out. For this you must rotate the terminal
through 90°.
• In case a fourth operation sequence is necessary, the terminal must be turned
about 90° again.

Figure 346 Go No-go Gauging

INSPECTION OF MANUFACTURED CABLE LINES Cable Terminal Pull Tester

Rolled-on balls and terminals are checked for sufficient tensile strength by
Tools: Cable Terminal Pull Tester AT520CT
using the Cable Terminal Pull Tester.
Check manufactured cable lines according to the following instructions:
The Pull Tester consists of a vice with steel cheeks with inserted copper cheeks
• Check final dimensions and a gauge. When, for instance, a 1/8“ cable and terminal are checked, you
• Check terminals for specified diameters (use caliper gauge of the terminal must first select the correct copper cheeks. These must then be inserted into
expanding machine) the steel cheeks.
• Visual check of the terminals The correct swivel for the terminal must be selected. The cable with the swivel
is attached to the test device. The copper cheeks are tightened with two
• Use magnifying glass (6x magnification). There must be no cracks, notches or
clamping screws to the extent that the cable cannot slacken under the test load.
abrupt changes in cross-section.
By turning a hexagon head screw, the cable is tightened with hydraulic power.
• Check satisfactory stability of connection.
The scale of the indicating device shows the load in pounds. The scale has load
All connections between cable and terminal must be subjected to a test of their marks for the respective cable diameter. If not, you must refer to a test table.
tensile strength. In this check, you must evenly apply the respective test pull
After one or two minutes the pointer has to be returned to the load mark. The
force (given in a table), observing the specific speed with which the tension may
full test load should be applied for 5 seconds. Then take off the tension slowly
be increased.
and evenly.
You must also observe the duration over which the full test pull force is allowed
to be applied.
Note: If a slippage between cable and terminal is indicated during this test
(by means of marks that have been applied to the cable before the test), the
connection is not stable enough. This cable line has to be either discarded or
the cable can be used for shorter cable lines after the terminals have been cut
off.
If the test is performed without slippage, the connection is considered as
satisfactory.

Figure 347 Pull Tester AT520CT

CABLE TIGHTENING AND MEASURING TENSION CABLE TENSIOMETER

Installed cable lines have to be tightened to a certain tension depending on The cable tensiometer is a precision instrument designed for rigging control
their location and purpose. A newly-manufactured cable that is delivered by the cables.
meter, coiled on a reel, would increase its length under load. This is the reason The entire operation of testing cable tension can be done with one hand. The
why it is necessary to preload the cables before they are made into cable lines. size of the instrument permits entry through small openings, so that cables in
The pre-stretch load equals the test load and can be found in the respective confined areas can be tested and its tension read.
table of the manual. The tension applied has to be done with a steady speed. The tensiometer must be handled as a precision instrument, and calibrated
The load must be applied for 5 minutes. annually to ensure that the indications are correct.
The cable is only allowed to be preloaded when it is not bent. In the case of CAUTION:
cables longer than 30m, the cable may be preloaded over a movable guide
pulley. Before the tensiometer is used, be sure the correct riser is mounted on the
instrument for the size cable to be tested.
Correct tension is essential because loose cables cannot transfer control
inputs. Loose cables can also lock and thus endanger the airplane and This information is given on the calibration card in the instrument carrying case.
occupants. The tensiometer should be operated as follows :
Cables with excessive tension are also undesirable in airplanes. They can • Move the trigger away from the case as far as possible and place the
damage pulleys and support structure etc. instrument on the cable with sectors resting against the cable. Tension should
not be taken next to a terminal end or turnbuckle, as an inaccurate reading
When the cable tension is adjusted, the ambient temperature is important. In could result.
flight, temperatures may vary to a high extent between the ground temperature
at the departure airport, the ambient temperatures during flight and the • Close the trigger with the fingers of the hand in which the instrument is held.
temperature at the destination. Do not twist or pull; this may cause a false reading. Do not let the trigger snap
against the case, as this may also give a false reading. The tension should be
Large differences in tensions are created, because the airplane is manufactured checked three or four times, moving the instrument slightly along the cable.
from aluminium alloy and the cables are made from steel. The tension values
to be adjusted for the individual aircraft types are therefore specified in the If the dial is visible, take the reading and then disengage the instrument by
respective AMMs. moving the trigger away from the case.
The cable is tightened by turning a turnbuckle. A spring wire clip has to be If the dial cannot be seen, the pointer is locked in position by pushing the small
inserted into the barrel hole of the terminals to prevent the terminals from brake lever rod at the top left of the case forward. The pointer is unlocked by
turning with the cable. The side of the left-hand thread of the turnbuckle is returning the brake rod to its original position.
marked by a groove. CAUTION: NEVER LOCK THE BRAKE LEVER ROD UNTIL THE
When tightening cables, they must be tensioned evenly throughout the system INSTRUMENT IS CLAMPED ON THE CABLE OR A FALSE
otherwise correct system rigging may be difficult to achieve and some turn- READING MAY RESULT.
buckles may be out of safety. The gauge is not marked in specific units. Convert the dial reading to
A turnbuckle is in safety when the threaded portion of the turnbarrel assembly is tension in pounds by referring to the calibration chart attached to the lid of the
visible through the safety inspection hole. This is often check using locking wire carrying case. For example, the dial reads 59 on the 1/16 inch cable and is
that is inserted into the inspection hole. If it pushes through the inspection hole converted to 150 pound tension by referring to the calibration chart.
and out through the reverse hole then the turnbuckle is NOT safe.

Figure 348 Cable Tensioning

Locking turnbuckles
Locking of turnbuckles employs either:
• Wirelocking, the gauge and type of locking wire is given in the AMM.
• Lock nuts.
• Special locking clips.

Figure 349 Locking turnbuckles

CONTROL CABLES
Introduction
Manually-operated remote controls are installed in aircraft to operate, from the
flight deck, such components as trim tabs, brake control valves and engine
controls.
They can also be adapted for other uses such as the indication of landing gear
movements, position of flaps etc.
Remote Control Methods

Chains, sprockets, pulleys, cable, levers and rods are used for remote control,
but advantage may be gained by the use of a cable and conduit since the
control can be bent to pass through the structure.
Cable and Conduit

Cable and conduit is relatively lightweight and installation is simple compared
with other methods of remote control.
Teleflex and Bowden are typical methods of cable and conduit control, in
which each system consists primarily of a cable passing through a covering
(conduit) fitted with appropriate end fittings.
In principle, if the conduit is bent, a pull on the cable will tend to straighten the
conduit, but because of the natural stiffness and the fact that the ends of the
conduit are fixed, straightening is prevented.

Figure 350 Typical Remote Control System

TELEFLEX CONTROLS Conduits

The rigid conduits normally used in aircraft are of light alloy, although steel
Cables
and tungum conduits are used for special purposes. It may be bent in smooth
The cable consists of a tension wire wound either with a continuous left- or curves to radii of not less than 3 inches.
right-hand helix winding which engages with the teeth of gear wheels at the
Where there is relative movement between conduit and component, flexible
transmitting and receiving ends of the control run.
conduit may be fitted, but to avoid backlash only the minimum length should be
The helix winding may also be used as a thread by which various end fittings used. Flexible conduit may be bent to a radius of not less than 9 inches.
can be attached to the cable.
NOTE: SUPPORT MUST BE GIVEN TO BENT PORTIONS OF THE
The cable is designed for transmitting both pull and push. CONDUIT, BUT CLAMP BLOCKS, SPACED 3 FT APART, SHOULD BE
There are two types of cable in use: USED TO SECURE STRAIGHT PORTIONS TO THE AIRFRAME.
1. No 2 Cable. This cable is built up from a high-tensile steel wire which is Sliding End Fittings
wound with a compression winding. The latter is wound with a left-hand
These are used where it is not necessary to convert the pull-push movement of
helix winding which is pitch-spaced by a spacer winding. The cable is 3/16“
the cable into a rotary movement; they are used in lieu of wheel units.
diameter.
Various types of sliding end fitting are available, each comprising a guide tube
2. No 380 Cable. This cable is built up from a high-tensile steel wire which
terminating in a fork, eye, ball joint or an internal or external threaded fitting.
is wound direct with a right-hand helix winding and spacer winding. In this
method of construction there is improved efficiency and a reduction in The cable is attached to the end fitting by means of a special collet attachment
backlash, particularly when the cable is under compression. The cable is or by means of a lock spring and plug.
3/16“ diameter.
NOTE: BECAUSE OF THE DIFFERENCE IN THE LAY OF THE CABLES
(LEFT-HAND AND RIGHT-HAND) THEY ARE NOT
INTERCHANGEABLE.
EG A No 2 CABLE MUST BE USED WITH A No 2 TRANSMITTING
UNIT.

Figure 351 Types of Teleflex Cable and Typical Sliding End Fittings

End Fittings In one type the box contains a gear wheel and provision is made for two
The transmitting end of a control is usually fitted with a wheel unit consisting of cables to pass through the box, one on either side of the gear wheel. The
a hand-operated gear wheel enclosed in a casing. gear wheel may be rotated to move both cables, or one cable may operate
the gear wheel which in turn operates the other cable.
Alternatively, where the control loading is light and the control run fairly straight,
a pull-push operating handle can be used. 6. Swivel Joints. This can be installed where rotary movement of the control
lever at the receiving end does not exceed 90°. This type of joint consists
At the remote end, the cable operates an appropriate wheel unit or is coupled, of a ball and socket connection inside a housing attached to the end of the
by means of a sliding end fitting, direct to the actuating mechanism on the rigid conduit. The housing must be rigidly secured to the aircraft structure.
component being controlled.
The ball is welded to a length of tubing of the same size as the conduit. A
Swivel joints are also provided to take up the angular movement of an actuating suitable sliding end fitting is attached to the end of the control cable so that
lever at the end of a control run. the guide tube slides freely over the swivel joint tube.
1. Single-Entry Unit. In this wheel unit the cable enters the unit by means of
a conduit connector and is led into a slot in the gear wheel. The rotary travel
of the unit is limited to 270° of travel of the gear wheel and a minimum of
40° engagement must be maintained at all times between the gear wheel
teeth and the cable.
2. Double-Entry Unit. Where greater travel than can be obtained with a
single-entry unit is required, a double-entry unit may be used. In this wheel
unit the cable enters the unit by means of a conduit connector and, after
wrapping round the gear wheel, emerges via another conduit connector at a
point 90°, 120° or 180° from the point of entry.
The end of the cable that emerges from the unit may be accommodated in
a short length of conduit known as a spent travel tube.
3. Anti-Torsion Tube. It is sometimes necessary to prevent the control cable
from turning in the conduit and so altering the relative adjustment. This is
done by installing an oval-sectioned anti-torsion tube in place of a spent
travel tube. This tube serves as a guide to an oval ferrule secured to the
spent travel end of the cable.
4. Straight-Lead Unit. In this unit the cable passes straight through and
consequently engages on only a few teeth of the gear wheel. Therefore,
these units are not suitable for heavily-loaded controls. It can be interposed
in a control run or fitted at the transmitting or receiving ends of a control.
5. Junction Box Unit. These are installed where it is necessary to reverse
the direction of travel of the control cables, or to branch a run of cable so
as to operate two components (eg on both port and starboard sides of the
aircraft).

Figure 352 Teleflex System Components

End Fittings (cont’d)

7. Torsion Drive. In certain installations the final linear movement of the
control is converted to rotary action by the use of a distributor box coupled,
via a torsion drive, to the component to be operated. The torsion drive is
similar to a normal flexible drive.
8. Distributor Box. This is similar in construction to a receiver unit with a
gear wheel attached to the face of the cable gear wheel. The attached
gear wheel drives a pinion on a cross shaft which engages with one or two
tongue ends of the torsion drive cable.
To convert the rotary motion of the torsion drive to the linear movement of a
trimming tab, a sprocket-driven screw jack may be used.
To prevent vibration from affecting the setting of a wheel unit control, or to
lock the control in any position, a damping device may be fitted. This device
consists of a spring-loaded friction plate pressed against the gear wheel.

Figure 353 Teleflex Distributor Box and Torsion Drive

Conduit Connectors Servicing

Some conduit connectors are similar in construction to all-metal pipe couplings Servicing of the control system consists of checking its operation, examining for
without an olive. The standard nipple-type connector consists of a screwed wear and damage, renewing defective parts and periodical lubrication.
nipple that is threaded onto a rigid conduit, before the conduit is flared. The Stiff control movement may be caused by the following:
nipple is then screwed into a wheel unit or conduit connector body, thus retain-
ing the conduit secure against a shoulder in the internally-threaded connection
hole.
Another type of conduit connector, termed a clamp connector, consists of a
split block bored out to house the unflared ends of a conduit. The conduit is
gripped by tightening two clamping bolts, and is located by two bifurcated pins.
Quick-Break Units
Quick-break units of various types are installed in control runs to facilitate re-
moval of components without disturbing the control. The cable joining fittings
are similar in all types of quick-break unit and consists of rods machined with
interlocking slotted ends attached to the ends of the cables.

Figure 354 Teleflex Conduit Connectors

Teleflex System Installation 4. Cable. The cable must be kept clean, free from kinks and well lubricated.
1. Conduit. Rigid conduit must be clean, free from dents and deformations If dirty, it may be cleaned in kerosene, wiped dry with a non-fluffy cloth and
and reasonably straight. When renewing a conduit, never use conduit that relubricated. A cable that has been damaged, strained or over heated, must
has been previously bent for some other part of the system. After fitting the be renewed.
cable in the conduit, it should be possible to work the cable backwards and The method of fitting a new cable is as follows: A. Assemble the conduit in
forwards by hand. If this is not possible, the run of conduit has not been position.
installed properly. B. Cut the cable 2 inches in excess of requirements.
Damage to rigid conduit may be repaired by inserting a new length of C. Fit the cable into the unit and engage with the transmitting end fitting. D.
conduit and making the connection by use of a connector. Bending, if Assemble the receiving end fitting and mark the required length of cable.
necessary, should be done by use of a bending machine, or by using a
special hand bender. Flexible conduit, if damaged, must be completely E. Remove the cable from the conduit and cut to length.
renewed. F. Replace the cable and, at the same time, smear the cable with high
2. Conduit Connectors. When tightening a nipple type connector, two altitude grease as it enters the conduit.
spanners should be used to prevent twisting of the conduit. If there is G. Connect the cable to the end fittings and check for freedom of movement
any end play between the conduit and the body of the connector after and range of movement.
tightening, dismantle the connection and check the flare on the conduit; H. Ensure that all fittings are in safety and correctly locked. Lubricate, as
flaring of a conduit should be done only with the special flaring tool necessary.
provided.
5. Sliding End Fitting. To attach the cable to a sliding end fitting, unscrew the
When fitting a clamp type connector, the ends of the two lengths of conduit hexagon plug, screw the locknut right back and pass the cable through the
must be square and unflared. To fit the connector, remove the locking pins plug, then proceed as follows:
and slacken off the clamping bolts. Slide the two lengths of conduit into the
connector and ensure that the ends butt centrally in the transverse slot, A. Screw the lock spring on to the end of the cable, so that about 3/16 in
then tighten up the clamping bolts. Insert a drill of the correct size through (two threads) of cable projects through the spring.
the locking pin holes. Operate the drill which will cut half way through the B. Insert the cable end, with its lock spring, into the bore of the end fitting
wall of the conduit. Insert the bifurcated locking pins and open out their and screw the plug tight down. During this operation the end fitting must be
legs. The correct size drill is 3/32 in dia for No. 2 and No. 3 conduits. prevented from rotating.
3. Wheel Units. To fit the cable into the single entry unit, tuck it into the slot in C. Check that the free end of the cable is beyond the inspection hole, but
the gear wheel and ensure that the cable helix engages with the gear wheel not beyond the fork gap (fork end fittings only). If satisfactory, position the
teeth to give a wrap of at least 40°. On double entry units, the cable should tab washer, tighten the locknut and lock with the tab washer.
engage with the gear wheel correctly and project through the lead out hole
D. Check the distance from the face of the bore to the sliding tube which
throughout the travel of the control. Ensure that the cable end, when fully
should not exceed 0.45 inches. This ensures that the lock spring is tightly
extended, does not foul the blanked end of the spent travel tube. All wheel
compressed.
units should be packed with high altitude grease.

Figure 355 Assembly of Teleflex Sliding End Fitting

BOWDEN CONTROLS
Cable
This short run, lightly-loaded type of control has a cable made of non corrodible
steel wire, which. is designed for ”pull” operation only. The return action is
provided by a spring. This is the sort of cable that is used for operating the
brake cable on push bikes
Conduit
The conduit consists of a close coil wire, covered with cotton braiding and
finished with a black waterproof coating. Caps are fitted on each end of the
conduit to prevent the braiding from unravelling and to reinforce the end of the
conduit. On some installations, rigid conduit is used to house the cable over
straight runs.
Cable Nipples
When a control assembly is made up, the ends of the cable are threaded
through brass nipples, which are soldered or swaged to the cable.
End Fittings
Various types of end fitting and connector are provided, each installation being
designed to meet a specific requirement. Normally, the transmitting end of a
control is fitted with a hand lever which engages with the nipple on one end
of the cable. At the remote end, the cable passes through an adjustable stop
and is connected to the component operating lever. To return the hand lever
to the normal position after operation, the system is spring loaded either at the
transmitting or receiving end of the control run.
Hand Lever
A typical hand lever is illustrated. If it is necessary to dismantle an existing
control or to fit a new cable, unscrew the adjustment to slacken the cable, then
rotate the nipple and slide the nipple and cable sideways to pass the cable
through the end fitting slot.

Figure 356 Bowden Control Components 1

Adjustment Stop
The remote end of the cable usually passes through a plain stop and is
attached to the component by the cable nipple. The plain stops, which may be
fitted to both ends of the conduit, consist of hexagon headed screws drilled to
allow the cable to pass through. The head of each screw is counterbored to
receive the protective cap fitted over the end of the conduit.
When the stop is fitted to the remote end of the conduit, it is mounted in a Tee
barrel, which must be securely fixed to a rigid member of the airframe. Where it
is inconvenient to fit plain stops at the ends of the conduit, a double ended stop
may be fitted in the length of the conduit.
The stops also enable the length of the conduit to be adjusted, thus altering the
tension of the cable.
Connectors
Two types of connector are used. The cable connector is used for joining two
cables only and cannot be employed where a conduit is fitted. It is also used
for joining a length of Bowden cable to a cable of a different type, such as may
be used for long straight runs. The control connector is used for joining two
Bowden controls, as illustrated.
Junction Box
A junction box is used for connecting a single cable to two others where
there are two components to be operated by a single control or where one
component is operated by two controls.

Figure 357 Bowden Control Components 2

Installation 4. Renewing a Control. When a cable or conduit is to be renewed, the faulty

1. Conduit. The conduit must be clean, free from kinks or distortion and not component should be used as a guide to the length required for the new
damaged. If damaged, the conduit must be renewed. Any bends in the part. The conduit may be cut to the exact length required, but it is advisable
conduit should be as large as possible. The minimum radius of bend is to leave the cable rather longer than necessary, because it simplifies the
twelve times the diameter of the conduit. fitting of the cable.
Where the cable is connected to a lever, the alignment should be such that The method of fitting a new cable is as follows:
the centre line of the conduit is in a straight line through the mid position of A. a nipple to one end of the cable. Lubricate the cable.
the rise and fall of the arc of travel of the lever. B. Thread the adjustable stop over the cable and slide on the conduit
If this adjustment is not made, the cable may rub on the edge of the stop making sure that the protective caps are fitted at each end. If required,
and be worn away. thread on a second adjustment stop.
When the conduit has been correctly aligned, the Tee barrel forming the C. Fix the control temporarily in position on the aircraft along the route it is
adjustable stop mounting must be securely locked in this position. This to follow.
is important as, should the Tee barrel swivel, the control will be distorted. D. Make sure that the stops are at their minimum length and that the part
The control should be attached to the airframe by pliable clips. For controls to be operated is in the normal position, then slide the other nipple on to
longer than 2 ft., the conduit should be supported every 12 in. The conduit the cable. Pull the cable taut and, with a lead pencil, mark off the correct
of a Bowden control should never be in tension. position for the nipple.
2. Cable. Care must be taken when handling the cable to avoid kinking it, as E. the control from the aircraft, cut the cable to length and solder the
this will cause the cable to work harshly in the conduit. The cable must be second nipple in position.
clean, free from fraying or corrosion and lubricated with graphited synthetic
grease applied at room temperature (60-70°F.) The grease must be well F. Fix the control correctly in the aircraft. Adjust the stops until all slack in
rubbed into the interstices of the cable. the cable is taken up and then tighten the locknuts.
3. Servicing. The control should be inspected periodically as follows:
A. Inspect the cable ends for fraying or other damage. Frayed cables must
be renewed.
B. Inspect the conduit for kinks and signs of wear, especially at bends and
at the ends.
C. If there is any slackness in the cable, screw out the conduit adjustment
stops until the slackness disappears. After adjustment, make sure that all
components are still in safety and securely locked.
D. Operate the control lever over its full range and ensure that the spring
returns the lever freely and smoothly to its stop.
E. Check the security and locking of mountings and clips.

M7.14.1 Material Handling - Sheet Metal PART-66 M7 CAT B1
M7.14.1 MATERIAL HANDLING - SHEET METAL

Sub-Module Level
7.14.1 Material Handling- Sheet Metal
Marking out and calculation of bend allowance; 2
Sheet metal working, including bending and forming;

Inspection of sheet metal work.

