Society of India MC Graaw

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Indian Society
For Civil Services Main Examination
GS Paper I
M. Senthil Kumar
S. Rijesh

Copyright © 2018 Pearson India Education Services Pvt. Ltd
Published by Pearson India Education Services Pvt. Ltd, CIN: U72200TN2005PTC057128,

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Brief Contents
Prefacexix
Strategy to Prepare for Topics on Indian Society xxiii
Acknowledgementsxxv
About the Authors xxvi
Chapter 1: Salient Features of Indian Society 1

Chapter 2: Role of Women and Women’s Organization 21
Chapter 3: Population and Associated Issues 37
Chapter 4: Poverty and Developmental Issues 69
Chapter 5: U
rbanization, Their Problems
and Their Remedies 85
Chapter 6: Effects of Globalization on Indian Society 119
Chapter 7: Communalism 131
Chapter 8: Regionalism 149
Chapter 9: Secularism 161
Chapter 10: Social Empowerment 179


Table of Contents
Prefacexix
Strategy to Prepare for Topics on Indian Society xxiii
Acknowledgementsxxv
About the Authors xxvi
Chapter 1: Salient Features of Indian Society 1
Introduction 1
Characteristics of Indian Society and Culture 3
Unity 4
Diversity 4
Diversity: Indian Context 5
Major Sources of Diversity in Indian Context 5
Geographical Factors 5
Language 5
Village and Its Economic System 6
Family, Marriage and Kinship 6
Joint-Family System 6
Caste Diversity 6
Caste Structure and Kinship 7
Caste Structure and Occupation 8
Caste Structure and Power 8
Spatial Expansion of Intra-Caste Relations 10
Racial Factors 10
Tribes 11
Religious Diversity 13
Hinduism 13
Islam 13
Christianity 14
Sikhism 14
Jainism 15
Buddhism 15
Zoroastrianism 15
Judaism 16

x Contents
Region 17
Pluralism 17
Unity Amidst Diversity 18
Practice Questions 20
Previous Year Questions 20
Chapter 2: Role of Women and Women’s Organization 21
Introduction 21
Position of Women in History 22
Early Vedic Age 22
Later Vedic Period (1000 BC–500 BC) 22
Women in the Medieval Period 23
Condition of Women during the 18th Century 23
Women under British Rule 24
Role of Women in Freedom Struggle 25
Women’s Constitutional and Legal Rights 26
Constitutional Privileges Preamble 26
Fundamental Rights 26
DPSP 26
Fundamental Duties 26
Political Rights 26
Legislative Safeguards 27
For Women 28
For Children 28
Institutions for Women Empowerment 28
Pre-Independence 28
Women NGO’s: Post-independence 29
International NGOs 30
Governmental Organizations 30
Women Organization: Contemporary Context 30
Role 30
Problems 31
Success Journey of Indian Women: Since Independence 32
Social Progress 32
Economic Developments 32
Political Participations 32

xi
Contents
Scientific Achievements 32
Cultural Contributions 33
Problems of Indian Women: 21st Century 33
Women Empowerment Policies and Programmes 34
Policies 34
Programmes 34
Chapter 3: Population and Associated Issues 37
Introduction 37
Few Facts about Indian Population 37
Determinants of Population Change 38
Demographic Determinants 39
Social Determinants 39
Economic Determinants 40
Other Causes 42
Mortality 42
Age and Sex Structure 44
Dependency Ratio 44
Age Structure in India: Determinants and Implications 44
Measurement of Sex Structure 45
Sex Ratio in India 45
Sex Ratio in India: An Analysis from Census 2011 46
Child Sex Ratio (2011) 48
Effects of the Rapid Population Growth in India 49
Population Control Measures 50
Population Policy of India 52
National Population Policy 1976 and 1977 54
National Population Policy, 2000 54
A New Approach 60
Appendix 60
Demographic Transition in India 60
Growing “North”–South Disparity 61
Growing Demographic Divide 62
The Spread of Female Foeticide 63

xii Contents
Successful Models of Population Transition 63

Kerala Model 64
Tamil Nadu Model 65
Himachal Pradesh Model 65
Andhra Pradesh Model 66
Population Stabilization Fund (Jansankhya Sthirata Kosh–JSK) 66
National Commission on Population 67
Previous Year Question 68
Chapter 4: Poverty and Developmental Issues 69
Introduction 69
Concept of Poverty 70
Different Views on Poverty 70
The First Dimension 70
The Second Dimension 71
The Third Dimension 71
Measurements of Poverty 71
History of Calculation of Poverty in India 72
Suresh Tendulkar Committee 72
C. Rangarajan Committee 72
Arvind Panagariya Task Force 72
Causes of Poverty 73
Individual 73
Culture or Sub-culture of Poverty 73
Social Structure 73
The Causes of Poverty in Indian Context 74
The Consequence of Poverty 75
Housing and Homelessness 75
Family Problems 75
Economy 76
Measures to Alleviate Poverty 76
Distributive Strategies 76
Specific Strategies 77
Social Security 77
Effective Measures for Poverty Alleviation 78
Creating Employment 79

xiii
Contents
Distributive Justice 80
Land–Man Ratio 80
Controlling Population Growth 80
Elimination of Black Money 81
Decentralizing Planning and Its Execution 81
Other Measures 81
International Organization for Poverty Reduction 82
United Nationals Development Programme (UNDP) 82
Oxfam 82
Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) 83
International Labour Organization (ILO) 83
World Bank 83
Conclusion 83
Chapter 5: Urbanization, Their Problems
and Their Remedies 85
The Concept of Urbanization 85
Evolution of Urbanization in India 86
Reasons for Urban Population Growth 87
Natural Increase in Population 87
Continuous Migration of People Towards Cities 87
Changes in City Boundaries 91
Characteristics of Indian Urbanization 91
Urbanization in India, 2001–2011 92
Characteristics of Urban Community 95
Problems of Urbanization in India 95
Changing Social and Economic Institutions 100
Isolation 100
Maladjustment 100
Beggary 101
Urbanization and Social Mobility 101
Consequences of Social Mobility 101
Remedies and Suggestions to Urban Problems 102
Efficient and Integral City Planning 102
Financially Independent City Administration 103

xiv Contents
Increased Job Opportunities 103

Better Transportation Facility 103
Efficient and Workable Housing Policy 103
Limited Environment Pollution 103
State Policy on Urban Problems 104
The Rent Control Act, 1948 104
Urban Land Ceiling and Regulation Act, 1976 105
Programmes of Slum Clearance and Construction of New Houses 105
The Five-Year Plans 106
Governmental Measures to Address the Issue of Urbanization 107
Smart Cities 107
Atal Mission for Rejuvenation and Urban Transformation
(AMRUT) 109
National Mission on Sustainable Habitat 110
National Air Quality Index 110
The National Urban Housing and Habitat Policy 111
National Policy on Urban Street Vendors 112
The National Urban Sanitation Policy 113
The National Environment Policy (NEP) 114
Residex 114
Government Interventions/Programmes 115
Pradhan Mantri Awas Yojana—Housing for All (Urban) 115
Backward Regions Grant Fund (BRGF) 116
National Urban Livelihoods Mission (NULM) 116
Conclusion 117
Chapter 6: Effects of Globalization on Indian Society 119
Introduction 119
Globalization: Initial Phase 120
Globalization and India 121
Social Dimension of Globalization 121
Impact on Family, Marriage and Kinship Ties 121
Impact on Labour Market 122
Impact Women and Employment of Women 122
Globalization and Poverty Level 123

xv
Contents
Globalization and Sustainable Development 124

Migration, Urbanization and Globalization 124
Globalization and Commercialization of Indigenous Knowledge 125
Globalization and Wealth Concentration 125
Globalization and Social Sector Expenditure 126
Globalization Has Impacted Indian Society
Progressively on the Following Areas 126
Employment Opportunities 126
Competition Level is High 127
Improvement in Living Standards and Purchasing Power 127
Indian Youths Getting Empowered 127
Increased Outreach on Human Rights 127
Increased Multiple Opportunities 127
Free Flow of Information Across the Society 128
Globalization and its Cultural Dimension 128
Increased Pace of Cultural Penetration 128
Development of Hybrid Culture 129
Resurgence of Cultural Nationalism 129
Conclusion 130
Chapter 7: Communalism 131

Introduction 131
Definition of Communalism 132
Assimilationist (or) Communist Communalism 132
Welfarist Communalism 132
Retreatist Communalism 133
Retaliatory Communalism 133
Separatist Communalism 133
Secessionist Communalism 133
Various Perspectives to Understand Communalism 133
Particularistic Approach of Minority 133
Pluralist Approach 134
Background of the Growth of Communalism in India 134
Communalism in India 135
Cause and Character of Communalism in India 137

xvi Contents
Clash in Economic Interest of Both Communities 138

Integration of the Community 139
Main Characteristics of Communalism 139
Communalism in India: A Comparison 139
Some Features of Communal Riots Taking Place in India 140
Incidents of Communalism in India: Few Examples 140
1984 Anti-Sikh Riots 140
2002 Godhra Riots 141
Muzaffarnagar Riots 141
How to Tackle Communalism? 141
Suggestions to Control and Eradicate Communalism 141
Role of Various Institutions/Bodies 143
Prime Minister’s New 15-Point Programme for the Welfare of
Minorities 144
Communalism: International Context 146
Conclusion 147
Chapter 8: Regionalism 149
Region 149
Regionalism 150
Different Forms of Regionalism in India 151
Demand for State Autonomy 151
Secession from the Union 151
Inter-State Disputes 151
Development of Regionalism in India 152
During British Period 152
After Independence 152
Causes and Determinants of Regionalism in India 153
Reason for Persistence of Regionalism 153
Regional Political Parties and Regionalism 154
Regional Issues in India: Few Examples 154
Anti-North Indian Attitude of MNS Workers 154
Attacks on Bihar Labourers by the ULFA 155
Demand for Dravida Nadu 155

xvii
Contents
Bodoland Demand within Assam 155

Demand for Khalisthan 155
Indian Constitution and Regionalism 156
Non-Territorial Measure 156
Territorial Measures 157
Measures and Solutions to Prevent Regionalism 157
Immediate Measures 157
Long-term Measures 157
Government Measures to Promote Nationalism 157
Regionalism: International Dimension 158
Conclusion 159
Chapter 9: Secularism 161
Secularism and Its Different Facets 161
Historical Roots of Secularism 162
Secular Imprints in Modern India: Pre-Independence 163
Secular Ideals in Indian Constitution 164
Western Secularism: American Model 165
Characteristics of Indian Secularism 166
Comparison of Indian Secularism with that of Western
Secularism 167
Similarities 167
Differences 167
Theories on Secularism: Gandhian and Nehruvian Perspective 168
Gandhian Perspective 168
Nehruvian Perspective of Secularism 170
Do you Know? 171
Challenges and Threats to Secularism 172
Steps Taken to Promote Secularism 173
UCC for India: Issues and Challenges 174
Suggestions to Improve Secular Credentials 176
Conclusion: Securing Secularism in Secular Way 177

xviii Contents
Chapter 10: Social Empowerment 179

Introduction 179
Definition 179
Necessity of Social Empowerment 180
Reduce Poverty 180
Unemployment 180
Overall Development of Society 180
Economic Benefits 180
Reduction in Domestic Violence 181
Reduction in Corruption 181
Economic Empowerment Leads to Social Empowerment 181
Socially Disadvantaged Sections of the Society 181
Women 181
Steps Taken by GOI 183
Schedule Caste 184
Tribes 185
Socially Backward Class 188
Minorities 189
Child 191
Youth 193
Rural Population 194
Transgender 196
Disease 198
Senior Citizen 200
Disables Section 201
People Affected By Social Crimes 203
Way Forward 205
Conclusion 206

Preface
Dear Civil Services Aspirants,
The introduction of topics related to Indian society in the UPSC Civil Services (Main) Exami-
nation (Paper I) clearly shows the growing importance of this subject and of the varied social
issues it is currently faced with. Any candidate aspiring for Civil Services should essentially have
a broad understanding of these issues as he/she is going to be directly involved in the upliftment
of the society. It has been observed that multiple questions pertaining to the Indian Society and
its issues are regularly asked in Main’s-General Studies (GS) Paper-I and Essay papers. Apart
from this, candidates are also required to be well-versed in these issues for their personality test
(interview) as well.
Some of the important questions, which aspirants are frequently asked are:
1. What are the current important social issues in India?
2. What are the various reasons for their existence in India even after numerous efforts and
schemes being implemented to bring about social equality?
3. How do different sections of the society react to these issues (Government, various formal
and informal associations, people in rural as well as urban locality)?
4. What could be done to eliminate them at the larger level and achieve the vision of social
equity?
In light of the above questions it also becomes pertinent that all Civil Services aspirants to be
well versed with this topic. Our close association with such aspirants for the past 8 years, and
continuous interaction with the vast segment of the student community has resulted in the
development/creation of this book. Sincere efforts have been made to design it as per the re-
quirements of the Civil Services Main Examination. Adequate care has also been taken to make
this volume as comprehensive as possible so that it may serve as an important source of knowl-
edge for all the topics covered in the syllabus.
STRUCTURE OF THE BOOK AND THE UPSC SYLLABUS

The book is designed in such a way to include each and every aspect of the syllabus prescribed
by the UPSC. Since, these topics are introduced very recently in the UPSC Civil Services Main
examination and the source material for these topics are not available from one good resource,
we have prepared this book to be the exclusive source for society-related issues.
Since the examination is of generalist in nature, we can assure you that you will be defi-
nitely in a position to answer all questions on this section with whatever is discussed in this
volume.
The very first edition of the book consists of 10 chapters with contents as briefly given
below:
Chapter 1: Salient Features of Indian Society

This chapter provides a complete understanding about the important and salient features of
Indian society, which provides the basics to understand all other topics discussed in this book.

xx Indian Society for Civil Service
In fact all other topics in the syllabus clearly discusses in detail about the changing nature of
these basic features in the recent years and their subsequent impact on the various sections of
the society.
Chapter 2: Role of Women and Women Organization

The status that women enjoy in our society and the associated role has been changing in the
recent years. This change in role has its impact on multiple stakeholders and various other insti-
tutions also. This chapter discusses about the change in role of women and the role of women
organizations to bring about this change and to protect the interest of women and their rights.
Chapter 3: Population and Associated Issues

A detailed study about population and associated issues is very much important as India is the
second-largest populous country in the world. This chapter completely discusses about all as-
pects related to population and the various other related issues. Important inferences from cen-
sus 2011 report have been included to make it more comprehensive and up to date.
Chapter 4: Poverty and Developmental Issues

Persistence of poverty has been a long-standing issue in India. Though growth and develop-
ment being taken out on a large scale, the level of poverty has not come down significantly and
this issue remains a cause of concern not only for the sociologists but also for the economists.
This chapter discusses on all the relevant aspects related to poverty, its causes, consequences,
and the measures to address this issue.
Chapter 5: Urbanization, Their Problems and Their Remedies

The present rate of urbanization in India has crossed 30%, and it is growing at an alarming rate.
This process of rapid urban growth poses a serious challenge to the government as well the
public in terms of providing a decent standard of living and better quality of life. This chapter
essentially discusses about the various issues related to urbanization, its growth, problems, and
necessary actions to be taken to make urban living environment more inhabitable.
Chapter 6: Effects of Globalization on Indian Society

The process of Globalization has led to a significant shift in the nature of Indian society. We
have experienced so many changes after the introduction of globalization in India. Almost all
sectors in Indian society have seen a transformation after 1991 economic reforms. This chapter
accounts for social, economic, and political effects of globalization, highlighting social effects in
more detail.
Chapter 7: Communalism
Of late, communalism has emerged as one of the important issues in India that directly poses
a challenge to the secular nature of our society. Communalisms of various types are emerging
in different parts of the country. Hence it is important for us to have a clear idea on various
aspects of this issue. This chapter discusses all aspects related to communalism in India with
references to historical aspects as well. Causes, characteristics, and consequences of communal-
ism are discussed highlighting the immediate and long-term solutions as well.

xxi
Preface
Chapter 8: Regionalism
Regionalism in India is not a new phenomenon; rather it is an age-old concept. Incidents of
regionalism are emerging in India due to multiple reasons. This chapter broadly discusses all the
reasons and types of regionalism with necessary efforts to contain the spread of regionalism.
Various examples have been presented in this chapter to make the understanding better.
Chapter 9: Secularism
If India is known for its multi-religious culture, it is equally acknowledged for being secular in
nature. Our society is secular since historical times. Of late, secularism in India has been put
to test because of various factors, such as communalism, regionalism, and other forces that di-
rectly or indirectly pose a challenge to the true spirit of secularism. Hence, it is necessary for us
to understand each and every aspect of this issue. This chapter provides the complete informa-
tion related to secularism in India.
Chapter 10: Social Empowerment
Understanding Indian society is incomplete without analyzing the necessity and the programmes
for social empowerment. We have a huge section of people devoid of development; hence,
these sections of people essentially need empowerment to move up in social hierarchy. In this
situation, the role of state and society is highly important. In this chapter, we have taken utmost
care to include all the areas related to social empowerment.


Strategy to Prepare for Topics
on Indian Society
Civil services examination always had importance for social issues in India, and every year ques-
tions from these areas were asked in General studies (Mains) and Essay papers. Apart from this,
candidates have to prepare extensively on these issues for personality test. It is obvious that
people who make programmes, policies, and schemes need more knowledge on society as they
have a direct impact on the society. Social issues are wide and have plethora of issues. Keeping
this in mind, covering the entire syllabus is essential to have a complete understanding about
the changing nature of Indian society. Before 2013, society-related topics were asked in General
Studies Paper 1 and essays, but the syllabus did not have the exclusive list of topics to be cov-
ered under this section. In 2013, new pattern and syllabus for mains exam was introduced and it
enlists certain society-related topics in General Studies Paper 1. This serves as a guiding factor
to focus on the areas to be prepared.
From the exam point of view, studying about society also helps in writing good essays and
in presenting better answers for case studies in Ethics paper. The uniqueness of the society top-
ics is that with minimal area of study, one can fetch maximum marks. This book aims to equip
you in all the enlisted areas of the syllabus. Each topic is covered separately to have an indepth
and complete understanding. Now a question may arise, “Is this book enough to prepare for so-
ciety topics?”. Yes, this book will serve as the base/foundational material that comprehensively
covers all the topics, upon which one can bank upon completely. From the analysis of the previ-
ous years’ questions, it is clear that questions have relevance to current affairs and most of them
are analytical in nature. Each chapter has been developed in such as manner so as to cover the
basics with explanation followed by detailed analysis. This would help students to comprehend
the subject knowledge with ease. The learning objectives in every chapter give an outline of
what is to be learnt and act as keywords of that chapter.
Following is an analysis of number of questions asked in previous year’s Civil Services
(Main) Exam from society syllabus:
S. No. Chapters 2013 2014 2015 2016

1 Salient Features of Indian Society and Diversity of India 1 1
2 Role of Women and Women’s Organization 1 1
3 Population and Associated Issues 2 2 1
4 Poverty and Developmental Issues 1 1 1
5 Urbanization, Their Problems and Their Remedies 1
6 Effects of Globalization on Indian Society 1 1 1
7 Social Empowerment 2
(Continued)

xxiv Indian Society for Civil Service
S. No. Chapters 2013 2014 2015 2016

8 Communalism
9 Regionalism 1 1
10 Secularism 1
TOTAL 4 5 7 5
All the topics in the syllabus are reflecting the changing trends in India, and every admin-
istrator has to be aware of these changing trends in Indian society. This book intends to give a
complete understanding on these topics. Any serious candidate will obviously link the current
affairs part to these topics to make the understanding better. This book is prepared not only
on all the aspects from examination point of view, but also to give an in-depth insight in to the
social aspects of Indian society with present status, which will help the future and present policy
makers to have glimpse/better understanding of what Indian society would need.
ALL THE BEST.
I sincerely hope that the readers will appreciate the contents of this book.
Any comments/suggestions towards enhancing the content and its richness will be most
welcome. Your valuable suggestions will go a long way in making this book a highly useful
manual for Civil Services aspirants community.
M. Senthil Kumar
S. Rijesh

Acknowledgements
At the outset, we would like to thank and express our deepest gratitude to all those who provided
constant support and assisted us in editing, proofreading, and designing the book.
We extend our sincere appreciation and gratitude to Mr. M. Karthikeyan for his encour-
agement and support throughout the course of writing this book.
We thank our students for their constant motivation and inquisitive minds, which inspired
us to come out with this compilation.
We owe our thanks to Mr. Jayamurugan, Mr. Siddharth, and Mr. Charan Tej who contrib-
uted in every way to the successful publication of this book.
Our special thanks to H. R. Nagaraja, Mark Pani Jino, G. Shankar, Sharel Simon, and
C. Purushothaman for their extended support and motivation throughout the project.
We take this opportunity to express our heartfelt wishes to all the readers of this book.
M. Senthil Kumar
S. Rijiesh

About the Authors
M. Senthil Kumar did his schooling in Sainik School, Amaravathi Nagar, Tamil Nadu, India.
He has done BSc in Physics and MCA from Bharathiyar University, Coimbatore, Tamil Nadu,
India. He has also done MA in Sociology from Annamalai University Tamil Nadu, India. After
completing his degree, he started preparing for Civil Services with Sociology and Geography as
optional subjects. He succeeded in attending six mains examinations and three Civil Services
Personality tests in 2005, 2008, and 2010, and has scored maximum marks of 362 in Sociology
optional subject.
Presently, he is in to coaching students for Civil Services Exam for the last 8 years. He
teaches Sociology optional subject and Social Issues for Mains examination.
He is the Director of Times IAS Academy in Chennai, Tamil Nadu, India, which is the
fastest growing IAS coaching institute in Chennai and has personally helped in realizing many
of the aspirants dream in to reality by helping them in clearing the prestigious Civil Services and
join in various services, such as IAS, IPS, IFS, IRS, and various other Central Govt. Services.
S. Rijesh holds BSc and Master’s degree in Management from SRM University, C hennai, Tamil
Nadu, India. His interest towards the social issues and the nature of work he had at Times of
India made him passionate for the subject Sociology. He is also having very good teaching skills
and has been taking classes for last 4 years in Manidhaneyam Free IAS Academy and Times IAS
Academy in Chennai, Tamil Nadu, India. He has appeared in UPSC Interview with Sociology as
an optional subject. The exposure to the depth of the subject as well as the experience turned
him acquainted with wide knowledge. Now he handles Sociology optional classes for Civil Ser-
vices aspirants.