Basic knowledge for categories A, B1 and B2 are indicated by the allocation of knowledge levels indicators (1, 2 or 3) against each applicable subject. Category C
applicants must meet either the category B1 or the category B2 basic knowledge levels.
LEVEL 1
LEVEL 2
LEVEL 3

SHEET METAL HANDLING or fatigue cracking while in service. Scratching and gouging from cutting,
forming and drilling operations can be avoided by continually cleaning down
General work surfaces and ensuring guillotines and brake folders are in good condition.
Sub module 6.2b, titled non-ferrous materials, contains detailed information Gouges and burrs on machinery can damage the surface of sheet metal
about alluminium alloy properties and identification including heat treatment components as they are being cut and formed. Tools should not be placed on
which compliments the information contained in this sub module. top of work as this will degrade the quality of sheet metal surfaces.
Most of the sheet metal used in the structure of the airplane is aluminium alloy. Manufacturer’s Structural Repair Manuals (SRM’s) and Standard Practices
Other grades of sheet metal such as corrosion-resistant steel, titanium and Manuals contain authorised processes and procedures for the handling and
magnesium alloy as well as steel alloys are also used. The principles of sheet fabrication of formed sheet metal components.
metal handling and forming are applicable to all sheet metal specifications.
Marking out
This sub module will concentrate on the handling and forming of aircraft grade
Authorised soft markers and pencils must be used when marking out flat
sheet metal. Although not discussed in this sub module, It must be understood
pattern developments on aircraft sheet metal. Some elements of unauthorised
that when manufacturing repair components from sheet metal, they should be
markers and pencils may react with the material causing corrosion or
pre-treated and primed prior to assembly and fitting to aircraft. Refer to SRM
embrittlement. Some pencils are too hard and will scratch the surface causing
Chapter 51 for specific details.
stress raisers. Original equipment manufacturers (OEM) and local engineering
Sheet Metal Traceability & Storage authorities will provide data on authorised markers and pencils for sheet metal.
Aircraft grade sheet metal is supplied in protective coatings and packaging to Engineer’s scribers are not to be used for marking out flat pattern developments
preserve the quality of the material. Damage sustained to sheet metal during on sheet metal. Some processes may authorise the use of scribers for marking
transit may occur and usually takes the form of moisture contamination, dents, out cut and trim lines on sheet metal as the scribe mark will be removed during
scratches and gouges. Maintenance and repair organisations will not accept cutting, trimming and cleaning operations.
delivery of material in this condition. The supplier is notified and an investigation
is carried out to determine how the material sustained the damage in order to
prevent it from happening again.
On receipt and acceptance of the sheet metal, stores staff will place a tracking
number on the material and file the associated certificates of conformance
against the tracking number and release the material to maintenance work-
shops. When using the metal, technicians must enter the tracking number in
worksheets to satisfy the regulatory requirement for material traceability. Sheet
metal with no identification or tracking number cannot be used on aircraft. As
the material is used, the tracking number must remain with the sheet and any
off-cuts from it.
Sheet metal must be stored vertically in sheet metal racks or ’A’ frames in a dry
environment. Storing sheet metal incorrectly will increase the possibility of it
being damaged and rejected for aircraft work.
When working with aircraft sheet metal, care must be taken when cutting,
drilling and handling. Damage to sheet metal components may initiate corrosion


FORMING SHEET METAL Bend radii may be reduced when the component is formed in the O condition
and solution heat treatment follows. This is sometimes necessary when the
Introduction component’s bend geometry requires a lower profile for installation and fastener
Although fabrication of material is generally carried out in accordance with location purposes. Engineering data will authorise this method of fabrication
engineering drawings approved by the manufacturer, it is essential that when it is necessary.
the engineer has a thorough knowledge of the sheet metal properties and
Grain Structure
characteristics as well as good comprehension of applied geometry when
handling, preparing and forming aircraft sheet metal. Sheet metal grain structure is compressed and elongated during the rolling
process of fabrication. The elongated length of the grain is the axis’s that
Bending provides grain direction.
Some sheet metal material may be formed in the “as received” or “heat treated” The ultimate strength of the material varies according to the grain direction.
condition. Other specifications must be formed in the annealed condition due There is a higher ultimate strength in the direction of the grain, therefore an
to increased material thickness (gauge) and/or inherant metallic properties. For acute-angled bend should always be at right-angles to the grain. The direction
aluminium alloys, 2024-T3 up to .050 inch may be formed in the T3 condition. of the material identification stamps is usually the same as the rolling and grain
7075-T6 is a harder, more brittle alloy in comparison and relatively thin gauges direction of the metal. Bending should be performed at right-angles to this
may only be formed in the T6 condition. direction.
Material that cannot be formed in it’s condition must be formed in the O Because the ability to elongate can decrease by increasing deformation (risk of
(annealed) condition then solution heat treated to the required condition after fractures by further deformation) it is necessary to check if a normalising heat
forming. Alternatively, the material may be re-heat treated, quenched and treatment process is required to bring back the ultimate strength.
formed utelising the W (unstable) condition during the early stages of age
It is advisable to perform straight line bending at a constant and moderate
hardening.
speed. Sudden jerking and impact loads may place an unacceptable amount of
NOTE: All tools used for the bending process must be free from scratches, stress on the component. 
burrs, etc.
Material strain & limits

When bending sheet metal the inner surface experiences compressive stress
and the outer surface tensile stress. The plane within the thickness of the
metal where compressive and tensile stresses meet is called the neutral axis’s
and is the point in which all sheet metal flat pattern development is based.
More information about the neutral axis’s will be provided in „flat pattern
development“. In order to prevent the material from reaching and exceeding it’s
ultimate strain limit, the material must be formed over a minimum bend radius
which may be referenced from engineering data.
The minimum bend radius is calculated by repair design engineers based on
material thickness and condition and must be strictly adhered to. Bending
material over a radius less than the recommended minimum will place an
unacceptable amount of internal strain at the bend resulting in failure.

Figure 358 Internal strain and neutral axsis of formed sheet metal component

FLAT PATTERN LAYOUT Calculating the bend allowance

Bend allowance may be calculated using the following formula:
Definitions for calculating the flat layout
2Π(R + t/2)(N/360˚)
Before proceeding with the calculation of the flat layout of a pattern the follow-
ing definitions are essential: R = bend radius
• Neutral axis. When bending a sheet of metal around a radius, the outer t = material thickness
surface of the metal stretches and the inner surface compresses. Between N = bend angle
the outside and inside edges of the bend, there is a point where the metal
remains at its original length. This point is known as the neutral axis and is Π = 3.143 or 22/7
a plane situated 44.53% of the metal thickness when measured from the in- For example, the bend allowance for an aluminium alloy material specification
side face of the bend. For ease of calculation, this figure can be rounded up to of 2024-T3, .040 inch with a minimum bend radius of 5/32 inch (0.156 inch)
50% of the metal thickness. bent to 90 ˚ is calculated as follows:
• Mold line. The mold lines are the lines projected from the outer surfaces of a Bend Allowance = (2 x 3.142)(0.156 + 0.020)(90/360)
formed sheet metal component. = 6.284 x 0.176 x .250
• Mold point is where two mold lines intersect. The mold point is the point from = 0.276 or 9/32 inch
which component dimensions are provided and taken.
Bend allowance may also be referenced in the relevant aircraft SRM’s and
• Bend tangent line. Bend tangent lines designate where a bend starts and a Standard Practices Manuals which contain bend allowance charts. See
flat finishes. The area between the two bend tanjent lines of a bend radius is following figure.
known as ’bend allowance’
• Set back. is the dimension between the mold point and bend tangent line.
Set back is the sum of the bend radius and material thickness and when
subtracted from the overall dimension, will provide the length of the flat portion
of a component. Where there is a flat length between two bends on a given
dimension, two set backs must be subtracted from that dimension.
• K Factor. When calculating set back for components with bend angles other
than 90 ˚ the set back must be multiplied by a K factor. The K factor will vary
depending on the angle of bend however for 90 ˚bends, the K factor is 1. K
factor charts can be referenced from relevant Standard practices manuals and
SRM’s. See example over page.
• Flats are the unbent portions of a formed sheet metal component and are
calculated by subtracting set back from the mold point dimension.
• Bend allowance is the dimension between the bend tangent lines either side
of a bend. When calculating the developed length for the flat layout of the
metal, the bend allowance must be added to the flat lengths.
• Developed length is the sum of the flats and bend allowances required to form
the sheet metal component.

Figure 359 Set-back of a 90° bend


Figure 360 Calculating Set Back using K Chart


Figure 361 Bend Allowance Chart

Creating a flat pattern layout Bend allowance between flats B & C will be the same as between flats A & B.
The following illustration shows a flat pattern development of a channel section. That is 0.43 inches and is marked on the flat pattern.
Firstly calculations are made to determine the dimensions of the flats. This will Flat C will be the same dimension as flat A (1.7 inches) and is added to the flat
determine the position of the bend tangent lines (start and finish of bend). In pattern to provide the total developed length of the component:
the example below the U shape channel is 2inches wide and 2 inches high, • Developed Length = Flat A + Bend Allow.+ Flat B + Bend Allow. + Flat C
the material spec is 2024-T3 and the thickness is 0.051in. The minimum
bend radius is 0.250 inches. This is the information which is provided to the • = 1.7+0.43+1.4+0.43+1.7
technician and is the basis on which the flat pattern and developed length can • = 5.66 inches
be calculated.
Marking Out
The calculation for flat A is as follows:
Once flat lengths and bend allowances are determined, they are added
• Flat A = 2.00 inches- set back (bend radius + thickness) together for the developed length which can be cut and prepared for further
• = 2.00- (0.250 +0.051) marking out of the flat pattern development.
• = 2.00- 0.301 The dimensions for flats and bend allowances will be used to plot the bend
• = 1.699 (1.7 rounded up) tangent lines on the material. Clear thin lines will ensure the component is
fabricated to dimension and within tolerance.
• Flat A = 1.7 inches
WARNING: ALWAYS USE AUTHORISED MARKERS FOR AIRCRAFT
The bend tangent line for flat A can now be marked on the metal, at a distance GRADE SHEET METAL. UNAUTHORISED MARKERS CAN
of 1.7 from the edge of material. INTRODUCE STRESS RAISERS AND CAUSE CORROSION.
The next segment of the flat pattern will be the bend allowance between flats A
Bend Sight Line
& B. This may be calculated using the 2Π(R + t/2)(N/360˚) bend allowance
formula or from the bend allowance chart provided in the engineering data. In order to form the bend accurately within the bend allowance, a bend sight
In this case, bend allowance for a 90˚ bend is 0.428 inches or 0.43 inches line must be located one bend radius from the bend tangent line which is placed
rounded up. This dimension will locate the second bend tangent line of the flat under the radius bending bar of the sheet metal brake folder. The sight line
pattern. must be aligned with the outer extremity of the radius bar before forming.
Flat B is calculated in a similar fashion to flat A, however, two set back Incorrect positioning or deviation from the bend sight line will result in the bend
dimensions must be subtracted from the overall dimension (component width): being formed at the wrong location within the bend allowance and an out of
tolerance component.
• Flat B = 2.00- 2(.301)
• = 2.00- 0.602
• = 1.398 (1.4 rounded up)
• Flat B = 1.4 inches
This dimension will locate the bend tangent line for the second bend.

Figure 362 Flat Pattern Layout For a 2-Inch Channel

FORMING BENDS WARNING: ENSURE ZONES SURROUNDING THE BENDING LEAF

HANDLES AND COUNTERBALANCE WEIGHTS ARE CLEAR
Setting up PRIOR TO OPERATING THE MACHINE
When using a sheet metal brake folder for forming bends, it is essential that • Remove component from brake folder, check bend angle and dimensions. If
the machine is set up correctly in order to produce high quality components need be, place component back in folder to adjust angle.
and prevent damage to the machine itself. The general process of setting up a
WARNING: IT IS NOT PERMITTED TO EXTENSIVELY REWORK
brake folder is as follows:
THE BENDS ON FORMED SHEET METAL COMPONENTS
5. Check the general condition of the machine. Dirt, scratches, gouges and AS THIS WILL EXCEED THE ALLOWABLE STRESS LIMITS
deformity on the upper and lower clamping beams, bend radius block and AND RENDER THEM UNSUITABLE FOR AIRCRAFT USE.
bending leaf will transfer onto material being formed.
When making multiple bends, it is important to remember that by forming one
6. Ensure that the radius block secured to the upper clamping beam is bend before others may result in the inability to form subsequent bends due to
the correct diameter for the bend radius that is required. If the size is the configuration of the folding machine. Sequence of forming the bends must
not stamped on the block, it may be necessary to use radius gauges to be considered in order for the component to be successfully formed.
determine the correct size radius block.
CAUTION: DO NOT TALK TO OPERATOR WHILE FORMING
7. The folding leaf is the moveable surface which pivots around the upper OPERATION IS BEING CARRIED OUT
radius block and forms the bend. If hand operated, counterbalance weights
are positioned and adjusted on arms connected to and above the folding Inspection of Component
leaf. Some machines may be hydraulically operated therefore not requiring Inspections should be performed after each bend to ensure that no ’stress
counterbalance weights. The upper surface of the folding leaf must be raisers’ have been introduced to the component. Particular attention must be
adjusted away from the radius block one metal thickness in order to prevent given to the edges of the bend, this is where cracking can sometimes be found
pinching. If positioned too far away, the result will be oversized and/or due to incorrect preparation of material prior to bending, using a smaller than
incorrect location of bends. permitted bend radius or pre-existing fault within the material.
8. Clamping pressure between the upper and lower beams of the folder must
be adjusted to prevent the job slipping while the bend is being formed.
Forming a Bend
The following process must be carried out when forming bends:
• The component can then be placed in the folding machine and sight line
aligned as previously discussed. Once clamped, check sight line again in case
of movement during clamping.
• Slowly raise the bending leaf until close to required bend angle. Stop the bend
and note amount of spring back as this must be gauged and compensated for
when finishing the bend.
NOTE: METAL WILL HAVE SOME SPRING BACK AND MUST BE
BENT A FEW DEGREES PAST THE REQUIRED ANGLE TO
ALLOW FOR THIS.

Figure 363 Folding Machine

STRAIGHT LINE BENDING BY HAMMERING Form blocks can be manufactured from hardwood, plastic (nylon or resin
bonded fabric) or metallic materials. The choice of material depends on the
General amount of straight-line bending to be performed (required durability), quantity of
The advantage of performing straight line bending by using a hammer is that components to be manufactured and also the specification of sheet metal being
the tool used is very simple and can be used in a standard workshop. formed.
While sheet metal folding machines can be used to form straight bends, formed Forming blocks may be fabricated from drawings or from an existing component
components with straight and curved profiles such as ribs and intercostals may that is to be replicated.
also be manufactured using this method. Offset bends and joggles may also be formed using forming blocks.
The application is limited, however, to mainly thin and annealed sheet-metal
Forming Technique
applications.
Forming the sheet metal over the radius block must be done gradually to allow
The following is to be observed when hammering bends into flat sheet:
the material to stretch / compress and form without too much work hardening.
• The clamping surfaces of the vice must be fitted with a protective lining to The radius block is undercut, increasing the bend angle to compensate for
eliminate the possibility of damaging the surface of the metal to be bent. material spring back. The spring-back angle can be determined by performing
• The bending edge must have a minimum bend radius corresponding to the sample bending.
material being formed. Another advantage for using forming blocks is that it guarantees component
• Hammers are used which are made of wood, plastic or rubber depending on uniformity when more than one item is produced.
the material or condition of material to be worked. Sheet metal components fabricated in this way will usually require some sort of
• Generally, forming blocks / bars are used to protect the metal from the affects follow up heat treatment operation to either normalise or harden the material.
of direct hammer blows and to control the placement of the point of impact on Relevant engineering data and process specifications will detail the processes
the material. to follow after forming.
Forming Blocks
This fabrication process requires blocks to be manufactured in two parts. The
first is the radius block over which the component will be formed and will have
the required minimum bend radius. The second is the back-up or pressure
block which supports the material against the radius block while forming takes
place. The profile of the pressure block will be slightly lower than the radius
block for clearance around the bend radius while forming.
The radius block is usually fabricated with locating pins or dowels which align
with holes in the pressure block ensuring correct positioning and preventing
movement during forming. The sheet metal component or ’blank’ as it is
sometimes known will also have holes drilled into it which will align with the
locating pins in the radius block. This too prevents movement of the blank
during forming.

Figure 364 Hand forming using blocks and mallet

HYDRAULIC PRESS BRAKE FORMING

General
Forming sheet metal components using press brake machinery is suitable for
both production and repair work and the manufacture of long and complicated
formed sections which cannot be formed on sheet metal folders. Structures
such as formed stringers, longerons and spars up to twelve feet in length can
be manufactured using this process.
There are non powered machines which are suitable for thin gauge materials
over short lengths and hydraulic powered machines for thicker gauges and
longer lengths. Powered press brake folders may be controlled manually by
the operator or computer numerically controlled (CNC) and programmed for
production bending.
Forming Sheet Metal

Forming bends using a press brake works on the principle of material support
at two points, one either side of bend, using a ’V’ block lower die into which
the material will be pressed. A third point of contact, the bend line, is the point
in which the upper die or ’punch’, which is centred over the lower die ’V’ block,
descends to form the bend in material. The angle of the bend is governed by
the depth of travel between the upper and lower dies.
A variety of upper and lower dies are available and the choice of which to use is
governed by:
• the thickness and specification of material,
• the angle and geometry of the bend, and
• the shape of the component being formed.
Specialised lower and corresponding upper dies may be used for producing ’U’
or channel shaped components.
The level of precision, in comparison to a sheet metal brake folder, is difficult
to achieve using this method of fabrication and relies on correct adjustment of
lower ’V’ block to the upper punch die as well as a high level of control over it’s
vertical travel for angle of bend.

Figure 365 Production Examples

JOGGLING
General
A joggle allows a structural sheet metal component to be formed in a way that
provides a single metal thickness deviation at the joint, allowing it to lap over
or under other structure while maintaining a flush profile on one side of the
joint. They are used in aircraft construction and structural repair practices as
a refinement to standard lap joints where clearance with other structures and
flush surfaces are required. Butt joints and shimming are alternatives to the
joggle joint however they both rely on a third component (butt strap / shim) to
provide the same result. In this respect, the joggle joint is a weight and space
saving alternative to those methods.
When an item is to be manufactured with a joggle, a slight bend is applied
to the metal sheet on both surfaces opposed to each other. The bends can
be formed manually using brake folders and small bend radii, hand forming
techniques using forming blocks or in a hydraulic press using joggling dies.
Whichever method is used, it is important to remember to leave a minimum 3T
gap (x3 the material thickness) between the two sets of dies that are to form
the joggle. Too large a gap between bends will place the joggle too close to
fasteners and too small a gap will create an unacceptable amount of internal
stress at the joggle location.


SHEET METAL SHEARS & GUILLOTINES NOTE: ONLY CUT SINGLE SHEATS OF METAL ON GUILLOTINES. DO NOT
SHEAR STACKED SHEET MATERIAL OR CUT ROUNDSTOCK AS
General THIS WILL DAMAGE BLADES.
A variety of sheet metal shears and guillotines are used by workshop personnel Guillotines have clamping bars immediately in front of the blades which hold the
when performing sheet metal work. They’re use allows for quick cutting and sheet metal in place prior to shearing. Between the operator and the clamping
trimming of sheet metal components however they can be easily damaged by bar and blades is a factory mounted guard.
inexperienced technicians. Serious injury can also result from incorrect use of
The guillotine working surface or bed has fences set up either side which are
this equipment therefore the technician must be aware of how they operate,
square to the lower cutting blade, enabling sheet stock to be cut accurately.
they’re limitations and associated safety precautions.
The bed also has supports mounted infront of it to support sheets larger than
Bench Mounted Shears the bed. Stop gauges can be attached to the rear of the machine and adjusted
enabling accurate shearing for high production output.
Bench shears are bench mounted lever operated shearing devices used for
sheet metal notching and for making small cuts during component trimming WARNING: DO NOT REMOVE GAURDS FROM SHEET METAL
operations. They consist of a fixed lower blade mounted to the lower frame GUILLOTINES WHEN OPERATING.
and a moveable upper blade. These shears come in different forms and cutting Sheet metal guillotines may be manually (foot) operated over four foot and six
capacities ranging from 16 swg to 10 swg in both hard and soft metals. Bench foot cutting lengths and are restricted to thin gauge hard materials or medium
mounted shears will have two capacity ratings, the thinner gauge for soft metals gauge soft materials. A significant force must be applied to the foot pedals in
and mild steel and the larger capacity for harder alloy steels. Exceeding rated order to achieve a complete cut.
capacity runs the risk of injury to operator or damage to the shear. Standard
bench shears are restricted in the length of cut they can make but can generally Guillotine Operation
cut heavier gauges of material. Throatless bench shears, however, are not Feed sheet material into guillotine and look directly down through sight holes in
restricted to length of cut as the material can be fed through the blades of the guard and align shearing marks with lower fixed blade. Keeping fingers clear of
shear without interference due to the unique design of the frame. clamp, stamp on foot pedal to bring upper blade down and shear the material.
WARNING: KEEP FINGERS CLEAR OF BENCH SHEAR BLADES WARNING: OPERATORS MUST ENSURE THAT PERSONNEL ARE
AND ENSURE LEVER IS IN THE FULL UPRIGHT POSITION NOT BEHIND THE GUILLOTINE WHILE CUTTING IS IN
BE- FORE RELEASING. LEVER HANDLES CAN CAUSE PROGRESS. FALLING METAL CAN CAUSE SERIOUS
HEAD INJURIES IF LEFT TO FALL. INJURY. KEEP FEET CLEAR FROM UNDERSIDE OF FOOT
PEDALS PRIOR TO CUTTING.
Sheet Metal Guillotines
Sheet metal guillotines are used to cut down metal sheets as well as cutting Power Guillotines
and trimming flat pattern developments prior to forming. Like the bench shears, Power guillotines have a greater cutting capacity than their foot operated
guillotines are rated to length of cut and capacity (gauge) which must be counterparts. They are configured the same way and the same safety
strictly adhered to for the same reasons mentioned earlier. These machines considerations are applicable. All power guillotines should have guards in
have a fixed lower blade and an angled moveable upper blade which when place behind the machine to prevent personnel from retrieving off-cuts during
actioned, is separated by veryfine tolerances. The greater the cutting capacity machine operation. They are also equipped with emergency stop buttons which
of the machine, the more angle the upper blade will have and larger clearance also have a lock-out function, preventing use during maintenance.
between blades

Figure 366 Bench Mounted Shears & Foot Operated Guillotine


M7.14.2 MATERIAL HANDLING - COMPOSITE
AND NON-METALLIC PART-66 M7 CAT B1
M7.14.2 COMPOSITE AND NON-METALLIC

Sub-Module Level
7.14.2 Material Handling- Composite & Non Metallic
Bonding practices; Environmental conditions; Inspection 2

methods.

Basic knowledge for categories A, B1 and B2 are indicated by the allocation of knowledge levels indicators (1, 2 or 3) against each applicable subject. Category C
applicants must meet either the category B1 or the category B2 basic knowledge levels.
LEVEL 1
LEVEL 2
LEVEL 3

CURING When heat is applied to these resin systems, full cure can generally be
achieved within two to four hours.Heat will also decrease resin viscosity before
Methods of Curing polymerisation to achieve full wet out of the fibres and repair surface
Epoxy resin thermosetting resin systems cure by a chemical reaction process There are two elevated temperature cure resin systems typically used in the
called polymerisation, specifically the addition reaction. repair of aircraft composite structure, they are:
There are two types of epoxy resin systems, they are: • 120˚C cure epoxy resin systems, and
• room temperature cure systems. • 170˚C. cure epoxy resin systems.
• elevated temperature cure systems. These type of resin systems can be found in prepreg and film adhesive
Failure to follow the proper curing requirements can result in a system which materials and are used for large repairs and overhaul of composite
does not have the properties and characteristics stated on the product data. components. They may also be used to repair high strength composite structure
and are formulated to withstand extreme operating environmental conditions.
Improper curing or handling during the cure has a direct effect on the strength
of the repair. Correct cure temperature and duration must be attained and is strictly
controlled by strategically positioned thermocouples, within the repair zone,
Environmental conditions for composite material storage, preparation and
connected to computer controlled hot bond units and heat blankets. An inability
application must be strictly controlled in order to preserve material and repair
to attain correct temperature and duration during cure will alter the properties of
integrity.
the resin system in a way that will reduce it’s adhesiveness, physical properties
Room Temperature Cure and performance in extreme operating environments due to it’s uncured state.
Room temperature cure resin systems are formulated to achieve full cure at Although curing by applying heat in some instances produces a stronger repair,
ambient temperature, ie. 18 to 25˚C. However, the time taken to achieve full overheating can cause extensive damage to the component. If too much heat is
cure at ambient temperature can range from 48 hours to 7 days, depending on applied, the vaporization, or gassing, of the matrix may cause bubbles to form
the resin system used. A moderate amount of heat (50 to 70˚C) will reduce the on the surface. A dry area is also an indication of excessive heat.
cure time to anywhere from 2 to 4 hours. Although some fibres will withstand higher temperatures, the recommended
Technicians must ensure that the correct cure temperature has been attained curing temperature should not be exceeded in order to avoid further
for the prescribed duration in accordance with relevant manufacturer’s technical delamination and disbonding of the existing structure around the repair zone.
data sheets or relevant aircraft engineering process data.
Room temperature cure resin systems are used to repair small amounts of
damage in composite structure and where there is no exposure to extreme
operating environments such as high heat and moisture.
Such room temperature cure systems are usually used on lightly loaded and
non-structural composite parts in the form of a wet lay up repair.
Heat Curing
The most widely accepted method of curing structural composites employs
the use of resins which cure at higher temperatures. These resins are often
referred to as ’hot or elevated temperature cure’ systems and require elevated
temperatures to fully achieve the desired material properties.


Cure Phases
When a repair is to be cured with heat, it is not acceptable to heat the zone
quickly to the final cure temperature. It is important that the resins be allowed
enough time to flow properly before they polymerise. Heat will cause the resin
system to become less viscous and, when under vacuum, will provide better
wet out of fibres and bonding surface. In order to achieve this effectively, the
cure cycle is phased.
• Phase 1 is the gradual heat up, allowing enough time for wet out before
polymerisation.
• Phase 2 is the duration of cure or ’soak’, once cure (target) temperature has
been attained.
• Phase 3 is the gradual cool down. Once the required cure duration has been
achieved, the temperature must gradually reduce to avoid thermal shock and
is an important time for resin to achieve it’s designed properties.
Composites gain much of their cure strength in the cooling down process.
A slow rate of temperature rise and a gradual cooling is desirable, but not
possible unless a controller is available. The step cure and ramp and soak are
probably the most commonly used with composite repair. They will ensure a
slow rate of temperature rise and decline.
Phased curing can be achieved with a programmable hot bond unit, oven or
autoclave. Step curing is the process of gradually heating in increments as
prescribed in manufacturer technical data sheets or aircraft engineering data.
Some advanced thermosetting resins require this degree of control during heat
up. The same process can often be applied to the cool down phase as well.
After the cure time has elapsed, the same process can be applied to the cool
down phase. This slow cooling down will give a stronger final cure to the
component.

Ramp and Soaking Curing

A temperature controller is programmed to control the heat input within the
parameters required in all three phases of a cure cycle.
For example, a structural repair manual may specify that a repair be heated to
a temperature of 400˚F and that the temperature be reached at a slow, constant
rate of change from room temperature at eight degrees per minute. If room
temperature was 70˚, it will take approximately 41 minutes to reach the 400˚
mark (400˚- 70˚ = 330˚, 330˚ + 8˚ each minute = 41.25 minutes). This heating
process is called the ramp.
Once the repair has been heated to 400˚F, the structural repair manual may
require that this temperature be held for a specific amount of time; in this
example, for two hours. The mode which the controller operates during these
two hours is referred to as the soak.
Following the soak, the structural repair manual may specify that the
temperature be ramped down to room temperature at a specific rate. In our
example, a 5˚ per minute cool down rate will take an hour and six minutes
(400˚- 70˚ = 330˚, 330˚/ 5˚each minute = 66 minutes).
The entire heating and cooling cycle are combined graphically to form a ramp
and soak profile. The illustration opposite is an example of a ramp and soak
profile. Structural Repair Manuals will typically provide a temperature ramp up
and ramp down rate (degrees per minute). The time taken to ramp temperature
up and down will depend on the ambient temperature at the time of cure.
If for example, you are working outside in a cold climate and the temperature
is 30˚F, and the final cure temperature is 250˚F, the temperature ramp up and
down will take longer. The same can be said for a climate which is very warm.
If the outside temperature is 105˚F, and the final cure temperature is 250˚F, the
time it takes to ramp up and down will be substantially shorter to achieve the
same final cure temperature.




Figure 367 Profile for a Ramp and Soak Cure Schedule

HEATING EQUIPMENT
Heat Lamps
The use of heat lamps are generally restricted to curing repairs that use room
temperature cure resin systems. A moderate amount of heat can be used to
accelerate the cure of this type of resin.
When using heat lamps, the operator must be certain that their is adequate
control over heat input. Temperature can be difficult to control, generally heat
lamps can be moved closer or further away from the repair surface or banks
of lights may be turned on and off to regulate heat. Heat lamps generate high
surface temperatures, which have a tendency to cure a repair too rapidly.
Draughts in the work area can also affect the amount of heat.
The heat lamp must heat all areas of the repair zone. Thermocouples
connected to a temperature monitor will ensure even heat distribution. A
templestick or other temperature monitoring device can be used, but it must be
monitored constantly. A templestick is a temperature sensitive crayon that will
melt at the temperature at which it is rated.
Another temperature sensing device is a strip with temperature sensitive ink on
it that will change colours when the heat reaches a certain temperature.


Heat Guns The areas which are not being repaired and subjected to elevated
As with any heat source, when a heat gun is used to cure a composite temperatures, may contain moisture or contamination which can deteriorate the
part, it must be controlled manually by the operator or automatically via a existing bond. Ovens which are used to cure composites must be certified for
programmable controller. A typical heat gun can generate temperatures of 500- that purpose.
750˚F.
Autoclaves
Thermocouples are used to control and monitor the amount of heat in the
repair zone and, if connected to a programmable controller, a heat gun may Autoclaves are usually used in the manufacture of composites and are not
be ramped up to temperature, held at that temperature and ramped down. usually used in the repair procedures unless the part requires significant over-
Strategically positioned thermocouples will ensure an even heat has been haul.
applied over the repair zone. Autoclaves are used when the damage is very large and it is necessary to put
Problems may occur if the heat gun is focused in one place on the repair. If a the part into a tool (mold) to maintain symmetry.
heat gun should shift position during the curing cycle, excessive heat centred In an autoclave, the part is vacuum-bagged and heated to the curing
on a particular part of the repair may burn the component causing the repair to temperature at a controlled rate, while additional pressure is applied within
be reject. A heat gun is often used to cure repairs when a complex contour of the autoclave. Normally, parts that are vacuum bagged are subject to one
the repair surface will not allow the use of a heat blanket. atmosphere of pressure, but an autoclave can apply substantially more
On composite components with very contoured shapes, heat blankets pressure to a part.
sometimes lack enough flexibility to conform to the shape of some parts. In Two or three atmospheres of additional pressure may be added while the part
this case, a tent around the part can be fabricated to hold the hot air within a is being cured, in an autoclave. If the damage is large and extensive, it may
confined area. The tent can be made of vacuum bagging film and attached to be necessary to send the component to an authorised overhaul facility which
the part with sealant tape. If vacuum film is used, ensure it is rated to the heat should have the necessary tooling to repair the component.
being applied. Mini ovens locally manufactured from sheet metal and situated If an extensively damaged component is not cured with the required tool within
over a repair zone have also been used in certain repair situations. autoclave conditions, the part may not regain its original strength. Autoclaves
Heat guns may present a fire hazard and should never be left unattended must be programmed and operated by specially trained and authorised
during the cure process. If a tent-like structure is used with a heat gun, cool technicians.
zones are not a problem as with the heat lamps. The heat will be distributed
uniformly over the repair surface within a contained environment.
Oven Curing
Ovens offer controlled, uniform temperature over all surfaces. Some ovens
have vacuum ports installed to provide vacuum pressure while curing. Oven
curing is frequently used by manufacturers. When using an oven for repair
work, consideration must be given to the presence of metallic structure or
hard- ware as the heat differential of both materials may give cause for further
delamination and disbonding. The affect of heat exposure to seals, bearings
etc. on the composite component must also be considered prior to oven curing.
Exposing the whole component to an even heat may have unintended
consequences such as delamination or debonding in areas not associated with
the repair zone.
Figure 368 Autoclaves

Heating Blankets These units can be programmed with a variety of curing schedules and set
Heating blankets are probably the most widely-accepted form of applying heat up with thermocouples and vacuum bag by trained and qualified technicians
to a composite component for repair work. They will uniformly heat the repair and fitters. Dual zone hot bond machines are capable of curing two repairs in
area without heating a larger area than necessary. They are usually used with different zones simultaneously.
hot bonders which can be programmed to control heat input, providing a high As this equipment contains highly sensitive temperature and vacuum monitors
degree of accuracy and a better chance of a successfull repair. and controllers, they are subject to recalibration, ensuring correct temperature
They can be used within a vacuum bag which will hold it directly over the repair and vacuum parameters are maintained. This is essential for integrity of
surface. Modern heat blankets contain heating coils contained within a flexible composite repairs.
silicon and come in a variety of forms and sizes. Thermocouples are used with Hot bonding machines are capable of electronically storing cure temperature
the blanket to monitor the heat and to control the temperature. and vacuum parameters for specific repairs cures as evidence for certification
Most manufacturers recommend the use of a heating blanket for curing repairs and release to service. They also contain data printers which are capable
because of its ability to evenly heat the part. The ramp and soak method of of producing hard copy documentation for repair cures. This information is
heating is easily accomplished with the heat blanket method, and results in printed from a roll of paper which can be folded up and attached to repair
a stronger cure. The heat blanket must cover the repair completely and must documentation for later analysis.
be larger than the repair itself as the same degree of heat tends not to be
maintained in the outer extremeties of the blanket. All areas covered by a heat
blanket must be carefully inspected after repair to ensure no debonding or de-
lamination has occurred beyond the repair.
A flat, non flexible, heat blanket should not be used on a curved surface, as this
may break the wires in the heat blanket. Flexible heat blankets are available to
form around curves while unde vacuum, such as leading edges. If the part to be
repaired has complex contours and requires repair frequently, customized heat
blankets made to the shape of a specific part can be supplied and used.
Hot Bonding Machine

A hot bonding machine performs the following functions:
• Provides vacuum pressure to the repair
• Provides heat to cure the repair
• Monitors vacuum pressure
• Monitors and controls heat input
There are a variety of makes and models of hot bonding machines and all are
designed to cure repairs and adhesively bonded joints in workshops and on
aircraft. These machines are able to control the hot bond process to a very
high standard. It is for this reason that hot bond machines are routinely used to
repair commercial aircraft composite structure.

Figure 369 Heating Blankets & Hot Bonder


Figure 370 Vacuum Bag Setup: Moisture Extraction

PREPARATION FOR BONDING wipe’ method (solvent wet wipe followed immediately by a dry wipe) must be
used. A single pass over the surface must be followed by inspection of wipe for
Surface Preparation General evidence of residue. The process is repeated with a clean portion of solvent
When precured components are adhesively bonded or composite repairs are wipe until all evidence of contamination is removed.
bonded to a repair site, damage removal and surface preparation processes
Moisture Evacuation
must be strictly followed. The condition of the bond surfaces must be prepared
in a way that will allow efficient load transfer accross the repair surface and full All traces of moisture must be removed from the repair zone prior to the
coverage or ’wet out’ of the adhesive over the entire bond surface area. application of heat. Moisture, when combined with heat during repair cure, will
adversely affect resin and adhesive properties. Pressure from moisture vapour
Contaminants on the repair surface will affect the performance of the joint and,
can also debond and delaminate composite structure and must be removed
therefore, repair integrity. Surface preparation is essential.
prior to repair.
Surfaces are prepared by one of the following cleaning procedures listed below:
Moderate heat applied to the repair zone over time will remove moisture from
• degrease only the structure before subjecting it to elevated curing temperatures. Ovens, heat
• degrease, abrade and remove loose particles lamps, hot air blowers and heat blankets with or without vacuum are used to
remove moisture from the repair zone.
Care must be taken to avoid contaminating the surfaces during or after
pretreatment. Contamination may be caused by: Where damage has exposed fibres and/or core material, it is assumed that
moisture exists and repair processes which require elevated temperature cures
• fingerprints
will require the moisture evacuation procedure to be performed. Temperature
• unauthorised or unclean wipes and time parameters for this process can be referenced from relevant
• contaminated abrasives engineering data.
• incorrect surface cleaning technique
• contaminated solvent Environmental Conditions
• contaminated environment Repair surface preparation, repair material preparation and application must be
performed within the authorised parameters of temperature and humidity. This
In particular, oil vapours from machinery, paint and mould-release agents
is to ensure condensation and humidity do not contaminate the repair during
from spraying operations must be excluded. Soon after preparation of bonded
preparation and lay-up.
surface, it is good practice to bond the surfaces as soon as possible. The pre-
pared surface must be covered with clean craft paper and if bonding cannot Standard practices manuals and engineering data will stipulate the required
be achieved after 2 hours, then the surface process must be repeated prior to levels of temperature and humidity which may differ amongst aircraft
bonding. manufacturers but are generally set at:
• temperature- 18- 25˚ Celsius
Contamination Removal
• humidity- 70- 75%
The removal of fuel, oil and similar chemical contaminants from fibre reinforced
composite structure can only be achieved through the damage removal Temperature and humidity readings must be taken before surface preparation,
process. Due to low density and the porous nature of fibre reinforced composite material preparation and lay-up and monitored during the repair process.
structure, solvents cannot remove all traces of these contaminants and there- Dedicated composite repair workshops maintain a controlled environment.
fore will compromise the integrity of the bond. Temperature and humidity readings at the time of repair are recorded on
When removing dust and fibre residue from a prepared repair surface, the ’two process worksheets.

Figure 371 Typical Bagging Operation With Heat Blanket

POST REPAIR INSPECTION

Repair Inspection General
After a composite repair has been cured, a thorough inspection of the repair-
must be carried out and results documented. This inspection must be per-
formed by the technician after vacuum bag materials have been removed and
second level inspection by the supervisor / certifier before release back to
service.
Methods of inspection will generally be visual and some other form of
instrumented method such as ultrasound may be required. Repair process data
will specify inspection process. When post repair inspections are performed, the
following conditions must be recognised:
• Resin dry portions of the repair (porosity)
• Resin rich areas of the repair
• Delamination
• Debonding
• Foreign inclusion
• Evidence of overheating (elevated temperature cure)
• Evidence of undercure
In addition to the repair, the area immediately surrounding the repair which has
been exposed to elevated temperatures must also be inspected for debonding,
delamination and evidence of overheating.
If any of the above mentioned conditions are discovered during the inspection
process, a standard damage assessment must be carried out and component
allowable damage limits applied.
Inspection Documentation
The results of instrumented NDI’s are generally recorded in written report
for- mat. These reports are attached to the repair documentation and used as
evidence to support certification and release to service.
Visual inspection is acknowledged in repair process work sheets as having
been carried out and completed.


NON-DESTRUCTIVE INSPECTION (NDT) TECHNIQUES The entire area must be tapped and any indications marked.
The method is limited to finding relatively shallow defects. In a honeycomb
General
structure, for example, the far side bondline cannot be evaluated. Thus, two-
A variety of NDI techniques are available as inspection tools for documenting sided access is required for a complete inspection of honeycomb structures.
manufacturing and service-related defects in composites. However, as in me- The method is portable, but no records are produced. The method is also highly
tallic structures, no single non-destructive inspection method can locate and dependent on the inspector’s subjective interpretation of the test response.
isolate all defects.
Equipment and techniques utilised in the non-destructive inspection of compo-
site structures ranges in complexity from the use of a coin tap-test to the use of
lasers in holographic equipment:
• tap testing
• visual or optical inspection
• bond tester or resonator
• thermography
• holography
• acoustic emission
• ultrasonics
• radiography.
Of the listed techniques, the most commonly-used methods are ultrasonics
(pulse echo or through transmission) and radiography (x-ray). Thermography
and shearography are also methods that are being increasingly used for
inspections over larger areas of composite components
Tap-Testing
Tap-testing is widely used for the quick evaluation of any accessible aircraft
surfaces to detect presence of delamination or debonding. The tap-test
procedure consists of lightly tapping the surface of the part with a coin, light
hammer or other authorised tools. The audible acoustic response determines
the condition of the bonline. A ”flat” or ”dull” response indicates voids or
delamination/debonding at the bondline, which is unacceptable.The acoustic
response provided from a bonded part will produce a clear audible ring.
The tone of the response however may vary given the changes in geometry
of the component so the technician must be able to distinguish between
responses which indicate delamination and debonding, sound and bonded
structure and sound and bonded structure with changes in geometric shape.


Visual or Optical Inspection

Visual or optical inspection is the most frequently used NDI method. A quick
assessment of the condition of the aircraft surface to look for the presence of
flaws or damage.
With the paint removed from the suspect area, a strong light shone through a
laminated structure and viewed from the other side may reveal delamination,
indicated by a change in colour. This method of inspection is suitable for
fibreglass monolithic laminates where access to both sides is possible.
Internal flaws in composites (such as delaminations, disbonding and matrix
crazing) are not detectable. In addition, tight surface cracks and edge
delaminations may not be detectable.
Visual aids such as mirrors, boroscopes and magnifiers are portable, and may
be used to facilitate detection. Visual inspection results may be recorded in the
form of photographs, if desired. The surface to be inspected should be clean
and free of conditions that may mask or obscure defects.

Figure 372 Ultrasound and Tap Testing

SHEAROGRAPHY
Shearography is used for the rapid assessment of flaws in surfaces of compo-
site structures. Shearography has been developed from interferometric
holography which, in it’s early days of development, suffered from sensitivity to
external sources of vibration.
Shearography is able to detect surface damage, delamination and debonding.
The part to be inspected is stressed by the application of heat, a static load or
vibration to bring out the effect of the flaw on the surface in the form of a fringe
pattern. Computer enhanced imagery is taken when the structure is unstressed
and then when the structure is stressed.
The holograms corresponding to the stressed and unstressed states are
reconstructed to form interference fringes. The fringe pattern is then analyzed
to reveal surface imagery of internal defects. The advantage of this technique is
the ability to survey / inspect surfaces over large areas.


ULTRASONICS
Ultrasonic inspection is widely used for evaluation of sub surface flaws in
composite parts. Portable inspection probes are placed on the zone to be
inspected.
Ultrasonic waves travel through solids and liquids at relatively high speeds, but
are rapidly attenuated in gasses. The density and the elasticity of the medium
may affect the wave speed.
Also, depending on the type of particle movement induced by the ultrasonic
transducer, a longitudinal wave, shear wave or surface wave may be
transmitted in the medium. The refraction of an ultrasonic beam when it passes
through the boundary between two media is comparable to the refraction of
light beams in the same situation.
Ultrasonic NDT techniques are widely used for quality control and flaw
detection in composite laminates. The technique is based on the attenuation
of high frequency (1- 30 MHz) acoustic waves passing through the composite
part. The attenuation is due to internal defects such as delaminations, porosity,
fibre and matrix cracks. The surface roughness and the shape or contour of the
test specimen will also affect the wave attenuation.
The ultrasound is generally transmitted and received by an ultrasonic
transducer in a pulse echo or a through-transmission mode. The pulse echo
technique can be applied to both immersion and contact test set-ups, while the
through-transmission method generally applies only to immersion and squirter
test set-ups. When using contact test methods, a coupling gel is employed to
prevent signal attenuation between the transducer and test piece
In the pulse echo mode, the ultrasound is transmitted by a transducer and the
reflected signal is received by the same transducer, after the signal is reflected
from the back surface of the composite part. The attenuation of the reflected
pulse is influenced by the presence of internal defects in the part, while the time
delay of the reflected pulse is related to the depth of defects in the composite
part.
Composite parts suspected of containing defects that are open to the outer
surfaces should be handled with care. In these situations, water may infiltrate
into the part through these defects and make it difficult to detect the flaws.
Water contamination of a honeycomb core in sandwich constructions may lead
to serious corrosion problems. Reference standards are required to calibrate
the ultrasonic test equipment, and inspectors should have experience in
operating them.
Figure 373 Ultrasonics

RADIOGRAPHY
X-ray inspection technique is widely used for quick and low-cost inspection
of composite structures. The main benefit of X-ray inspection is that no
disassembly or removal of surface coatings is required. The equipment can be
adapted to handle small parts up to relatively large parts.
X-rays are a form of electromagnetic radiation similar to light. They are
produced when electrons, travelling at high speed, collide with matter or change
direction.
In X-ray tubes, electrons are accelerated by a difference of potential between
the cathode (source of electrons) and the target.
Gamma rays are similar to X-rays in their characteristics, and are emitted from
the disintegrating nuclei of radioactive substances like radium and cobalt 60.
Both X-rays and gamma rays have extremely short wave-lengths that provide
them with the ability to penetrate materials that absorb or reflect ordinary light.
Radiography is a NDT technique that uses X-rays or gamma rays. A radiograph
is a photographic record produced by the passage of these rays through a test
object onto a film.
The radiation proceeds in straight lines to the object; some of the rays pass
through the object and the others are absorbed. The amount transmitted
depends on the nature of the material and its thickness. The presence of a void
in the material, for example, causes more radiation to pass through the section
containing the void than through the surrounding region.
A radiograph is like a shadow picture; the darker regions on the film represent
the more penetrable parts of the test specimen and the lighter regions are
represent the areas of the structure where radiation has been absorbed. Flaws
in the component generally present themselves as grey areas.

Figure 374 Radiography


Figure 375 Radiographic Testing


M7.15 WELDING, BRAZING, SOLDERING
AND BONDING PART-66 M7 CAT B1
M 7.15 WELDING, BRAZING, SOLDERING AND BONDING

Sub-Module Level
7.15 Welding, Brazing, Soldering and Bonding
(a) Soldering methods; inspection of soldered joints. 2
(b) Welding and brazing methods; Inspection of welded and
brazed joints; Bonding methods and inspection of bonded joints.

LEVEL 1
LEVEL 2
LEVEL 3

INTRODUCTION
The construction and repair of aircraft structures relies on the joining together
of sub-assemblies that are manufactured from a wide variety of materials. In
order to facilitate the joining of these sub-assemblies can be achieved using a
combination of fasteners, welding, brazing, soldering and bonding.
Welding is the process of fusing similar metals together by melting them into a
single joint.
Brazing is used to hold pieces of steel together by melting a brass or silver rod
(filler wire) between the surfaces. The brass or silver brazing rod cools to form
an adhesive substance that bonds the metal together. Brazing is carried out
at temperatures of over 800°f, and is therefore unsuitable for use on materials
such as aluminium alloy.
Soldering is similar to brazing, but uses lower melting temperatures of up to
approximately 400°f. Soldering can further be broken down into hard and soft
soldering.
Bonding is carried out on aircraft structures using adhesives. Bonding
processes are becoming more commonplace, especially with the emergence of
composite materials and high strength adhesives.

Figure 376 Welding and Allied Processes

SOLDERING OF METALS The maximum soldering temperature is the temperature above which the
following damage is caused:
Soldering is just another form of brazing that is used to join metal objects
together using capillary action to draw the molten filler metal into the surfaces. elements of the solder alloy will evaporate
Soft soldering is not classified as a welding or brazing process, because the • the work piece will soften
melting temperature of solder is below 800°F. Welding and brazing usually take • the work piece will get coarse
place above 800°F. The one exception is lead welding that occurs at 621°F. Do
not confuse the process of SILVER OR HARD SOLDERING with soft soldering, • important components of the flux will evaporate.
for this process is actually a form of brazing, because the temperature used is The range of the permitted soldering temperature decreases with the sensitivity
above 800°F. of the material.
Adherence to the specified soldering-gap width has highest priority, because Tinning the Soldering Iron
satisfactory soldering depends not only on the flow of the solder but also on the
capillary action of the solder and the soldering gap of the material. In order that the soldering iron should have a good interface to transfer heat to
the solder and the joint, it is important to tin the heated tip of the iron. Tinning
Sources of Heat is where solder is applied to the hot tip of a soldering iron and a small amount
The sources of heat used for soldering vary according to the method used and is allowed to melt over the surface. The melted solder provides a shiny silver
the equipment available. Welding torches, blowtorches, can be used. Normally, layer across the face of the iron, which indicates the iron is ready to use. the
these heating devices are used to heat the soldering coppers that supply the materials being soldered may also be tinned to pre-solder them. This provides a
heat to the metal surfaces and thus melt the solder. Sometimes, the heating quicker, cleaner and better final soldered joints.
devices are used to heat the metal directly. When this is done, you must be Inspection of Soldered Joints
careful to prevent heat damage to the metal and the surrounding material.
After completing the soldering operation, it is imperative that all traces of
More commonly in the aircraft industry soldering irons are the preferred heat residual flux be completely removed. Thoroughly clean the entire installation
source. Soldering irons can be heated by electricity or can be powered by self- area with generously applied solvent and a soft bristled brush. Clean the solder
contained gas bottles, which makes them extremely portable and suitable for connection area until no visible signs of residual flux remain, and blot the area
use on the flightline. dry with a clean gauze sponge . Visually inspect the soldered joints for any
The lowest temperature that must exist at the contact area of solder and work gritty or jagged joint surfaces and for traces of flux. Solder connections should
piece in order to let the solder flow and adhere to the parent metal is called the be smooth, shiny, and uniform in appearance. A dull finish indicates that the
operating temperature. solder is a dry joint, which has formed for one of several reasons:
The operating temperature depends exclusively on the properties of the • The joint has been cooled too quickly
solder (which are caused by the composition of the solder alloy), but not on • The joint components have been moved while they are cooling
the amount of solder or the properties of the parent metal. This makes it a
temperature valid and characteristic for all soldering processes. • The Joint was not sufficiently clean prior to soldering
Usually the work pieces to be soldered are heated to a temperature above the
operating temperature. The permitted temperature may vary within a certain
range. This range has its lower limit at the operating temperature and its upper
limit at the maximum soldering temperature.