Chapter 1
Salient Features of Indian Society
Learning Objectives
In this chapter, you will learn about:
• Characteristics of Indian Society and Culture
• Diversity: Indian Context
• Major Sources of Diversity in Indian Context
• Religious Diversity
• Region
• Pluralism
• Unity Amidst Diversity
INTRODUCTION
India has a long history, and cultural heritage, which is one of the most ancient, widespread and
diverse. For the ages together, many races have contributed to the culture of India. For some,
it is the place for temporary settlement, but many people have permanently settled within her
borders. There is a synthesis on the basis of eternal values. India is a vast peninsula and for its
size and heterogeneity, it is also referred to as a subcontinent with the area of 32,87,240 km2.
From the nineteenth century onwards, there has been growing confluence of cultures
because of emergence of new forces and factors adding to already existing immense cultural
diversity. In the midst of common political structure, common legal system, uniform admin-
istrative and educational systems, growing economic interdependence, a new kind of grow-
ing n ational awareness has been understood to have contributed to the making of the Indian
society. The technological and cultural impact of the process of Westernization has led to the
inception of modern means of transport and communication, new printing technology, etc. The
introduction of English and Hindi and the growing secularization have also played a very im-
portant role in this whole process.
However, it is essential to understand that Indian society has been more of a convention
of culture rather than structure. Religion still remains as a defining factor in everybody’s mind
as the basis of the traditional Indian social system. Hence, Religion has a robust entrenchment
in the Indian society that cannot be separated from the people. Hinduism or Hindu religion
happens to be the ancient of all the religions in India. It dictates neither dogmas nor any vested
authority, rather it is intertwined with various structures, institutions, beliefs, values, norms, rit-
uals and many philosophies. The economic system and educational system are hardly detached
from the guidelines laid down by religion.
The arrival of Aryans and the origin of Indus Valley civilization have modified the Indian
sociocultural tradition and heritage to a larger extant. The history says that the hordes of
Indian Society_Chapter 1.indd 1 09/08/17 12:14 PM

2 Indian Society for Civil Service
ilitant-Aryans entered India around 1500 BC ago and oppressed the people of the aborigi-
M
nal civilization and continued thriving on them. A different source leads us to understand that
Aryans came much later than the People of Indus Valley civilization. Aryans hailed from pasto-
ral community and they had mastery for poetry, philosophical speculation and elaborate rituals.
They considered themselves superiors. They practised endogamy and had the notions of ritual
purity and pollution. These ideals of the Aryans paved way for the origin of varna (complexion)
and jati (caste). The Indo-Aryans were broken into three groups: the Rajanya (warriors and aris-
tocrats); the Brahmin (priests) and Vaisyas (cultivators). The people of non-Indio-Aryans were
called Shudras. There was also a fifth group the status of which was very low—the Panchama
or Avarna.
India has its own geographic, ethnic, religious, and linguistic history, and there is also a
prehistoric Indus Valley civilization. A popular estimate says that Indian society dates back to
5,000 years. During this temporal span, several waves of immigrants, representing different eth-
nic groups, linguistic communities and religious background have mingled with the native pop-
ulation to contribute to its diversity, richness, and vitality. Further, the description of ancient
India would give us only scant knowledge without referring to Buddhism, Jainism and other
cults, which existed in several parts of India with their vast impact on material and non-material
cultures of India. The medieval period in India started with the emergence of various foreign
dynasties and Mughals who ruled India for yonks.
As a result of the evolution from the prehistoric period to the present one, Indian s ociety
has been built on a composite culture characterized by heterogeneity of patterns. The present-
day Indian culture is essentially the result of cultural contact, cultural diffusion, cultural con-
flict, accommodation, assimilation and integration that have given a new outlook to the Indian
Society. Sociocultural change in India, under the influence of the modern West, gives yet
another important dimension of sociocultural dynamics. Though India has always been a highly
traditional society, the process of modernization emerged from the Western soil reached to
the Indian society and its impact introduced new technologies and new form of culture. The
sociologists have viewed these changes as more diversified and effective. Moreover, though the
Portuguese, the French and the Dutch had colonies in India, it is the British influence that has a
strong impact on Indian society.
The culture in India was highly traditional, whereas the one in the West was modernising
in terms of rationalism, individualism and utilitarianism. The Western culture propounded egali-
tarianism and universalism. With the advent of British rule, a new structure of society developed
in India. A lot of changes were executed in education, judiciary and military, and these changes
set in a new criterion for the stratification of society. The Western impact predominantly
affected the education system after the introduction of English language and secular education.
Before the British rule, the official and the administrative correspondence was done in Sanskrit,
Persian, and Urdu. After the British introduced English language, it became a window to the
outside world. It also facilitated the Indians with an exposure to a new value system based on
egalitarianism, rationalism and secularism.
Introduction of new and modern means of transport and communication increased spa-
tial and social mobility. The new printing technology, postal services and radio spread new
ideas across the country. Those new ideas awakened the people from traditional clusters and
became a sign of radical, social change. The introduction of a new penal code changed the

Chapter 1 • Salient Features of Indian Society 3
legal system and distribution of justice. The principle of equality before law was mandated
along with a uniform legal system for the whole country. Industrialization and urbanization—
important factors of change—recorded a sharp rise. The process of industrialization brought
in new determinants of social status. For instance, material indicators were introduced to the
Indian society. A new attitude called ‘nationalism’ emerged and unified the entire Indian soci-
ety on one ground.
It is important to note that the impact of Westernization resulted in the emergence of a
new Westernised elite in place of the traditional elite of Indian society. The modern elite were
inspired by a new ideology and value system in a way they looked at their own society. It pro-
posed the new interpretation to the Hinduism and the caste system, which was progressive
and humane, and this signalled a new social order. Thus, the impact of Westernization brought
about immense changes for the technological and cultural modernization of India.
How modern the contemporary India is has been a matter of debate, and sociologist
Dipankar Gupta has been cynic about India’s mistaken modernity. But the fact is that the
Indian society would undergo changes after it had come under the influence of the West.
Yet it is also true that these changes did not happen through the total replacement of tra-
ditional structures. The traditional structures in India have also exhibited a surprising resil-
ience and have retained their core features by adopting new roles. Castes and religions can
exemplify it well.
CHARACTERISTICS OF INDIAN SOCIETY AND CULTURE

Indian culture is very ancient and evolving continuously. Indian culture and tradition have been
existing for the past 5,000 years. Iravati Karve calls India ‘the epitome of the world’. Indian cul-
tural heritage remains intact despite many changes that have taken place over years. It has its own
significance and originality. In the long history of mankind, which stretches beyond 6,000 years, a
series of civilizations and cultures has emerged and disappeared. Oswald Spengler, after making a
study on 30 different civilizations and Arnold Toynbee after a study on 19 civilizations have said
that India for its religious dominance, the cultural continuity sustains all through the history.
Doctrine of Karma: Belief in doctrine of karma has made the people realise that the pres-
ent life is the only link in the infinite chain of births and rebirths. Everyone is bound to be
reborn in his or her next birth according to his or her deeds (karma) in the past lives. This
Karmic reaction compels the adherence to good means of social control and maintenance of
caste s ystem. Religions are connected to the rituals, such as fasts, festivals, pilgrimages, mar-
riage, birth and death. They also inculcate a spirit of tolerance and synthetic approach.
Dharma as life centre of society: The concept of dharma has been the basic idea in differ-
ent fields of society according to the Indian social thought. Religion and spirituality have influ-
enced our intellectual, philosophical, artistic, scientific, cultural, social, political and economic
lives. Spiritual life is the true genius of India, and this is the reason that India is called karma
bhoomi, tapo bhoomi and punya bhoomi.
Scientific aspect of Indian heritage: There is a common opinion among the scholars that
our heritage is mainly religio-philosophical, but this is not true. Many works are fragmented and
were written in Sanskrit and Pali. The ancient Indians were familiar with the concept of zero,
value system of numeration, square roots, cube roots. Indian medical system is discussed in

Ayurveda, Charaka Samhita and Ashtanga Haridaya. These scripts offer us the knowledge of the
different types of medicine and their use. Sushruta Samhita specifically delineates surgical meth-
ods. Metallurgy of iron, zinc, copper and its alloys were made prominent by Indians. Temple
architecture, town planning and construction of forts and ports were well developed. A kind of
supremacy was reached in cotton and silk textiles.
Mountains, rivers, forests, lakes, land, plants, animal and other elements of nature have
the emotional attachment with Indian culture and religion.
Unity
Unity means integration. It is a socio-psychological condition. It denotes the sense of oneness,
and we-ness. It refers to the bond, which binds the members of a society together. There is a
difference between unity and uniformity. Uniformity includes similarity and unity. Unity is of
two types: the former is born out of uniformity and the latter arises overcoming the differences.
Emile Durkheim, French sociologist, has termed these two types as mechanical and organic
solidarity, respectively.
Mechanical solidarity is the matter of less-advanced societies and characterised by
resemblance and, segmentation (clan or territorial type) and ruling with restrictive sanctions and
prevalence of penal law. It is also highly religious and transcendental and distributing supreme
value to the society and its interests as a whole. On the other hand, organic solidarity is generally
found in more advanced societies and is predicated on division of labour, characterised by the
unison of markets and growth of cities ruling with curative sanctions and prevalence of cooper-
ative law. This is very secular and human oriented and does give supreme value to the individual
dignity, equality of opportunity and social justice. For example, industrialised societies.
Diversity
In literal terms, diversity means differences; but in social context, the meaning is ‘more specific’.
It also connotes collective differences among people, especially those differences which dif-
ferentiate one group of people and the other. These differences could be biological, religious,
geographical, economical, linguistic, etc. For example, racial diversity is the component of bio-
logical difference and religious diversity is the component of religious difference. Overall, diver-
sity refers to the collective differences.
The term diversity is contrary to uniformity. Uniformity denotes the characteristic similar-
ity among the people. ‘Uni’ means one; ‘form’ means common ways. Therefore, when there is
something common among the people, they show uniformity. When the students of a school,
members of the police or the army wear the same type of dress, they are in ‘uniform’. When
a group of people share a similar characteristic which can be language or religion or anything,
there is a uniformity in that specific aspect. But groups of people from different races, religions
and cultures represent diversity. Thus, diversity means variety.
However, diversity is different from fragmentation. Diversity refers to the prevalence of
differences on the whole. It does not mean separate parts. Fragmentation is not literally simi-
lar to difference, whereas it means different parts and in such situation each part would be an
independent entity by itself. It precisely denotes the variety of groups and cultures. India has a
variety of races, religions, languages, castes and cultures. It is true that fragmentation has con-
tributed to the sociocultural diversity of the country.

DIVERSITY: INDIAN CONTEXT

India is a big country with different geopolitical conditions prevailing across. This has caused
differences in social evolution of the groups dwelling in different parts of the country. In addi-
tion to geopolitical diversity, interactions with foreigners as a result of invasions, trade and mis-
sionary activities have also imported foreign influences not only in the country but also among
the social groups which immigrated to India. All these have shaped the Indian society in one
way or the other. A large number of foreign invaders like Greeks, Kushans, Sakas and Hunas
made their settlement in India and embraced Hinduism during the course of time. They picked
out some of the Indian cultural features and formed different social groups. Muslims were yet
another social category by maintaining their religious identity. The present Indian society is
highly diverse. Every major religion is undisputedly represented. Institution of caste has added
one more dimension to the diversity and every geographical region has developed its own lan-
guage and culture. Some of the traits of diversity are as follows.
MAJOR SOURCES OF DIVERSITY IN INDIAN CONTEXT

Geographical Factors
Diversity in the geographical surroundings reflects in the vast territory which has the prevalence
of varied climatic conditions and regions, land types, natural resources and skin colour. These
geographical features are further classified on the basis of food habits, dressing patterns, fes-
tivals and cultural activities. India is clearly marked to be a geographical entity which is highly
diverse and distinctly standing apart from the Asian regions surrounded by the Himalayas in
the northern part, seas and oceans on all other sides and covered with desert areas in the west.
However, agricultural economy united the entire country by common characteristics. There are
shrines and sacred places spread across the country.
Language
India has diversity in languages. Despite Hindi being the official language of the country, the
Constitution recognises 22 languages; they are Assamese, Bengali, Bodo, Dogri, Gujarati, Hindi,
Kannada, Kashmiri, Konkani, Maithili, Malayalam, Manipuri, Marathi, Nepali, Odia, Punjabi,
Sanskrit, Santali, Sindhi, Tamil, Telugu and Urdu. However, the number of languages in use
is much higher and the Census 2011 identified for about 122 languages of Indo-European,
Dravidian, Austro-Asiatic, Tibeto-Burmese and Semito-Hamitic families.
Besides, there are thousands of dialects in use at the various parts of the country. For
example, different dialects of Hindi are spoken in UP, Delhi and Mumbai. The languages spo-
ken in our country vary according to geographical areas and also play a crucial role in building
regional identities. These regional identities emotionally stimulated the people to fight for the
creation of states on linguistic basis, and Andhra Pradesh is the first state formed including the
Telugu-speaking regions. The predominant culture of a region still remains as an important fac-
tor which provides for regional differences.
For Example: The clash between Tamil-speaking and Kannada-speaking population in
Karnataka whenever there is an issue related to Cauvery River water sharing.

Village and Its Economic System

Before the British occupied India, the villages were economically self-sufficient with the exis-
tence of jajmani system (caste-wise division of labour) and payment in grain (absence of mon-
etization). Above all, the poor communication and transportation limited the flow of goods.
The fact that the weekly markets in neighbouring villages existed in traditional India helped
us understand that the villagers depended on towns for items which were not available in the
local markets. Such markets mainly sold the items like silver and gold essential for weddings.
The institution of weekly markets still exists in rural India, although there are well-developed
transport facilities, and communication could easily connect the people with town markets.
These markets serve not only an economic purpose but also political, recreational and social
purposes.
Family, Marriage and Kinship

Family is the natural entity in a society. We happen to assume that all families are like the ones
we live in. No other social institution appears more universal and unchanging than family. The
family (the private sphere) is annexed to the economic, political, cultural and educational (the
public) spheres.
The functionalists are of the view that the family does important tasks by contributing to
the basic needs of the society and maintaining social order. The functionalists also say that mod-
ern industrial societies would function well if women looked after the family and men earned the
livelihood. But many studies suggest that families need not be nuclear in an industrial pattern of
economy, that is, trends based on experiences of one society cannot necessarily be generalised.
Joint-Family System
The joint-family system has been one of the most prominent in the Indian society. Irawati
Karve, Indian sociologist, asserts that joint-family consists of group of people who generally
live under one roof, eat food cooked in one kitchen and hold property in common. The joint-
family system is not found to be the core feature of Indian society any more after the transi-
tion of the mass population from rural to urban, from agriculture to non-agriculture and from
localized to globalised. Job transfers, postings, livelihood opportunities, business and trade are
the most important pull factors of the joint families in contemporary India. Since some of the
members of a joint family think about the social and economic mobility, evolution of nuclear
families has started widely. It can be said that the economic policies have started overriding the
social values.
The nuclear family is flexible enough for handling the demands of industrial society. In such
a family, one adult can work outside home while the other adult cares for the home and chil-
dren. In practical terms, this specialization of roles within the nuclear family entails the husband
adopting the ‘instrumental’ role as breadwinner, and the wife taking up the ‘affective’, emotional
role in domestic settings. This vision is biased that it is not simply gender unjust, but empirical
studies across cultures and history show that it is unrealistic.
Caste Diversity
Caste dictates social order in the Indian society. It has been a practice among not only the
Hindus but also other egalitarian religions, like Islam, Christianity and Sikhism. The practice of

caste is common among the Muslims, Christians, Sikhs as well as other communities. Muslims
are divided into classes of Ashraf and Ajlaf. Ashraf are further divided into Shaikh, Saiyed,
Mughal, Pathan, while Ajlaf consist of various other castes like teli (oil pressure), dhobi (washer
man), darjee (tailor), etc. Similarly, caste consciousness among the Christians in India is not
uncommon. As majority of Christians in India have been converted from Hindu fold, they have
easily carried forward the caste system to Christianity. There are many castes found among the
Sikhs, like Jat Sikh and Majahabi Sikh. Caste system is s restricted sphere because the entry is
only through birth and the exit is impossible. The system is biased because it allows certain priv-
ileges to the high castes while the lower castes are socially side-lined. It is maintained by enforc-
ing the discriminatory dogma of pollution and purity which are implemented through elaborate
rules determining touching, dining and marriage
Caste, as a regional reality, can be identified in the different patterns of caste-ranking, cus-
tomary behaviours and marriage rules. It is also relevant to discuss caste structure and kinship,
caste structure and occupation and caste structure and power for the extensive understanding
about the caste systems.
Caste Structure and Kinship

The endogamy nature of caste system is an important characteristics of the kinship system in
India. Caste is basically a restrictive system of stratification and so the members are selected
on the criterion of ascribed status. Kinship is a method or a system by which individuals, as
members of society, associate themselves with other individuals of the same society. There are
two types of kinship bonds: one is consanguine and the other one is affine. Consanguine ties
are created by the biological bond like the one between mother–daughter, mother–son, father–
daughter, etc. Affinal ties are formed through marriage like those of husband and wife, man and
his wife’s brother, etc.
Kinship in India is largely critical about the internal structure of the caste and its sub-
caste, the gotra. The Kinship system seen in various parts of India differs from one another
in many ways. However, the kinship system in the Northern region, the Central region and
the Southern region can be distinguished in general. North India is a very large region and has
many types of kinship systems. This region includes the regions between the Himalayas in the
North and the Vindhyas in the South. In these regions, one should marry someone outside the
village since all the members of the same caste in a village are considered brothers and sisters,
or uncles and aunts. Marriage with someone inside the village is prohibited. In fact, there were
neighbouring villages in which men from other villages could choose their matches who were
not the members of their caste. Hypergamy was practised in this region according to which a
man takes a wife from a clan which is lower than his. That is, a girl moves from a lower status
group to a higher status group through marriage. The consequences of hypergamy and village
exogamy would spatially widen the range of ties. Several villages became socially close to one
another through affinal and matrilateral links. The clans, lineages, and kutumbs are all parts
of the internal structure of the caste, which have been instrumental for organising kinship in
a society. The organization of family in the northern region is based on the patriarchal and
patrilocal systems. The lineage is traced through the male, that is, patrilineal system is followed
in this region. It is patriarchal because authority lies with the male who is also the head of the
family; it is also patrilocal, b
ecause after marriage the bride is brought to the residence of the
bridegroom’s father.