Figure 377 Brazing / Soldering Process

SOLDERS
There are many different types of solder being used by industry. Solders are
available in various forms that include bars, wires, ingots, and powders. Wire
solders are available with or without a flux core. Generally solders come in wire
form with a flux core
Solder comes in many different compositions some of which are listed below:
• Tin-Lead The largest portion of all solders in use is solders of the tin-lead
alloy group. They have good corrosion resistance and can be used for joining
most metals. Their compatibility with soldering processes, cleaning, and most
types of flux is excellent.
• Tin-Antimony-Lead This is a high temperature solder in which antimony is
added to a tin-lead solder as a substitute for some of the tin. The antimony, up
to 6%, increases the strength and mechanical properties of the solder. A word
of caution, solders having a high antimony content should not be used on
aluminum, zinc, or zinc-coated materials.
• Tin-Zinc Several tin-zinc solders have come into use for the joining
of aluminum alloys. The 91/9 and 60/40 tin-zinc solders are for higher
temperature ranges (above 300°F), and the 80/20 and 70/30 tin-zinc alloys
are normally used as precoating solders.

Figure 378 Soldering Process (cont.)

FLUX
Scale, rust, and oxides form on most metal surfaces when exposed to air, and
heating accelerates this formation. Solder will not adhere to or wet the metal
unless these pollutants are removed. Fluxes are chemical compounds used
to clean and maintain the metal surfaces during the soldering process. They
also decrease the surface tension of the solder, making it a better wetting
agent. Fluxes are manufactured in cake, paste, liquid, or powder form and are
classified as either noncorrosive or corrosive. The table below shows the fluxes
that are normally used for soldering common metals.
Noncorrosive fluxes are for soldering electrical connections and for other work
that must be free of any trace of corrosive residue. Rosin is the most commonly
used noncorrosive flux. In the solid state, rosin is inactive and noncorrosive.
When heated, it melts and provides some fluxing action.
Rosin is available in powder, paste, or liquid form. Rosin fluxes frequently leave
a brown residue. This residue is nonconductive and sometimes difficult to re-
move.
Removal of rosin residue should be performed by wiping off with a suitable
solvent. Glycerine is added to the rosin to make the flux more effective.


HARD SOLDERING PROCESSES Furnace Soldering

Hard soldering processes are usually named according to their type of heating. Furnace soldering is preferably used when the parts to be connected can be
The following processes are of current industrial importance: pre-assembled.
• flame soldering The solder is added as wire, rings, foils powder or paste. Furnace soldering can
only be carried out without flux in a special atmosphere that that takes over the
• furnace soldering
function of the flux.
• induction soldering
Furnace soldering is often performed in a reduced gas atmosphere such
• resistance soldering as hydrogen. To create a special, neutral atmosphere, pure dry inert gases
• dip brazing such as argon or helium are used. These inert gases are very unreactive and
chemically indifferent.
• infrared soldering.
A great amount of furnace soldering is performed in a vacuum. This prevents
All these procedures have in common that the solder has a melting point of
oxidation and, under certain conditions, the use of flux is unnecessary. This
more than 450˚C, which is below the melting point of the respective parent
procedure is of high importance in aviation, astronautics and nuclear energy
metal. The solder spreads in the contact area because of capillary action.
techniques, either because highly reactive materials are used here or the use
Flame Soldering of flux is not permitted. The vacuum is maintained by continuous pumping
and removes evaporating substances which are created during the soldering
Heating is caused by one or more gas burners, which can be used either process.
manually or mechanically.
The vacuum-furnace soldering is a relatively economical procedure to use an
Depending on the required temperature and the amount of heat necessary to exactly controlled furnace atmosphere. The vacuum creates the cleanliness of
reach it, different gases such as Acetylene and Propane are used. the surface which is necessary for a good contact of work piece and solder and
These are burnt together with air, pressurized air or oxygen. The solder is the flow of the solder without use of flux.
either added before the burning procedure (in the form of rings, slices, strips or Material containing chromium or silicon con be soldered very well in a vacuum.
powder) or it is added manually (as wire or in the form of a bar). The use of flux Without using the vacuum, a very clean atmosphere is required with a very low
is necessary. point of condensation.
Furnace soldering in a vacuum is usually used at temperatures higher
than 900˚C and as a rule guarantees relatively high grade soldering
connections.


INDUCTION SOLDERING
In this process, the heat required for hard soldering is created by induced
currents. The work piece is placed near a coil which is connected to alternate
current. Thus the work piece becomes part of the electrical circuit.
The currents which are induced in the work piece create heat because of the
electrical resistance of the material. The surrounding area remains cold except
for the radiation heat.
For the soldering of small components, high frequency installations of 450-2000
kHz are usually used. Their power is mostly between 1 and 15 KW. Medium
frequency of about 5 to 10 KHz is preferably used for larger components. In this
case, the power is usually between 5 and 10 KW. The material strength at the
soldering area is very important here.
The heating of the soldering area is effected without contact by water-cooled
induction coils. Because of the fast heating of the soldering area, the solder is
often applied before the soldering starts.
If protective gas is not used, the work is performed with the help of flux.
Protective gas soldering is either performed in a room filled with protective gas,
or by using an induction coil with integrated protective gas nozzle. The latter
shields the soldering area locally because of the escaping protective gas.

Figure 379 Induction Soldering

RESISTANCE SOLDERING
The heat necessary for this soldering is created by the electrical resistance of
the soldering area in the electrical circuit. The parts to be soldered are held in
place with sufficient pressure by two water-cooled electrodes.
These can be made of coal, graphite, copper or copper alloy, depending on
the required electrical conductivity. The use of resistance welding machines is
possible.
DIP BRAZING
Dip brazing can be performed in two different ways:
• as salt bath soldering. In this case the solder and flux have already been
applied to the soldering area. The electrically-heated salt bath only supplies
the heat necessary for the soldering process.
• as metal bath soldering. The metal bath consists of molten solder. The
cleaned parts are dipped into the solder after they have been treated with flux.
This soldering process is only applicable to small parts.
INFRARED SOLDERING
This procedure has gained economical importance since strong quartz-lights
have been developed. These quartz-lights (commercially available up to 5KW)
are used as heat sources for the soldering process.
The use in an extreme low- pressure atmosphere or in a protective gas
atmosphere is possible.
CLEANING AFTER SOLDERING

Usually it is necessary to remove flux residues after soldering. This is especially
important if the flux acts in a strongly corrosive way, like when soldering
aluminium or magnesium.


REACTION OF MATERIALS TO SOLDERING Hydrogen Embrittlement

Some metals and alloys react to being soldered which impairs the soldering Because of the small size of its molecules, hydrogen has the ability to enter
and sometimes call for special action. Some of these reactions are caused by many metals (diffusion).
the material (carbide precipitation, oxidation, hydrogen embrittlement, sulphur The rate of diffusion rises with the temperature. When hydrogen enters material
embrittlement, etc), whilst others are caused by the solder (vapour pressure). which is not completely oxide-free, it can reduce the oxide of the metal,
Others again are caused by material and solder (phosphoric embrittlement, provided the temperature is high enough.
stress cracking). Because the size of the molecules of the water vapour prevent it from diffusing
to the surface, pressure is created in the material. In the case of copper this
Carbide Precipitation
pressure can reach 63.3 N/cm2.
Corrosion resistant steel and some alloys which contain chromium and carbon
These enormous pressures tear the material apart at its grain boundaries.
tend to carbide precipitation at temperatures 427-816˚C.
Copper, silver and palladium which contain oxygen are especially endangered.
The carbon content of the material reacts preferably with the chromium and is
The hydrogen embrittlement of steel follows a different pattern. No water is
precipitated as chromium-carbide.
formed, but the hydrogen atoms transform into hydrogen molecules at the grain
The parent metal which is thus reduced in its chromium content will lose its boundaries and in the areas of non-metallic enclosures. Since the molecules
corrosion resistance. are less mobile than the atoms, the removal of the hydrogen is thus more
The precipitated carbides can be dissolved again by a heat treatment between difficult. Heat treatment 90- 200 ˚C or a long storage time can restore the
1010 and 1120˚C, followed by rapid cooling. toughness of the material.
A heat treatment of 2 hours at 870˚C, followed by a furnace cooling to 538˚C Some materials cannot be soldered in a hydrogen atmosphere, because they
and subsequent air cooling can spread the chromium that has not yet been would develop permanent embrittlement. Typical examples are titanium, zircons
precipitated evenly in the material again. and their alloys.
The carbide precipitation will not exceed acceptable limits with normal corrosion Tantalum and niobium (or colombium) also show embrittlement when in contact
resistant steels, as long as the soldering is carried out quickly. with hydrogen, but their toughness can be restored by heat treatment.
Most other metals and alloys whose oxides con be reduced in a hydrogen
Oxidation
surrounding have a surplus of elements that decrease the amount of oxides.
Some oxides are easy to remove, but chromium, titanium, silicon, manganese These metals are not subject to hydrogen embrittlement.
and beryllium form oxides which are hard to remove. This is why alloys
containing these elements require special procedures.
Chromium oxide can be removed with some fluxes containing fluorine.
Aluminium-, titanium-, silicon-, manganese- and byrillium-oxide can also be
removed by special fluxes.
In many high temperature soldering processes where age-hardening alloys with
chromium and aluminium are processed, very stable oxides are created, which
are difficult to reduce. Such soldering should take place in hydrogen, helium,
argon or in a vacuum. A galvanic nickel-plating can prevent the build-up of
oxides due to its masking effect.


Areas Subjected to Heat Vapour Pressure

The heat that is required for the soldering process can lead to softening of If soldering is to take place in a vacuum, care must be taken with selection of
materials whose mechanical properties were achieved by cold-working. If the solder. Solders containing cadmium or zinc cannot be used.
the soldering temperature is higher than the recrystallizing temperature, a The reaction of solder and parent metal is important for the behaviour
coarsening of the grains can be the result. Properties that were achieved by of a soldering connection. The extent of these reactions depends on the
heat treatment can be altered. composition of the solder, the parent metal and the heat treatment process.
The size of the area subjected to heat depends on the hard-soldering Vacuum soldering takes place between 10-1 Torr and 10-4 Torr at temperatures
procedure. In general it is larger and less defined than in welding processes. up to 1200˚C.
Sulphur Embrittlement Since the vacuum removes all gases from the soldering area, you need not
Nickel and certain nickel alloys can be subject to embrittlement if they are clean any gases which otherwise would have to be added. The intensity of the
heated in the presence of sulphur or substances containing sulphur. vacuum depends on the parent metal and the solder.
Particularly at grain boundaries, nickel sulphide with a low melting-point is Certain oxides of the parent metal will disintegrate in the vacuum at soldering
formed, which is soft and brittle and will break under load. Material damaged in temperatures.
this way cannot be regenerated. Difficulties because of contamination of the surfaces to be soldered caused by
This is why it is important that nickel and nickel alloys are clean and free of degassing of the parent metal are negligible in the vacuum.
sulphuric substances (oils, grease, paint, markings from colour pencils etc) The negative pressure around the parent metal and the solder will remove
before heating. the heating has to take place in a sulphur-free atmosphere. gases and evaporating contamination at higher temperatures. In some cases
the properties of the parent metal are even improved.
Phosphoric Embrittlement
A metal or an alloy which is to be used as solder for soldering must have the
Phosphor builds brittle phosphides with many metals. This is why copper- following properties:
phosphor solders are normally not used for iron alloys or nickel alloys.
• the ability to form a good solid contact with the parent metal used
• it must melt and flow easily to ensure the distribution of the solder via capillary
action
• its composition must be homogeneous and stable to prevent the separation of
solid and fluid parts whilst soldering
• the ability to provide soldering that meets various requirements such as
stability and corrosion resistance
• depending on the requirements, it must be able to prevent or bring about a
reaction between the solder and the parent metal.

M 7.15 WELDING, BRAZING, SOLDERING AND BONDING

Sub-Module Level
7.15 Welding, Brazing, Soldering and Bonding
(a) Soldering methods; inspection of soldered joints. 2
(b) Welding and brazing methods;
Inspection of welded and brazed joints;
Bonding methods and inspection of bonded joints.

LEVEL 1
LEVEL 2
LEVEL 3

INTRODUCTION
The construction and repair of aircraft structures relies on the joining together
of sub-assemblies that are manufactured from a wide variety of materials. In
order to facilitate the joining of these sub-assemblies can be achieved using a
combination of fasteners, wleding, brazing, soldering and bonding.
Welding is the process of fusing similar metals together by melting them into a
single joint.
Brazing is used to hold pieces of steel together by melting a brass or silver rod
(filler wire) between the surfaces. The brass or silver brazing rod cools to form
an adhesive substance that bonds the metal together. Brazing is carried out
at temperatures of over 800°f, and is therefore unsuitable for use on materials
such as aluminium alloy.
Soldering is similar to brazing, but uses lower melting temperatures of up to
approximately 400°f. Soldering can further be broken down into hard and soft
soldering.
Bonding is carried out on aircraft structures using adhesives. Bonding
processes are becoming more commonplace, especially with the emergence of
composite materials and high strength adhesives.

Figure 380 Welding and Allied Processes

GAS (OXYACETYLENE) WELDING STATIONARY WELDING EQUIPMENT

Introduction Stationary welding equipment is installed where welding operations are
conducted in a fixed location such as workshops. Oxygen and acetylene are
Gas (Oxyacetylene) welding is one of the earliest methods of welding. The provided in the welding area as shown opposite.
welding heat is generated by burning a mixture of oxygen and acetylene gases
at temperatures of up to 3150°F. Oxyacetylene welding equipment allows close • Oxygen is obtained from a number of cylinders manifolded and equipped with
control of the flame temperature which means oxyacetylene equipment can be a master regulator. The regulator and manifold control the pressure and the
used for a wide variety of purposes such as: flow together. The oxygen is supplied to the welding stations through a pipe
line equipped with station outlets.
• Fusion welding, where heat is applied at the joint edges until each edge melts
and the two flow together. On removal of the heat the material cools to form a • Acetylene is obtained either from acetylene cylinders set up as shown
welded joint. opposite, or an acetylene generator. The acetylene is supplied to the welding
stations through a pipe line equipped with station outlets.
• Brazing, can be achieved because the flame reaches the necessary
temperature to melt the filler rod NOTE: WHEN ACETYLENE IS USED AS THE FUEL, THE PRESSURE
MUST NEVER BE ALLOWED TO EXCEED 15 PSI BECAUSE
• Silver (hard) soldering, can be carried out using oxyacetylene equipment as ACETYLENE BECOMES VERY DANGEROUS AT 15 PSI AND SELF
the flame temperature is sufficient to melt the solder. EXPLOSIVE AT 29.4 PSI.
• Thermal cutting can be achieved by replacing the welding head with a cutting
head
Equipment
The equipment used for oxyacetylene welding consists of an oxygen cylinder
that must be painted black and an acetylene cylinder that is always painted
maroon. The cylinders together with their pressure regulators from a portable
or stationary outfit, and are used in conjunction with either a welding head or a
separate cutting torch. Other equipment requirements include suitable goggles
for eye protection, gloves to protect the hands, a method to light the torch, and
wrenches to operate the various connections on the cylinders, regulators, and
torches.
The oxygen cylinder is filled with compressed oxygen to pressures of 175-200
Bar, on a large cylinder this equates to 9500 litres of oxygen. The acetylene,
however can not simply be pressurised in a cylinder as it is very unstable and
would explode. In order to obtain stability it is dissolved into acetone, which
is why it is often referred to as DA (dissolved acetylene) gas. Finally it is
compressed in a gas cylinder to a pressure of 15 Bar.

Figure 381 Stationary Welding Equipment

PORTABLE WELDING EQUIPMENT

The portable oxyacetylene welding outfit consists of an oxygen cylinder and an
acetylene cylinder with attached valves, regulators, gauges, and hoses.
This equipment may be temporarily secured on the floor or mounted on an all
welded steel truck. The trucks are equipped with a platform to support two large
size cylinders. The cylinders are secured by chains attached to the truck frame.
A metal toolbox, welded to the frame, provides storage space for torch tips,
gloves, fluxes, goggles, and necessary wrenches.

Figure 382 Portable Oxyacetylene Welding and Cutting Equipment

Oxyacetylene Welding Torch assembled with the tip for which it has been drilled and then screwed onto
The oxyacetylene welding torch is used to mix oxygen and acetylene in definite the torch head. The universal type mixer is a separate unit which can be used
proportions. It also controls the volume of these gases burning at the welding with tips of various sizes.
tip, which produces the required type of flame.
The torch consists of a handle or body which contains the hose connections
for the oxygen and the fuel gas. The torch also has two needle valves; one for
adjusting the flew of oxygen and the other for acetylene, and a mixing head.
In addition, there are two tubes; one for oxygen, the other for acetylene; inlet
nipples for the attachment of hoses; a tip; and a handle. The tubes and handle
are of seamless hard brass, copper-nickel alloy, stainless steel.
Types of Torch
There are two general types of welding torches; the low pressure or injector
type, and the equal pressure type.
• In the low pressure or injector type, the acetylene pressure is less than 1 psi
(6.895 kPa). A jet of high pressure oxygen is used to produce a suction effect
to draw in the required amount of acetylene. Any change in oxygen flow will
produce relative change in acetylene flow so that the proportion of the two
gases remains constant. This is accomplished by designing the mixer in the
torch to operate on the injector principle. The welding tips may or may not
have separate injectors designed integrally with each tip.
• The equal pressure torch is designed to operate with equal pressures for the
oxygen and acetylene. The pressure ranges from 1 to 15 psi (6.895 to 103.4
kPa). This torch has certain advantages over the low pressure type. It can be
more readily adjusted, and since equal pressures are used for each gas, the
torch is less susceptible to flashbacks.
Welding Tips and Mixers

• The welding tips are made of hard drawn electrolytic or 95% copper and 5%
tellurium. They are made in various and types, some having a one-piece
tip either with a single orifice or multiple orifices. The diameters of the tip
orifices differ in order to control the quantity of heat and the type of flame.
These tip sizes are designated by numbers which are arranged according to
the individual manufacturer’s system. Generally, the smaller the number, the
smaller the tip orifice.
• Mixers are frequently provided in tip tier assemblies which assure the correct
flow of mixed gases for each size tip. In this tip mixer assembly, the mixer is

Figure 383 Oxyacetylene Welding Torches

Oxyacetylene Cutting Equipment to continue penetrating the work. A good cut will be clean and narrow.
The cutting torch, like the welding torch, has a tube for oxygen and one for Basic Safety Rules
acetylene. In addition, there is a tube for high-pressure oxygen, along with a
cutting tip or nozzle. 1. Blow out the cylinder valve before you connect the regulator.
The tip is provided with a centre hole through which a jet of pure oxygen 2. Release the adjusting screw on the regulator before opening the cylinder
passes. Mixed oxygen and acetylene pass through holes surrounding the valve.
centre holes for the pre-heating flames. 3. Stand to one side of the regulator before you open the cylinder valve.
The number of orifices for oxyacetylene flames ranges from 2 to 6, depending 4. Open the cylinder valve slowly.
on the purpose for which the tip is used. 5. Do not use or compress acetylene in a free state at pressures more than 15
The cutting torch is controlled by a trigger or lever operating valve. The cutting psi.
torch is furnished with interchangeable tips for cutting steel from less than 1/4in 6. Purge your acetylene and oxygen passages individually before lighting the
(6.4mm) to more than 12 in (304.8mm) in thickness. torch.
In order to make uniformly clean cuts on steel plate, motor-driven cutting 7. Light the acetylene before opening the oxygen on the torch.
machines are used to support and guide the cutting torch.
8. Never use oil or grease on regulators, tips, etc., in contact with oxygen.
There is a wide variety of cutting tip styles available to suit various types of
work. The thickness of the material to be cut generally governs the selection of 9. Do not use oxygen as a substitute for air.
the tip. 10. Keep your work area clear of anything that will burn.
The cutting oxygen pressure, cutting speed and pre-heating intensity should
be controlled to produce narrow, parallel-sided kerfs. Cuts that are improperly
made will produce ragged, irregular edges with adhering slag at the bottom of
the plates.
Operation of Cutting Equipment

1. Attach the required cutting tip to the torch and adjust the oxygen and
acetylene pressures to effect the best metal cut.
2. Adjust the pre-heating flame to neutral.
3. Hold the torch so that the cutting oxygen lever or trigger can be operated
with one hand. Use the other hand to steady and maintain the position of
the torch head to the work. Keep the flame at a 90˚ angle to work in the
direction of travel. The inner cone of the pre-heating flame should be about
1/16 in (1.6mm) above the end of the line to be cut. Hold this position until
the spot has been raised to a bright red heat, then slowly open the cutting
oxygen valve.
4. If the cut has been started correctly, a shower of sparks will fall from the
opposite side of the work. Move the torch at a speed which will allow the cut

Figure 384 Oxyacetylene Cutting Equipment

FUSION WELDING
Fusion is a process of electrically bonding two pieces together. This is achieved
by passing electricity through the two pieces. One, which has a fusion nib on it,
is brought into contact with the other. As the two pieces meet an electrical arc is
created, causing the nib to instantaneously vaporize and then solidify, bonding
the two pieces. This process is a superior bond compared to a soldered bond.
Fusion joining is accomplished by heating the joint zone to a molten state and
weld is formed when adjacent molten surfaces coalesce and cool. A filler metal
may be added to the welded joints.
Fusion welds are classified as follows:
• Class A - a vital joint (failure would jeopardize the aircraft safety)
• Class B1 - a secondary structure (failure would not jeopardize the aircraft
safety)
• Class B2 - non-structure.
Fusion weld applications are summarized in the table opposite.
INERT GAS FUSION WELDING

Inert gas fusion welding depends on an inert gas, such as argon or helium, to
provide a protective atmosphere in the area of the weld. This inert gas shielding
is necessary to avoid oxidation and contamination of the weld by atmospheric
elements. Most weld repairs can be made with this process.