Caste Structure and Occupation

The lineal association of castes with occupations is a striking feature of the caste system. A
caste is regarded as high if its characteristic is high and pure and it is said to be low if its method
of life is low and polluting. The term ‘way of life’ refers to the traditional occupation of the
caste that is either ritually pure or polluting. The ‘jajmani system’ forms the framework for the
association of caste structure with a hereditary occupation. The jajmani system is a system of
economic, social and ritual connections among different caste groups in the villages. This sys-
tem defines those castes that are patrons as well as those meant for doing service for the former.
The service castes render their services to the landowning upper and intermediate castes and as
a return they are paid both in cash and kind. The patron castes vary from one region to other
region dependent on the socioeconomic and political status of the castes. For example, the Ra-
jput, Bhumihar and Jat are the patron castes in the North and Kamma, Reddi and Lingayat are
the patrons in the South. The service castes consists of Brahman (Priest), Barber, Carpenter,
Blacksmith, Water-carrier, Leather-worker, etc. Therefore, In order to understand the regional
diversities of castes, it is crucial to know about the ownership of land, the land tenure status and
adherence to the jajmani system. These economic organizations rely a lot on the caste structure
and regional topography vice versa.
There is a similarity between high-caste status and land ownership. At the top of occu-
pational hierarchy comes a group of families, which wield its power in terms of the land rights
in a village or a region. They occupy the highest rank in the society. Estate managers and land-
owners, who own tiny areas who also enjoy a position next to the highest ranking castes, come
next in the stipulated hierarchy. Smaller tenants and subtenants form the middle-ranking caste
groups. The last ones in the order are the labourers who hail the lowest-ranking caste. The
high castes, with complete ownership, tend to serve, maintain and reinforce the existing caste
hierarchy. However, the impact of colonial rule and the consequent introduction of Western
education have disturbed this general association of higher caste with higher class (in terms of
ownership of land, wealth and power). In spite of these changes, the ritual criteria of caste rank-
ing remain even now important. But in the ancient times, it was only the secular criteria such as
landownership and wealth that determined the status of a caste.
It can be understood that Haryana and Punjab are the regions that are dominated by the
presence of single agricultural caste while analysing the caste system in these states. This agri-
cultural caste is called the ‘Jats’. Above all in Tamil Nadu, especially in the district of Tanjore,
a well-defined hierarchy exists in the caste system with Brahmans as land-owners. The Hindu
social structure is stratified as: the Brahmans—the landowners; the non-Brahmans—the ten-
ants, sub-tenants and service giving castes and the Adi-Dravidas—the category of landless agri-
cultural labourers.
Caste Structure and Power
The core factors of the caste system are caste panchayats and leadership. These power struc-
tures are highly designated in certain caste groups and informal in others. The word ‘Panchayat’
literally means a group or council of five. In a village, it includes a group that presides over, and
resolves conflict, punishes people for violating customs and initiates group enterprises. It must
be noted that the term ‘Village Panchayat’ is completely different from the legislative connota-
tion. The usage, after the Constitution (73rd Amendment) Act (1922), denotes a statutory local

body, formed through elections, vested with legal powers and assigned with certain responsi-
bilities related to governance. The village panchayats are still divided informally into two: one,
democratic formed panchayats which have legislative power and two, traditional panchayats
which has caste power. For example: Khap panchayats in Haryana having caste power. Regional
caste structures are partially accountable for variations in their respective power structures. It is
important to understand what qualifies a caste to be regionally dominant. According to Srinivas,
a famous sociologist, a caste is made dominant by the strength of the population in the village
or local area and its economic and political preponderance. The status of a dominant caste is
governed by the following criteria:
1. the control of land and economic resources;

2. numerical strength;
3. a relatively high ritual status in the caste hierarchy; and
4. educational status of its members.
These factors could certainly place a particular caste group in a position of political
dominance.
The monopoly in utilising the local resources (usually agricultural land) and managing of
the same gives the group a capacity to control the lives of the others. Numerical strength may
not be the only factor that could place a group in a bargaining position. It needs an economic
power to extend its strength. Once economic rights are accomplished, the size of a group is
not really important. The control of resources by members of the upper caste leads them to
decide for others to prove the real dominance. Regional variations in the dominant castes are
determined by the extent to which a single large land-holding caste controls a set of dependent
castes, rigidity of caste ranking and the existence of two or more dominant caste groups in the
same region. Studies from various parts of India imply that dominant castes do not exist every-
where, because the dominance is possible only in the areas where a landowning group has been
able to maintain distinctive characters (by strictly regulating marriage and descent) against the
other existing castes.
Local power flows mainly from land, which is the main source of wealth. Power is pro-
tected if it is restricted to a unified and numerically superior caste group. Numbers alone do not
warrant power. Caste groups numerically dominant, but with divided loyalties, creating factions,
may not wield power. It is only if a caste group became politically united that it could establish
its political force. This is essential because in the new democratic political system in which every
vote counts, the numerical preponderance of a caste group develops an additional meaning.
Power may increase to a jati, when its members have meaningful and constructive association
with the village panchayats. In regions, where religious groups and tribals are mixed, no single
caste retains enough land, power or numerical strength such that there would naturally be dual
or multiple dominations.
Organization of ritual and temple services, concentration of land holdings correspond with
the caste rank with secular power and promote consistency in the total hierarchy of inter-caste
relations. In regions where caste and power hierarchy override, there is a definite absorption
of power, wealth and land invested with high-ranking caste groups. Similarly, the ritual sanc-
tions bolster the super ordinate status of upper caste groups and subordinate status of the lower
caste groups. Thus, this interrelationship leads to the minimising of disputes. Regions, which do

not stand the correlation between caste and power structures, are classified by certain features
very different from those in the previous example. Caste ranking may not be definitive and may
develop controversies about caste ranking and status within the hierarchy. Caste groups of equal
rank may be constantly in frays over their mutual positions in the hierarchy which would end up
in dissent and dispute over ranking. Such conflicts become normal over a period of time result-
ing in organised factions within the caste groups. Factions may develop disputes between them.
Lack of clarity in caste ranking results in a diluted power structure, with no single caste group
that could successfully wield economic, political and ritual power.
Spatial Expansion of Intra-Caste Relations

Since caste endogamy is marital rule (i.e., one has to marry within one’s caste), one’s kin nor-
mally belongs to one’s caste. Intra-caste relations and other caste matters are monitored by a
caste panchayat whose members are from different villages. In pre-British India, the horizontal
expansion of caste ties was capped on by the political boundaries of a number of small king-
doms. The poor roads and communication also kept away the people from mingling with other
castes, who lived beyond their boundaries.
With the unification of the country initiated by the British and the launching of better
roads and railways, cheap postage and printing, there was a quick spread in intra-caste relations
because the access was more to keep in regular touch with one another. Later, caste associa-
tions came into existence to work for the welfare of caste members. Educational institutions
and hostels were built and scholarships were sponsored to the needy of the caste. Each caste
also worked for controlling the lifestyle of its members so that the attempt to mobilize the caste
through Sanskritization could be a reality.
For the past six decades, the horizontal unity of the caste has increased and the demarca-
tion between the sub-castes has begun to break up. This is primarily due to two factors:
(i) Since numbers are important in a parliamentary democracy, horizontal unity of caste pro-
vides a better ‘vote bank’ than a wide area and this can ensure the election of a candidate
from one’s caste.
(ii) The necessity to seek educated life partners for one’s children and the demand for dowry
particularly among the higher castes have stretched the endogamous circle and speeded up
the horizontal spread of caste ties. The horizontal spread of caste ties hugely grew during
British rule and since Independence it linked the village to a much wider area
Racial Factors
The most authoritative and plausible racial classification has been given by B.S. Guha, who has
identified six major racial elements India. They are as follows:
1. Negrito
2. Proto-austroloid
3. Mongoloid
4. Mediterranean
5. Western Brachycephals
6. Nordic

The first three are veterans of humankind who dwelt in the subcontinent.
Negrito: They are confined to small provinces in the south, the Kadar, Andamanesa, Angami
Nagas and Bagadi of Rajmahal hills (Bihar). They have short stature, black skin, black woolly
hair, thick lips and broad nose.
Proto-asutroloid: They belong to mid-India in general. They have short and medium stature,
long and high head, and broad and small nose. Indo-Aryans derogatorily called them anas, das,
dasyu and nishad.
Mongoloid: They are divided into Paleo Mongoloid (Present in Nagas of Himalayan regions
and northeast India) and Tibeto-Mongoloid (Sikkim and Bhutan). They have yellow skin,
straight hair, prominent cheekbones and almond-shaped eyes with epicanthic fold.
Mediterranean: They are connected to Dravidian languages and culture. They are classified
into the following:
1. Paleo Mediterranean: Medium height, dark skinned and slight built (Karnataka, Tamil
Nadu and Kerala)
2. Primarily Mediterranean: Fair complexion (parts of Punjab)
3. Oriental Mediterranean: Long noses and fair skin (Punjab, Rajasthan and Uttar Pradesh)
Western Brachycephals: They are classified into the following:
1. Alpinoid: North and Western India
2. Dinaric: Bengal and Orissa
3. Armenoid: Parsis
Nordic: They are similar to Aryans and have fair skin, medium and long head, narrow nose and
tall stature.
Tribes
Tribes have been classified as a group of home-grown people with little background who were
entitled to have a common name, language and territory, tied by strong kinship bonds, practic-
ing endogamy, distinct customs, rituals and beliefs, simple social rank and political organization,
common ownership of resources and technology. However, in India, many of these charac-
teristics are shared by many other castes. This questions the validity in distinguishing them
from other castes. Many conceptual attempts have been made to define tribes. They have been
regarded as one of the phases in the social and cultural evolutions. Some of them have defined
that the production and consumption among the tribes are household oriented, whereas they
are not part of a wider economic, political and social network like peasants. Bailey has whined
that the only solution to the problem of classification of tribes in India is to develop a con-
tinuum at which one end has place for tribes and the other end has place for castes. The tribes
have sectarian and egalitarian systems and are not mutually inter-dependent, as are castes based
in a system of organic solidarity. They have direct access to land and no intermediary is required
to link them with land.

Geographically, the tribes are centred in five regions as follows:

1. Himalayan region (with tribes like the Gaddi, the Jaunsari, the Naga, etc.),
2. Middle India (with tribes like the Munda, the Santal, etc.),
3. Western India (with tribes like the Bhil, the Grasia, etc.),
4. South Indian region (with tribes like the Toda, the Chenchu, etc.) and the
5. Islands Region (with tribes like the Jarawas in Bay of Bengal, the Aminidivi and the Koyas
in Arabian Sea).
Guha has further classified them according to their racial features and identified that they
belong to the following three races:
1. The Proto-Australoids: They are characterised by dark skin colour, sunken nose and
lower forehead. These features are found among the Gond (Madhya Pradesh), the Munda
(Chotanagpur), the Ho (Bihar), etc.
2. The Mongoloids: This group is peculiar for their light skin colour; head and face are
broad; the nose bridge is very low and their eyes are slanting with a fold on the upper
eye lid. These features are common among the Bhotiya (Central Himalayas), the Wanchu
(Arunachal Pradesh), the Naga (Nagaland), the Khasi (Meghalaya), etc.
3. The Negrito: This group is characterised by dark skin colour (tending to look like blue),
round head, broad nose and frizzle hair. These features are recognised among the Kadar
(Kerala), the Onge (Little Andaman), the Jarwa (Andaman Islands), etc.
There are many linguistically diverse tribe communities. It is estimated that the tribes may
speak 105 different languages and 225 subsidiary languages. These languages belong to the fol-
lowing families:
1. Austro-Asiatic family with two subgroups, namely MonKhmer branch and Munda branch
which are spoken by Khasi, Nicobari, Gonds and Santhals.
2. Tibeto-Chinese family: There are two sub-families of this type, namely Siamese-Chinese
sub-family and Tibeto-Burman sub-family. But down the North-Eastern frontier of I ndia,
Khamti is one specimen of the Siamese Chinese sub-family. The Tibeto-Burman sub-
family is further sub-divided into several branches. Tribals of Nagaland and Lepcha of
Darjeeling speak variants of Tibeto-Burman languages.
3. Indo-European family: Hajong and Bhili, both belong to tribal language belong to this
group.
4. Dravidian family: Generally the language belonging to these families are spoken in south
India (e.g., Yeruva of Mysore).
These languages are a broad classification showing extreme diversity among them. For
example, among the Naga there are at least 50 different groups, each one of them has a speech
of its own and quite often the speakers of one speech do not understand the speech of others.
Variations can also be found in the size of tribal populations in different regions. Big
tribes like Gonds and Bhils number in millions, while some like Great Andamanese number
fewer than hundred. These tribes have diversities in their economic pursuits. Some tribes like
Cholanaicken rely on food collection and hunting and the others like Khasi of Meghalaya do
shilfing cultivation. Most of the tribes of middle, western and southern regions of the country
have made agriculture as their occupation, while some like the Kota of the Nilgiris live on crafts.
The craftwork is related to household level, but the collection of raw materials is related to com-
munity. For example, the basket makers may go together for collecting bamboos, but basket

making may be a family enterprise. Some tribes like the Toda in the Nilgiri and the Gujjar, the
Bakarwal and Gaddi in Himachal Pradesh depend on cattle.
The economic scenario in the tribal regions has been changing. The economic changes
may be listed as follows:
1. Forest resources have declined and forests have been increasingly brought under reserva-
tion. They are no longer the comfort zones of the tribal people except in certain areas of
North-East India.
2. Tribal people have been compelled to give away a lot of land to more experienced agricul-
turists, to industries, and for big projects like hydro-electric reservoirs
3. Big industries have been established in their areas. So, the bane is they have been displaced
by such industries and the boon is they have been given employment as wage labourers.
4. The impact of market economy has resulted in the tribals’ producing for market rather
than for meeting their own needs.
RELIGIOUS DIVERSITY
Hinduism
1. It is the popular and dominant faith practised by more than 80% of the population.
Besides Hinduism, Islam is the second most prominent religious group and is an integral
part of Indian society. In fact, the population of Muslims in India comes next to that of
Hindus and in the world it is next to the Muslim population in Indonesia.
2. The underlying canons of Hinduism cannot be easily understood. Hinduism is the only re-
ligious tradition that is so complex and diversified in its theoretical premises and practical
expressions as to be called depository of religions. This religion does not have a specific
founder nor has a holy book as a basic scriptural guide.
3. At one dimension, it is simply unravelling the ultimate reality; at the other, there are groups
that worship spirits, trees and animals.
4. Festivals and ceremonies are associated, not only with Gods and Goddesses but also with
the natural forces like sun, moon, planets, rivers, oceans, trees and animals. Some of the
popular Hindu festivals are Deepavali, Holi, Dussehra, Ganesh Chaturthi, Pongal, Janam-
asthmi and Shiva Ratri. These festive occasions lend Hinduism its remarkable and popular
appeal and make the Indian tradition ostentatious.
5. The Rig Veda, Upanishads, Ramayana and the Bhagwad Gita are called the sacred texts of the
Hindus.
6. There are umpteen Gods and Goddesses worshipped by Hindus across India. Among
these, the rudimentary aspect of Hinduism is the trinity of Brahama, Vishnu and Shiva—
the creator, the preserver and the destroyer, respectively.
7. Hinduism acknowledges polytheism combined by idol worship and natural worship.
Islam
1. It had its advent in late 7 AD when Arab traders came to Malabar Coast.
2. Islam affirms there is only one God (Monotheism) and surrendering to him leads to peace.
In the Islamic ideology, religion is not integral to life or a special kind of activity with art,
and commerce, rather it is the matrix and world view, which includes the major phenom-
ena of life.

3. Holy Koran preaches the religious principles, which is believed to contain the prophecies
of God. God is believed to have revealed them to Prophet Mohammad through angel
Gabriel (Pronounced as Jibraal).
4. Prophet Mohammad is the real messenger and perfect creation of God.
5. Hadith is the compendium of inspiring statements made by the Prophet himself, as well as
recordings of his sayings done by his companions and followers. It comprises the details
of legal significance and moral and spiritual teachings.
6. Sharia (divine law) contains the concrete apotheosis of will of God. Life from cradle to
grave is governed by Sharia.
7. Tariquat is the spiritual path, which represents the inner dimension of Islam.
8. Haji is the Supreme pilgrimage of Mecca
9. The basic observance of Islam includes worship of only one God (Tawheed), canonical
prayers (namaaz), fasting (roja), charity (zakat) and pilgrimage (haji)
Christianity
1. Christianity arrived in India from a different chronological angle. According to Syrian
Christian tradition, Apostle Thomas, one of the twelve disciples of Christ, came to vicinity
of Cochin in 52 AD.
2. The three modules of Christians’ religious life include faith in Jesus Christ as the messen-
ger of God, active service and being kind to neighbours.
3. Pope is the supreme head in all religious affairs.
4. Bible is the sacred text of Christians.
Sikhism
1. The Sikh religion came off during the early sixteenth century in the state of Punjab in
North India. The patron of this faith was Guru Nanak who was attracted to both Hindu
and Muslim saints from his childhood.
2. There are 10 main gurus. The teachings of Guru Nanak were inscribed in the Guru Granth
Sahib, the holy book of the Sikhs, which has been accepted by Sikhs as the symbol of God.
3. Guru Arjun, the fifth Guru, compiled Guru Granth Sahib and founded the Golden Temple
at Amritsar, which remains the holy shrine of Sikhs.
4. Guru Govind Singh, the tenth Guru, rendered military training to the Sikhs to train them
to defend themselves. On Baisakhi day of 1699 at Aandpur, Guru Govind Singh regulated
his Sikhs assembly by instilling customs and created a new brotherhood of Sikhs called the
Khalsa (pure ones). Five men were selected to devote their lives to Guru and they were
called Panj Pyares. They were given nectar (amrit) to mark their first entry into the broth-
erhood of Khalsa.
5. The members of the new brotherhood were instructed to wear the five symbols (the five
‘K’s)—uncut hair, a comb, a steel wrist guard, a sword and breeches. Those who adopted
such customs took new religious names—the men-Singh (lion) and the women-Kaur
(princess).
6. Sikhism advocates monotheism, which acknowledges the worship of one God. It also
refuses to accept the caste system and believes that all men are equal. However, the belief
of Hinduism especially karma and rebirth are accepted.

Jainism
1. Jainism, as a religious tradition, entered India about the same time as Buddhism did. M
ahavira
(599–527 BC), one of the Jinas (conquerors), gave the vestibules of Jain philosophy. Bud-
dhism rose against the corruption in the interpretation of Hinduism prevalent at the time, so
did Jainism. In fact, the word ‘Jain’ was derived from jin, which means conqueror.
2. The premises of jain philosophy stem from beliefs that the renunciation of worldly desires
and self-conquest would lead to perfect wisdom. This belief espouses abstinence and
asceticism as observed by the Jinas and the Tirthankars (crossing-makers). The crossing
refers to the pathway to the spiritual realm from the material world and from bondage to
freedom.
3. There are 24 Tirthankars—the first is Rishabh and the twenty-fourth is Mahavira.
There are two main categories in Jainism—Svetambara (white clothed) and Digambara
(unclothed). The third unpopular sect is sthanakvasi, who represent themselves in images.
4. The core part of this religion has been the purgation of the soul by means of right con-
duct, right faith and right knowledge. This faith expresses complete non-violence. Fasting
and austerity are considered the means for self-purification.
5. The fivefold disciplines of nonviolence, truth, honesty, sexual purity and indifference to
material would lead to maintain personal virtue for social goodness.
Buddhism
1. Emerged around sixth-century BC was Buddhism, which revolves around the teachings of
Buddha.
2. The three ornaments of Buddhism are the Buddha, the enlightened teacher, the Dharma,
the doctrine given by the teacher; and Sangha—the community of believers in the doc-
trine preached by Buddha. Dharma has four meanings—the absolute truth, right conduct,
doctrine and ultimate constituent of experiences.
3. The four noble truths which are also the major tenets of Buddhism are as follows:
a) World has sufferings.
b) The cause of sufferings is desire
c) The cause of sufferings can be removed.
d) There is a means available to remove the cause of suffering.
4. The eightfold path advocated by Buddhism is Right View, Right Aspiration, Right speech,
Right Action, Right Livelihood, Right Effort, Right Mindfulness and Right Meditation.
Given, these are accepted would lead to nirvana.
5. Buddhism has two categories—Hinayana (no concern for God and regarded Buddha as
perfect man whose precepts and examples need to be followed by each individual) and
Mahayana (Buddha as God and evolved an elaborate metaphysics involving a pantheon of
Gods and Goddesses, inspired by love for fellow beings).
Zoroastrianism
1. The Zoroastrians reached the Gujarat Coast in the tenth century, soon after the Arabian
conquest of Iran and most of them had settled in Bombay by the seventeenth century.
2. Zoroastrianism has the canon of accountability of every man and woman to choose
between good and evil and to respect God’s creations.

3. The founder of Zoroastrianism was Zarathustra, who preached monotheism and lived in
Iran in 6,000 BC. He was the first religious prophet to propound a dualistic philosophy,
based on the confronting powers of good and evil. Zoroastrians live in Mumbai by and
large, where they are known as Parsis. They have no distinctive dress codes and have a few
houses of worship.
4. Zarathustra uttered hymns for the five daily prayers and standardised the religious text
Zenda Avesta. It is read in home or temple and before fire, which symbolizes the realm of
truth, righteousness and order.
Judaism
1. The smallest religious group in India are the Jews. Judaism is believed to be based on the
revelation of Moses. Torah is the sacred text of the Jews community. Jews temples are
called by the name Synagogue.
2. The three main communities that constitute Jews in India are Bene Israel, Kerala Jews and
Baghdadi Jews.
India, known for its diversities, has multiple religious groups. Almost all major religions of
the world have their presence in the country. Amongst all the religions, Hinduism is the domi-
nant one followed by Islam, Christianity, Sikhism, Buddhism and Jainism, Judaism, Zoroastrian-
ism and Bahaism have very few followers.
Religion Percentage
All religious communities 100.0
Hindus 79.8
Muslims 14.23
Christians 2.3
Sikhs 1.72
Buddhists 0.7
Jains 0.4
Others 0.7
Religion not stated 0.2
Based on the 2011 Census data, majority of the population in India profess Hinduism.
Hindu-majority is in 27 states and UTs. Non-Hindu majority states and UTs are—Arunachal
Pradesh, Manipur, J&K (Islam majority), Mizoram, Nagaland, Meghalaya, Lakshadweep Islam
majority) and Punjab. Sizeable Muslim population is residing in Assam (30.9%), West Bengal
(25.2%), Kerala (27.4%), Uttar Pradesh (18.5%) and Bihar (16.5%). The three northeastern
states namely Nagaland, Mizoram and Meghalaya have larger number of Christian population.
Other states like Manipur, (34.0%), Goa (26.7%), Andaman and Nicobar Island (21.7%), Kerala
(19.0%) and Arunachala Pradesh (18.7%) have substantial percentage of Christian population
to the t otal population of the state. Sikhism has its stronghold in Punjab. In Punjab, Sikh popu-
lation accounts for more than 75% of total Sikh population in the country. Other states hav-
ing the presence of Sikh population are Chandigarh (16.1%), Haryana (5.5%), Delhi (4.0%),
Uttaranchal (2.5%), Jammu and Kashmir (2.0%).