GAS TUNGSTEN ARC WELDING (GTAW) Process Description

TIG welding is the most common form of electric arc welding. It uses a tungsten
Terminology
electrode, which can be connected to either the positive or negative terminal of
The American Welding Society has termed this process Tungsten Inert Gas a DC power supply, or can operate using AC. The current passes through the
(TIG) because the shielding is taken care of by an extraneously added gas, and electrode and produces an arc which has a temperature of
a non-consumable tungsten electrode is used to provide an arc between a torch
11,000°F. The advantage over Oxyacetylene welding is that TIG welding
and base metal as shown below. The process is referred to very commonly in
produces an extremely concentrated heat source at the point of the electric arc
industry as Heliarc welding (a trade name established by the Linde Division) or
without putting vast ammounts of heat into the surrounding metal.
TIG welding.
Since the tungsten electrode is not consumed in the process, if filler metal
The term ”Heliarc” seems to suggest an arc operated in a helium atmosphere.
is used it must be added by hand (similar to gas welding) or it can be fed
Helium can be and is used to some extent as a shielding gas for the process,
mechanically as shown opposite.
but other gases are possible and with argon being the primary gas used in
GTAW, the term ”Heliarc” leaves a lot to be desired from the stand-point of There are two concepts of feeding the wire mechanically:
process description. • a wire feed is used and simply feeds a wire into the leading edge of the weld
The acronym ”TIG” is much more accurate because it does not limit the gas pool
selection to helium as implied by Heliarc. Argon and helium are both inert (will • a power source is used to electrically preheat the wire. As it reaches the
not chemically react with any known substance), but there are some exceptions leading edge of the weld pool it takes a minimum amount of thermal energy to
to the shielding gas being inert, such as when hydrogen is mixed with argon as melt the wire so that it will mix into the weld.
suggested in some GTAW applications.
There are some types of weld joint which require no filler metal. In such cases,
the GTAW torch simply melts and fuses the two pieces of base metal together.
This is called an autogenous weld (see figure7).
The tungsten electrode will vary in diameter from 1 mm (0.040”) to 6.35 mm
(1/4”), and is 18 cm (7”) in length. The tungsten should be kept as small as
practicable so as to obtain a high current density. This will keep the weld pool
small and weld with a minimum amount of heat input.
The tungsten electrodes are limited with respect to the amperage they can
withstand without overheating, which would result in melting and dropping off to
become a tungsten inclusion in the weld.

Figure 385 Gas Tungsten Arc Welding Concept

GAS TUNGSTEN ARC WELDING (GTAW) (CONTINUED)

Shielding Gas Selection
The gas shield that is used in TIG welding provides an inert atmosphere around
the weld, this excludes oxygen from the weld face and thus prevents the
oxidation of the weld material without having to use flux.
Shielding gas selection for GTAW usually involves argon, helium or argon/
helium mixtures. Also, hydrogen has been mixed with argon, but it must be
used on materials where the hydrogen would not cause embrittlement.
Any shielding gas selection must not contaminate either the tungsten electrode
or the base metal being welded. The tungsten electrode is more easily
contaminated, hence carbon dioxide cannot be used in GTAW whilst it is used
extensively in GMAW. The adjacent figure is a guide which indicates shielding
gases which are used with various metals.
Application
GTAW is one of the most versatile of the widely-used processes. It can be
used on a wide variety of alloy chemical compositions and a wide range of
material thicknesses. Since it does not use the filler metal as the electrode, it is
considered slower in potential than consumable electrode processes. However,
this can be offset to a large extent by using a mechanical wire-feeding system,
especially if an electrical current is used to pre-heat the wire as it is fed into the
pool.
Electrode polarity
TIG welding can be achieved using AC or DC current. When DC is used the
positive polarity may be connected to either the work or the electrode. When
the work is connected to the positive supply most of the generated heat occurs
at the work where it is needed. When the electrode is connected to the positive
supply it is called reverse polarity, which concentates the heat at the electrode.
Although reverse polarity is not suitable for heavy duty welding, it is especially
useful when welding aluminium where the surface oxides (slag) have a higher
melting point than the base metal. In this case the reverse polarity allows the
surface oxides to be broken down and float to the surface, which allows a good
weld to be formed.

Figure 386 GTAW Application

GAS METAL ARC WELDING (GMAW)

Because man inherently searches for faster methods of doing almost anything,
the GTAW process did not escape investigation. It was discovered that if the
tungsten electrode was replaced by a consumable electrode, the process would
be a lot faster in filling the weld joint with metal. Thus was born the Gas Metal
Arc (GMAW) process.
Not only was it true that the electric current was used more efficiently in GMAW
but it was found that, for satisfactory operation, much higher current densities
were needed than with GTAW. The figure opposite illustrates the gas metal
arc welding concept. This process is increasing in usage faster than any other
welding process.
Terminology
As with GTAW, the GMAW process is referred to by different terms. It is too
difficult to list them all because of the modifications and extensions of the
process.
A few of the widely-used terms are listed here.
SIGMA is a trade name established by the Linde Division. The acronym stands
for ’Shielded Inert Gas Metal Arc’. This would be an accurate term except for
the fact that not only inert gases are used for shielding. Another term, ’MIG’
(Metal (arc) Inert Gas), has the same problem.
Both of the afore-mentioned terms are popular in industry along with
wire welding, micro-wire welding, CO2 welding, and other terms used for
modifications of the process.
The American Welding Society has adopted Gas Metal Arc Welding because it
is both accurate and descriptive, though, as with GTAW, it has not been widely
accepted by industry as yet.
The gas metal arc and gas tungsten arc welding processes are referred to as
the Gas Shielded Arc Processes.
Process Description
In concept, the main difference between GMAW and GTAW is that the non-
consumable tungsten electrode is replaced by a consumable electrode wire.
However, with this important change comes the need for a wire feeder to
supply the electrode wire to the arc at the correct rate. The shielding gas added
extraneously feeds through the nozzle.

Figure 387 Gas Metal Arc Welding Concept

Semi-Automatic and Automatic GMAW

Both semi-automatic and automatic GMAW are common. In concept, the
only difference is that in the automatic GMAW, the torch is held mechanically.
With the semi-automatic, the operator holds the torch and is responsible for
maintaining the correct torch attitude, protrusion and speed of travel.
The figure opposite illustrates a semi-automatic torch being used for an
automatic application. A more specialized process, also shown opposite, may
be advisable for high-production volume, but would be more limited in scope of
application (less versatile).
Application
As was stated at the beginning of this section, the process is gaining in usage
faster than any other welding process.
It is a very versatile process with respect to weldable alloys as well as material
thickness and welding positions. The various modes of transfer and wire
selections make it possible to weld material from thin gauge (<1.59 mm/1/16”)
to very heavy sections as thick as is required.
The variety of electrode alloy selection available makes the welding of most
weldable ferrous and non-ferrous metals feasible. It Is not intended to suggest
that GMAW is the answer to all welding applications; the reader should make
an effort to understand the advantages and limitations of each welding process.

Figure 388 GMAW Application

ELECTRON BEAM WELDING How does Electron Beam Welding work?

In electron beam welding, the heat of fusion is generated by a high-energy In many ways, an electron beam welder is similar to a television set. Electrons
beam of electrons impinging on the workpieces to be joined together, the kinetic in a picture tube are emitted by a heated tungsten filament, concentrated by an
energy of the electrons being directly converted into heat and causing a vapour electron optics system to a small diameter beam, and moved so rapidly by a
channel in the centre of the resulting weld pool. deflection system that a picture is produced on a fluorescent screen.
To provide the necessary high acceleration of the electrons, a vacuum of While a correctly-designed electron beam welder has several thousand times
about 1O-4 Torr has to be produced. To generate a continuous weld it is also the beam intensity of a picture tube, it has very similar operating features, and
necessary to provide movement of the workpiece relative to the electron gun. is almost as simple to operate.
An electron beam welding machine is comprised of three main assemblies: To change TV stations, volume, brightness and contrast, knobs are adjusted
while viewing the picture; the set is not disassembled.
• electron beam system
With really usable electron beam welding equipment, the weld settings can be
• vacuum system
altered and all other necessary variables by simple knob adjustment, whilst
• manipulating gear. looking directly at the weld joint. It is not necessary to disassemble the gun
The example shown here is a three-stage compressor rotor (Ti-Al alloy) and install spacers to accommodate various materials, thicknesses and focal
developed and manufactured by MTU for an aero engine of advanced design. lengths.
The separate forged disks making up this rotor are machine-finished either
prior to or immediately following the individual welding operations and thus the
complete contour of the component is obtained with relatively close tolerances
after electron beam welding.
This rotor was welded on a high-voltage welding machine with a maximum
power consumption of 12 kW.
A typical feature of this welding process is that the heat input is relatively small.
It also permits welding in locations inaccessible for previous welding processes,
partly with materials which were previously unweldable.
It therefore opens up new engineering possibilities leading, for instance, to
more compact design and savings in weight.

Figure 389 Electron Beam Welding

ELECTRICAL RESISTANCE WELDING RESISTANCE SPOT WELDING (RSW)

This concept of welding does not utilize an arc to obtain heat. Also, a vapour or The figure opposite illustrates the RSW concept utilizing two copper columnar
gas shielding is not utilized. The two important parameters of this concept are: type (stick-shape) electrodes pushing toward each other under high pressure.
• heat is generated by resistance to an electrical current A surge of electrical current for only a fraction of a second Is sent from one
electrode to the other with two pieces of metal sandwiched together. Since
• considerable pressure is always used in pressing the two pieces tightly copper is a very excellent electrical conductor there should be less resistance
together. between the copper base metal interface than at the interface between the two
Shielding is taken care of in these processes by the pieces themselves base metal pieces.
touching each other under considerable pressure, thus squeezing out the air. As the current is supplied, the highest-resistance point heats the fastest. The
Three different types of electrical resistance welding processes will be metal is quickly brought up to or near the melting point, at which time the
described in this section: electrodes under heavy pressure make the two pieces become one at the local
spot where the pressurized electrodes are located.
• spot welding
The figure also illustrates a stationary version of RSW. Timers are used for
• seam welding
controlling dwell time for each phase of the cycle.
• projection welding.
This type of welding is used extensively in automobile assembly and light
gauge material fabricated products. It must involve two pieces which can be
upset by the electrode pressure. Therefore, it is limited to relatively thin material
usually less than 4.76 mm (3/16”).
When compared to gas tungsten, arc spot welding or gas metal arc spot
welding, it is somewhat faster in weld cycle time, but is not quite as versatile,
since both sides must be available to the copper electrodes, and for most
applications equipment costs are considerably more using RSW. The figure
compares spot welds made with three processes.

Figure 390 Resistance Spot Welding

RESISTANCE SEAM WELDING (RSEW)

The parameters for electric resistance seam welding are very similar to spot
welding. With RSEW, the electrodes are copper wheels instead of the columnar
shape used in RSW.
As the wheels apply pressure toward each other with the base metal
sandwiched in between, a pulse of high current makes a spot weld and the
wheels turn a predetermined amount, making another spot weld which overlaps
the first. This procedure is repeated, making overlapping spot welds which
result in a seam weld as illustrated.
The RSEW process is used for welding fuel tanks for vehicles. Two halves are
stamped with flanges around the periphery of each half, then the seam welder
is used for welding the flanges of the two halves as illustrated. A leak-tight tank
is produced by the overlapping spot welds.

Figure 391 Resistance Seam Welding

INSPECTION OF WELDS
Weld Faults
While their are several means of carrying out non-destructive examination of
welds the visual method is the easiest and most common method. A good weld
will be uniform in width, with even ripples that taper off smoothly. There should
be no burn marls or signs of overheating, and there should be no oxide present
more than 1/2in away from the weld base
Lack of weld penetration occurs when the weld fails to fuse through to the root
of the joint. Caused by heat source being too low, the filler wire is too wide or
the joint gap is too small. Lack of fusion is where the weld metal fails to fuse at
the interface has the same causes as lack of penetration.
Over penetration is where the weld protrudes excessively. Over penetration of
the weld is caused by the opposite of lack of penetration.
Porosity occurs when gas is trapped in the weld. it is sometimes visible at
the surface, but is more likely to be detected using X-rays. The cause of
porosity is usually attributable to lack of shielding during MIG/TIG welding,
or contaminants such as oil or oxide scale. In extreme cases the porosity will
manifest as large blow holes in the surface.
When stainless steels are welded the localised grain structure around the weld
will, under certain circumstances, precipitate its chromium and carbon content
in a process of carbide precipitation. Without the carbide content the metal is
susceptible to corrosion around the base of the weld, this is known as weld
decay. Special attention should be paid to these areas around welds during
subsequent inspection to ensure that no corrosion has manifested due to weld
decay.


RADIOGRAPHIC AND ULTRASONIC WELD INSPECTION Ultrasonic Testing

Ultrasonic testing (UT) can be used on ferrous and nonferrous materials and
Radiographic Testing
often is suited for testing thicker sections accessible from one side only. In
Radiographic testing (RT) is usually suitable for testing welded joints that can general, it can detect finer linear or planar defects than can RT.
be accessed from both sides, with the exception of double-wall signal image
UT makes use of mechanical vibrations similar to sound waves but of higher
techniques used on some pipe. Although this is a slow and expensive NDT
frequency. A beam of ultrasonic energy is directed into the object to be tested.
method, it is a dependable way to detect porosity, inclusions, cracks and voids
This beam travels through the object with insignificant energy loss, except when
in weld interiors.
it is intercepted and reflected by a discontinuity.
RT makes use of X-rays or gamma rays. X-rays are produced by an X-ray tube,
The ultrasonic contact pulse reflection technique is used in UT. This system
and gamma rays are produced by a radioactive isotope. The basic principle
uses a transducer, which converts electrical energy into mechanical energy.
of radiographic weld inspection is the same as that of medical radiography.
The transducer is excited by a high-frequency voltage that causes a crystal
Penetrating radiation is passed through a solid object (in this case, a weld
to vibrate mechanically. The crystal probe becomes the source of ultrasonic
rather than part of the human body) onto photographic film, creating an image
mechanical vibration. These vibrations are transmitted into the test piece
of the object’s internal structure on the film.
through a coupling fluid, usually a film of oil, called a couplant.
The amount of energy absorbed by the object depends on its thickness and
When the ultrasonic waves pulse strikes a discontinuity in the test piece, it is
density. Energy not absorbed by the object causes exposure of the radiographic
reflected back to its point of origin. Thus, the energy returns to the transducer.
film. These areas will be dark when the film is developed. Areas of the film
The transducer now serves as a receiver for the reflected energy.
exposed to less energy remain lighter. Therefore, areas of the object where
the thickness has been changed by discontinuities, such as porosity or cracks, The initial signal (or main bang), the returned echoes from the discontinuities
will appear as dark outlines on the film. Inclusions of low density, such as slag, and the echo of the rear surface of the test piece all are displayed by a trace
will appear as dark areas on the film, while inclusions of high density, such as on the screen of a cathode-ray oscilloscope. The detection, location, and
tungsten, will appear as light areas. evaluation of discontinuities become possible because the velocity of sound
through a material is nearly constant, making distance measurement possible,
All discontinuities are detected by viewing the weld shape and variations in
and the relative amplitude of a reflected pulse is more or less proportional to the
the density of the processed film. This permanent film record of weld quality
size of the reflector.
is relatively easy to interpret if personnel are properly trained. Only qualified
personnel should conduct radiography and radiographic interpretation because One of the most useful characteristics of UT is its ability to determine the exact
false readings can be expensive and can interfere seriously with productivity, position of a discontinuity in a weld. This testing method requires a high level of
and because invisible X-ray and gamma radiation can be hazardous. operator training and competence and depends on establishing and applying
suitable testing procedures.

Figure 392 Radiographic and Ultrasonic Weld Inspection

BRAZING OF METALS
General
A brazed joint is made in a completely different way from a welded joint.
The first big difference is in the temperature. Brazing doesn’t melt the base
metals. So brazing temperatures are invariably lower than the melting points
of the base metals. And, of course, always significantly lower than welding
temperatures for the same base metals. If brazing doesn’t fuse the base
metals, how does it join them. It joins them by creating a metallurgical bond
between the filler metal and the surfaces of the two metals being joined.
The principle by which the filler metal is drawn through the joint to create this
bond is capillary action. In a brazing operation, you apply heat broadly to the
base metals. The filler metal is then brought into contact with the heated parts.
It is melted instantly by the heat in the base metals and drawn by capillary
action completely through the joint. The filler metal is applied by melting a
brazing rod, which is generally manufactured from a Zinc / Copper alloy.
Brazing may be used to join dissimilar metals that cannot be joined by welding,
or where the heat from the welding process would distort the part.
The brazing process takes place at temperatures of around 900°c where the
brazing rod, which is primarily made of a zinc copper alloy and coated in flux.
The brazing flux is made of a solution of water and borax powder, which when
heated washes away impurities and oxides that would otherwise affect the
quality of the brazed joint.
Generally the heating source for brazing will be the oxyacetylene flame,
although a blow torch may suffice for smaller objects.


BONDING Vaseline is a viscous contact that prevents air pressure entering between the
panels, but a lateral movement of the panels in relation to each other (and
finally a separation of the panels) cannot be prevented because of the viscosity
TYPES OF BONDING MATERIALS of the Vaseline. The experiment can also be carried out with fluids of a lower
There are 4 main groups of adhesives which differ as far as their application viscosity such as water, but then the panels can be separated quite easily.
and effectiveness are concerned:
If the Vaseline is replaced with an adhesive, a mechanical application of load to
1. Contact adhesives the bonded parts becomes possible.
2. Fusion adhesives on a solution base (also called adhesive lacquers) Contact adhesives contain binding agents and fast evaporating solutions.
3. Reaction resin adhesive (Polymerization-adhesives, Polycondensation- During use you must ensure that both contact surfaces have a thin layer of
adhesive and EP adhesives) adhesive applied.
4. Dispersion adhesives (eg polyvinyl acetate (“Phenol“). Before joining the surfaces you must wait until the solution has completely
evaporated to avoid enclosure of still viscous parts of the adhesive. The parts
1. Contact Adhesives are then joined with high pressure to exclude air.
Atmospheric air pressure presses two smooth surfaces with parallel faces Even material that has no chemical similarity with either the adhesive or one or
together, provided there is no air between the contact surfaces. both parts to be joined can be bonded with contact adhesive.
In outer space, “cold welding“ would be the result. Even in our environment, The expression „contact adhesive“ is also to be used as an expression for
especially high-grade surfaces like on-end measures or master gauges tend to permanently bonding materials such as Band-Aid or price labels.
“cold weld“.
Experiments have shown that you can bond two glass panes with parallel
surfaces with Vaseline to such a degree that you cannot separate them
manually with a force acting in a vertical direction to the surfaces.
The reason for this is simply our normal barometric air pressure, which at sea
level amounts to 1 bar or 10 N/cm2.
A relatively small contact area of 100 cm2 needs a perpendicular pulling force of
1000N to separate the glass panes from each other.
The principal of contact bonding is based on the utilization of atmospheric air
pressure.

Figure 393 Bonding in the Comet

2. Fusion Adhesives on a Solution Base

You can only join parts with identical material with fusion adhesive.
For example, you can soften hard PVC panels with hot air and then join using
PVC welding wire. This procedure can be used with most thermoplastics. Cold
welding of parts of the same material is also possible with suitable solutions.
The edges to be joined will temporarily get soft, are pressed together and
thus melt. After the solution has evaporated, the edges that have been melted
together will be solid.
Solution-based adhesives can also be used to make rubber products soft (eg
the tube of the tire of a vehicle and the respective patch). The solution on large
patches and the repair area of the tube must evaporate before they are pressed
together to avoid the installation of the “softener“.
Generally, the usually paste-like solutions can only be used for certain
materials. For example, it is not possible to use a polystyrene adhesive to bond
a rubber patch or to combine polyurethane parts with a PVC adhesive.
3. Reaction Resin-Adhesives
To understand the processing and effectivity of polymerization-adhesives it
is necessary to have a closer look at some principles. These principles are
explained later in a simplified version.
4. Dispersion Adhesives
Dispersion adhesives are not discussed in this book.


WETTING
An important condition for best possible bonding is the ability of the adhesive
to cover the complete surface of the parts to be joined, and to ensure a good
contact (wetting capability).
Mercury, for example, is a fluid which does not wet most metallic and ceramic
materials. The flattening of the mercury drop is caused by gravity. The mercury
drop forms into a ball due to strong internal cohesion forces of the atoms, which
attract each other.
In contrast to mercury, a fluid that will provide good contact with the surface will
make it wet. A so-called penetrating oil will even cover the complete surface of
a part that is facing the ground.
Epoxy-resins used in airplane manufacture get in good contact with the
surfaces of the parts if they have been pretreated correctly. However, not every
material surface will have a good contact with epoxy-resin. The automatic
covering of Teflon, for instance, is not possible.
The contact of the fluid and the surface occurs because there is a mutual
attraction between the fluid and the surface. This can be stronger than gravity.
Only if gravity is higher than the contacting force will the fluid drop from a
surface that is upside down.

Figure 394 Bonding Process (Fundamental)

Figure 395 Definition of Wetting

Figure 396 Capillary Action Between Two Surfaces

CAPILLARY ACTION Advantages of bonded connections over riveted connections are:

If conditions for a good contact are right, the narrowness of tubes and gaps in • decreased concentration of stresses
adjacent material will add to it. Fluid will enter the narrower the cavity is. • increased stability of the component
This effect is called capillary action. • improved sealing (for example of the pressurized cabin or the fuel tanks)
The same effect is used in soldering (relation between soldering and bonding). • minimized costs for manufacture
The following descriptions refer to capillary action in narrow tubes or gaps, for
example in sheet metal panels in contact with each other. • decreased danger of contact corrosion and crevice corrosion
It is clear that in the cabin interior area (such as in the galley and lavatory • in the case of outer bonding seams, improvement of the aerodynamic surface.
areas) a lot of corrosion damage is caused because aggressive fluids penetrate Disadvantages of a bonded connection are:
between borders of floor panels or under supported masking panels. • relatively low mechanical strength of the bonding
The wetting forces are usually so strong, that an evaporation of the penetrating • low resistance to heat
fluid does not take place.
• very sensitive to chemical action
ADHESION AND COHESION • sensitive to moisture
Good bonding depends on the factors adhesion and cohesion. • tendency of the bonding material to penetrate adjacent areas
The bonding strength between the fluid and the surface of the part to be joined • separation is only possible by destroying the connection.
is called adhesion. The following rule will ensure that you can utilize the full bonding strength of the
The inner strength (the force that holds the molecules of a material together adhesive and still prevent breakage of the bond during operation of the aircraft
(breaking load), is called cohesion. to a very high degree:
The adhesion (also called adsorption) is determined by the attraction that the Adhesion must be stronger than cohesion!
molecules of (for example) the epoxy-resin and the sheet metal surface create This means that the surface always must be pretreated in a way that will
to each other. ensure that the applied adhesive will never rip or tear off the surface under the
This adhesion will only be effective if the surfaces of the parts has been operational stresses.
cleaned and degreased carefully. Should it be necessary, the surface can be
enlarged by roughening or an etching bath (pickling).
Cohesion is always known. The breaking load of an adhesive is determined by
tests carried out by the manufacturer. The adhesive is provided with a certain
minimum breaking load so that the airplane manufacturer can rely on a fixed
bonding strength.
Due to the development of very solid adhesives which have good contact
to metal surfaces and are very resistant to aging, it has become possible to
manufacture large areas of the airplane structure as bonded components.

Figure 397 Adhesion / Coherence

To get the best bonding connections, several conditions have to be satisfied:

• The interfacial surface forces between the surfaces of the joined parts are
enlarged by a submicroscopic teasling ( pickling bath until 1994; than chromic
acid anodizing).
• A slightly-roughened surface offers a better contact between the parts to be
joined and the adhesive.
• The „real“ surface is slightly enlarged and this makes the bond tighter.
• Mechanical roughening as is sufficient for most bonding connections is not
permitted for high grade connection by means of adhesive films and curing in
an autoclave.
• The pretreating of adhesion surface areas of sheet metal parts out of
aluminium or aluminium alloys is performed on the basis of chemical etching.
• The pickling process is modified by some airplane manufacturers. There may
be differences between Airbus and Boeing.
• The result of the pickling or CAA process is a sheet-metal surface covered
with micro-depressions.
Adhesive can only reach its full stability when being correctly processed:
• Only use new adhesives and not those whose usability has expired.
• Mix adhesives consisting of different components in the correct ratio and
process at specified temperature and humidity.
• Observe pot-life time under all circumstances.
• During hardening time, the parts must not be in contact with each other.
• Ensure the correct temperature and sufficient time for the hardening and
curing procedure.