Buddhist population is concentrated largely in Maharashtra (58.3%), which account for

73.4% of the total Buddhist population in India. Other states like Karnataka (3.9 lakh), Uttar
Pradesh (3.0 Lakh) are having significant presence of Buddhist population. Based on percent-
age of Buddhist population, Sikkim (28.1%) Arunachal Pradesh (13.0%) and Mizoram (7.9%)
emerged as top-three states. Large concentration of Jains are present in Maharashtra, Rajasthan,
Madhya Pradesh, Gujarat, Karnataka, UP and Delhi. Maximum percentage of Jain population
to the total population is maximum in Maharashtra (1.3%), Rajasthan (1.2%), Delhi (1.1%)
and Gujarat (1.0%). The above details best explains the diverseness in Indian society based on
regions. Though religious tolerance is largely prevalent amongst various religious communi-
ties, there have been various instances of religious tensions and riots. It is general visible that
Muslims feel uneasy on account of Babri Masjid demolition and Gujarat riots and Christians get
disturbed due to attack against the missionaries and churches.
REGION
India is a large country with diverse geographical features. We have snow-covered Himalayas
and Northern Plains in the north, desert region in the west, Deccan plateau and Coastal plains
in South India. Since historical times, the Northern Plains of India are known for prosperity due
to high agricultural fertility, and the adjoining region to its west Rajasthan do not have the same
fertility. Some areas in the North like Uttar Pradesh, Punjab were seats of power because these
regions had continuous interaction with the outside world. Himalayan States of the North and
Tribal regions in the North east of India remained untouched by the outside world. So, these
regions developed their own lifestyle and occupational pattern in accordance with their culture
and tradition. Feudalism played an important role in Indian Political system after the Mauryan
period. It clearly showed that whenever and wherever the central authority weakened, the local
lords attempt to be independent and have control over the serfs. After the decline of Mughal
Empire, the number of local kingdoms like Awadh, Bengal and Hyderabad rose to prominence.
These local rulers also showed interest in developing local culture and dialects, which led to
these regions to grow into a separate and linguistic identity.
Regional consciousness and regional identity evolved either due to geographical or cultural
identity or both. The prevalence of economic disparities coupled with regional consciousness
led to the emergence of strong regional identity that influenced to the demand for a separate
administrative setup in the form of state and autonomous councils, where they can preserve
their sociocultural identity. Development of regional identity is also visible in the present Indian
society. One of the recent successful regional movement is the formation of Telangana. Apart
from this, the emergence of recent demands for formation of smaller states a various parts of
India are emerging like Gorkhaland, Bodoland, Vidarbha.
PLURALISM
India is known for its pluralism, namely religious pluralism, cultural pluralism, linguistic plural-
ism and ethnic pluralism. Pluralism is a mechanism were it recognizes the interest of diverse
groups and sees to it that no single group dominates the region. In this context, pluralism can
said to be a diffusion of power among many special interest groups which prevent any one
group from gaining control of the government and misusing it in the power structure. Our
pluralist society comprises many groups, such as women, men, ethnic groups, tribes, racial

categories as well as different classes of people like upper class, middle class and lower class.
In such a scenario, the political domination of one group over the others could lead to neglect
the exploitation of other categories, which would result in social tensions and lead to social
disorganization.
In a democratic form of government, political power depends on the number of votes. In
such a situation, the largest group could misuse the political power for its own advantage against
the minority groups. Such a situation exists in countries where the role of religion is predomi-
nant. In these countries, minorities suffer a lot due to various kinds of disabilities that pluralism
being and inclusive concept is capable of avoiding such a kind of situations. Where pluralism
prevails, no group dominates over others. In order to attain their goals, each group must negoti-
ate with other group and make compromises wherever possible, because in a diverse society,
each group pursues its own interest. Politicians design policies that try to please as many groups
as they can. This makes the political system more responsive to the people rather than the rule
by a particular group. Thus unity and diversity are the two pillars of Indian society where plural-
ism is the mechanism through which unity amidst diversity is accomplished.
UNITY AMIDST DIVERSITY

Indian society characterized by its unity amidst diversity exhibits several factors of diversity
though it comprises various factors of unity. The several factors of unity can be seen in the fol-
lowing context:
1. Agriculture being the predominant occupation of India
2. Indian Constitution and its uniqueness
3. Parliamentary form of government providing for federal structure
4. Unified judiciary
5. Bureaucratic defence structure
6. Educational system
7. Unified transportation and communication
8. Industrialization and urbanization
9. Cultural heritage
10. Common value system
11. Secularism
12. Language
13. Religion
Despite numerous diversities, Indian society shares several bonds of unity. The first and
foremost of them is geopolitical integration. India is very well known for its geographical unity
signified by the Himalayas in the North and surrounded by oceans and the other sites. Politi-
cally, India is a sovereign state. The same constitution and parliament govern the entire territory
of it. The geopolitical unity of India was always visualized by our past rulers throughout India as
the same. The unity consciousness and expressions of unity are found in rig veda, the sanskritic
literature, in the edits of Ashoka, in Buddhist monuments and various other sources. The con-
cept of Bharat Varsha (The old indigenous classic name for India), Chakravarthy (emperor) and
Ekchhatradhivatya (under one rule) clearly prescribed to the ideals of geopolitical unity.
India is a country where people are largely influenced by religious principles and doctrines.
In this context, temple culture and temple architecture reflected in the network of shrines, and

sacred places act has another source of unity of India. From Badrinath and Kedarnath in the
North to Rameswaram in the South, Puri in the East to Dwarka in the west, the religious shrines
and holy rivers are spread across the length and breadth of the country. Closely associated with
temples and shrines is the traditional culture of pilgrimage, which has always led to movement
of people from one part of the country to other regions. For example, the famous shrines at
Tirupathi, Rameswaram, Varanasi, Ajmer, Pushkar, Golden Temple, Lotus Temple, Saravana-
balgola, Velankanni remains a famous pilgrimage centres for all religious communities in India.
Pilgrimage is also an expression of love for the mother land. It has played a significant role
in promoting interaction and cultural affinity among the people living in different parts of India
despite the regional diversity. Accommodation and tolerance are some of the remarkable quali-
ties of Indian culture. Ample evidences can be referred to explain this factor. The first evidence
of it is exhibited in the elastic character of Hinduism, which remains to the majority religion of
India. Hinduism is not monotheism, rather it has various Gods, different practices and various
texts that accommodate the religious feelings of Hindus. For the sake of simplicity, Hinduism is
said to exist in two forms: Sanskrit and Popular.
Hinduism has been an open religion, an all-encompassing and absorbing religion, that
encompasses different faith and religion. It is a highly accommodative religion as conversions
from Hinduism to other religion like Christianity, Buddhism and Islam poses a serious threat
to Hinduism. Hinduism does not seek the presence of large number of onwards for its support
base nor has it ordinarily resisted converts from other religion to Hinduism. The features of
accommodation and tolerance has paved the path for the co-existence of several religious faith
in India. Indian society was organized in such a manner that different caste groups are interde-
pendent of each other. Jajmani system, a system of functional interdependency of caste groups
is one significant manifestation that refers to functional interdependencies of caste. In Jajmani
system, there exists a functional dependency of two sets of families characterized by food-pro-
ducing family and the other the supported them with goods and services.
Indian Village life is characterized by Jajmani relations that includes various rituals, social
practices and economical interchange. The complete social order at the local level was involved
in such Jajmani links. A patron had Jajmani relations with members of both high caste (a Brahmin
priest to services the need for rituals) and members of lower caste (like Dhobi and Naibs for
various services like washing of dirty cloths, cutting of hair, delivery of the child and other such
services). These interdependent relationships were broadly supportive of different communities
with qualities of instant help that is generally seen amongst the closely knit kinsmen.
Since historical times, efforts have been taken up by sensitive and sensible leaders from
both Hindu and Muslim community to bring the two major communities close to each other.
Akbar founded a new religion din-e-ilahi combining best of both religions. Similarly Bhakti saints
like Kabir, Gurunanak, Eknath as well as some famous Sufi saints have made important contri-
butions in forging unity and oneness amongst these communities. The foundation for secular
state was laid by Mahatma Gandhi way back during the time of freedom struggle in the form of
Hindu–Muslim unity. All the above factors discussed have helped in developing a composite
culture in our country that provided a model for the preservation and growth of plurality of
cultures within the framework of a single nation. The above discussions per se does not mean
that India had a smooth sailing with regard to national unity with no incidence of caste, com-
munal linguistic, ethnic riots, nor it should not be taken to mean that the divisive and secession-
ist tendencies have been altogether absent. All these tendencies were present at very high level
at the time of partition. Looking at the recent and serious riots like those after Babri Masjid

demolition, Godhra riots, Muzaffar Nagar riots, Gharvapsi and recent incidents in Kashmir, vi-
olence and oppression against the schedule caste members from time to time and re-emergence
of regionalism across various regions in India, including the separatist tendencies in northeast
pose a series challenge to the national unity and integration. The redeeming future, however,
remains to be the bonds of unity which of always emerged stronger to provide for unity that
unities different sections of Indian population very strongly than the forces of disintegration.
PRACTICE QUESTIONS
1. ‘Indian is called as miniature of the world because of its diversity in every sphere’. Exam-
ine in social context.
2. The term ‘Unity in Diversity’ exactly holds true for Indian society. Elucidate
3. India is the birth place of three most important religions and it is safe house for all other
religion. With reference to the above statement, explain these religions role in social devel-
opment in India.
4. Moral policing and social censorship has become increasingly common in India. Are we
curbing individual rights in the name of Indian Culture? Discuss with recent happenings
to justify your stand.
5. Bring out the social effect of migration on value orientation and occupational status of the
village community in India.
PREVIOUS YEAR QUESTIONS

1. The life cycle of a joint family depends on economic factors rather than social values. Dis-
cuss. (200 words) 2014
2. How does patriarchy impact the position of a middle-class working woman in India? (200
words) 2014
3. Describe any four cultural elements of diversity in India and rate their relative significance
in building a national identity. (200 words) 2015

Chapter 2
Role of Women
and Women’s Organization
Learning Objectives

• Position of Women in History
• Condition of Women During 18th Century
• Women under British Rule
• Role of Women in Freedom Struggle
• Women’s Constitutional and Legal Rights
• Institutions for Women Empowerment
• Women Organization: Contemporary Context
• Success Story of Indian Women: Since Independence
• Problems of Women: 21st Century
• Women Empowerment Programmes
INTRODUCTION
Over the years, some sociologists and non-sociologists have devoted time and effort to assess
the problems plaguing women and to study the quality of change in the status of women in our
society. While a few have referred to the legal rights enjoyed by women in marriage, inheritance
and participation in public affairs, others have referred to the still prevalent inequality and dis-
crimination suffered by women due to the social attitudes of males and the existing customs
and traditions. Howsoever high the status of women might have been raised under the law, in
practice they continue to suffer from discrimination, harassment and humiliation. They are not
taken seriously in obtaining opinions, not treated as equal to men and not given due respect.
There are cases of junior IAS/IPS women being harassed by senior IAS/IPS men, of air host-
esses being humiliated by pilots, of junior female custom officials being ill-treated by senior
male custom officials and of female suggestive overtures or making advances to female sub-
ordinates in telephone exchanges, secretariats, newspaper offices, five-star hotels, TV centres,
colleges and universities, IITs, etc., which have become common.
Though the mother nature made women as equal half of human society, men made them as
subordinates in many ways. Within the historical context, the status of women differs signifi-
cantly with respect to civilization, religion, caste and culture, etc. The only commonality is that
they are generally housewives looking after their family.
21

POSITION OF WOMEN IN HISTORY

Indian society and Hinduism, as way of life, generally attached high moral ground for women.
Prevalence of many popular Goddess like Parvati, Saraswati, Lakshmi, Durga epitomizes this.
Our greatest epics like Mahabharat, Ramayan and Silappadikaram glorified women like Draupadi,
Sita, Kannagi as symbol of sacrifice, disciple, modesty, etc. Again the prevalence of Arthana-
reeswarar (a composite structure of God Siva and Goddess shakti) reaffirm the fact that husband
showed high reverence to their wives.
IVC: The very urban nature of Indus Valley civilization (2500 BC–1500 BC) itself revealed that
women might have enjoyed some sort of rights. The statue of dancing girl tells the women hold
in the art.
Early Vedic Age

During Vedic period or early Vedic age (1500 BC–1000 BC), women were accorded high respect
and dignity. In fact, Rig Veda places women as central to creation of all lives in the cosmos. In
education, women enjoyed equality with men. Even they were allowed to spend life in ‘Gurukul’.
Education is considered as an important qualification for women’s marriage. There were women
poets like Apala, Viswavara, Ghosa and Lopamudra during this era which is also called Rig Ve-
dic period.
Women usually get marriage lately. They have considerably freedom in choosing their life
partner, particularly in higher caste. For instance, Kshatriya society brides had excessive right of
selecting their own consorts, which was known as ‘Swayamvara’.
Dowry system is not established; but, in rich and royal families, some kind of gift is given to
the royal family. Women never observed purdah in this period. Widow remarriages were permit-
ted. Sati pratha was absent. Divorce, however, was not permissible to them. But then it was not
permissible to men either. Monogamy is general norm, but bigamy is also found in higher castes.
Property inheritance is very limited, but unmarried girl get some share of her father’s property.
In the household, they enjoyed complete freedom and were treated as Ardhangins (better halves).
In the economic field also, women enjoyed freedom. In the religious field, wife enjoyed-
full rights and regularly participated in religious ceremonies with her husband. In fact, the per-
formance of religious ceremonies was considered invalid without wife joining her husband as
his full partner. Women even participated actively in religious discourses. Women participated
in popular political assemblies.
Later Vedic Period (1000 BC–500 BC)

In this period, larger kingdoms were formed. It means more need for having large army which
in turn gave more role and prestige for men. On the other side, Brahmanism raised above the
state. Most of the religious rituals and rites not only deprived women but also made it exclusive
privilege of Brahmins. Women were denied to read Vedic texts. Both these stifled and sup-
pressed the women rights and opportunities in every possible way. Virtually, the position of
women is opposite to the early Vedic life. Education opportunities were denied. Child marriages
had become common; marriages were arranged even before puberty. Women became mere
sex toy and child-bearing machine. They were considered as inferior and subordinate to men.
Women also lost their political rights of attending assemblies. In a nutshell, a daughter has been
described as a source of misery. However, the women in the royal and rich household enjoyed
certain privileges and reached pinnacle of fame (e.g., Gargi and Maitreyi).

Chapter 2 • Role of Women and Women’s Organization 23
Women in the Medieval Period

Medieval India was a rule by Muslim kings and religious Ulmas. Then it is natural that their con-
servatism, orthodox, male-chauvinism negatively influence the society particularly women com-
munity. The existing social evils became more prominent and also new kind restriction imposed
on the women in the name of religion. The old norms of female infanticide, no education to
girls, child marriage, and dowry became more prominent.
Condition of Hindu widow is inhuman, they were taken away all kinds of worldly pleasure.
For instance, their heads were shaved. In this context, Muslim widow status is not bad because
remarriage is permitted for them. However, the institution of marriage is not sacrosanct in
Islam, men have full freedom to divorce their wife at any time.This forced Muslim women to
remain subordinate and submissive to their husband. Purdha or pardah system (covering female
body by big clad similar to modern Muslim women) was widely followed.
Other than Sati, a menace called Jauhar came into existence. Under this, wives and daugh-
ters of defeated warriors self-immolate themselves to avoid strain on their modesty and at the
hands of the enemy. As a whole, women in this dark age lived a highly secluded life sanctioned
by religious orthodox and patriarchal society.
Bhakti movement started by Tamil Saiva Nayanars and the Vaisnava Alvars in the 12th cen-
tury reformed the Hinduism which in turn had positive effect on women status transcending
caste lines. Over a period of time, the movement swept across the India creeping all religion.
For instance, Sufism evolved as moderate version of Islam significantly improved freedom of
Muslim women. The popular figures of movement in the successive centuries like Shankaracha-
rya, Ramanuja, Chaitanya, Guru Nanak, Mirabai, Tukaram vociferously voiced against ill treat-
ment and suppression of women irrespective of caste and religion.
CONDITION OF WOMEN DURING THE 18TH CENTURY

Despite the progressive impact of Bhakti Movement, Indian women continued to be oppresse
dacross the religion and caste, from womb to tomb in following ways in 18th century:
1. Female Infanticide: The practise of killing female child after the birth was widely pre-
vailed at the time particularly among upper caste Bengalis and Rajputs. For them, girl child
was economic burden.
2. Child Marriage: Marriages were done at very early age, even before puberty. This puts
unbearable physical pain and mental agony to girls.
3. Denial of Education: Education was denied to girls falsely believing that learning make
them disobedient to men and lead to loss of culture.
4. Menace Dowry: Evolved as symbolic gesture it later became mandatory for marriages.
This menace not only denied marriage for many but also made to be women even after
marriage due to low dowry.
5. Prevalence of Sati: Under this practise, wives are forced to burn themselves after the death
of their husband. Raja Ram Mohan Roy called it as ‘Murder according to every Shastra’.
6. Humiliation of Widows: Widows are considered as inauspicious. They lived a secluded
life not only from society but also from own family. Unlike Muslim women, the condition
of Hindu Widows are pathetic as they are not allowed to remarry.
7. Containment of Women in House: Women was usually contained in house, not allowed
to go out for employment opportunities. This made them perpetual dependent of male in
economic sphere.

8. No Property Rights: Women denied their due share in parents and husband properties.
But they (widows/divorced women) are burdened with growing children without financial
assistance.
9. Practise of Purdah System: It is socio- and religious practise for seclusion of women. It
takes two forms: physical segregation of the sexes and the requirement that women cover
their bodies so as to cover their skin and conceal their form.
10. Domestic Violence: Women are often subject to harassment and physical torture at the
hands of husbands.
11. Little Religious Freedom: Women were not allowed to perform certain religious rites.
Their entry denied in many of the temples.
12. No to Politics: Patriarchal society of India denied women participation in the politics and
administration of country. They are deliberately kept out of corridors of power and gover-
nance structures.
WOMEN UNDER BRITISH RULE

At the dawn of 19th century,renaissance and enlightenment-driven socioreligious reform move-
ment flowered under the British rule to voice against the suppression of women. Though
English regime undermined Indian sovereignty, they supported new emerged educated class
to liberate women from clutches of religious orthodox and male chauvinists in following ways:
1. Ending Infanticide: Infanticides are declared illegal and equivalent to murder by the
Bengal regulations of 1795 and 1804. The registration of the birth of all babies was made
compulsory for parents in 1870 act. It further provided for verification of female children
for some years after birth.
2. Abolition of Sati: At the initiative of Raja Ram Mohan Roy, Government declared the
practice of Sati (burning alive of widows) illegal and punishable by criminal courts as cul-
pable homicide in 1829. Though this regulation was originally implemented in Bengal
alone, next year it extended to other two major provinces, like Madras and Bombay.
3. Widow Remarriage: At the instance of Brahmo Samaj and Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar
Government enacted Hindu Remarriage Act, 1856. Vidyasagar cited Vedic texts to prove
that the Hindu religion sanctioned widow remarriage.
•• Vishnu Shastri Pandit founded the Widow Remarriage Association in 1850s.
•• Karsondas Mulji through his Gujarati weekly paper Satya Prakash advocated widow
remarriage.
•• Professor D. K. Karve worked for widow welfare in western India. He himself married a
widow. He also opened a widow’s home in Poona to give vocational training for widow.
•• Justice M.G. Ranade, B.M Malabari, Narmad, Veerasalingam Pantulu are the some other
women rights stalwarts.
1. Annihilation of Child Marriage: Due to the efforts of Parsi reformer B.M. Malabari,
the Age of Consent Act (1891) was enacted which forbade the marriage of girls below 12
years old. The Sarda Act (1930) further pushed the marriage age to 18 and 14 for boys and
girls, respectively.

2. Education to Women:
•• The Christian missionaries were the first to set up the Calcutta Female Juvenile Society
in 1819.
•• Bethune School was founded by J.E.D. Bethune in Calcutta in 1849 as a culmination of
power women education movement started in 1840s and 1850s.
•• Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar started about 35 girls schools in West Bengal.
•• Charles Wood’s Despatch on Education (1854) and Hunter Commission laid great
stress on need for female education.
•• Jagannath Shankar Seth and Bhau Daji actively promoted the girls’ schools in
Maharashtra.
•• Professor D.K. Karve started Indian Women University at Bombay in 1916.
•• Again in 1916, Lady Hardinge Medical College was opened in Delhi.
ROLE OF WOMEN IN FREEDOM STRUGGLE

With the help of Bhakti Movement and socio-religious reform movements, Indian women
slowly regained their lost freedom and basic human rights by the end of 19th and early 20th
century. This transition allowed women to stand shoulder to shoulder with men in the fight
against British. During national struggle, Indian women showed their patriotism, nationalism,
leadership, service mind, sacrifice attitude and vigour and valour in the following ways:
1. Jhansi Rani and Begham Hazratmahal provided inspiring leadership for 1857 revolt.
2. Kadambari Ganguly, the first woman graduate of the British Empire, went to attend the
first meeting of Indian National Congress meeting as a delegate.
3. During Swadeshi Movement, people like Urmila Devi, Durgabai Deshmukh, S. Ambujammal
and Basanti Devi educated and empowered people to boycott English goods and use Indian
goods. Common women crushed their glass bangles, observed non-cooking programme.
4. Bhikaiji Rustom Cama co-founded the Paris Indian Society. In 1907, she attended the
second Socialist Congress in Germany, where she described the devastating effects of a
famine that had struck the Indian subcontinent. In her appeal for human rights, equality
and for autonomy from Great Britain, she unfurled what she called the ‘Flag of Indian
Independence’.
5. Annie Besant started Home Rule Movement to get some sort of self-rule for India.
6. Women like Vijayalakshmi Pandit, Muthulaksmi Reddy and Aruna Asaf Ali are some the
women freedom fighters who participated in the non-violent movement of non-cooperation
and civil disobedience.
7. Sarala Debi Chaudhurani participated in revolutionary movement. She provided shelter
and acted as courier to revolutionaries.
8. Rani Gaidinliu participated in Heraka movement.
9. Kasturba Gandhi, Kamala Nehru and sister Nivedita popularised the idea of non-violence,
truth and satyagraha.
10. Aruna Asif Ali and Usha Mehta facilitated Quit India Movement by means of running
underground radio.
11. Lakshmi Sahgal headed the Jhansi unit Subhas’s INA (Indian National Army).
12. Sarojini Naidu (Nightingale of India), Sucheta Kripalani and Annie Besant headed the INC.

WOMEN’S CONSTITUTIONAL AND LEGAL RIGHTS

In the light of historical experiences and in consonance with the democratic ideals, our found-
ing fathers incorporated various provision for gender equality across the constitution they are.
Constitutional Privileges Preamble
1. It assures SOCIALIST, SECULAR, DEMOCRATIC, REPUBLIC ideals to all its citizens
without any gender bias. It also offers EQUALITY of status and of opportunity for all its
citizens including women.
Fundamental Rights
2. Equality before law for women (Article 14).
3. The State not to discriminate against any citizen on grounds only of religion, race, caste,
sex, place of birth or any of them, Article 15 (1).
4. The State to make any special provision in favour of women and children, Article 15 (3).
5. Equality of opportunity for all citizens in matters relating to employment or appointment
to any office under the State (Article 16).
6. Article 21 A (Right to education):It provides free and compulsory education of all children
in the age group of 6 to 14 years.
7. Prohibition of traffic in human beings and forced labour (Article 23).
8. Article 24 mandates that no child below age of 14 years shall be employed to work in any
factory or mine or engaged in any other hazardous employment.
DPSP
9. The State to direct its policy towards securing:
•• men and women equally the right to an adequate means of livelihood, Article 39(a);
•• equal pay for equal work for both men and women, Article 39(d).
10. To promote justice, on a basis of equal opportunity and to provide free legal aid to ensure
that opportunities for securing justice are not denied to any citizen by reason of economic
or other disabilities (Article 39 A).
11. The State to make provision for securing just and humane conditions of work and for ma-
ternity relief (Article 42).
12. Early childhood care and education to children below the age of six years-Article 45
(after 86th amendment act).
13. The State to promote with special care the educational and economic interests of the
weaker sections of the people and to protect them from social injustice and all forms of
exploitation (Article 46).
14. The State to raise the level of nutrition and the standard of living of its people (Article 47).
Fundamental Duties
15. To promote harmony and the spirit of common brotherhood amongst all the people of
India and to renounce practices derogatory to the dignity of women (Article 51 A (e)).
Political Rights
16. Voting rights are denied to women in pre-independence India, but Indian Constitution strictly
prohibited gender bias in voting by offering universal adult franchise under Article 326.

17. Under Article 243 D, one-third seats in the Panchayats including offices of chairpersons
reserved for women.
18. Under Article 243 T, one-third seats in the Municipality including offices of chairpersons
reserved for women.
Having discussed about all the various provisions enshrined, now we have to look at the
status of women in India today.How do we analyse the change in their status?
It may be maintained that the status of women in India has changed a lot from early 1950s
onwards. Both structural and cultural changes have not only provided equality of opportunities
to women in education, employment and political participation, but have also reduced the ex-
ploitation of women, and oriented women to develop their own organizations which take keen
interest in their problems,. Besides, the need for linkages among research, national policy and
programmes oriented to women has come to be increasingly realized. Several commissions have
been appointed by the central and the state governments to study the causes of low status of
women and to protect their rights in various fields. Two such important commissions were ap-
pointed by the Central Government in 1971 and 1992. The National Commission for Women
(NCW) was set up on January 31, 1992, to look into women-related issues, to probe into the
status of women, to study various legislations and points out loopholes and gaps and to looks
into the causes of discrimination and violence against women and analyse possible remedies.
Indian woman today is still not economically emancipated from man. In social, psychologi-
cal and moral dimensions also, her situation is not identical with that of man. The way she carries
on her job, profession and domestic work, and her devotion to all these depends on the context
supplied by the total pattern of her life. When she begins her adult life, she does not have behind
her the same past as has a man. She is evaluated by the society with a different perspective. A large
majority of women fail to achieve the liberation, since they do not escape from the traditional fem-
inine world. They get neither from society nor from their husbands the assistance needed to be-
come in concrete fact the equals of men. No wonder,they are still the victims of male victimizers.
The denial of right to women may be related to individual economic and demographic fac-
tors. The individual factors refer to the personality characteristics of these males who possess low
intellectual ability (IQ); who suffer from immaturity, depression and frustrations; who are alco-
holics; or who have unrealistically high expectations from women and expect them to remain
docile and passive. As regards the economic factors, the non-earning women are denied rights more
than the earning women; the low and middle-income families deny rights to women more than
the upper income families; and among the earning women, those engaged in non-professional or
low-status jobs enjoy less rights than those engaged in professions or high-status jobs. Lastly, as
regards the demographic factors, women in the upper castes are denied less rights than women in
the intermediate or the lower castes; the older males deny rights to women more than the younger
males; and rights denied by women to women are more than the rights denied by men to women.
We may also identify six types of denials of rights: money oriented, pleasure-
oriented, power-oriented, victim-precipitated, deniar’s pathology-resulted and stressful family
situations-resulted.
To address the various women-related issues in India, we have largely taken up many ef-
forts as discussed in the succeeding paragraphs.
Legislative Safeguards
In order to neutralize the cumulative disadvantage arising out of socioeconomic, education and
political factors, the Constitution of India empowers the State to adopt suitable measures of

positive discrimination in favour of women. It also provided measures to treat women equally.
Accordingly, the following are the interventionist strategies adopted by GOI.
For Women
1. Dowry Prohibition Act, 1961: It prescribes penalty for giving or taking dowry does not
apply to presents which are given at the time of a marriage to the bride or bridegroom.
2. Immoral Traffic (Prevention) Act, 1956: The Act intends to combat trafficking and
sexual exploitation for commercial purposes.
3. Commission of Sati Prevention Act, 1986: An attempt to commit sati or to abet such
an attempt is punishable with imprisonment or imposition of a fine.
4. Indecent Representation of Women (Prohibition) Act, 1986: Indecent representation
of women through advertisement and various publications, paintings, writings, figures or
in any other manner is completely prohibited through this act.
5. Protection of Women from Domestic Violence Act 2005: They not only cover physi-
cal violence against women, but also consider other forms of violence, such as emotional/
verbal, sexual and economic abuse. One of the most important features of the Act is the
woman’s right to stay in her husband’s home.
6. Sexual Harassment of Women at Workplace (Prevention, Prohibition and Re-
dressal) Act, 2013: It, among the other, demands that any workplace with more than 10 em-
ployees needs to create a mechanism for redressal of complaints against sexual harassment.
Other legislative works that aimed to safeguard women rights are Hindu Marriage Act,
1955, Hindu Succession Act, 1956, The Equal Remuneration Act, 1976 and The Contract
Labour (Regulation and Abolition) Act, 1976.
For Children
1. Child Labour (Prohibition and Regulation) Amendment Act, 2016, prohibited the em-
ployment of children below 14 years in all types of employment and adolescent in hazard-
ous employment.
2. The Prohibition of Child Marriage Act, 2006: It prohibits marriage of male if he is not
completed 21 years of age. In case of females, it is 18 years.
3. The Protection of Children from Sexual Offences Act, 2012: It provides protection to
all children under the age of 18 years from the offences of sexual assault, sexual harass-
ment and pornography.
4. The Juvenile Justice (Care and Protection of Children) Act, 2015: It comprehensively deals
with issue of juvenile delinquency and problems related to orphan and abandoned.
INSTITUTIONS FOR WOMEN EMPOWERMENT

Pre-Independence
1. Role of Mahila Mandals organized by Arya and Brahmo Samaj are commendable in the
context of women upliftment in earlier period.
2. Christian Missionaries did its best in this perspective, particularly in the context of educa-
tion and social status.
3. National Social Conference: It was as a social reform cell of INC by MG Ranade and
Raghunatha Rao in 1887. It advocated inter-caste marriages, opposed polygamy and

Kulinism (Privileges of Brahmins). It also launched ‘Pledge Movement’ to inspire people

to take pledge against child marriage.
4. Satyashodhak Samaj: Founded by Jyotiba Phule, it among the other spread education to
women.
5. Women’s India Association, Madras: Founded in 1917 by Margaret cousins, it worked
extensively for the social and education emancipation of the women.
6. National Council of Women in India (1925): Started by women’s from Mumbai,
Kolkata, Chennai, it aimed for women rights.
7. All India Women Conference (1927): It focused on all concerns of women, particularly
education.
Women NGO’s: Post-independence

Though women uplift movement in the pre-independence India was led by male, during the
post-independence era the baton was passed to women itself. Many women provided inspiring
leadership and wider base for the women right’s movement. For instance, we can found appre-
ciable number of women participation in sharecropper’s movement in Telangana in late 1940s,
anti-alcohol movements in Uttarakhand in 1960s and Chipko Movement in 1970s. However, the
women movement was divided as now they do not have British. Rather, it divided on religious,
regional, political and caste lines.
The women rights movement took upswing in 1980s culminated in Shah Bano case which
upheld the basic human rights of Muslim women defying orthodox Islam bodies. Rights group like
Forum against Rape, Stree Sangharsh and Samata active took up the issue of rape during this period.
1. Self-Employment Women’s Association (SEWA): It was the first women’s trade
union, and it was formed in 1972 focused on improving the condition of women working
in the unorganized sector.
2. All India Democratic Women Association (AIDWA): Founded in 1981 as a pan-
India women organization, it committed to achieving democracy, equality and women’s
emancipation.
3. Indian Association of Women’s Studies: Established in 1981 as an institution of
women academics and activists,it involved in research and teaching. It actively publishes
books and journals on feminist subjects.
4. Breakthrough Trust: Breakthrough Trust is working to make violence and discrimina-
tion against women and girls unacceptable. This trust engages in various multimedia cam-
paigns and mobilizes community in favour of women. It also take actions and ensures
dignity, justice and equality for all.
5. Guria Swayam Sevi Sansthan: It is working to free women and children from sexual ex-
ploitation, forced prostitution and trafficking and restoration of the rights of their children
at Varanasi and Mau (UP).
6. Jagori: The Delhi-based NGO is working on tackling sexual harassment. It is working
from the last 25 years with a vision of ‘spreading feminist consciousness for the cre-
ation of a just society’. It has started ‘Safe Delhi’ campaign to fight the problem of sexual
harassment.
7. Rangsutra: A social enterprise that seeks to bring socioeconomic development and inclu-
sive growth in rural India with emphasis on women.
8. Maher: It provides shelter and rehabilitation to destitute women.

9. Technology Information, Forecasting and Assessment Council (Institution): TI-

FAC has been instrument in generating employment for women through Knowledge In-
volvement in Research Advancement through Nurturing–KIRAN-IPR Scheme.
10. OYSS Women: Founded by women’s rights activist Manasi Pradhan in 1987, this NGO
is engaged in empowering women in India.
International NGOs
1. UN Women: Formally known as United Nations Entity for Gender Equality and the
Empowerment of Women, it assist inter-governmental bodies to frame global standards
and facilitate member states to implement the same. It also brings global cooperation and
coordination in women upliftment.
2. UNICEF (United Nations Children’s Fund): It is a United Nations programme head-
quartered in New York City that provides humanitarian and developmental assistance to
children and mothers in developing countries.
3. The International Women’s Rights Action Watch (IWRAW): It was organized in
1985 to promote recognition of women’s human rights under the United Nations Con-
vention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women (CEDAW), an
international human rights treaty.
Governmental Organizations
1. Ministry of Women and Child development: Apex body for the women development
and empowerment.
2. National Commission for Women: It was set up as statutory authority by parliament
in1992. It reviews constitutional and statutory safeguards of women and recommend im-
proving the same to government.
3. National Commission for protection of Child Rights: The statutory body was estab-
lished in 2007 with the mandate to ensure that all laws, policies, programmes and adminis-
trative mechanisms are in consonance with the child rights perspective as enshrined in the
Constitution of India and also the UN Convention on the Rights of the Child. The child is
defined as a person in the 0 to 18 years age group.
4. Central Social Welfare Board (CSWB): It was established in1953 with the objective
of promoting social welfare activities and implementing welfare programmes for women,
children and the handicapped through voluntary organizations.
5. Rashtriya Mahila Kosh (RMK): It was established as an autonomous body under
women ministry in 1993. It provides credit to NGOs for women development.
WOMEN ORGANIZATION: CONTEMPORARY CONTEXT

As we moved from women protection to women empowerment, the role of NGOs changed.
Now they are performing the following functions:
Role
1. Emancipator: Women organizations are primarily functioning as emancipator of women
from the suppression and oppression of orthodox classes and self-prescribed religious
fatwas. It sets women free from outdated, regressive social practices and customs.

2. Educator: It educates women about their legal rights and constitutional privileges,
thereby it melts away the ignorance of women and make right oriented citizen, thereby
women avoid the harassment and atrocities in the society and leads a dignified life. If at all
that happens they are empowered to deal with.
3. Mobiliser of Mass: They mobilize people at gross-root level by articulating problems of
the women,thereby NGOs highlight the serious nature of the problem to the government
and media. Such a mobilization also provides immense scope for exchange of progressive
feminist ideas.
4. Custodian of Rights: Women NGOs act as guardian of women life, custodian of women
rights and guarantor of women freedom. In case of deprivation of their rights, NGOs try
to restore them by organizing demonstrations, or by approaching the court or by high-
lighting the issue leveraging the power of media.
5. Agent of Change: Women organizations are at the forefront of social transformation by
giving adequate space for liberal thoughts, progressive ideas, modern values and practices.
Thereby it inculcates culture of tolerance and assimilation.
6. Champion of Weak: It gives special emphasis on women belongingto the weaker section
of the society, like Dalits and Tribes. They address their socioeconomic concerns with
long-term vision. They provide them utmost care in terms of health, education and hous-
ing to integrate them into mainstream development of nation.
7. Pressure Group: Nowadays, women NGOs are evolving as separate pressure groups due
to their large social base. Thereby it ensures that government policies and programmes are
relevant, need oriented and gender equitable.
Problems
1. Unorganized: Most of the women NGOs are not properly structured and systematically
managed. They are functioning as isolated units, lacking coordination and cooperation at
pan-India level. They lack in capacity building which in turn cost the efficiency and effec-
tiveness of the organization.
2. Financial Constraints: It is one of the major stumbling block for women organization.
They mainly depend on donation and do not have their own revenue generation. Govern-
mental aid for them is too meagre. Ultimately it results in poor and inadequate infrastruc-
ture facilities.
3. Narrow Base: Despite its popular cause and aim to empower half of Indian population,
its membership is less and is primarily numbered by victims and their relatives as it lacks
large-scale participation of women. Despite the fact that historically men act as torch-
bearer for women empowerment, men membership is least encouraged.
4. Corruption: In recent years, corruption and maladministration are widely prevalent
amongst few women NGOs. The revered institution is used for money laundering and
legalizing illegal wealth.
5. Urban Centric: It mainly focuses on urban and peripheral areas leaving large rural areas
where 60% of Indian population lives. The subject of women empowerment became a
matter to gain prestige and glamour for rich and educated upper class. They never address
the root of women problems instead opted for ad hoc solution to get media coverage.
6. Anti-male Approach: The term gender equality is misunderstood today by women NGOs.
They try to do everything that men do, despite their biological and cultural constraints.
Instead of solving the existing problems, they are creating ground for new conflicts.

7. No consistency: Women NGOs lack consistency in their functioning. Once the particu-
lar issue is over, they become dormant. It also failsto follow up the issue up to the last.
8. Curative: Women organizations are focusing more on curative aspects, having less focus
on preventive aspects. That is less emphasis on education and empowerment more on
sympathizing victims.
SUCCESS JOURNEY OF INDIAN WOMEN: SINCE INDEPENDENCE

Progressive constitution, democratic political system and emergence of welfare state after in-
dependence suppressed the suppression against the women and ensured equal opportunity for
them in all walks of life. Consequently during six decades of democratic journey, our country
witnessed following progressive developments in women empowerment.
Social Progress
The instance of female infanticide and child marriage sharply reduced. Women gained greater
freedom in selection of their life partner. The condition of widows is improved markedly. Widow
re-marriage is common now. Women also have higher say in divorce and second marriage.
Women made great strides in education, for example, Kiran Bedi IPS and Nirupama Rao IFS.
Economic Developments
Shedding their traditional housewife role, women made parallel inroads in economic sphere,
with respect totheir male counterparts. Nowadays, they significantly dominate the agriculture
sector, particularly animal husbandry. They also made huge inroads into high-tech service sec-
tors, like information technology, medicine, etc. Indian women also proved themselves as capa-
ble of providing leadership roles in economic spheres, for example, Chanda Kochhar (ICICI),
Kiran Mazumdar Shaw (Biocon Biotechnology), Indira Nooyi (PepsiCo), and Arundhati
Bhattacharya (SBI). Our women also adopted the Self Help Group (SHG) model to make
themselves economically independent (e.g., Kerala’s Kudumbashree).
Political Participations
Indian women also proved their metal in governance and administration of the country. They
actively participated in politics from office of ward member to the august office of PM. India
has pride of producing many successful women CMs, like Mayawati, Mamata Banerjee, and
Jayalalitha. It was the women PM Indira Gandhi,also known as Iron lady,who demonstrated
the world about India’s power. India’s largest political party INC was controlled by a women
Sonia Gandhi for about 25 years.
Scientific Achievements
Proving Gandhiji’s words that ‘Woman is more fitted than man to make exploration’, Indian
women excelled in science and technology. Side-lining wrong medieval perception women dem-
onstrated their mental power in this field. Indian women like Anna Mani (meteorology),
Dr. Indira Hinduja (gynecologist), Dr. Aditi Pant (Oceanographer), Kalpana Chawla (Space),
Sunita Narain (environment), and Dr. Tessy Thomas (The Missile Women of India for her role
in Agni series) are some of the best popular faces in this context.

Cultural Contributions
Indian women also showcased their cultural sense in fields, like music, dance, cinema, sports.
Women like M.S. Subbulakshmi, Rukmini Devi, Lata Mangeshkar, P.T. Usha, Karnam
Malleswari, Sania Mirza, Mary Kom, and P.V. Sindhu are some of the well-known faces.
PROBLEMS OF INDIAN WOMEN: 21ST CENTURY

Anything else, the problems of women is changed from time to time with the changing circum-
stances. The 21st-century India faces the following problems:
1. Female Infanticide: Though female infanticide is sharply reduced,it continues to be
prevalent in different forms for different reasons. Male child quest-driven sex selection is
common now. The problem is more among educated urban and rich people.
2. Worst Child Sex Ratio: As per the 2011 Census, the child sex ratio (0–6 years) has shown
a decline from 927 females per thousand males in 2001 to 919 females per thousand males
in 2011. Small-family desire, dowry burden and son preference are behind this.
3. Low Sex Ratio: India has 940 females per 1,000 of males as per 2011 census. Though the
trend is moving in good direction when compared to 2001 census (933), there is huge gap
in gender equality.
4. Child Abuse: Creating strain on our moral fabric children, particularly female child, are
now abused that too by relatives and parents. This not only creates physical pain but also
metal agony unsuitable to the age.
5. Inferior Treatment: Women are given inferior treatment from womb to tomb. They are
seen as a liability in the material world. They are not properly educated rather employed
as child labour. Their health is not properly taken care. Their emotions, feeling and happi-
ness are often neglected.
6. Problem of Dowry: Still millions of women get late married or married not at all because
of the menace of dowry. It creates lot of emotional tensions in the family and society at
large.
7. Domestic Violence: Though status of women in their husband home is improved lot,
still women are facing domestic violence for dowry or love marriage or inter-caste mar-
riage reasons.
8. Harassment at Workplace: With more women engaged in job outside home, they are
subject to harassment at work place by their superiors and peers. Women reeling under
economic constraints even do not have opportunity to disclose their problems.
9. Safety: The safety and security of Indian women in public place is pathetic. Molestation,
rape, eve teasing are everyday phenomena at present. India’s rich tradition is facing back-
lash at world stage because of this.
10. Trafficking: The trafficking of girl child and women are ever increasing. The problem is
such an act is done by organized crime syndicate with well-developed and connected net-
work. Trafficked women are used for flesh trading and criminal activities.
11. Low Literacy: Even after six decades of independence, the literacy rate of women is just
over 65% as against men’s 82 plus. This clearly shows that women education is less impor-
tant for Indian society.
12. Non-valuing Housewife job: Despite the hectic and restless work done by our women
in kitchen and home from early morning to late night, their contribution is not appreci-
ated. Because neither it is monetarily valued nor publically rewarded.

13. Feminization of Agriculture: With growing tendency of migration of men for work and
consequent handover of agriculture job to household women leads to feminization of
farming. Disguised nature of Indian agriculture puts women in perpetual state of poverty.
14. Less Economic Engagement: Though women widely participate in all kinds of jobs,
still their economic engagement is less compared to men. For instance from 2004 to 2011,
female participation in the country’s labour force declined from 35% to 25%. It is a puz-
zling picture; over the past few decades’ access to education for Indian women has in-
creased, but still they have increasingly stayed away from employment.
15. Lack of Political Participation: Despite gender-neutral constitution, women participa-
tion in the politics is insignificant. In fact, women MPs in 16th Lok Sabha is just over
11%. The one-third reservation offered for women in Panchayats are captured by estab-
lished politicians’ wives and daughters.
WOMEN EMPOWERMENT POLICIES AND PROGRAMMES

Realizing the fact that empowerment of women is sine qua non for creating inclusive and egali-
tarian society, Indian government took the following initiatives:
Policies
1. National Policy for Empowerment of Women 2001: It calls for gender sensitivity in
socio- and economic policies. It also pitched for equal access for women in health,
education and employment. It also voiced against all forms of gender discrimination and
humiliation.
2. National Policy for Children, 2013: It assures all-round development of children with
strong support from State. And so it vowed for quality education, safe, healthy and happy
life among the others.
3. National Nutrition Policy 1993: It ensures adequate nutrition for children to have good
physical and mental health by avoiding nutrient deficiency diseases, learning impairment,
stunted growth, etc.
Programmes
1. Beti Bachao Beti Padhao Scheme: It aims the prevention of gender-biased sex-selec-
tive elimination, ensuring survival and protection of the girl child, ensuring education and
participation of the girl child.
2. ICDS (Integrated Child Development Scheme): It aims to improve the nutritional
and health status of children in the age group 0–6 years,and also to enhance the capability
of the mother to look after the normal health and nutritional needs of the child through
proper nutrition and health education.
3. Integrated Child Protection Scheme (ICPS): It aimed at building a protective environ-
ment for children in difficult circumstances, as well as other vulnerable children, through
Government–Civil Society Partnership. It brings together multiple existing child protec-
tion schemes of the women ministry under one comprehensive umbrella.
4. Rajiv Gandhi Scheme for Empowerment of Adolescent Girls (RGSEAG) Sa-
bla: It provides health and nutrition assistance facilities for adolescent girls, including
drop-out girls. It also educates them about public services and train them on skill for
self-development.