Figure 398 Effect on Surface Roughening


Figure 399 Typical Bonding Overloads

EFFECTS OF BOND THICKNESS

The thickness of the bond has great influence on the tensile shear strength of
the bonded connection. In the case of a wide joint, the stress centreline of the
parts is far away from each other. When the connection is subjected to stress,
the stress centreline will move closer to each other, because the bond volume
changes into a parallelogram form.
The larger the thickness of the joint, the more an overlapping connection of this
kind is subjected to stress due to bending, and the stability of the connection
will decrease in proportion to the thickness of the joint.
The thickness of the joint should not exceed 0.1mm in the case of bonded
metal parts.

Figure 400 Influence of Bondline Thickness


Figure 401 Bonding Thickness/Overlap Comparisons

DESIGN OF BONDED CONNECTIONS

Bonding of metal parts requires parts design that is fit for bonding. Since
the adhesive usually has a smaller strength than the parts to be joined,
it is unfavourable to have perpendicular pulling forces act on the bonded
connection.
1. Blunt Joints
This joint is not suitable for the transfer of forces because the bonding area
is small and the strength of the adhesive will never reach the strength of the
material of the parts. Unsuitable for airplane construction.
2. Stepped Double-Fishplate Connection
This connection is too luxurious for airplane construction, even though its
bonding area is larger.
3. Stepped Lap Joint
This connection is simpler than the above, but still unsuitable for higher
stresses.
4. Single Lap Joint
This connection is preferred for thin cross sections in airplane construction,
because of its easy realization.
5. Double Lap Joint
This results in good connections at low costs. You get best material utilization at
a sheet metal thickness of 1:2:1. Not suitable for airplane construction because
of the amount of handicraft-work and the double force transition.
The best utilization of a bonding connection is a shearing force that acts in the
joint direction.
6. Single-Fishplate
This connection is often used if a surface has to be smooth without any special
pretreatment.

Figure 402 Typical Bonding Examples 1

7. Double-Fishplate
This connection has a higher stability than the single-fishplate, but it requires
more work and time. It is rarely used, because you cannot reach the condition
of a smooth and even bonding connection on either side.
It is therefore hardly practicable for airplane construction.
8. Tapered Lap Joint
This connection is somewhat better than the overlap shown in example 4, but it
also requires more work.
Used in airplane construction.
9. Bonded Reinforcement
Common in airplane construction, eg stringer and sheet metal skin.
10. Tapered Double-Fishplate Connection
This connection is even worse than the tapered lap joint, even though it is
symmetrical.
11. Shaft-Connection
This connection reaches high stability values, but requires much work.
Especially for performance under dynamic stresses, the shaft connection is
superior to all other bonding connections.
It was widely used in wooden airplane construction, eg for glued spars.
In the cases of all described bonded connections with the exception of the
shaft-connection, the connections require peel strength adhesives, because
stress peaks occur at the end of material sections.

Figure 403 Typical Bonding Examples 2

STRESSES IN DIFFERENT KINDS OF CONNECTION

1. Rivet Connections
Peaks of stresses at the countersinks and their edges.
2. Welded Connections
Uneven distribution of stresses because of superimposed welding-stresses.
1. Weld
2. Overheat area
3. Softening area
3.Bonded Single Lap Joint Connection
Shear-stress distribution results in extreme stress peaks at the edges of
bonded parts.
4. Bonded Shaft Connection
Most even distribution of stresses.

Figure 404 Stress Distribution

PROPERTIES OF RESINS AND BONDED CONNECTIONS

Stability of Bonded Connections
There are some technological problems which have to be taken into
consideration by the aircraft manufacturer when parts are to be bonded.
The most important differences between 2024 and 7075 aluminium alloys and
epoxy-resin are the lower stability (breaking load) and the higher elasticity and
thermal extension of the latter.
Aluminium that can be subjected to age hardening has a stability ten times as
high as epoxy resin.
The elasticity under load and the temperature extension coefficient are 10 times
higher than the respective values for aluminium.
As a matter of fact, several technical and physical factors have a strong When constructing the components, the respective safety factor and possible
influence on the construction of the bond. fatigue of the material have to be considered.
These factors will lead to certain measurements. Often the shape and This means that the breaking load values are normally reduced by up to
measurements will differ from those commonly used for rivet connections. 75%. In the case of composites, an additional safety factor of j=1.5 is added
The following tables and diagrams show the most important factors the according to FAR 25 :
manufacturer has to keep in mind. Most data were determined empirically.
Generally, deviations from the specified instructions for repair procedures are
not necessary for airlines, because the different work procedures, cure times,
pressures, temperatures etc depend on the results of the above-mentioned
data.
Deviations often lead to worse results.
The Shear-strength for EP-adhesives that cure with heat treatment
Only material that has been specified by the aircraft manufacturer is permitted
for use in repairs. (125 degree C-system) is thus calculated with
Any modifications for which the airline is responsible will automatically lead to
the expiration of claims under warranty which could result from the respective (15 KSI / 2.25), but a number of flight-operational influences can reduce this
repair. value dramatically.

Influence on adhesion caused by temperatures like permanent Comparisons of elasticity-modules

operational temperature or temporary solar radiation. The E-module is the theoretical tensile stress that will expand a material-bar of
certain length to twice this length:
E = Tension / Expansion

INFLUENCES OF PRODUCTION
The consideration of curing processes during fabrication has highest priority.
There is known data for the cure of cold age-hardening epoxy adhesives for a
period of about 26 hours.
It is also known that, for acceptable periods, EP-adhesives actually require
considerably higher temperatures to develop best adhesion values than are
possible for the heat treated aluminium sheet metal parts.

Figure 405 Curing times

For the polymerization process, the EP-adhesion-film is mostly used in the

autoclave at 2-3 bar overpressure and 125-175 degrees C.
At the same time, possibly enclosed moisture will evaporate and is removed by
a vacuum (suction).

Figure 406 Bonding Process


M7.16 Aircraft weight and Balance PART-66 M7 CAT B1
M7.16 AIRCRAFT WEIGHT AND BALANCE

Sub-Module Level
7.16 Aircraft Weight and Balance
(a) Centre of Gravity/Balance limits calculation: use of relevant documents; 2
(b) Preparation of aircraft for weighing;

Aircraft weighing.

LEVEL 1
LEVEL 2
LEVEL 3

AIRCRAFT WEIGHT AND BALANCE D. A diagram and a description of the datum points which are used for
weighing and loading, and an explanation of the relationship of these
General points to the fuselage frame numbering systems and, where applicable,
All aircraft have design limitations. One of these limitations is weight. The to the Standard Mean Chord (SMC) (SMC is also referred to as the Mean
factors that must be included in determining the weight limitations are the Aerodynamic Chord (MAC)).
structure, the ability to lift the aircraft, and the manoeuvres that the aircraft is E. Information on the lever arms appropriate to items of Disposable Load.
allowed to perform. For these reasons a maximum weight must be established
This will include the lever arms of fuel, oil and other consumable fluids or
for each aircraft design.
substances in the various tanks (which, if necessary, should be shown
Requirements by means of diagrams or graphs), lever arms of all passengers in seats
appropriate to the various seating layout, mean lever arms of the various
The requirements relating to the weighing of aircraft and the establishment of
baggage holds or compartments
a Weight and Balance Schedule are prescribed in British Civil Airworthiness
Requirements (BCAR) Section A, Chapters A5-4, A6-4 and A7-10. F. Details of any significant effect on the aircraft CG, of any change in
configuration, such as retraction of the landing gear.
Aircraft must be weighed to determine the Basic Weight and the corresponding
CG position when all the manufacturing processes have been completed. Weight and Centre-of-Gravity Schedule
Aircraft exceeding 5700 kg (12 500 lb) MTWA must be re-weighed within 2
A Weight and Centre of Gravity Schedule details
years after the date of manufacture and, after this, a check weigh must be
carried out at intervals not exceeding 5 years and at such times as the CAA • the Basic Weight and CG position of the aircraft
may require. Aircraft not exceeding 5700 kg (12 500 lb) MTWA must be re- • the weight and lever arms of the various items of load including, fuel oil and
weighed as required by the CAA. other fluids.
When an aircraft is weighed, the equipment and other items of load such The Schedule is normally divided into
as fluid in the tanks must be recorded. This recorded load should not differ
significantly from the Basic Equipment List associated with the Weight and • Part ABasic Weight
Centre of Gravity Schedule. • Part BVariable Load
Weight and Balance Report • Part CLoading Information (Disposable Load).
Before the CAA can issue a Certificate of Airworthiness for a prototype, A Weight and Centre of Gravity Schedule must be provided for each aircraft,
variant (prototype modified) or series aircraft exceeding 5700kg (125001b) the MTWA of which exceeds 2730 kg (6000 lb).
MTWA, a Weight and Balance Report must be prepared by a CAA Approved For aircraft not exceeding 2730kg (60001b) MTWA, either a Weight and Centre
Organisation. of Gravity Schedule must be provided or alternatively, a Load and Distribution
The Weight and Balance Report must include the following items: A. Reference Schedule which complies with BCAR, Section A, Chapter A7-10 and Section B,
number and date Chapter B7-10.
B. Designation, constructor’s number, nationality and registration marks of the

aircraft
C. A copy of the Weight and Centre of Gravity Schedule including the Basic
Equipment List

Figure 407 Platform Weighing Scales

Maximum Weight
Maximum weight is the total weight of the aircraft, equipment, passengers,
baggage and fuel. Often we will find that an aircraft has two or more maximum
weights. This will be determined by the category in which the aircraft is
operated. For example, the maximum weight for a particular aircraft is 2550
pounds in the normal category and 2000 pounds in the utility category. This
difference in weight is entirely due to the manoeuvres the aircraft is allowed to
perform in the two different categories.
Large transport-type aircraft often have three maximum weights:
• a taxi or ramp weight
• a take-off weight and
• a landing weight.
These three weights are necessary to maintain lift and structural integrity during
its different phases of operation rather than manoeuvrability limitations.
Some of these aircraft carry additional fuel for taxi purposes because of our
congested large airports and large aircraft. This could be as great as 4000
pounds above the take-off weight.
This additional weight is referred to as taxi or ramp weight.
For weight and balance purposes, the FAA has assigned specific weights to the
crew and passengers, fuel, oil and turbine fuel. These are as follows:
• Crew and Passengers 170 pounds per person
• Fuel 6.8 pounds per U S Gallon
• Oil 7.5 pounds per U S Gallon
• Turbine Fuel 6.7 pounds per U S Gallon
Empty Weight
The Empty Weight of an aircraft is the weight of the airframe, engine and all
equipment that has a fixed location or is installed in the aircraft. It does not
include passengers, baggage and fuel. However, fuel trapped in the system
after draining is included in the Empty Weight.
Oil may or may not be included in the Empty Weight of the aircraft. For
many years, oil has not been part of the empty weight except for residual
oil or undrainable oil. Today, due to a change in FAR 23, aircraft are being
manufactured which include full oil as a part of the Empty Weight.

Figure 408 Aircraft Reference Datums

DATUM
The datum is an imaginary line on a vertical plane from which all horizontal
measurements on the aircraft are taken for weight and balance purposes.
These measurements are taken with the aircraft in a level flight position.
From this datum we can determine the distances for the location of such items
on the manufacturer’s equipment lists such as seats and special equipment. It
can also be used when new equipment is to be added or old equipment is to be
removed from the aircraft.
The actual location of the datum for a particular type of aircraft can be any point
selected by the manufacturer. Common places are the leading edge of the
wing, the firewall and the nose. There is a tendency today for the manufacturers
to place the datum forward of the nose of the aircraft.

Figure 409 Datums

ARM
The arm is the horizontal distance that an item is located from the datum. This
distance is always given in inches. If the particular item is located forward of the
datum it is shown with a negative (- ) sign. If the item is located aft of the datum
it is shown with a positive ( + ) sign.
Many items used in our weight and balance computations will have arm
distances furnished by the manufacturer or will be found in the FAA
Specifications.
For example, these will be shown as ( + 25) or (- 50) meaning 25 inches aft of
the datum and 50 inches forward of the datum respectively. If the distance for
an item to be installed is not given. an actual measurement must be taken.
MOMENT
Moment is the product of the weight multiplied by the arm. This measurement of
force will be in inch pounds. The longer the distance from the datum the larger
the moment will become.
For example. 5 pounds placed 25 inches from the datum will have a moment of
125 inch pounds (5 x 25). 5 pounds placed 100 inches from the datum will have
a moment of 500 inch pounds.
Moment may be either negative or positive. This will be determined by whether
the weight is added or removed and whether the arm is negative or positive.

Figure 410 Moments

CENTRE OF GRAVITY
The centre of gravity (commonly abbreviated CG) is the point at which the
nose-heavy moments and the tail-heavy moments have equal magnitude. This
would be the point at which the aircraft could be suspended without having any
tendency to become nose- or tail-heavy.
We could possibly suspend a light aircraft from various points to locate the CG
but this would be highly impractical and impossible with a large aircraft. So,
for practicality, it must be done mathematically. The formula for obtaining the
centre of gravity is the total moment divided by the total weight which may be
abbreviated
Cg = TM/TW.
Other formulae may be used to obtain the centre of gravity of an aircraft, as
we will discuss later, but these variations will always utilize the total moment
divided by the total weight formula.

Figure 411 Centre of Gravity

EXAMPLE
In the example opposite, our datum is 5 inches aft of the 50 pound weight and
25 inches forward of the 55 pound weight.
Using the arm x weight formula to determine moment, the forward weight will
result in a-250 moment because the sign of the arm is negative.
The moment of the aft weight will be +1375.
Since we have a negative and positive moment, the total moment can be found
by subtracting the negative from the positive, leaving 1125 positive moment.
This, divided by the weight of 105, will place the CG at 10.7in aft of the datum.

Figure 412 Example

CENTRE OF GRAVITY RANGE

It is quite easy to see that since we have found the centre of gravity, each time
an aircraft is built or each time the aircraft is loaded, we cannot locate the CG in
exactly the same place.
Because of these variations, a CG range must be established. The limits of the
CG range are established by the manufacturer for a most forward and rearward
CG that will permit safe operating of the aircraft.
There are two CG ranges that have been established. These are:
• the empty CG range (ECGR) and
• the operating CG range (OCGR).

Figure 413 CG Range

AIRCRAFT LEVELLING MEANS

In order to find the CG of an aircraft it must be level.
For this purpose, a levelling means is provided by the aircraft manufacturer.
It may be nothing more than a door sill, or it could be two lugs built into the
fuselage in order to accommodate a spirit level. On some aircraft it consists of a
point to suspend a plumb bob over a scale.

Figure 414 Inclinometers Installation (B737)

WEIGHING POINTS weight. Generally, on light aircraft, the fuel is drained from the fuel sumps or
filters of the system.
In order to find the centre of gravity, weighing points must be selected.
A plumb bob may be used with the levelling scale. It will also be used for
For placing the scales, the most commonly-used points are the wheels or the
dropping points to the floor for such items as datum lines and weighing points
jacking points of the aircraft. Either of these places are designed to support
so actual measurements may be taken for calculation.
the weight of the aircraft. Usually on light aircraft the landing gear is used. This
would be impractical on large aircraft, so the jacking points must be used.
All aircraft should be weighed
• in a closed hangar
• with a fairly level floor.
If the aircraft were to be weighed outside, the wind over the wings could
adversely affect scale readings, thus giving lighter readings than the actual
aircraft weight.
Usually, at least three scales are used during the actual weighing of the aircraft.
On some larger aircraft, four scales are required, with two of these on the nose
jacking points and two scales on the main jacking points.
TARE
Tare is the additional-weight items that are used during the weighing procedure.
This could be the chocks used to hold the wheels on the scale platforms, as
brakes are never applied during weighing due to possible side loading of the
scale. Tare might also be a jack placed on the scale platform, or ballast required
for the jacking operation. Regardless of what the tare may be, it must be
subtracted from the scale reading before empty weight and the centre of gravity
are calculated.
PREPARATION OF THE AIRCRAFT

The airframe should be thoroughly cleaned before weighing. A little dirt spread
over the large area of the aircraft will make quite a difference to the weight.
This cleaning should include not only the outside but the interior, wheel wells
and the baggage compartments. All items not considered as equipment
should be removed. Aircraft always have a tendency to become heavier as
the aircraft becomes older. This is due to dirt in inaccessible places, paint and
modifications of negligible weight.
Fuel should be drained from the aircraft tanks before weighing. The fuel
remaining is considered residual fuel and is considered part of the empty

Figure 415 Weighing Points

BASIC CALCULATION
The formulae used in calculating the centre of gravity are varied: no standards
have been established at this time.
Although most manufacturers use the same basic formulae, they use different
letter designations for the item. Some manufacturers may refer to ’A’ as the
distance from the main gear to the nose wheel while another may refer to this
point as ’C’.
Abbreviations
• CG = the distance from datum to CG of the aircraft.
• W = the weight of the aircraft at the time of weighing.
• D = the horizontal distance measured from the datum to the main wheel
weighing point.
• L = the horizontal distance measured from the main wheel weighing point to
the nose or tail weighing point.
• F = the weight at the nose weighing point.
• R = the weight at the tail weighing point.

Figure 416 Basic Formulae

MEAN AERODYNAMIC CHORD To determine the percent of MAC, the following formula will be used:
This is an imaginary straight line from the leading edge of the wing of the % of MAC = Distance from LEMAC x 100
average aerofoil section to the trailing edge. MAC
The mean aerodynamic chord (MAC) is the measurement used to determine For example:
the location of the centre of gravity. However, most manufacturers of light • MAC = 170 in
aircraft indicate the centre of gravity in inches.
• LEMAC = 187 in
The percentage of mean aerodynamic chord is used almost exclusively on
large aircraft, for example: • CG = 207.4 in
• the root measurement of a certain wing is 144 inches and the tip is 72 inches. (207.4 — 187) x 100
The MAC would be 108 inches (144 + 72 / 2). 170
The leading edge of the mean aerodynamic chord is abbreviated to LEMAC. Therefore CG = 12%.
The trailing edge of the mean aerodynamic chord is abbreviated to TEMAC.
The centre of gravity will always lie between LEMAC and TEMAC if the aircraft
is within CG limits. The centre of gravity is expressed as a percentage and is
actually-inches behind LEMAC.
Since all calculations are taken from the datum, we may determine that
• the centre of gravity lies 280 inches aft of the datum
• LEMAC is 240 inches
• TEMAC is 320 inches
• and the length of the MAC is 320- 240 = 80 inches.
If the centre of gravity is expressed as a percentage, then the centre of gravity
location can be determined by TEMAC - LEMAC, then multiplied by the CG in
percentage.
For example:
• LEMAC = 400 in
• TEMAC = 500 in
• CG = 25% MAC
• TO MAC = 500 in
• LEMAC = 400 in
• MAC = 100 in
• MAC = 100 X 25% = 25 in.

Figure 417 Mean Aerodynamic Chord ( MAC )

AIRCRAFT LOADING
The ”Empty Weight” and ”Empty Centre of Gravity” are the basis for all of the
calculations of loading the aircraft and any further calculations that may be
made.
Most aircraft manufactured today make use of loading charts, tables, computers
or placards for all normal loading of the aircraft based on the empty weight and
the centre of gravity figures.
The responsibility for correct loading is that of the operator of the aircraft.
However, there are many aircraft still flying today that have no provisions
for loading. This means the Empty Centre of Gravity and Weight are rather
meaningless figures whilst the Loaded Centre of Gravity and Maximum Weight
are necessary to maintain safe flight conditions.
Another method used in the calculation of the loaded centre of gravity range is
the Load Computer.
This system makes use of a slide rule-type device in either a conventional slide
rule form or in a circular slide rule form. The one that will be used in this text will
be of the conventional slide rule form with a moveable cursor and an interscale
portion called a slider.

Figure 418 Aircraft Loading

Figure 419 Load Adjuster 1

Figure 420 Load Adjuster 2

LOAD SHEET
A load sheet (similar to the one shown) is prepared for each flight, the weights
and moments with zero fuel and maximum fuel being entered in the CG
envelope to ensure satisfactory balance and performance throughout all phases
of flight (ie take-off, climb, cruise and landing).

TYPICAL LOAD SHEET

CHANGE IN BASIC WEIGHT Example 1

A radar system is installed in the aeroplane which comprises:
General
G. a radar set which weighs 32 lb and is located aft of the reference datum
When an item of Basic Equipment* is added, removed or repositioned in an
at fuselage station 125, with
aircraft, calculations must be made to determine the effect on both Basic
Weight and CG. This information should then be used to prepare a revised H. a controller which weighs 2 lb and is located at fuselage station 65,
Weight and Centre of Gravity Schedule Part A. forward of the reference datum, and
*Basic Equipment is the unconsumable fluids (eg coolant and hydraulic fluid) and I. a scanner which weighs 25 lb and is located at fuselage station 12,
equipment which is common to all roles for which the operator intends to use the forward of the reference datum.
aircraft.
Modifications
Where the total weight and moment for additional equipment is not quoted in
the appropriate Modification Leaflet, the equipment, and any parts used for
attachment purposes, such as brackets, nuts, bolts, rivets, sealant, etc must
be accurately weighed. The position of the additional material must then be
determined, and its moment calculated relative to the CG datum.
In order to find the new Basic Weight and moment of the aircraft, the weight With the revised Basic Weight and moment, the CG can be calculated thus:
and moment of the equipment added or removed must be considered in relation
to the original Basic Weight as follows:
• When equipment has been added, the weight must be added to the original
Basic Weight; if the arm of the new equipment is positive (i.e. aft of the CG
reference datum) then the moment must be added to the original moment,
whereas if the arm is negative (i.e. forward of the CG reference datum) then
the moment must be subtracted from the original moment.
• When equipment has been removed the weight must be deducted from the
original weight; if the arm of the equipment was positive then the moment Accordingly, the Weight and Centre-of-Gravity Schedule will state:
must be deducted from the original moment, whereas if the arm was negative Basic Weight : 15 759 lb
then the moment must be added to the original moment.
• The new CG position is calculated by dividing the new total moment by the Centre-of-Gravity : 24.79 in aft of the reference datum
new basic weight. Total moment about the datum : 3096 lb in/100.
Examples of Alterations to Basic Weight

The following examples are for an aeroplane whose:
• Basic Weight is 15 7001b
• CG reference datum is at fuselage station 105, ie 105 in aft of fuselage station
zero
• CG is at station 130 ie + 25 in aft of the reference datum.
Example 2
The aircraft’s heating and air conditioning unit is removed from fuselage station
65 and installed at fuselage station 180.
With the revised Basic Weight unchanged and a revised moment, the
calculations are as follows:
Accordingly, the Weight and Centre-of-Gravity Schedule will state:

Basic Weight : 15 700 lb
Centre-of-Gravity : 24.87 in aft of the reference datum
Total moment about the datum : 4063 lb in/100.


M7.18B DISASSEMBLY, INSPECTION,
REPAIR AND ASSEMBLY TECHNIQUES PART-66 M7 CAT B1
M7.18b DISASSEMBLY, INSPECTION, REPAIR AND ASSEMBLY TECHNIQUES

Sub-Module Level
7.18b Disassembly, Inspection, Repair and Assembly Techniques
General repair methods, Structural Repair Manual; Ageing, fatigue and 2

corrosion control programmes.