5. Kishori Shakti Yojana: It aims to empower adolescent girls, so as to enable them to take
charge of their lives.
6. National Children’s Fund: It aims to raise funds (from individuals, institutions, cor-
porates) to promote and fund the various programmes for children who are affected by
natural calamities, disasters, distress and in difficult circumstances.
7. Weekly Iron and Folic Acid Supplementation (WIFS) Programme: It aims to meet
the challenge of high prevalence and incidence of anaemia amongst adolescent girls and
boys.
8. Support to Training and Employment Programme for Women (STEP): It aims
to provide skills that give employability to women in the age group of 16 and above to
make them self-employed/entrepreneurs. Grants-in-aids are given under the scheme for
NGOs.
9. Working Women Hostel.
10. Recognitions and motivations: Awards like Stree Shakti Puraskar, Nari Shakti Puras-
kars, Zila Mahila Sammnas and Rajya Mahila Sammnas are given to the individuals and
institutions that worked selfless for the upliftment of the women.
11. UJJAWALA: A Comprehensive Scheme for Prevention of trafficking and Rescue,
Rehabilitation and Re-integration of Victims of Trafficking and Commercial Sexual
Exploitation
12. Mahila police Volunteers
13. Janani Suraksha Yojana: It aims to promote institutional delivery by offering free prena-
tal and post-natal care.
14. Indira Gandhi Matritva Sahyog Yojana (IGMSY): It is a Conditional Maternity Ben-
efit Scheme. Similar to this scheme under National Food Security Act, 2013, pregnant
women and lactating mothers will also be entitled to receive maternity benefit of not less
than Rs. 6,000.
15. Rajiv Gandhi National Creche Scheme: It provides day-care facilities to the children of
working women.
16. SWADHAR Greh: A Scheme for Women in Difficult Circumstances.
17. Women Helpline Scheme.
18. One-Stop Centre Scheme: It aims to provide integrated support and assistance under
one roof to women affected by violence, both in private and public spaces.
19. Gender Budgeting: Almost all ministries and departments adopted gender-sensitive
budgeting, thereby earmarked the money for women at the policy stage itself.
20. National Mission for Empowerment of Women (NMEW): It aims to achieve holis-
tic empowerment of women through convergence of schemes/programmes of different
Ministries/Department of Government of India as well as State Governments.
Apart from the above, we have schemes like MGNREGA, Asha, National Rural Health
Mission and National Rural Livelihood Mission which have special focus on women develop-
ment. For instance, MGNREG Act mandates one-third of the employment generated under the
scheme to women.
PRACTICE QUESTIONS
1. Bring out the various work place related challenges faced by women in the Indian society.
What are the various governmental and nongovernmental measures to address this issue?

2. Economic empowerment is the only resort to bring about the so called gender equality in
India. Discuss.
3. It is not merely the policies and programmes of the government that can ensure the right
place for women in Indian society, rather change in social attitude of the people is the
need of the hour. Give your opinion citing relevant examples.
4. Compare the position of women in Rural India vis-a-vis the position of women in urban
India.
5. Give an account of the various women empowerment initiatives in India and their impact
on the position of women.

1. ‘Male membership needs to be encouraged in order to make women’s organization free
from gender bias’. Comment. (200 words) (10 marks) 2013
2. How does patriarchy impact the position of a middle-class working woman in India? (200
words) (10 marks) 2014

Chapter 3
Population and Associated Issues
Learning Objectives

• Introduction
• Determinants of Population Change
• Age and Sex Structure
• Effects of the Rapid Population Growth in India
• Population Control Measures
• Population Policy of India
• A New Approach
• Appendix
INTRODUCTION
India with a population of about 1,210 million (in 2011) accounts for 17.5% of the world
population. It is the second-largest country in the world, next only to China with a popula-
tion of about 1,341 million (in 2010). Six countries (China with 19.4%, India with 17.5%,
United States with 4.5% Indonesia with 3.4%, Brazil with 2.8% and Russia with 2%) account
for nearly half (49.6%) of the world’s population. In other words, the population of India,
at 1,210 million, is almost equal to the combined population of the United States, Indo-
nesia, Brazil, Pakistan, Bangladesh and Japan—the population of these six countries totals
1,214 million.
The scale at which India’s population is increasing is simply mind-boggling. While the
total population of our country in 1941 was 31.86 crores, it increased to 36.10 crores in 1951,
43.92 crores in 1961, 54.81 crores in 1971, 68.33 crores in 1981, 84.64 crores in 1991, 102 crores
in 2001 and 121 crores in 2011, according to the provisional data of 2011 Census. The United
Nations has estimated that the world population grew at an annual rate of 1.23% % during 2000
to 2010. China registered a much lower growth (0.53%) during this period as compared to India,
which recorded an annual growth rate of 1.64% % during 2001 to 2011.
Few Facts about Indian Population

1. The population of India, at the turn of the 20th century, was only 238 million, which
has increased by more than four times in a period of 110 years to reach 1,210 million
in 2011.
2. Interestingly, the population of India grew by one and half times in the first-half of the
20th century, while in the later half it recorded a phenomenal threefold increase.
37

3. It is also significant to note that the decadal growth in percentage terms during 2001 to
2011 has registered the sharpest decline since independence—from 23.87% in 1981 to
1991 to 21.54 in 1991 to 2001, that is, a decrease of 2.33%. In 2001 to 2011, this has be-
come 17.64%—a further decrease of 3.90%.
4. Thus, while the rate of growth of population during the first of the 20th century was mod-
erate, in the later half it was faster as well as alarming though changes in net addition have
shown a steady declining trend over the years.
5. The disaster of galloping population in India can be recognized from the following facts:
•• At present, a little more than one out of every six persons in the world is from India.
•• India accounts for a meagre of 2.4% of the world’s surface area of 135.79 million km2,
whereas it supports and sustains a whopping 17.5% of world’s population.
•• As China is constantly showing lower growth in its population over the last few years, it
is now estimated that by 2030, India will most likely overtake China to become the most
populous country on the earth.
•• The four big states of Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh and Bihar account for
approximately 40% of country’s total population and still have an alarming high crude
birth rate.
•• More than three times as many couples enter the reproductive span than those leav-
ing it, with the fertility rate of the younger group being three times higher than that of
those passing out of the reproductive range.
•• At the present rate of population growth, the Indians life, especially under privileged
section of the population, would be unbearable. It is because of government cannot
serve every section of population due to scarcity of physical and technical resources,
exorbitant medical facilities, education and housing, etc. At this rate of growth, poor
will increase and pull India in downward side in every aspect.
Thus, there is immediate need to focus serious attention on containing population growth
in India as India, with the second-largest population in the world, fights valiantly to overcome a
historical legacy of social and economic backwardness, a steep population growth not only ne-
gates the little achievements but also puts tremendous pressure on our already overloaded system.
DETERMINANTS OF POPULATION CHANGE

The size and growth of population are two important components of the demographic
phenomena in a developing country like India. These have severe implications on the social and
economic spheres of our life
Three factors determine the change in the size of the population of any country:
•• How many persons are born?
•• How many persons die?
•• How many persons are added to the population after considering the number of persons
leaving the country and the number of persons coming into the country?
The last of these factors, that is, migration does not play a large role in determining popu-
lation growth in the Indian context. It, therefore, becomes necessary to consider in greater detail
the other two factors, that is, fertility and mortality.

Chapter 3 • Population and Associated Issues 39
•• Fertility
•• Determinants of fertility
The basic determinants of fertility include fecundity, age at marriage, duration of marriage,
marriage systems, sexual habits, etc. For our convenience, we may classify these factors into
four broad categories of biological, demographic, socio-cultural and economic factors.
Demographic Determinants
Among the demographic factors that control fertility, age composition, sex composition, de-
gree of urbanization, duration of marriage and working, non-working status of females are
prominent.
•• The age structure a population: the proportion of population in reproductive age group
will have a direct bearing upon birth rates. The countries having youthful population are
the leading contributors to the world’s population growth. Most of the countries of Asia,
Africa and Latin America fall in this group.
•• Factor of age structure is the factor of duration of marriage. Longer the duration of mar-
riage, greater is the fertility rate. In countries like India where incidence of early marriage
is quite common, a positive correlation between fertility and duration of effective mar-
riage has been observed.
•• The balanced sex composition of a particular locality, either may be urban or rural, is an-
other demographic determine of fertility. Urban centres are dominated by male and thus
exhibit low birth rate compared to rural centres.
•• The factor of residence or the degree of urbanization. It has often been observed that the
urban dwellers have low birth rates in comparison to their rural counterparts. The require-
ments of urban living are very much different from those of rural life. A variety of socio-
economic factors create an ethos for low birth rates in urban areas.
•• There exists a correlation between fecundity index and participation of females in ec-
onomically gainful activities has been often talked about. The correlation is negative in
nature, that is, working women contribution towards to human fertility is low when com-
paring to non-working women. It exposes them to outside world and makes them socially
and economically more awakened. At times, even the type of occupation they are involved
in may influence their fertility behaviour.
Social Determinants
The social determinants of human fertility become very significant. As sex may be a biological
necessity, the desire to have a child is more a social necessity. That is why the list of social deter-
minants is much longer than that of biological and demographic determinants. Among the socio-
cultural determinants, religious background, ethnic structure, educational level, age at marriage,
traditions and customs relating to marital and sexual life, primacy of individuals, the attitude of
people towards family size restrictions, desire to have a son and government policies are prominent.
•• The religious background of a person seems to play a prominent role in govern-

ing his mental attitude towards the size of his family. Although, all religions are
opposed to the deliberate control on human fertility, yet the degree of control may vary

from religion to religion. Kingsley Davis observed that in India, although the Muslims and
Hindus live in similar environments, yet the birth rates of the Muslims were found to be
significantly higher than those of the Hindus.
•• An inverse correlation has often been observed between the level of education and the
fertility index. There is no denying the fact that education, particularly of girls, has a far
reaching impact upon the fertility patterns. While education, in general, helps in bringing
down the birth rate, there is always a critical level of education. In Indian context about a
10-year schooling has been observed as the critical point.
•• The age at marriage is another basic social determinant of human fertility. The societ-
ies that are characterized by a low age at marriage exhibit high fertility rate, implying an
inverse correlation between birth rate and the age at marriage. In case of India, it has been
argued that the birth rate can be reduced by at least one-third if all Indian females marry
after attaining the age of 19 years. The factor of age at marriage also operates through the
factor of duration of marriage.
•• The traditions and customs relating to marital and sexual life also influence fertility pat-
terns. The societies which are characterized by marriage systems permitting loose mar-
tial ties and liberal sexual behaviour often have low fertility level due to greater incidence
of venereal diseases. Both polygamy and polyandry have a negative effect upon fertility
because plurality diminishes the fecundity of females. Similarly, customs like prolonged
breast-feeding, restrictions on cohabitation during the suckling period, segregation of
spouses after child birth for purification, restrictions on sexual activity in one form or the
other also reduce the conception rate.
•• The primacy of individuals (man, woman, child) in the family is another social determi-
nants of family size. The status of man, woman and the child in the family is an important
index of the mental attitude of the family towards family size. Child of the day has be-
come more expensive and demands better care, the deliberate control over the birth rate
has been accentuated. In highly enlightened families, even the children in the family may
force their parents to adhere to small family norms.
•• The role of government policies in the fertility patterns of their respective countries is
also increasing. The population policies advanced by different countries from time to time
reflect the government’s mind and the direction in which it wants its people to move in
this regard. It is really creditable for China to have adopted a strong population policy with
a view to slashing down its birth rate considerably. On the other hand, the Indian experi-
ence shows that the lukewarm approach yields no fruitful results even in the presence of a
clear-cut population policy of the government. India needs to have more comprehensive
population policy and better determination to implement the same.
Economic Determinants
•• The income level of the family is, of course, the most prominent. Although a negative
correlation between income level and the family size has been observed, yet the deliberate
attempts to check the family size are more common in that section of society which has
the widest gap between the desired and actual income levels. It implies that the middle in-
come group, which normally is the most ambitious section of society, applies the strictest
control over family size. In the lower income group, where the children are considered as

the potential source of augmenting the family income, the restrictions on the family size
are the minimum. In the higher income group, where the supporting capacity of the fam-
ily is unlimited, the family size is also kept low but not the lowest.
•• The factor of standard of living is largely dependent upon the income level. However,
in general, the poorest all over the world show high birth rates and the richest low birth
rates.
•• The fertility is also determined by the dietary habits of the people. The correlation
between higher intake of protein and fertility was observed in animals, and studies show
higher intake of protein reduces fertility.
•• The combination of biological factors, socio-cultural factor and economic situation
determine the fertility of the population. There is no once factor affects population
growth fully, but it is combination of all affects the fertility.
Several factors contribute to the high fertility of Indian women. Let us examine some of
these factors:
1. All the religions of the world, except Buddhism, contain injunctions to their followers to
breed and multiply.
2. Another factor contributing to high fertility is the universality of the institution of
marriage. For the Hindu woman, marriage is considered essential, because it is the only
sacrament she is entitled to, though the Hindu man goes through several sacraments
throughout his life.
3. Till recently, the custom in India required the Hindu girls to be married off before
they entered puberty. In India, traditionally women start childbearing at an early age, and
continue to do so till they cross the age at which they are no longer biologically capable of
bearing children.
4. As in all traditional societies, in India too, great emphasis is laid on bearing children.
A woman, who does not bear children, is looked down upon in society.
5. The preference for sons is deeply ingrained in the Indian culture. Sons are required for
extending the family line and for looking after the parents in their old age.
6. Children are considered to be gifts of God, and people believe that it is not up to them
to decide on the number of children. High infant and child mortality rates also con-
tribute to a large family size. A couple may have a large number of children in the hope
that at least a few of them will survive up to adulthood.
7. The low status of women is also a contributing factor to high fertility. Women, unques-
tioningly, accept excessive childbearing without any alternative avenues for self-expression.
8. Environmental causes such as hot or cold climate: The countries or regions with hot
climate generally have high fertility compared to the areas with cold climate.
9. Children in the Indian society have a great economic, social, cultural as well as religious
value.
10. Again in the absence of widespread adoption of methods of conception control, the
fertility of Indian women continues to remain high.
11. Widening gap between birth and death rates: The average annual birth rate in India,
which was 42 per thousand population in 1951–61, came down to 24.8 per thousand in
2011. The death rate also came down from over 27 per thousand population in 1951–61

to just 8 in 2011 (Census of India, 2011). Thus, since birth rate has shown a moderate de-
cline and the death rate has gone down rather sharply, the widening gap has increased our
population rapidly. The total fertility rate (average number of children born per woman)
came down from about 6 in the 1950s to three in 2011.
12. High illiteracy: Family planning has a direct link with female education, and female
education is directly associated with age at marriage, general status of women, their fer-
tility and infant mortality rate and so forth. According to the provisional report of the
2011 Census, the overall literacy percentage in India is 74.04 as compared to 64.83 ten
years ago. The male literacy percentage is 82.14, while the female literacy percentage
is 65.46.
Other Causes
Some of the other causes responsible for the increase in population are as follows:
•• Joint family system

•• Lack of responsibility of
young couples in these families to bring up their children; lack of
recreational facilities
•• Lack of information or wrong information about the adverse effects of vasectomy, tubec-
tomy, etc.
It is important that none of these factors is to be seen in isolation. Indeed, it is the combi-
nation of several factors that contribute towards the high fertility rate in India.
MORTALITY
Determinants of Mortality
The causes of mortality vary both in space and time. Spatially different regions are of different
stages of socio-economic development and technological advancement. The changes that have
taken place in the mortality patterns of population, through time, by far, constitute the most
significant aspect of demographic transition. The decline in mortality rates has been the most
favourable aspect of the process of population development.
There is a large variety of factors that determine the mortality patterns in the world.
The mortality rates, in any area may be governed by its
1. Demographic structure,
2. Social advancement and
3. Economic development.
Thus, the determinants of mortality may conveniently be classified into three basic catego-
ries of demographic, social and economic factors.
•• Demographically,the age structure is most prominent. Other demographic factors like

sex composition and degree of urban development are also significant. Age struc-
ture of a population has been mentioned as the most prominent demographic factor

governing the incidence of mortality in a population. It is commonly agreed that the mor-
tality risk declines as the child matures but begins to increase in the middle age. Thus,
the countries that have an age structure in favour of middle-ages and old ages display
high mortality rates. It has been universally accepted that mortality rates of males and
females are different from each other because of the varying resistance power of the two
sexes. The mortality rates changes at all ages due to a variety of reasons like malnutrition,
high maternal mortality rate under poor conditions of medical care, subordinate status to
women, neglect of female children and a pious feeling of sacrifice among the females for
their spouses and children.
The degree of urban development also has its own contribution to make as far as the pat-
terns of mortality are concerned. The mortality rate in urban areas was much above the mortal-
ity rate of the rural areas during the historic past. Recently, the gap has been narrowed down
and at places, the positions have been reversed. In this regard also the developed and the less
developed countries present a contrast. In the less developed world, the urban mortality is lower
than the rural mortality, whereas in the more developed realm, reverse is more true. The high
per capita income, high literacy rates, greater awareness of health hazards in comparison to their
rural counterparts, all of these factors arrest the mortality in the urban areas.
Socially, incidence of infanticide, restrictions on widow remarriage, adequacy of medical
facilities, general conditions of nutrition, housing and sanitation, literacy standards and religious
beliefs are important. Socially, the prevalence of infanticide in a society influences the mortality
rates. In India, female infanticide had been practiced due to the relatively low status granted to
women. Here, female child is considered a liability. While the male child is considered as an as-
set. This gave rise to female infanticide in the past. All those societies where the infanticide was
practiced in one form or other suffered a high mortality rate. The availability of adequate medi-
cal facilities is a social factor determining mortality. The differences in the mortality rates of the
developed and the less developed realms are largely the product of this factor. There is said to
be a positive correlation between the number of persons per physician and the mortality rate.
Similarly, the mortality rates are also found to be inversely correlated with literacy standards,
which govern people’s knowledge of health hazards.
The economic factors, the standard of living or per capita income and type of economy
are considered significant. Besides, the factors like natural calamities, wars, epidemics, food
shortages also cause mortality on a large scale as and when these come. It is the income of an
individual, which not only determines the richness of his diet but also the person’s capacity to
avail him/her the medical facilities. It is only to signify that the income of a person can help in
buying him medical care. Such differences in the mortality rates of the rich and the poor occur
only when there are wide inequalities in incomes and the medical facilities are not universally
available. Once the medical facilities become universally available, the inequalities in the mortal-
ity rates of people belonging to different income groups dim.
Apart from these factors, mention has also been made of natural calamities, wars, epidem-
ics, food shortages, which may cause large-scale deaths at times. These factors, of course, were
more prominent in the historic past and now the world is tightening its grip over the abnormal
deaths caused by such factors. However, these factors have to be kept in mind whenever an
assessment of mortality in any area is to be made.

AGE AND SEX STRUCTURE

Age and sex are also important factors as these affect demographic structure, social, economic
and political status of a society. These are also biological attributes of any population.
Each individual is ascribed a certain status in society on the basis of sex and age. Status
and roles are culturally determined, and vary from one culture to another. Even within the same
culture, status and roles may undergo changes over a period of time. While in traditional societ-
ies, age demands respect, modern societies may be more youth-oriented. While the age structure
of a population may have implications for the status and roles of older persons, the sex structure
may be a reflection of the social reality.
The age-sex structure of a population is both the determinant and consequence of birth
and death rates, internal and international migration, marital status composition, manpower and
the gross national product. Planning regarding educational and health services, housing, etc., is
done on the basis of the age structure of the population.
Dependency Ratio
Dependency ratio, that is, number of dependants per 100 workers, is an important and effective
measure to analysis the structure of the population. For the purpose of studying dependency
ratio, two dimensions are taken into account. One is working age population—from 15 to 64
(the working age is always depends upon the economy under consideration). Less than 15 years
and more than 50 years or 64 years are considered as young dependent population and old de-
pendant population, respectively. The formula for dependency ratio computation is:
Dependency Ratio = Population in the age group 0–14 years of age (young dependent
population) + Population in the age group 65 plus (old dependent population)/Population in
the age group 15–64
The ration will give broad structure of the population, but the specific details are not know
because, in all developing countries, especially countries like India have a huge population com-
piled with high unemployment ratio will make even the working age group as a dependent. This
is huge burden to the economy also. The children under the age of 14 at times start to work
and economically contribute, which make them as non-dependent economically. So we can see,
both the extreme.
Age Structure in India: Determinants and Implications

“Young population” is high in India, especially the present decade, because the birth rates are
high and death rate decreased considerable because of advancement in science and technology.
This phenomena is common to developing nations such as India, but developed nations has low
birth rate complied with low death rate hence, they experience aging population trend. Gener-
ally, age of mortality determines the population structure. Infants and children first experience
the improvement in science and technology, which ultimately reflects in reduction in death per-
centage in younger generations which reflects increase in the proportion of the young persons
in the population as in the case of India. Rate of mortality increases, which will lead to death in
all age group and the population gets aging.
The young population does not contribute to economy of a country or to a family imme-
diately, because their basic needs such as education, medical facilities, shelter, clothing, etc., are
burden to family and ultimately government analyzing in economical terms.

Measurement of Sex Structure

Generally, the measure used for studying the age structure of a population is sex ratio. It is of
two types: calculating number of females per 1,000 male population and calculating number
of males per 1,000 female population. Of these two, former is followed in many countries.
Indian census also calculated the former, that is, number of females per 1,000 male population.
It is lower than we expected in the last census (2011) that is 940 female per 1,000 male popula-
tions. Hence, government of India has started various measures to improve the same. Countries
like France has more than 1,000 as sex ration, that is, more than 1,000 female per 1,000 male
population.
The three factors determining the sex ratio of any population are: (1) the sex ratio at birth,
(2) the sex ratio of the deceased persons and (3) the sex ratio of the net migrants.
At times, low sex ratio is a result of under-reporting of women in census surveys as mem-
bers of the household by male heads of the family.
Of all these factors, high mortality of the females appears to be the most plausible
explanation for the sex ratio in India, which is adverse to the females. Though biologically
stronger than the male, the female in India is in a socially and culturally disadvantaged po-
sition and has been accorded an inferior status over the centuries. The death rates for the
females in most age groups are higher than those for the males. Of the other factors, the sex
ratio of new-born babies is not much different from that in other countries. Hence, a sex ratio
that is adverse to the females, a peculiarity of the Indian demographic picture, need not be
attributed to this factor. As for international migration of men, it is quite insignificant and is,
therefore, not found to affect the sex ratio in India. Under-enumeration of the females can-
not explain more than a very small part of the numerical imbalance between the males and the
females in India.
Sex Ratio in India

The latest census of 2011 has revealed a marginal improvement in the country’s sex ratio from
933 in 2001 to 940 in 2011. Both Kerala (1,084) among states and Puducherry (1,038) among
union territories continued to have the distinction of having excess of females over males,
while in rest of states and union territories the paucity of females continued to exercise the
academic minds. Kerala among states was followed by Tamil Nadu (995) Andhra Pradesh (992),
Chhattishgarh (991), Manipur (987), Meghalaya (986), Odisha (978), Mizoram (975), Himachal
Pradesh (974) in this order. Other states that too had a sex ratio above the national average
of 940 included Karnataka (968), Goa (968), Uttarakhand (963), Tripura (961), Assam (954)
Jharkhand (947) and West Bengal (947).
At the other end of the scale, Haryana continued to be at the bottom with the lowest sex
ratio of 877 despite marginal improvement in its sex ratio from 861 in 2001 to 877 in 2011.
Jammu and Kashmir with a decline in its sex ratio from 892 to 883 during 2001–2011 shifted to
second place from below after Haryana. Jammu and Kashmir was followed by Sikkim (889) and
Punjab (893) despite marginal improvement in their sex ratio during the last inter-censal period.
The sex ratio of Sikkim improved from 875 to 889 and that of Punjab from 876 to 893 during
2001–11.
The two extremes of Kerala and Haryana both have their explanation in the status of
women in the two states. It needs repetition here that in Haryana, the women folks continue to

have comparatively low status, while in Kerala the women enjoy relatively better status. Simi-
larly, in terms of migration too, both states have contrasting situations. While Kerala continued
to experience male-selective out-migration in search of employment, resulting in female surplus
in its population, Haryana on the other hand, has the contrasting situation. Its location near the
National Capital Territory of Delhi results in comparatively rapid growth of economy and hence
of employment opportunities, which attract male workers resulting in imbalance in the state’s
sex ratio. Thus, male-selective out-migration in case of Kerala and male-selective in-migration
in case of Haryana hold the key to their sex ratio contrasts. Also, an additional factor in case
of Haryana is that of low child sex ratio of 830. Above all, strong desire to have a male child in
Haryana families coupled with desire to limit family size too have encouraged female foeticide
and have yielded low sex ratio in case of Haryana.
Few facts related to sex ratio in India:
1. The contrast between North and South India continues in terms of sex ratio, while the
former continues to display low sex ratio, the latter still has high sex ratio.
2. The north-eastern and north-western parts of the country too have contrasting sex ratio
pattern. North western parts of India continue to display lowest sex ratio in the country,
while the north-eastern parts get clubbed with South India in terms of sex ratio pattern.
3. Western parts of India are, by and large, characterised by moderate sex ratio which is close
to the national average.
4. Christian predominant areas display relatively high sex ratio. Same is the case with tribal
belts of India.
5. The hill regions of North India too display high sex ratio mainly due to male-selective out-
migration from such areas.
6. Punjab, Haryana, Delhi, Western Uttar Pradesh continue to be the traditional areas of
acute paucity of females. Needless to stress that this belt has emerged as the most notori-
ous area of high rate of female foeticide forcing the governments of these states come out
with stringent laws to deal with this menace of female foeticide.
7. Due to such measures taken by the government, the number of districts with lowest sex
ratio of less then 850 has declined from 48 in 2001 to 21 in 2011.
8. With the large increase in the number of districts with a sex ratio of more than 1,000 and a
decline in the number of district with a sex ratio of less than 850, the general pattern of sex
ratio in the country seems to be improving. Thanks to increasing life expectancy (68.1).
Males had a life expectancy of 65.8 years in 2011.
9. The regional contrasts in sex ratio owe their origin to regional variations in the status be-
ing granted to women, migration pattern and the extent of female foeticide.
10. It is not easy to change the mind-set and value system of a society. It is too gradual a
process that may take decades/centuries. However, as the society become literate, role of
electronic media and government policies in bringing such changes becomes more promi-
nent. And that is what is happening in case of India.
Sex Ratio in India: An Analysis from Census 2011

The sex ratio in India is characterized by the differences in its rural–urban components, be-
tween various religious groups, between various social groups, and between various regions. As

regards the sex ratio of urban and rural population of India, it presents a contrastingly differ-
ent pattern in comparison to the Western countries. The rural areas in India have a sex ratio of
947 females per 1,000 males, and the urban areas have a sex ratio of only 926 females per 1,000
males (2011).
Thus, the urban population of India is characterized by acute paucity of females. As
observed earlier, such rural–urban differentials in the sex ratio of India are the product of
sex selective migration from rural areas to urban areas. More males move from rural areas to
urban areas in India than the females. Such a movement is governed by both push in the ru-
ral areas, and pull of the urban areas. The increasing pressure of population upon the limited
agricultural resource base in the countryside compels the rural males to move to urban areas
in search of jobs. The high cost of living in urban areas coupled with the problem of housing
inhibits such males from bringing their families along, while the prevailing joint family system
facilitates such a movement of males alone, whereby they are assured of the security and safety
of their family members. Thus, it is largely the male selective migration from rural areas to
its urban centres that increases the sex ratio in the countryside and decreases the same in the
urban centres.
Similarly, there are differences in the sex ratio of various religious groups in India. For
example, Christians in India exhibit the highest sex ratio of 1,023 and the Sikhs show the low-
est sex ratio of 903 females per 1,000 males (2011). The sex ratio of Hindus being 929 is also
much below the national average. Muslims in India also show a relatively better sex ratio of 951
(2011) than the national average. How far these differences in the sex ratio of various religious
groups are related to the differences in their natural sex ratio is difficult to assert in the absence
of relevant data. The excessively low sex ratio among the Sikhs may have its origin in the greater
deficiency of females at birth (again cannot be authenticated due to lack of data). The high sex
ratio among the Christians may be the product of their relatively low female mortality rate. Simi-
larly, the relatively high female mortality rate among the Muslims may be responsible for their
relatively low sex ratio.
The scheduled tribes in India have traditionally had the highest sex ratios—the number
of women for every 1,000 men—among all communities. But, detailed data on individual tribal
communities from the census report shows that the situation is worsening in almost each case.
And the sex ratio in the population aged 0–6 is significantly lower.
In 2011, India’s scheduled tribe population as a whole had a sex ratio of 990, much better
than the national ratio of 940. The sex ratio of 27 out of 58 tribal compiled was more than 1,000,
that is, women outnumbered men. The child sex ratio for 0–6 years of age was also significantly
better for tribals at 957 than for the country as a whole (919). It was, however, worryingly lower
than the overall sex ratio.
In one more tribe, the Thadous of Manipur, the sex ratio is 1,000 which means there are
about as many women as men. However, when it comes to the child sex ratio, there are only
two tribal groups—the Bhottadas/Dhotadas and the Bhuias/Bhuyans, both from Odisha—
which have a ratio of over 1,000.
All 56 others have fewer girls than boys with the ratio dipping to as low as 879 among the
Sugalis and 888 among the Malayalis of the south and 888 among Minas, a tribe found largely
in Rajasthan. Even among the Minas, the overall sex ratio of 919 is significantly better than the
child sex ratio, though it is the lowest for any tribal group. Among the Sugalis and Malayalis, the
overall sex ratios are much higher at 957 and 970, respectively.

Broadly speaking, (i) South India has high sex ratio in comparison to its Northern counter-
part; (ii) the tribal belt of central India is characterized by high sex ratio; (iii) the north-western
parts of India covering Punjab, Haryana, Western Uttar Pradesh, Rajasthan, north-western
parts of Madhya Pradesh constitute the most extensive area of low sex ratio; (iv) the north-
eastern parts of India covering Arunachal Pradesh, Nagaland, constitute another pocket of low
sex ratio and (v) highly urbanized districts of the country distributed sporadically also had a low
sex ratio.
The low sex ratio in the northeast was perhaps the product of male-excessive in-migration
especially as a result of deployment of armed forces. The industrial urban concentrations of Cal-
cutta, Mumbai, Ahmadabad, Kanpur, Delhi, etc., distributed sporadically in different parts of
the country, also displayed low sex ratio due to in-migration of male workers into these districts.
Thus, the regional differences in sex ratio in India were associated with the regional differences
in the natural sex ratio, patterns of migration and patterns of male–female mortality.
Child Sex Ratio (2011)

As observed earlier child sex ratio pattern in India is the most critical area of a serious concern
for those who have their interest in population analysis, including population geographers. The
child sex ratio in India is not only low but is also declining. The latest census of 2011 has re-
vealed that the country had an average child sex ratio only 914 against a general sex ratio of 940.
Not only that, it had declined further from that of 927 in 2001 to 914 in 2011. If we go back
still another decade, it is found that child sex which was 945 in 1991 has declined by 31 points in
just two decades of 1991–2011. Country’s child sex ratio has seen a continuous and significant
fall in time from 1961. Thus, during the last 50 years, the child sex ratio has declined from a high
level of 976 in 1961 to only 914 in 2011. The situation if not controlled is likely to have far-
reaching implications for the country’s demographic scenario.
The decade of 2001–11 witnessed vital changes in the child sex ratio pattern of the country.
While, on an average, the country’s child sex ratio declined from 927 to 914, there were at least
six states in the country which recorded an increase in their child sex ratio during the decade.
These included Punjab from 798 to 846; Haryana from 819 to 830; Mizoram from 964 to 971;
Himachal Pradesh from 896 to 906; Tamil Nadu from 964 to 971; and Gujarat from 883 to 886.
Similarly, two union territories of Chandigarh (from 845 to 867), and Andaman and Nicobar
Islands (from 957 to 966) also registered an increase in their child sex ratio. In the remaining 22
states and 5 union territories, the child sex ratio suffered a decline. However, the sharpest fall in
child sex ratio was recorded in case of Jammu and Kashmir where it declined from 941 in 2001 to
859 in 2011. A decline of 82 points in just a decade speaks volumes of safety and security of girl
child in this troubled state.
Ever since the previous census of 2001 revealed the growing menace of female foeticide,
the governments of affected states took many steps to control this problem. Many states came
out with financial help for girl child, while others took legislative measures to control female
foeticide. Such schemes like those of Laadali of NCT of Delhi and other such schemes in
Haryana did help the states to some extent. Other such measures as tax rebates for families
with girl children only, concession in travel, preference in the grant of LPG gas connections,
etc., can probably help in bringing a sea change in the value system of such societies. The
legislative measures initiated by some governments included banning the prenatal diagnostic

tests (PNDTs) and making the related laws more stringent so as not to permit female foeticide
under any circumstances. Recently, use of mobile or portable PNDT machines/devices has
also been banned.
However, improving literacy levels, exhaustive ante-natal tracking, regular counselling of
mothers to be, along with increased role of electronic media can together help a lot in this regard.
Since the electronic media has become accessible even in the rural areas and to poorest of the
poor families, its significance has enhanced further. The way the states of Punjab and Haryana,
which were seriously affected by the menace of female foeticide, have improved their child sex
ratio as a result of government policies and increased role of electronic media, it is suggested that
in other affected states also such steps be initiated without any further loss of time.
Unlike general sex ratio where 102 districts had a sex ratio of more than 1,000, in case of
child sex ratio, only three districts had a sex ratio of more than 1,000. These included Lahul and
Spiti (1,013), Tawang (1,005) and Dakshin Bastar Dantewada (1,005). Not only that, the num-
ber of such districts in the country further declined from 8 in 2001 to only 3 in 2011. It implies
that the menace of female foeticide is spreading to all areas covering almost every part of the
country. However, 181 districts had a child sex ratio of 950 and more, in another 149 districts
the child sex ratio ranged between 925 and 950. In 118 districts, the child sex ratio was close to
the national average of 914 and ranged between 900 and 925. There were 76 districts where the
child sex ratio ranged between 875 and 900, while in 116 districts the child sex ratio was less
than 875 female per thousand.
EFFECTS OF THE RAPID POPULATION GROWTH IN INDIA

1. Providing employment to growing population: This is so because in developing econ-
omies majority of the population is illiterate. The burden of school-age population has
already shown signs of becoming unbearable. The proportion of children in schools is
increasing fast and, vast numbers are still not covered. The absolute number or illiterate
persons increases every year. This is only an indication of the wastage of human resources
for want of appropriate development opportunities.
2. Problem of utilization of manpower: Better-educated manpower aspires for occupa-
tions of greater prestige, which are opened up by the new development efforts. Because
of its capital intensive nature, the ability, of the new economy for employment generation
becomes restricted. Simultaneously, it renders many of the old occupations out of day and
redundant. As a result, under-employment and unemployment, including unemployment
of educated persons, increases. There is thus wastage of even developed human capital.
3. Over-strained infrastructure: Facilities such as housing, transportation, health care, and
education become inadequate. The worst symptoms of congestion in every aspect of liv-
ing conditions are manifested in the urban areas. In countries such as India, a situation of
“over urbanization” prevails which puts unbearable strain on urban amenities. The fol-
lowing are the common features of developing countries in terms of infrastructure:
i. Traffic congestions
ii. Overcrowded houses
iii. Slums and unhygienic localities
iv. Overcrowded public places

4. Pressure on land and other renewable natural resources: The population growth puts
pressure on land, water, unpolluted air, etc. They are overexploited beyond their renew-
able capacity. As the result, desertification, ground-water depletion creates permanent
damage to environment.
5. Increased cost of production: Human ingenuity and technological advancement
makes it possible to increase production of goods and services. But, it must be kept in
mind that the cost of production of the basic necessities of life, such as food, increases
when the population is growing fast and worse lands are brought into cultivation with
costly irrigation, etc.
6. Inequitable distribution of income: Both at the international and national levels, in-
come disparities increase. The increase in gross national product (GNP) is greatly re-
duced in per capita terms on account of the rapidly growing population. The developing
countries tent to focus only on economic growth leaving aside the issue of population
growth. Considerations of unequal distribution of income are pushed to background. So
inequalities within the country tend to widen further.
7. Poor standard of living and malnutrition
8. Poverty
9. Mismanagement of agricultural resources
10. Political upheaval
POPULATION CONTROL MEASURES

a. Family Planning and Family Welfare: In India, the concepts of family planning and fam-
ily welfare are very important. Let us know the meanings of the concepts.
Concept of Family Planning and Family Welfare
At the level of the family, family planning implies having only the desired number of chil-
dren. Thus, family planning implies both limitation of the family to a number considered
appropriate to the resources of the family as well as proper spacing between the children.
The adoption of family planning, obviously, requires conscious efforts made by the couple
to control conception.
Earlier, the birth control movement tried to emancipate the women from excessive
child bearing through the right of self-determination. It also helps to empower women
economically, socially and politically. Later it is called as family planning. Family planning
tries to create a favourable atmosphere in order to change the child-bearing practice of the
people. It is a movement because it organized and structured.
A family-planning programme involves a coordinated group of activities, maintained
over a period of time and aimed at fostering a change in the child-bearing behaviour of the
females. The aim of the family-planning programme may either be to improve the health
status of women and their children and/or of reducing the birth rate, and thus reduc-
ing the population growth rate of the country. Most countries with a population control
policy also emphasise the health aspects of family planning.
The various components of the family-planning programme are:
1. Information, education and communication activities,
2. Contraceptives: Supplies and services,

3. Training of personnel,
4. Research and
5. Administrative infrastructure.
Education, health, maternity and child care, family planning and nutrition are the range
of activities government initiate to promote the overall welfare of the family and community
in any society. Since 1977, the Indian family-planning programme is known as the family
welfare programme with greater emphasis on the welfare approach to the problem.
b. Barriers to Family Planning
Most of the reasons, which determine high fertility, act as barriers to the acceptance of
family planning, which implies controlling fertility. These barriers include fatalism, and
emphasis placed on having children in the Indian culture and religious beliefs.
In addition, the use of various methods of family planning also poses certain difficulties.
The methods of family planning such as sterilization etc are not always equal in effective-
ness. Sterilization, by far, 100% effective, IUD methods are close to 95% and conven-
tional contraceptive are just 50% in effectiveness. Not only effectiveness, the acceptability
also various because of various factors such as side effects, regular use, etc. Oral pills are
almost 100% effective, but their effectiveness depends on taking them regularly and on
following a certain regime. The easy availability of supplies and services is a necessary con-
dition for the practice or adoption of family planning. When supplies and services are not
easily available, it becomes difficult for people to practice or adopt family planning, even
when they are inclined to do so.
c. Measures suggested to contain population explosion
The biggest national challenge faced by government is population explosion. It is alarm-
ingly high and it needs to be contained as soon as possible. But, the 1976–77 experience
of the government in adopting serious measures to achieve the set targets in the field of
family planning has made all the following governments very cautious. There is, however,
still time to act. The following may be suggested to check population growth:
Incentives vs Disincentives
An important question has now been raised by some thinkers pertaining to population
policy—that of cooperation vs coercion, or incentives vs disincentives or Kerala
model Vs Chinese Model? Cooperation is supported by some thinkers while there are
others thinkers, who support coercion. Nobel laureate Professor Amartya Sen, in a pres-
tigious JRD Tata Memorial Lecture in Delhi in August 1995 on “Population Stabiliza-
tion Programme” favoured “cooperation” approach and denounced the use of coercion
to bring down the lines of two famous theories of Condorcet (of France) and Malthus
(of Britain).
Searching for New Contraceptives
The search for a new, inexpensive, easy-to-use and harmless contraceptive has not met
with dramatic success so far. Though pills have come to be accepted in a big way and this
method is catching on in Haryana, Madhya Pradesh, Punjab, West Bengal, Gujarat and
Odisha, it is necessary that Indian herbs also be thoroughly investigated for their effects.
Pursuing vigorous research of the health status and dietary habits of some of the tribals
in Andaman and Nicobar Islands, among some of whom the fertility rate is found to be
extremely low, might provide the needed solution.

Increase in Marriage Age

There is a direct relationship between age of marriage, size of family and attitude towards
family planning. Several scholars have devoted their attention to explain this unprece-
dented phenomenon in Kerala.
Economic Development
Economic development may be a best tool to control the population explosion. The prin-
ciple of demand and supply is applied here, as either we need to decrease the demand side
by reducing the number of people asking for various goods and services or by increasing
the supply side by inducing the resource distribution such as financial resource, material
resource, etc.
Social Empowerment:
Providing social empowerment by way of education, employment opportunities and in-
creasing access to the public health facilities would go a long way in controlling the pop-
ulation growth. Efforts to reduce poverty in rural and urban areas will have the direct
consequence on the population growth.
Role of NGOs
In any democracy, the non-governmental organizations act as bridge between people and
government. The success of any programme of government depends upon the acceptable
level of people and desire to participate in the programme. Hence, the NGOs, which have
intimate relation with people, can help in penetrating deep into society with the govern-
ment programme and hence success is assured to a maximum extend. Their role in re-
moving deep-rooted beliefs favouring large families and male children, improving female
literacy, rising age at marriage of girls, essential newborn care, birth spacing, etc., can be
very significant. Such organizations have the capacity to penetrate into the remote areas
also and their activities are very cost-effective that can be implemented with much less
resource.
POPULATION POLICY OF INDIA

Since, middle of 20th century, the less-developed and developing countries have been facing the
adverse effect of unsustainable population growth and huge pressure on their development pat-
tern and prosperity. After independence, the decision-makers also emphasized the importance
and need of population control as early as in 1951–52, though before independence a sub-
committee on population was also appointed by Indian National Congress in 1940 under the
chairmanship of renowned social scientist Radha Kamal Mukherjee to suggest ways and means
to arrest the galloping population. After 1921, sparing initially hiccups, the population of India
grows rapidly. This committee laid emphasis on self-control, spreading knowledge of cheap
and safe methods of birth control, establishing birth control clinics, recommending increase in
the marriageable age, etc. In contrary to this approach, Bhore committee, 1943, advocated for
“deliberate limitation of family.”