LEVEL 1
LEVEL 2
LEVEL 3


STRUCTURAL REPAIR The report should also list any maintenance work which could usefully be
carried out during the repair work, since this may obviate the need for further
Structural Classification dismantling after a relatively short period.
Aircraft structure can be divided into three general classifications: Stage inspections, giving details of the inspection required, must be listed on an
1. Primary Structure Inspection Record Sheet in a sequence related to the Repair Report.
These parts of the aircraft are highly stressed and, if damaged, may result Examination of Damage
in failure and loss of life (eg spars, engine mountings). It is difficult to give
examples for this as a frame on one aircraft might be primary structure Carry out a visual external inspection to determine the extent of primary
while on another it could be secondary. damage. Then check the full extent of secondary damage. Assess the damage
area and inspect for:
2. Secondary Structure
1. Crack
Parts of an airframe that are highly stressed but if damaged have provision
for alternative load paths. Ancillary frames designed to support components, A crack considered negligible in tertiary structure, which only requires drilled
some skin panels, etc are examples. holes at either end of the crack to stop it spreading, may necessitate repair
3. Tertiary Structure by Cracks patching, insertion or renewal of the part if present in primary
structure.
Lightly-stressed parts such as fairings, wheel shields and minor component
brackets, failure of which would not be serious. The classification and treatment of negligible damage varies with different
types of aircraft, therefore before commencing repairs, consult the
Classification of Repair authorized structural repair manual for that aircraft.
When the damage has been fully inspected and cleaned up it can be assessed. 2. Nicks
This assessment will fall into one of the following four categories depending
Negligible nicks in free edges may be removed by blending to a smooth,
upon the classification of the structure where the damage has occurred.
gradual change of section. The depth and spacing of such damage would
1. Negligible be dependent on the structural class of the component.
2. Repairable (by patching) 3. Loose Rivets
3. Repairable (by insertion)
Carefully remove the fastener and inspect damage to rivet hole. Enlarge to
4. Repairable (by replacement).
the next size if allowed in the repair manual. Replace with the next size rivet
The limits for the above are laid down in the aircraft Structural Repair Manual. of the correct type.
Repair Report NB Eventually the hole size will preclude the use of rivets and a repair will
If the damage will require extensive repair, then a report should be made out be necessary.
prior to commencement of work. Even if the repair is fairly straightforward, 4. Skin Panting
some pre-planning is required, such as checking on availability of spares, Due to fluctuating loads (usually compressive), stressed skin may develop
manpower etc, and also to draw a plan of the ACTUAL repair to be carried out. panting. The total deflection will determine whether or not the panel needs
This could save a lot of trouble late on. repair or replacement.
A formal report must detail all the repair work and the procedures involved and
quote the reference numbers, and any other relevant details, of the approved
repair schemes.

Figure 453 Structure Types (Boeing)

5. Scores and Abrasions Damage Repairable by Insertion

Limits of area and depth will be specified and it may be permitted to polish Where the damage is small and it is only necessary to restore the flush finish
out abrasion and restore anti-corrosive treatment. In the case of Alclad, and original stiffness of the panel, the filling plate (insert) and patch (backing
care must be taken not to remove the cladding. plate or doubler) type of repair may be used, the backing plate being of
When the blending out of a score or abrasion in a stressed part is sufficient thickness and area with adequate rivets to ensure design strength is
permitted, it is often necessary to use a suitable NDT (non-destructive retained. The purpose of the filling plate is simply to ensure continuity of the
testing) technique to ensure that any minute crack is not overlooked (as its sheet’s profile.
presence would not be considered negligible). The insertion repair is used where the damage is large and the lost strength of
6. Dents the sheet must be restored. With this type of repair, an insert and butt strap are
used, and, as both parts transfer the load, all the rivets must be of similar size
Small smooth dents, free from cracks and abrasions, may be classed as and pitch.
negligible. They are assessed by depth and maximum diameter. Dents
over the limits should be classed as holes and repaired accordingly. The
spacing allowed between dents will also be specified, as will the minimum
dimensions between damage and rivet rows or joints.
7. Holes
Before assessment, any holes (or damage classified as holes (dents etc))
should be cleaned to a regular shape ensuring all damage is removed.
The edges should be given a smooth finish. The manual will give negligible
dimensions, according to structural classification, stating the maximum
diameter and spacing between damage areas.
Damage Repairable by Patching

Before commencing repairs, consult the repair manual for that aircraft. The re-
pair instructions for small cracks, punctures and deep scores usually stipulate
the following:
1. The repair patch must be of the same gauge and material as the existing
metal sheet.
2. Rivets used to secure the patch should be the same pitch, type, size and
material as those used in the nearest edge of the material.
3. The distance of the rivet centre from the edge of the patch (land) must be
at least twice the diameter of the rivet .
4. All overlapping (faying) surfaces should be coated with jointing compound
and the repair assembly riveted while the jointing compound is wet.

Figure 454 Typical Insert/Doubler Plate Repair (Airbus)

REPAIR PRACTICES Jointing Compound

After sheets have been drilled, countersunk or dimpled ready for riveting, they
Removal of Damage
should be separated again to remove swarf and burrs and also to allow the
In some instances, it will be necessary to cut away the damaged material specified sealant or chromate film to be applied. Jointing compound is normally
and dress back the surrounding structure. Although it should be ensured that used to prevent galvanic corrosion between dissimilar metals.
no more material than is necessary is removed, it is necessary to make sure
that the adjacent structure to which the repair is to be applied is in a sound Sealants
condition. It is of the utmost importance that the pressure cabin of an aircraft be capable
When removing riveted structures, care must be taken not to damage those of sustaining the required differential pressure at high altitude, both for the
rivet holes which are to be used again, since circular, smooth-edged holes are safety of the passengers and crew and for the operational efficiency of the
essential to minimise the risk of failure by fatigue. aircraft. To this end, it is essential that all sources or potential sources of air
leakage from the cabin be carefully sealed in accordance with the process
Selection of Rivets specification laid down by the manufacturers. Similarly, integral fuel tanks must
Although repairs must always be approved for the particular aircraft, it is often be satisfactorily sealed against leakage.
the case that local decisions must be made in respect of details to ensure that It is important that the particular sealant specified for the particular job only is
the strength of the repair will not be less than its original strength. Therefore, used.
any such repair must be approved. The diameter and types of rivets to be used
Before any sealant is applied, it is important to ensure that the surfaces to
are normally specified in either the Structural Repair Manual or in the repair
which it is to be applied are clean and free from swarf and burrs.
scheme.
Sealants are applied from the inside of the structure.
Rivet Spacing
The Sphere of Influence is the area in which the closed rivet maintains two
plates in close proximity. It is approximately 5 times the rivet diameter. Actual
spacing is normally indicated on the repair scheme.
Countersinking
There are two methods of accommodating a rivet head to ensure a flush fit:
• Cut-countersinking
• Dimpling.
Cut-countersinking should only be used on sheet metal of 18 swg (standard
wire gauge) or thicker as there is a danger of enlarging the hole (knife-edging)
and weakening the joint on thinner material.
Dimpling Is a method of obtaining flush riveting with thin sheets using special
tools. This is a process for indenting sheet material around a drilled hole so that
the countersunk head of a rivet is accommodated.

Figure 455 Typical Fastener Edge Distance (Airbus)

ROUTINE MAINTENANCE PROGRAMMES

The operator, in conjunction with the manufacturer, will draw up a maintenance
programme for the airframe and its systems. This programme must be
approved by the NAA (National Aviation Authority).
For small aircraft, a standard programme might be used. It is called a LAMS
(Light Aircraft Maintenance Schedule).
For large aircraft a special programme MUST be approved.
The inspection of the airframe may necessitate some dismantling: removal
of decor panels, insulation, equipment, inspection panels, etc, but in general
routine maintenance consists of regular visual inspections.
The inspection is for:
• Corrosion
• Cracks
• Bowing
• Buckling
• Panting
• Loose rivets
• Missing and sheared rivets
• Fretting (between panels and rivets and panels)
• Correct alignment
• Contamination (especially around toilets, galleys)
• Moisture ingress
• Serviceability of paint finishes and anti-corrosive treatments
• Damage
• Clearance of drainage holes
• Security of attachment of other structure, brackets etc
• Cleanliness.
The inspection may be assisted by lighting equipment, remote-viewing
equipment and NDT.
Inspections are carried out in accordance with the schedule, but as a good
maintenance engineer ”you have always got your eyes open”, so if you are
near, or on, the aircraft you should always be giving it a critical look.

Figure 456 Typical Fretting Gap (Airbus)

AGEING AIRCRAFT PROGRAMMES

There are a number of quite old aircraft in service these days and, because of
their age, they require special attention in relation to the maintenance of the
airframe.
Most other components can be easily changed, but the airframe is a different
matter. When it starts to get old, it will need greater attention.
Some items on the airframe might be lifed (eg the main spar). In that case, it
will have to be changed when the airframe reaches that life time (usually flying
hours). It is an expensive process, but the alternative is to scrap the airframe.
The inspection of ”geriatric airframes” is not a lot different from ordinary
airframe inspection, but its frequency is greater and there is more attention paid
to detail. There is usually a great deal more NDT involved using X-rays, ultra-
sonics and eddy current methods.
A special maintenance schedule is followed and there is more frequent
consultation with the NAA and the manufacturer over such things as allowable
cracks, allowable crack lengths, etc.
As experience is gained with the airframe, so modifications are carried out to
update/upgrade components, fitments, etc, (eg engine mounting pins Boeing
747) and the work load on the maintenance engineer becomes greater. There
will be more airframe repair work carried out as panels, frames, stringers and
brackets become corroded or damaged and have to be replaced.

Figure 457 Ageing Aircraft Still In Service

NATIONAL AGEING AIRCRAFT RESEARCH PROGRAMME The FAA determined there are three kinds of damage that could lead to failure.
In April 1988, an Aloha Airlines 737 - 200 aircraft suffered an explosive Corrosion damage, caused by the process of corrosion or oxidation. The
decompression, resulting in a significant loss of skin and structure. Miraculously spread of corrosion, once discovered, is fairly easy to predict since it spreads
the aircraft crew managed to safely land the aircraft with only the loss of one with the passage of time. The aircraft operator must develop a maintenance
life, that of a flight attendant who was swept out of the aircraft. programme known as a Corrosion Prevention and Control Program (CPCP)
based on the history of a particular aircraft. Inspection intervals can be adjusted
The NTSB (National Transportation Safety Board) determined the cause of the
based on the success of the CPCP.
accident to be structural failure induced by metal fatigue. Numerous cracks,
areas of debonding and corrosion were found, despite the operator following an Fatigue Damage, is the repeated cyclic loading of structural components,
approved maintenance programme. typical as a result of Turbulence, take off and landing leading to the form
of cracks developing. These cracks caused by fatigue tend to spread at a
This incident illustrated that strong manufacturing design on older aircraft
predictable rate, which is not time dependent like corrosion but instead relates
was not sufficient on it’s own, so therefore recommended more frequent and
to cycles, i.e. the number of take offs or landings.
thorough inspection and maintenance take place on this type of aircraft.
Accidental Damage, results from the aircraft being subjected to unknown
In response to the Aloha Airlines accident and some others, the FAA (Federal
en- counters, such as being struck by birds, adverse weather conditions during
Aviation Authority) developed its National Ageing Aircraft Research Programme
flight or being struck by ground equipment on the operating apron. It cannot
to study the effects of age related findings on aircraft and develop plans that
be predicted, so the operator needs to include in his maintenance programme
would maintain aircraft in an airworthiness condition.
sufficient periodic inspections to detect damage sustained from the accidents.
This programme focused on 10 first and second generation aircraft such as the
Boeing 707, 727, 737 and 747. The FAA divided this study into two separate
areas, one covering the aircraft structure, the other the electrical systems.

Figure 458 Examples of damage failure

CORROSION PRONE AREAS Wheel Bays

Some areas of an aircraft structure have little or no exposure to corrosive Landing gear and wheel wells receive more punishment than any other area on
conditions and thus experience less corrosion damage. Other areas, however the aircraft due to the nevironmental conditions they are subjected too. Due to
are constantly exposed to corrosives and will need more frequent inspection. the complicated shapes, assemblies and fittings in the wheel well and landing
gear areas it is sometimes difficult to attain complete paint film coverage.
Engines
A partially applied preservative tends to mask corrosion rather than prevent it.
On Turbine and Reciprocating engines, the high heat and corrosive by-products A considerable amount of heat is generated in the gear area by the braking
of exhaust gases can cause problems for exhaust components and structure in action and cannot therefore be used on some components. During inspection
the gas stream path. particular attention should be paid to the following troublespots:
Particular attention would be needed when inspecting gaps, seams, hinges • Magnesium wheels, especially around the bolt heads, lugs and wheel webs,
and fairings in the gas path where deposits may be trapped and not removed for the presence of entrapped water or its effects.
by normal cleaning methods, remote areas of the empennage structure is
• Exposed tubing, especially at B-nuts and ferrules, under clamps and tubing
particularly vunerable.
identification tapes.
Toilets and Galleys • Exposed position indication switches and other electrical equipment.
Aircraft galley and toilet areas are some of the most corrosion prone areas that • Crevices between stiffeners. ribs and lower skin surfaces, which typical could
could be encountered when carrying out inspections. trap water and debris.
Deck areas behind lavatories, sinks and galleys where spilled food and waste
may collect, if not kept clean, are potential hotspots for the development of
corrosion. Even if the contaminants are of a non corrosive matter, they will still
attract and retain moisture, which in turn will allow corrosion to develop.
Careful inspection of bilge areas located under galleys and lavatories is
needed, as well as frequent cleaning and paint preservation.
Battery Bays
Aircraft battery electrolytes are either acid or alkali and as a result battery bays
and vent openings are frequently attacked by corrosion. Despite improvements
in paint finishes and in venting and sealing methods, these areas continue
to be a corrosion problem area. The fumes from overheated electrolyte are
difficult to contain and will spread into adjacent cavities and can cause a rapid,
corrosive attack on all unprotected metal surfaces.
Battery vent openings on the aircraft skin should be included in the battery
compartment inspection. Regular cleaning and neutralization of acid deposits
will minimise corrosion from this cause.

Figure 459 Severe corrosion of a battery bay

CORROSION PREVENTION AND CONTROL PROGRAM CPCP RULES

Extracted from Airbus and Boeing Maintenance Planning Documentation The effectiveness of the Corrosion Prevention and Control Program is
determined by following the General rules applicable to the Structures Program
Introduction and the rules listed below.
The Structures Program includes requirements to control corrosion to Level • Level 1 Corrosion Findings
1 or better on all structural details, elements or assemblies which contribute
significantly to carrying flight, ground, pressure or control loads, and whose Should inspections consistently reveal corrosion Level 1 findings for a given
failure could affect the structural integrity necessary for the safety of the aircraft. area during repeat inspections on particular aircraft operated in similar
conditions, then the existing program is considered effective for the concerned
Some calendar-time tasks are also covered by Sampling Program, i.e. a area, and no change to the program is necessary.
Sample Threshold/Interval. For these tasks, the 100% Threshold is the time at
which the task becomes a CPCP task. • Level 2 Corrosion Findings
Should inspections reveal that corrosion is Level 2 for a given area during
Corrosion Level Definitions repeat inspections, then the existing program is not effective for the concerned
The definitions for the various Levels of corrosion are as follows: area of the particular fleet.
• Level 1 Corrosion In order to control corrosion to Level 1 or better, consideration should be given
Corrosion damage that does not require structural reinforcement or to one or more of the following corrective actions:
replacement or corrosion occurring between successive inspections exceeds • Decreasing the inspection threshold/interval
allowable limit but is local and can be attributed to an event not typical of • Considering a higher inspection level
operator usage of other fleet aircraft (e.g. Mercury spillage).
• Re-considering the program concept
• Level 2 Corrosion • Embodiment of preventative modifications, where applicable
Corrosion occurring between successive inspections that requires a In this way, the program is self regulating and will adjust itself to the optimum
single rework/blend out, which exceeds allowable limits as defined by the program.
manufacturer (Structural Repair Manual, Service Bulletin etc), requiring a
repair/ reinforcement or complete or partial replacement of structure. • Level 3 Corrosion Findings
• Level 3 Corrosion Should inspections reveal that corrosion is Level 3 in a given area, then the
existing program is not effective for the concerned area.
Corrosion found during first or subsequent inspection(s), which is determined
(normally by the operator) to be an urgent airworthiness concern requiring In addition to the considerations given for Level 2 corrosion, an action plan
expeditous action. calling for a one time inspection of the concerned area should be expeditiously
agreed with the local Aviation Authority and carried out on all aircraft of a similar
NOTE: WHEN LEVEL 3 CORROSION IS FOUND, CONSIDERATION
age or older.
SHOULD BE GIVEN TO ACTION REQUIRED ON OTHER
AIRPLANES IN THE OPERATOR’S FLEET. DETAILS OF A periodic review of the Structures Program, with particular attention to reported
THE CORROSION FINDING AND PLANNED ACTION (S) SHOULD fleet data shall be scheduled to maintain the target of this program to control
BE EXPEDITIOUSLY REPORTED TO THE APPROPRIATE corrosion to Level 1 or better on all structural details, elements or assemblies
REGULATORY AUTHORITY. which contribute significantly to carrying flight, ground, pressure or control
loads, and whose failure could affect the structural integrity necessary for the
An effective program is one that controls corrosion of all structure listed
safety of the aircraft.
in the baseline program to Level 1 or better.

Figure 460

DAMAGE CLASSIFICATION REPAIRABLE DAMAGE

General The damage must be classified either as ”Allowable Damage” or ”Non-
Allowable Damage” (requiring a repair).
The term ’damage’ refers to any permanent deformation or alteration of the
cross section of a structural component. Allowable Damage
There are four general groups of action that may cause damage: Allowable damage is defined as damage which is slight or of little significance,
• Mechanical action and is unlikely to be of sufficient severity to propagate further damage in the
immediate vicinity.
• Chemical action
NOTE: “ALLOWABLE” DOES NOT MEAN THAT REPAIR IS UNNECESSARY.
• Thermal action FOR EXAMPLE, SCRATCHES AND BURRING ARE INCLUDED
• Inherent metallic properties. IN THIS CATEGORY, AND IT IS NECESSARY TO REMOVE
ROUGH AND SHARP EDGES AND SMOOTH OUT THE
Examination of Damage DAMAGE. ADDITIONALLY, ANY DAMAGE TO SURFACE
Once damage has been found, in order to facilitate the correct repair the full COATINGS AND/ OR PROTECTIVE TREATMENT MUST BE
extent and category of the damage must be determined. REPAIRED USING AN APPROVED PROCEDURE DEALT WITH
UNDER SRM CHAPTER 51.
After cleaning and investigating the damage and surrounding area, it can be
classified into one of the following categories (taking into account the location of Non-Allowable Damage
the damage).
Damage which exceeds the Allowable Damage limits must be repaired by
It is also important to consider what secondary damage may have occurred removing the damaged area of a structural component and inserting or
to the structure when carrying out an inspection of the damaged area. This attaching a reinforcing piece. These specific repairs are to be found in each
is particularly important when the damage has been caused by shock to the chapter of the SRM.
structure, and the load path from the point of impact may be some distance
away from the observed damage. NON-REPAIRABLE DAMAGE
Non-repairable damage is defined as damage to structural components which
cannot be repaired and where replacement of the complete component is
recommended, as a repair is not practical or economical.

Figure 461 Allowable Damage Example (Airbus)

TYPES OF STRUCTURAL DAMAGE Crease

A damage area which is depressed or folded back upon itself in such a manner
General
that its boundaries are sharp or well defined lines or ridges.
In order to facilitate the classification of different repair procedures, the various
types of damage are grouped as follows: Corrosion
The destruction of metal by chemical or electrochemical action.
Mark
A mark is to be understood as a damage area of any size where an Abrasion
accumulation of scratches, nicks, chips, burrs or gouges etc is present in such An abrasion is a damage area of any size which results in a cross-sectional
a way that the damage must be treated as an area and not as a series of area change due to scuffing, rubbing, scraping or other surface erosion; it is
individual scratches, gouges etc. usually rough and irregular.
Scratch Nick
A scratch is a line of damage of any depth and length in the material and results A small loss of material, due to a knock etc at the edge of a member or skin.
in a cross-sectional area change. It is usually caused by contact with a very
sharp object. Crazing
Gouge A mesh of minute hairline surface cracks.
A gouge is a damage area of any size which results in a cross-sectional area Delamination/ Debonding
change. It is usually caused by contact with a relatively sharp object which Delamination or debonding is the separation of a laminate into its constituent
produces a continuous, sharp or smooth channel-like groove in the material. layers.
Crack Hole
A crack is a partial fracture or complete break in the material with the most A hole constitutes a complete penetration of the surface. It is usually caused by
significant cross-sectional area change. impact of a sharp object.
Dent Burn Marks (Lightning Strikes)
A dent is normally a damage area which is depressed with respect to its Burn marks/lightning strikes are usually spot-formed welded damages with
normal contour. There is no cross-sectional area change in the material; area discoloration of the material.
boundaries are smooth.
Distortion
Any twisting, bending or permanent strain which results in misalignment or
change of shape. May be caused by impact from a foreign object, but usually
results from vibration or movement of adjacent attached components. This
group includes bending, buckling, deformation, imbalance, misalignment,
pinching and twisting.

Figure 462 Types of Structural Damage

M7.18C DISASSEMBLY, INSPECTION,
M7.18c DISASSEMBLY, INSPECTION, REPAIR AND ASSEMBLY TECHNIQUES

Sub-Module Level
7.18c Disassembly, Inspection, Repair and Assembly Techniques
Non destructive inspection techniques including penetrant, radiographic, eddy current, ultrasonic and boroscope methods. 2

LEVEL 1
LEVEL 2
LEVEL 3


NON DESTRUCTIVE TESTING

Introduction
Non-destructive testing, or NDT, is the practice of testing an article without
having to detract from its working capability. In other words, carrying out a test
(or tests) without causing any damage. The simplest way of doing this is to look
at it, or in other words to ’carry out a visual inspection’. In this way everyone
working on the aircraft performs a simple, but very important NDT function.
They use their eyes and look carefully at what they see.
In general, however, the term ‘NDT’ is usually used in the context of special
flaw detection techniques. Some aircraft parts are more difficult to inspect than
others. Those in awkward positions often need optical equipment to provide
a better view. Unfortunately, only surface defects can be found by visual
examination. Those occurring beneath the surface require more searching
methods of detection such as magnetic tests, ultrasonic tests and radiography
using X- rays and gamma rays. These tests are carried out by qualified NDT
operators who are trained to use the equipment and to interpret the results
obtained.


PENETRANT FLAW DETECTION The type of indications that may be obtained are as follows:
Minute surface cracks on metals, and small surface flaws in composites, • NONE
which are difficult to detect by ordinary visual means, may be highlighted by The white area remains completely white. This may not mean that there is
increasing the contrast between the defect and the surrounding area. This may not a defect there. There may be a fine crack or porosity which has not
be done by using dye penetrants. shown up. Repeating the same process with more careful cleaning might
In the earlier methods, hot oil was used as the penetrative fluid. The part, if produce a different result, or a more sophisticated method may have to be
small enough, was placed in a bath of thin, hot oil. As it heated up, oil would used.
be drawn into the crack. The part was then removed and cleaned thoroughly to • RANDOM RED DOTS
remove all traces of the oil. Chalk was then dusted over the suspected area
The metal may be porous.
and the part allowed to cool. As it cooled, so the part would contract and
squeeze the oil out from the crack. It would then show as a discoloured line or • RED DOTS IN A LINE
row of dots in the white chalk. This was called the hot oil method. A crack- the bigger the dots the deeper the crack.
Another process, the cold oil method, was for parts too big to go into a bath. • RED LINE
These methods have now largely given way to more effective techniques using A crack- the broader the line the deeper the crack. ’Fir tree’ staining on
coloured and fluorescent dye penetrants. surface defects in composites.
Coloured Dye Penetrants are used for the detection of surface flaws in metals.
A penetrating dye solution is applied to the thoroughly cleaned surface. The
surface must be thoroughly clean, otherwise incorrect indications will occur.
Cleaning includes removing all traces of paint and oil. Cleaning techniques
should be adopted that will not hide the crack by burring metal over it’s surface
or filling the crack up with oil.
The low viscosity dye, usually red in colour, is sprayed onto the surface and is
absorbed by any surface cracks or defects that may be present.
The area is kept wet for up to 1 hour (depending on the temperature and
difficulty in finding the defect) to allow the penetrant to soak in. The surplus dye
is then cleaned off using a penetrant remover.
A special white developer is then applied. Again, care has to be exercised as
excessive cleaning/rubbing may remove the penetrant from the defect.
The white developer is usually applied by spraying. When left for a minute or
two, the solvent evaporates leaving behind a fine white, dry powder. This acts
like blotting paper to bring out any dye which may have seeped into a crack.
The dye will mark the white developer and reveal any crack or flaw as a red line
or dots against the white background.
Always follow the penetrant manufacturer’s instructions on the use of the
equipment.

The low viscosity dye is sprayed onto the surface FLUORESCENT PENETRANTS
and absorbed by any surface cracks or defects that
In this technique, the penetrant used contains a
may be present.
dye which fluoresces brilliantly in ultra-violet light.
The area is kept wet for up to 1 hour to allow The liquid penetrates any cracks and carries with it
the penetrant to soak in. The surplus dye is then the fluorescent dye. After a short ’contact time’ the
cleaned off using a penetrant remover. surplus penetrant is removed and the surrounding
Contact time is the time the developer is in contact area thoroughly cleaned.
with the surface. The contact time will vary with Examination under ultra-violet (uv) light quickly
temperature. shows the seepage of the fluorescent penetrant
A special white developer is then applied. Care from any surface flaws. The lamp needs to be
has to be exercised as excessive cleaning/ rubbing switched on for a time to allow it to warm-up.
may remove the penetrant from the defect. A crack will show up as a bright fluorescent line.
The white developer is applied usually by Some uv lamps produce too much white light
spraying. When left for a minute or two the solvent (basically light that can be seen). This makes them
evaporates leaving behind a fine white dry powder. unreliable for the detection of small defects.
This acts like blotting paper to bring out any dye NOTE: PERSONAL SAFETY. THE PENETRANTS
which may have seeped into a crack. USED ARE SLIGHTLY TOXIC AND
Development time is the time the developer is MILDLY IRRITANT TO THE SKIN,
applied for. This is usually 15-30 minutes. SO AVOID SKIN CONTACT AND
INHALING THE FUMES. WEAR EYE
The dye will mark the white developer and reveal PROTECTION AND USE A BARRIER
any crack or flaw as a red line or dots against the CREAM ON YOUR HANDS BEFORE
white background. CARRYING OUT THE TESTS.
AVOID LOOKING AT THE ULTRA-VIOLET
LAMP WHEN SWITCHED ON. ALWAYS
FACE IT AWAY FROM YOU AND DO NOT
POINT IT AT OTHER PEOPLE.
Figure 463 Penetrant Flaw Detection

RADIOGRAPHY Allow maintenance personnel back on aircraft.

• Develop negative (in a dark room) and analyse results.
Description
• Record the work carried out and any possible findings. Report these back to
A user-unfriendly system that produces X-ray pictures to be analysed by a
the person responsible for the aircraft- this could be the licensed engineer, the
specialist.
chief inspector and, in large organisations, it might be tech records or quality
Using either X- or Gamma-Rays which can pass through all metals and com- control.
posites, and which are extremely dangerous to all animals including humans,
The process requires a high level of expertise, both to use the equipment and
this system is similar to photography.
to interpret the results (the indications on the negatives are not always obvious,
X Rays and composites in particular can prove to be difficult).
• Generated in an electron tube- needs 250,000v WARNING: THE EQUIPMENT IS DANGEROUS TO USE. OPERATORS
REQUIRE A REGULAR MEDICAL CHECK-UP AND MUST
• Gives good picture quality
USE A RADIATION DOSIMETER.
• Tube relatively large, which can limit access
NOTE: REMEMBER- AS A LICENSED AIRCRAFT ENGINEER YOU
• Needs a power supply. HAVE SPECIAL DISPENSATION TO CARRY OUT DYE PENETRANT
FLAW DETECTION USING THE PORTABLE KIT, BUT YOU SHOULD
Gamma Rays BE CONVERSANT WITH THE OPERATION, LIMITATIONS AND
• Self-generated by radioactive isotopes which are very small RESULTS OF ALL THE OTHER METHODS OF NON-DESTRUCTIVE
• Easy access, inside shafts, etc TESTING.
• Poorer picture quality than with X rays IF YOU WORK IN A SMALL COMPANY THEN YOU MIGHT BE THE
• Portable, needing no power supply ONLY LICENSED ENGINEER THE SPECIALIST CAN REPORT TO.
• Isotopes difficult to handle in safety.
IF YOU WORK IN A LARGE COMPANY THEN, ONE DAY, YOU WILL
The X-ray Process BECOME A SUPERVISOR - IF YOU ARE NOT ONE ALREADY.
• Set up equipment with X-ray tube on one side of the part to be checked and IN EITHER CASE, THE SPECIALIST NDT PERSON WILL BE
the (sealed) negative plate on the other side. COMING TO YOU WITH THEIR FINDINGS, THEREFORE YOU
• Place test piece in front of negative (this provides a density comparitor on MUST HAVE A GOOD WORKING KNOWLEDGE OF ALL NDT
the negative so that comparisons can be made between it and the rest of the METHODS TO UNDERSTAND THEIR FINDINGS AND THE
image). LIMITATIONS OF THEIR EQUIPMENT.
• Check exposure times (the thicker and denser the part the longer the time)
and distance of tube from part (distance measuring rod supplied).
• Clear hangar/workplace.
• Position warning signs.
• Clear aircraft.
• From remote control panel (placed as far away as possible and behind tube
lens) switch the tube on and monitor area.
• After exposure time, switch off tube, remove equipment/signs/test piece.

Figure 464 Radiography (X Rays)

EDDY CURRENT PROCESS

Used for detecting surface and just-beneath-the-surface flaws in electrically
conductive metals, the Eddy Current process is more sensitive than dye pene-
trants and does away with the need for the removal of paint from the surface.
It is a comparative type test.
• A test procedure is established on a known sound (serviceable) structural
component in a laboratory.
• The test is then carried out on a fitted in-service component.
• The two sets of results are compared.
• Any discrepancies between the results indicate a potential flaw.
Eddy currents are closed loops of induced current circulating in the material
when that material is subjected to an alternating magnetic field.
The equipment used is designed to provide the alternating magnetic field and to
measure the changes induced by flaws in the material when the probe passes
over the flawed area. It is safe, portable and needs a power supply. Other Applications
When the probe is moved over the surface of the suspect area, the operator 1. Detection of heat treatment state of metals subjected to excessive heat (ie
monitors the indicator instrument. As the probe moves across a flaw the fire damage - engine areas).
indicator pointer will move showing that there is a discontinuity in the eddy 2. More advanced equipment can detect sub-surface flaws.
current path caused by a crack or similar defect. The area is marked for
possible further investigation and the defect recorded. Limitations
Principle of Operation 1. Geometric effects - changes in thickness due to presence of stringers etc.
A coil, powered with an ac supply, is held in contact with the surface of the 2. Poor sensitivity at junctions of dissimilar metals.
metal under test. Eddy currents are induced at the surface eddying out from 3. Corrosion detection poor on thicker metals.
the point of contact. These, in turn, generate their own magnetic field within the
metal which interacts with the first.
The resultant change in the magnetic field around the coil when a flaw is
detected changes the resistance (impedance) of the coil material, which is
detected by the instrumentation.


ULTRASONIC TESTING If the crack lies transversely across the direction of the sound waves, then a
good return signal is received. If it lies in the same direction, then the returned
Used mainly for detecting below-surface flaws in all monolithic (solid) materials
signal could be too small to be picked up by the R/X or T/R probe.
- metals or non-metals.
If crack orientation is not known, then several tests will have to be conducted
High frequency sound waves, when transmitted through solid material, are using the probes placed at different directions/angles on the material.
reflected back by any discontinuity. This reflection is converted into a signal and
To reduce the amount of signal (noise) being reflected from the surface that the
displayed, usually on a cathode ray tube (CRT), which can then be interpreted
probe is in contact with, a film of oil or gel is applied between the surface and
by a trained operator.
the probe. This film will exclude all the air between surface and probe, and al-
These sound waves are above the audible frequency of the human ear, and lows smooth movement of the probe over the surface. This film is removed on
can be transmitted in three different forms: completion of the test.
• Longitudinal (L-wave) - in the same direction as the motion of the sound.
• Transverse (S-wave) - perpendicular to the motion of the sound.
• Surface- transverse waves along the surface of the material.
The pitch of the sound is controlled by its frequency and its speed by the
characteristics of the material through which it travels
Each transmitter (T/X) probe comprises a quartz crystal and sound damping
material. When the crystal is fed with an ac (alternating current) supply, it
vibrates at the frequency of the received input. These vibrations are passed into
the material in a direction related to the shape of the probe. The sound waves
move through the material without causing any damage and can be picked up
by a receiver (R/X) probe.
The crystal in the R/X probe is vibrated by the received sound waves and
generates an ac supply which is fed into the vertical axis of the CRT. The result
is a line on the CRT with a number of verticals. Each vertical represents a
discontinuity, flaw or the other side of the material.
The T/X and R/X transducers may be fitted into one probe called a transmitter/
receiver (T/R) probe, or they may be separate probes to be used in conjunction
with each other.
On sound material, there will be a vertical to represent the top surface and
another the bottom surface; the distance between them relates to the thickness
of the material (distance travelled by the sound waves).
A flaw within the metal will reflect the sound waves earlier and erect a smaller
vertical on the CRT between the first two at a position relative to its distance
from the surface.

Figure 465 Ultrasonic Flaw Detection

BOROSCOPES (ENDOSCOPES) The flexible nature of the insertion tube precludes the use of a lens system as
in the rigid endoscope, so the image system uses a coherent fibre bundle to
Introduction transmit the image. The bundle typically contains 40 000 fibres in order to pro-
The human eye is the most cost effective NDT method, and also the oldest. The vide sufficient image resolution for fault identification.
true value of the Mk 1 eye is that ’seeing is believing’. Even in the world of high Irrespective of which type of endoscope is being used, it is essential that the
technology, the eye is unmatched when examining, measuring and asses- sing surface under inspection is correctly illuminated and, to this end, the majority of
the surface condition of a component. visual aid equipment requires a lighting system to achieve this.
However, if the suspected fault is very small, or if access is restricted, then a The latest addition to the range of RVA equipment available is the ’Flexible
range of equipment to aid the eye is available. Probe Video Visual Aid’ (FPVVA), where a Charge Coupled Device (CCD) is
The range of visual aid equipment is vast, but can be considered as 2 major mounted in the end of a flexible/steerable cable assembly. The image is then
groups: displayed on a high-resolution monitor on which faults can be resolved.
Magnifying Equipment The main advantages of FPVVA systems are:
Magnifying equipment covers a range of magnifiers from x2-x80, monocular • reduced operator eyestrain
or binocular systems, with or without a measuring graticule. • more than one operator can discuss the findings
Remote Viewing Aids • images can be digitally stored
Remote viewing aid (RVA) equipments are used to view areas where access • images can be enhanced.
is restricted.
This group can be further sub-divided into rigid and flexible endoscopes.
There are also a range of extras included with RVA equipment, including a
light source box, camera attachments and dual viewers.
Rigid Endoscopes
The modern endoscope consists of a complex series of lenses; an objective
lens at the probe tip, a series of relay lenses to transmit the image along the
length of the probe and an occular lens to present the image to the eye.
The lens system is surrounded by the illumination system consisting of a glass
fibre bundle that illuminates the area of interest at an appropriate angle to the
viewing surface.
There are 4 variables that classify an endoscope: the diameter; length; direction
of view and field of view.
Flexible Endoscopes
Flexible endoscopes are more complex in construction. A single lighting bundle
transmits the light from the light source box through the body and along the
insertion tube to the distal end of the instrument.

Figure 466 Endoscopes

Light Source Boxes WARNING: THE HIGH INTENSITY OF LIGHT ENERGY THAT IS
As the name suggests, Light Source Boxes (LSBs) are basically boxes that EMITTED FROM THE LIGHT GUIDE, PARTICULARLY WHEN
provide a source of illumination for endoscope inspections. Traditionally, they USED WITH A HIGH INTENSITY LSB, WILL CAUSE INJURY
have used a 150-Watt Halogen lamp. However, FPWAs require a higher IF DIRECTED INTO THE EYE OR BROUGHT INTO CLOSE
intensity light source due to the attenuation of light through the fibre-optic CONTACT WITH THE SKIN.
elements of the light guide and endoscope. Halide Thorium Iodine or Xenon THE HEAT ENERGY EMITTED FROM LLGS CAN ALSO
lamps are capable of producing 250-300 Watts and are ideal for FPVVA IGNITE PAPER AND OTHER COMBUSTIBLE MATERIALS.
systems. Even though LSBs are cooled, they may generate sufficient heat The light produced is from the blue end of the spectrum and is therefore ideal
to cause an explosion, and hence should not be introduced into potentially for use with CCD cameras.
explosive environments.
WARNING: CCD UNITS USED IN FPVVA EQUIPMENT SHOULD ONLY
Light Guides BE USED IN AMBIENT TEMPERATURES, AS THE CIRCUITS
Light from a LSB is transmitted to the viewing instrument via a light guide. WILL FUSE IF USED IN COMBUSTION CHAMBERS THAT
There are 3 main types in use: HAVE NOT HAD SUFFICIENT TIME TO COOL.
• glass fibre
• quartz fibre
• liquid.
All are encased in a protective flexible metal spiral and an outer plastic sheath.
Simple, plug-in end connectors allow the light guide to be fitted to the LSB and
viewing instrument. The standard light guides have a long Olympus fitting for
connection to the LSB and a BSI fitting at the instrument end.
FPVVA and flexible endoscopes invariably have integral light guides in order to
eliminate light losses encountered at a light/instrument interface.
Inspections carried out inside aircraft engines often require more illumination
than normally available from the standard light source and fibre light guide.
Therefore, to increase the output from the endoscope, a liquid-light-guide (LLG)
is necessary.
LLGs utilise a plastic tube filled with either Calcium Chloride or Ethyle Glycol,
which attenuates the light less than a conventional fibre bundle.


MAGNETIC PARTICLE TESTING / MAGNETIC FLAW

DETECTION
Applicable to the detection of surface flaws and those just beneath the surface
on materials that can be magnetised, ie irons and steels, but not some stain-
less steels.
This method depends upon the difference in magnetic properties of sound and
defective areas within the material.
When a component is magnetized using an electromagnet, any cracks will act
as points of attraction and cause high density magnetic flux. If fine magnetic
particles, such as iron filings (either as a powder or in suspension in a liquid)
are poured over the area, they will be attracted to the high density areas
showing the presence of a crack.
The addition of a dye or a fluorescent dye to the powder makes detection more
effective.
Using this method, a crack only becomes magnetised when it lies across the
lines of flux. For this reason, an item may need to be magnetised in more than
one direction to detect all cracks.
Basic Test Procedure

(for surface or near-surface cracks in magnetic materials in any orientation).
1. Remove component, clean to bare metal and demagnetise.
2. Set up in the machine, apply magnetic ink and switch on dc current flow.
3. Inspect results (using uv light if fluorescent dye is used).
4. Switch off, remove, clean and demagnetise.
5. Replace in machine at 90° orientation, and repeat items 2. 3. & 4 (above).
6. If fault-free demagnetise, restore to original finish, refit and complete
documentation (aircraft or component log book and possibly a CRS).
7. If flaw found, check SRM/AMM for rectification action.
NOTE: AFTER MAGNETIC PARTICLE TESTING, THE COMPONENT MUST
BE DE-GAUSSED BEFORE BEING REFITTED TO THE AIRCRAFT.

Figure 467 Magnetic Flaw Detection

INFRARED THERMOGRAPHY TAP TESTING: THE ’WOODPECKER’

This technique was developed by Airbus Industrie for the detection of water This is also designed for use on composites. When checking for suspect
ingress in composite sandwich structures. It is based on the principle that an delamination/debonding, a ’tap test’ can be used. This means tapping the
object emits electro-magnetic radiation, the intensity of which is related to its suspect area with, for example, a coin, and seeing if there is a change in the
temperature. sound. If there is any debonding or delamination, the note will change from a
When a composite structure is heated and allowed to cool, water-contaminated ringing to a dull sound.
areas cool slower than dry areas (they have more heat energy). The extra heat This process can be carried using an electronic hammer sometimes called a
coming from these areas can be detected using an infra-red camera. The ’Woodpecker’. The Woodpecker is an electronic device in which a hammer is
infra-red camera converts the thermal radiation into an electronic signal which made to move up and down. When switched on, a small hammer moves up and
is displayed on a colour monitor. down, firmly and quickly tapping the material surface, but not too hard.
Method When the Woodpecker is moved across the surface (resting on two small feet)
the sound given off by the hammer can be heard and any sound change noted.
1. Clean and completely dry both sides of the suspect area to be inspected. The unit can be connected to other electronic equipment, such as a colour
2. Heat the area using a special electric blanket. The blanket is temperature monitor.
and time-controlled so that it heats up slowly, taking at least 15 minutes to Remember that composites can also be checked for moisture by various
reach 60°C. The temperature is held at this value for 5 minutes. brands of moisture meters, and if a conductive layer (bonding) is built into the
3. Remove the blanket and the panel will start to cool (the faster cooling being composite, then this can be checked using a multi-meter.
where there is no moisture).
4. One engineer will scan the area with the camera in a systematic way so
that there are no parts missed out. The scanning is done slowly from side
to side or up and down. Another engineer will monitor the colour screen.
Nothing will show unless there are damp patches or moisture has ingressed
into the material (or parts of the material differ significantly from the main
structure). These areas will show up as bright colours on the screen.
5. When a wet area is shown on the screen, the operator tells the camera
operator to hold that position (to allow closer study of the picture) and the
area is marked for further investigation/repair/replacement.

M7.19 Abnormal Events PART-66 M7 CAT B1
M7.19 ABNORMAL EVENTS

Sub-Module Level
7.19 Abnormal Events
(a) Inspections following lightning strikes and HIRF penetration. 2
(b) Inspections following abnormal events such as heavy landings and flight through turbulence.

LEVEL 1
LEVEL 2
LEVEL 3

HARD LANDING
General
The inspection is divided into two phases.
The Phase I inspection is applicable when a Hard Landing or a High Drag/Side
Load Landing occurs.
If the inspection during Phase I does not indicate that damage has occurred, no
further inspections are necessary.
If, however, the Phase I inspection indicates that damage has occurred, the
Phase II inspection is necessary.
Hard Landing
The hard landing procedure is for hard landings at or below the maximum
design landing weight limits.
The pilot is responsible for making the decision whether a structural inspection
is necessary.
If the landing is also overweight, the Overweight Landing Inspection, not the
Hard Landing Inspection, must be done.
When the conditional inspection tells you to examine a component, check for
High Drag/Side-Load Landing the following faults and replace or repair components (if necessary):
A high drag/side-load landing occurs if the airplane makes a landing with one or • Cracks
more of the following conditions:
• Pulled-apart structure
• The airplane skidded or overran the prepared surface
• Loose paint (paint flakes)
• The airplane made a landing short of the prepared surface
• Twisted parts (distortion)
• The airplane made a landing and two or more tyres were blown
• Bent components
• The airplane skidded on the runway sufficiently to make you think damage
occurred. • Fastener holes that become enlarged or elongated
• Loose fasteners
• Fasteners that have pulled out or are missing
• Delaminations
• Misalignment
• Interference
• Other signs of damage.

•
Figure 497 Hard Nose Gear Contact

SEVERE OR UNUSUAL TURBULENCE OVERLIMIT INSPECTION

General Severe or Unusual Turbulence. Stall. Buffet. or Speeds in Excess of the Design
Limits Conditional Inspection
The structural inspection in this task is applicable after a severe turbulence or
buffet condition. General
It also applies to stalls (after the initial buffet or stick shaker condition) or The data that follows applies to a severe or unusual turbulence condition.
airplane speeds above the design speed. NOTE: SEVERE TURBULENCE IS IDENTIFIED AS TURBULENCE WHICH
When the conditional inspection tells you to ”examine” a component, look for CAUSES LARGE, ABRUPT CHANGES IN ALTITUDE AND/OR
these conditions (replace or repair components, if it is necessary). ATTITUDE. THE AIRPLANE COULD BE OUT CF CONTROL
• Cracks FOR SHORT PERIODS. IT USUALLY CAUSES LARGE VARIATIONS
IN AIRSPEED. PASSENGERS AND CREW ARE MOVED VIOLENTLY
• Pulled apart structure AGAINST THEIR SEAT BELTS AND LOOSE OBJECTS ARE MOVED
• Loose paint (paint flakes) AROUND THE AIRPLANE.
• Twisted parts (distortion)
• Bent components
• Wrinkles or buckles in the structure
• Fastener holes that became larger or longer
• Loose fasteners
• Fasteners that have pulled out or are missing
• Delaminations (a component with one or more Layers pulled apart)
• Parts that are not aligned correctly
• Fibre breakouts
• Misalignment
• Interference (clearance that is not sufficient between the parts)
• Discoloration (heat damage)
• Nicks or gouges
• Other signs of damage.

Figure 498 Example of Designed-In Safety Factors



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M7.6 FITS AND CLEARANCES

1. KNOWLEDGE LEVELS- CATEGORY A, B1, B2 AND C AIRCRAFT MAINTENANCE LICENCE

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Figure 152 Limits

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Figure 153 Types Of Fit

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Figure 154 BS 4500: Limits and Fits For Engineering

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ISO SYSTEM (CONT’D)

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ISO SYSTEM (CONT’D)

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ISO SYSTEM (CONT’D)

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ISO SYSTEM (CONT’D)

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FASTENERS- HOLE AND DRILL DATA- METALLIC

Table Holes For:

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Figure 155 Extracts From Airbus SRM- 1

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Figure 156 Extracts From Airbus SRM- 2

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Figure 157 Outer Airbrakes- Wear Limits (A300)

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Figure 158 Twist Check

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STANDARD METHODS FOR CHECKING SHAFTS &

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Figure 159 Using Dial Test Indicators

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1. KNOWLEDGE LEVELS- CATEGORY A, B1, B2 AND C AIRCRAFT MAINTENANCE LICENCE

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Figure 280 Solid Rivets

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Figure 281 Fastener Edge Distance

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Figure 282 Dimensions for Driving Non-Fluid-Tight Solid Rivets (Boeing)

© LRTT Ltd. Trading as Resource Group

© LRTT Ltd. Trading as Resource Group

Figure 284 Dimensions for Driving Non-Fluid-Tight Solid Rivets (Boeing)

© LRTT Ltd. Trading as Resource Group

Figure 285 Dimensions for Driving Fluid-Tight Solid Rivets (Boeing)