After independence, central family-planning board was started which stressed the impor-
tant of sterilization. Until the Fifth Plan, family-planning programme concerned itself primarily
with birth control; but in this plan, maternal and child health and nutrition services were also
included as an integral part of family-planning programme. Even the planning for population is
not taking care of what we call “population and explosion.”
The striking growth rate of population compelled the government to adopt a rela-
tively clearer and less-flexible policy of population which can stabilize the growth rate. In
1961–71, the population growth rate was 2.25% which was highest in any decade after in-
dependence. At present (2201–2011), the population growth rate has declined to 1.50%.
in April 1976, the First National Population Policy was framed by the Union Ministry of
Health and Family Planning which suggested a wide spectrum of programmes, including
raising the statutory age of marriage, introducing monetary incentives, paying special atten-
tion to improving female literacy, etc., though this policy was endorsed by the parliament,
it was planned at a time when the Emergency was clamped all over India. Sanjay Gandhi,
the then president of Indian Youth Congress, took the programme of sterilization overzeal-
ously which made the masses hostile towards the government led by Indira Gandhi as well
as the programme. One of the reasons for this was said to be the excesses committed in the
programme. There was an overall resentment among the people (as a result of which the
congress was voted out of power in elections held in March 1977). It ultimately defeated
the noble cause of the family-planning programme. The enthusiasm of the people about
birth control was also to some extend slackened. Hence, the family welfare term was used
in the place of family planning. Ashish Bose, a noted demographer said that the family-
planning programme was a complete collapse which needs to be replaced by new approach.
The progress to arrest population growth has been vigorous family-planning programme
since 1970 and a more rigid policy of having only one child per family in 1980, china has
avoided the birth millions of children and brought down the fertility rate to 2.5 from 5.82
among eligible mothers. This is a classic example of the role of government policy in affect-
ing birth rate.
The National Family Welfare Programme was rejuvenated to check the population
growth. The Ministry of Health and Family Welfare revised strategy in the last decade of
the 20th century seeking to broaden the area of family planning. The programme contin-
ued on voluntary basis as an integral part of an inclusive policy package covering education,
health, maternity and childcare and women’s rights and nutrition, including anti-poverty pro-
gramme. It was made people’s programme based on welfare approach. This revised strategy
particularly focused on the provision of family planning strives at the doorsteps of the peo-
ple. The proposed age for marriage was from 18 to 20 years as envisaged in National Popu-
lation Policy document, 2000. For raising the status of women, much emphasis on female
education is also being given. Efforts are also being made to involve the voluntary organiza-
tions to promote family planning. As a part of family welfare and population control, the
government has revised the PNDT Act in 2003, which was enacted in 1994. The main aim
of the act is to check female (embryo) infanticide. Later, in 1990s, women movement paced
up and resulted in various restrictions in population control strategies. An expert group was
formed under the chairmanship of Dr. M.S. Swaminathan for drafting a new population
policy. But government of India does not materialize anything until population policy 2000
was announced.

National Population Policy 1976 and 1977

Many of the measures outlined in the National Population Policy, declared in 1976, have been
retained. These include the following:
1. Raising the minimum legal age at marriage for girls to 18 and for boys to 21.
2. Taking the population figure of 1971 till the year 2001, in all cases where population is a
factor in the sharing of the Central resources with the States, as in allocation of the Central
assistance to the State Plans, devolution of taxes and duties and grants-in-aid.
3. Accepting the principle of linking 8% of the central assistance to the State Plans with their
performance and success in the family welfare programme.
4. Including population education in the formal school education system.
5. Plans to popularise the family welfare programme and use of all media for this purpose.
6. Participation of voluntary organizations in the implementation of the programme.
7. Improvement of women’s educational level, both through formal and non-formal
channels.
The policy statement of government also affirms that government would focus on R&D
in reproductive biology and contraception.
It is to be noted that like China, a coerced population control policy of one child only has
not been accepted in India. Here in India, it is totally voluntary, hence achieving targets at times
is not taken seriously.
National Population Policy, 2000

National Population Policy (NPP-2000) is a comprehensive document that, for the first time in
the post-Independence history of the country, addresses itself to the problem of population
growth not in isolation but in integration with all such related issues as child survival, maternal
health, women empowerment and employment and contraception. It has very well specified
immediate, mid-term and long-term objectives. The immediate objective of NPP-2000 is to
provide service delivery in integrated approach for reproductive health and child care. The to-
tal fertility rate (TFR) should be 2.1 children per women as it is consider as replacement level,
which is midterm objective of NPP-2000. The long-term objective of the policy, however, is
to achieve population stabilization by 2045, the year when India has been projected to overtake
China in terms of its population size.
In order to achieve these immediate, mid-term and long-term goals, the national popula-
tion policy seeks to
1. make the basic reproductive health care and child health care services available to all by
2010
2. make school education up to 14 years of age free and compulsory for all
3. bring down the incidence of school drop outs to less than 20% for both boys and girls
4. effectively raise the age at marriage for girls to legally prescribed age of 18 years and pref-
erably to 20 plus
5. universalise the access to information counselling and services for fertility regulation
6. bring 80% of the deliveries into the health institutions and remaining 20% within the
ambit of trained health workers

7. universalise child immunization against all vaccine preventable diseases

8. achieve 100% registration of births, deaths, marriages, pregnancies, etc.
9. prevent and control all communicable diseases
10. contain the spread of AIDS
11. bring down the infant mortality rate (IMR) to less than 30 per thousand
12. bring down the maternal mortality rate to less than 100 per 1 lakh live births
13. promote small family norm of replacement level of 2.1 (TFR)
14. integrate Indian system of medicines into reproductive health and child health care service
delivery system and
15. converge social sector programmes with family welfare programmes so as to make family
welfare movement a people’s movement.
The question that has often been exercising the minds of people is that why India, despite
having been the first less developed country to adopt a population policy way back in 1952,
has not been able to contain its population growth. India’s limited success on the demographic
front has to be viewed in the context that
1. 50% of girls in India still get married even before attaining 18 years of age which is legally
permissible age of marriage for girls
2. the infant mortality rate still continues to be high at 72 per thousand, which raises the level
of wanted fertility by at least 20%
3. 56% of the eligible couples (three fourths of them being in the countryside) in the country
still remain unprotected by any form of contraception
4. 7 out of every 10 people in India still continue to live in villages numbering 5.5 lakh vil-
lages, a large number of which still remain inaccessible and outside the circumference of
most of most of the communication channels
5. 58% of country’s population still falls in the reproductive age group and
6. despite substantial decline in the average family size as many as 417 m people are likely
to be added to reproductive age group during 1991–2016 causing continuation of demo-
graphic momentum. It is work mentioning here that population growth continues even
after the attainment of replacement level of 2.1 (TFR) due to demographic momentum.
National Population Policy-2000 proposes a multi-pronged strategy to achieve population

stabilization in the country by 2045. It includes:
1. decentralised planning as well as implementation

2. service delivery convergence at village level
3. women empowerment
4. child health and survival
5. bridging the wide gap of unmet needs and universalising fertility information, counselling, etc.,
6. special attention to such under-served population groups as slum-dwellers, tribals, adoles-
cents and menfolk
7. diversification of health care providers by encompassing private medical practitioners,
NGOs and the private corporate sector

8. integrating the Indian system of medicines into the reproductive health care and child
health-care service delivery system; upgrading the technology input in the field of contra-
ception and child health care and
9. providing care for the older/elder population of sixty and above and
10. disseminating correct and well-focussed information.
The philosophy of “think locally, plan locally, act locally but support nationally” lies at the
core of decentralised planning and programme implementation. It has been facilitated by 73rd
and 74th constitutional amendment Act of 1992, whereby health, family welfare, educational
responsibilities, etc., have now been given to Panchayats and Nagar Palikas. In rural areas, the
village level plans are to be prepared and implemented by local Panchayats
1. for achieving compulsory registration of births, deaths, marriages, pregnancies

2. for ensuring small-family norms, reduction in infant mortality rate (IMR), maternal mor-
tality rate (MMR), safe deliveries, compulsory education up to 14 years of age and
3. for containing the school dropout ratio to less than 20% for both boys and girls. Since 33%
of Panches in each Panchayat are women, it is believed that they will be more effective
messengers of the nation among their fellow folks.
Secondly, the national population policy also seeks to integrate the whole package of es-
sential reproductive health and child health care services at village level. The existing low couple
protection rate of 44% is largely due to the inadequacies of the existing health care system.
Village Panchayats are to set up “Maternity Huts” in each village, which are to serve as deliv-
ery rooms. These huts are to be equipped with midwife kits, basic medication and obstetric
aid, indigenous medicines and newly born baby care material. Such huts are also supposed to
act as registration centres for birth, deaths, marriages, pregnancies, etc., at village level so as to
improve the availability and the quality of vital rates data. Each Panchayat is required to main-
tain a list of community midwives, trained birth attendants, village health guides, panchayat seva
sahayaks, primary school teachers, aanganwadi workers, etc., whose services are to be utilised in
providing integrated health services. In addition to village “Maternity Huts”, mobile clinics and
counselling are also proposed to be introduced so as to reach out to every household.
Thirdly, recognising the critical role of women in the reproductive process, their empow-
erment, improved nutrition and health has also been given due place in the national population
policy 2000 pronouncement. The country displays a high maternal mortality rate due to malnu-
trition, frequent pregnancies, early child-bearing age, unsafe abortions, etc. Apart from being a
health disadvantage, it is a reflection of gender disparity and social injustice.
The national population policy seeks to integrate programmes for safe motherhood, uni-
versal immunization, child survival into the reproductive health and child health care system.
Fourthly, child health and survival has been recognised as another priority area. In fact,
mortality rate (IMR) is a sensitive index of human development. While in case of developed
countries the IMR is normally below 10, in case of India it still continues to be as high as 72
per thousand. National population policy 2000 intends to intensify neo-natal care and such
other child survival interventions as universal immunization, eradication of childhood diar-
rhoea, acute respiratory infections, etc., with a view to taking the country’s war on IMR to its
logical end.

Fifthly, bridging the wide gap of unmet needs, deficiencies in contraception and universal-
ising fertility information and counselling is another link in the chain of integrated approach fol-
lowed by the NPP-2000. Unmet needs of contraception, supplies and equipment have left 56%
of the eligible couples unprotected. NPP-2000 aims at reducing this percentage of unprotected
couples considerably.
Sixthly, the NPP-2K proposes to pay special attention to all such under-served catego-
ries as slum-dwellers, tribals, adolescents and menfolk. Nearly 10% of India’s population lives
in urban slums, which have no access to such basic health services, such as sanitation facilities,
potable water, and health care services. No wonder the infant mortality rates, the maternal
mortality rates and the total fertility rates among them continue to be high. They constitute a
major target group for promoting the small family norm. Similarly, tribal populations and the
hill areas with low population densities also have inadequate access to fertility and mortality
related services clue to poor infrastructural back up. Mobile clinics and integration of tribal
indigenous system of medicines have been proposed as the strategies in this regard. Similarly,
the needs of the adolescent population, which constitutes one-fifth of the country’s popula-
tion, also have been duly addressed to in the NPP-2K. Ensuring adolescent education, mini-
mising school drop-outs, delayed marriages, delayed first child birth, protection from STD
are some of the measures envisaged by the national population policy in this regard. Above
all, it is also proposed to propagate increased participation of menfolk in planned parenthood
unlike the previous programmes that seemed to exclude completely the menfolk from all wel-
fare efforts. There is no denying the fact that men play a critical role in the decision-making
process in the family with regard to employment, age at marriage of all the family members
as well as with regard to access to and utilization of health, nutrition and family welfare ser-
vices for women and children. The NPP-2K has happily recognized the critical role of men in
this regard.
Seventhly, the NPP-2K proposes to diversify health-care providers by assigning target
groups to private medical practitioners; collaborating with NGOs and private/corporate health
sector; mainstreaming of Indian system of medicines and homoeopathy; optimising utilization
of local cures and low cost health care, etc., in the hope of achieving a high degree of public
involvement with a view to making family welfare programmes a people’s movement. Integra-
tion of community supported ancient indigenous system of medicines into the modern system
would strengthen the confidence of the community in the system of services in general.
Eighthly, upgrading the technology input in the field of contraception and child health
care is sought to be achieved by the national population policy through a continuous dialogue
between the government on the one hand, and the existing network of academic and research
institutions not only in allopathy sector but also in Indian system of medicines and all other
types of relevant public and private institutions engaged in social science research (e.g., demog-
raphy, population geography, sociology, behavioural sciences, etc.) on the other hand.
Ninthly, caring for the elderly population too finds its due place in the national popula-
tion policy. It is worth mentioning here that life expectancy in the country has travelled a long
journey from mere 25 years at the beginning of 20th century to 62 years at the close of the same
century. Even at the time of Independence, the average age of an Indian was only 37 years.
However, even with present 62 years of average age, the proportion of those who were above
60 years was likely to be only 6.97 at the time of 2001 census. It is expected to increase to 8.94

by 2016. It has been estimated that 50 m people may be added to plus 60 age group in India dur-
ing 1996–2016. Since the traditional support system in the form of joint family in the country
was weakening, this age group is becoming increasingly vulnerable. Hence the need to protect
and care for this group of elderly people. The government of India had adopted a national pol-
icy for the older persons in January 1999. The chief objective of such a policy was to sensitise,
equip and train the health care centres and hospitals both in rural and urban areas to the needs
of this age group. The national population policy apart from promoting health care facilities for
them, also intends to explore the possibility of introducing the relief to those adults who look
after their aged parents.
Lastly, the national population policy 2000 envisages rapid dissemination/diffusion of
more clear and well-focussed family welfare massages with the objective of reaching out to even
the remotest areas preferably in local dialects. It proposes to utilise the services of all includ-
ing artists, popular film stars, doctors, vaidyas, hakims, nurses, midwives, women organizations,
youth organizations, etc.
Thus, decentralising both planning and action, integrating service delivery at village level,
empowering women, ensuring better child survival, bridging unmet needs gap, targeting under-
served groups, utilising the services of private health sector, integrating different systems of
medicines including the ancient/traditional, upgrading technology input, disseminating accurate
and well-focussed information and caring for the older people constitute the 10 commandments
that lie at the heart of India’s recently announced national population policy (NPP-2000).
As has been our experience during the last 50 years, mere pronouncement of a well
thought-out, all-encompassing policy may fail to yield rich dividends unless it is strengthened by
adequate funding, practicable legislative support and acceptable promotional and motivational
measures. Then and only then a national population policy, can succeed in transforming family
welfare programme into a peoples’ movement.
As regards funding, the national population policy proposes to
1. double the annual budget provisions for the department of family welfare for ensuring ef-
fective implementation of its schemes
2. strengthen the infrastructural facilities at village level sub-centres, primary health centres,
community centres, etc. and
3. continue to subsidise ante-natal and post-natal care for women, immunization pro-
grammes for children and contraception of all types.
As regards the practicable legislative support, the legislation prescribing the minimum
age at marriage for boys (21) and girls (18) have already been in operation with the penalties
amounting to imprisonment for the parents of the bride as well as the groom. A legislation
debarring persons having more than two children from contesting Panchayat elections has also
been implemented. However, enacting such a law for Members of Legislative Assemblies and
Parliament has not been possible so far. The national population policy 2000 has recommended
freezing the number of Parliament members as per 1971 population up to 2026 meaning thereby
that the states with higher population growth will not be able to have more Parliamentarians. A
sort of disincentive for the politicians.
With regard to promotional and motivational measures, the national population policy
2000 proposes to

1. honour and reward those Panchayats/Tribe Parishads that show exemplary performance
in universalising small family norms, reducing IMR and CBR and ensuring 100% school
enrolment with no drop outs at primary schooling stage
2. continue with the Balika Samridhi Yojna that provides a cash award of Rs. 500/- at the
birth of a girl child at first or second parity
3. continue with Maternity Benefit Scheme that provides a cash incentive of Rs. 500/- to the
mothers who have their first child only after attaining 19 years of age with the new provi-
sion that now it would be available only to those mothers who comply with regular ante-
natal check ups, institutional delivery, registration of births and BCG immunization
4. introduce a family welfare-linked health insurance plan for below poverty line who opt
for sterilization after two children, whereby they become eligible for reimbursement of
hospitalization changes up to Rs. 5,000/-
5. reward such couples below poverty line who marry only after the legally permissible age
for marriage and delay their first child up to mother attaining 21 years of age and opt for
terminal method after the birth of second child
6. create a self-help group in each village to provide community level health care services and
to establish a revolving fund for generating income for running such activities
7. open child care centres and crèches in villages and urban slums to encourage female
employment
8. make contraception easily accessible
9. expand and strengthen the facilities for safe abortion
10. provide soft loans to local enlightened persons at village level to run ambulance services
11. provide vocational training of girls at local village level for preparing them for self-em-
ployment in the village itself
12. enforce effective implementation of Child Marriage Restraint Act of 1976 to make delayed
marriages really effective
13. enforce strictly pre-natal Diagnostic Act of 1994 and
14. extend the freeze of Lok Sabha and Rajya Sabha seats at 1971 census level up to 2026.
In the end, a brief and quick review of the prevailing regional pattern of TFR in the
country may not be out of place (Table 85). The objective here is to highlight the well-per-
forming states on the one hand and to bring into focus the states that require immediate
concerted effort in this direction on the other hand. It is heartening to note that 13% of the
country’s population has achieved a TFR of less than replacement level (2.1). Table 38 reveals
that Goa had the distinction of lowest TFR of 1.0 which was less than half the replacement
level implying that states’ population base had started squeezing. Other states with less than
replacement level TFR included Nagaland (1.5), National Capital Territory of Delhi (1.6),
Kerala (1.8), Tamil Nadu (2.0) and Mizoram. From among the Union Territories falling in this
group, Puducherry (1.8) had the lowest TFR. It was followed by Andaman and Nicobar Is-
lands (1.9) and Chandigarh (2.1). These states/UTs together account for 13% of the country’s
population.

A NEW APPROACH
It is important to form a social policy with new dimensions in order to stabilize the population.
The following are the components:
a. Target-free programme: Earlier, the target was given to government functionaries for
the sterilization and other programme. But in 1996, the target-free approach was intro-
duced which make teachers, villages functionaries, etc., to work without targets.
b. Bottom-up approach or decentralized participatory planning: It is important to plan
for population stabilization in bottom level, that is, at village level, in order to understand
the ground reality. The plan should include the inputs from village’s functionaries, health
workers, NGOs, etc., so that the plan can be implemented as soon as possible expecting
maximum output. Further, all village plan can combine to form district-level plan, which
in turn contribute inputs for state-level plan and finally to national-level plan.
c. State-specific reproductive and child health strategy: Since states display a wide varia-
tion in health parameters, such as infant mortalities, maternal mortalities, birth rates, etc.,
area-specific reproductive and child health strategy (RCH) approach has been worked out
separately for three groups of states plus the special category states where considerable
infrastructure input flows from state health systems projects.
d. Integrated RCH package: It provides a minimum model framework for reproductive
health services at different levels in the district, namely, sub-centre, PHC and district hos-
pitals. These services are related to prevention and management of unwanted pregnancy,
maternal care, services for the new-born and infants and management of STDs.
e. Comprehensive integrated training: Well-trained personnel generally acquire the skill
of intervention, communication and management which will be so important in pro-
gramme implementation, monitoring and evaluation.
f. Increased involvement of NGOs: As we already know, NGOs acts as a bridge between
the government and people. Hence, by increasing the NGOs, one can expect an assured
success of programme.
g. Independent evaluation of programme: Eighteen population resource centres are es-
tablished by government in order to work out formats for annual survey. Regional teams
were also constituted for cross-checking various activities.
APPENDIX
Demographic Transition in India
To analyse demographic transition in India, it is important to consider the levels of birth rates
and death rates over time.
The first stage of demographic transition in India continued till about 1920 when both
birth rates and death rates were very high. The second stage of demographic transition in the
country began from the early 1920s and spread well up to early 1970s. During this period, major
causes of high mortality—famines and epidemics—were brought under control and, between
1921 and 1951, the country witnessed a gradual rise in population growth rates; the decline in
death rates became in birth rate resulting in higher population growth rates that continued dur-
ing the 1960s.

India seems to have entered the third stage of demographic transition since 1971. The
decline in death rate during the 1970s was almost the same as the decline in birth rate, leading
to a plateau in population growth rate during the 1960s and the 1970s. There has been a faster
decline in birth rate than decline in death rate during the 1980s and 1990s. Faster decline in birth
rate than death rate has continued during the present decade as well. According to the popula-
tion projections prepared by the Office of the Registrar General, India is expected to enter the
fourth stage of Demographic Transition by about 2026. The Registrar General has also worked
out the likely dates when the major states would achieve total fertility rate of 2.1. Kerala and
Tamil Nadu have already achieved that goal, and Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Maharashtra and
West Bengal have also achieved the same by 2006.
The problem states in this respect are Bihar, Chhattishgarh, Jharkhand, Madhya Pradesh,
Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh and Uttaranchal where the goal of TFR of 2.1 is likely to be achieved
by 2030. It is noteworthy that the National Population Policy document indicates that India’s
population and that in every state would be stabilized by 2040, that is, when TFR would become
as 2.1. This only implies that birth rate would be around 20 per 1,000 persons. It would not be
the stationary stage with birth and death rates being almost equal at the lower end of demo-
graphic transition.
It is only in Kerala and Tamil Nadu that the growth rate had declined to 1.1% per annum.
In these states, fertility has fallen below replacement level the other states that have experienced
decline in growth rate during the latter half of the 1990s are Andhra Pradesh, Haryana, Him-
achal Pradesh, Karnataka, Maharashtra, Odisha, Punjab, West Bengal and Delhi.
In contrast, natural growth rate in Bihar, Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan and Uttar Pradesh
has continued to be more than 2% annum and decline in it is rather slow. These four states
should take fairly long time before their birth rates decline to replacement level of total fertility
rate of 2.1 and many more decades to reach the stationary stage.
Growing “North”–South Disparity

Some of the highlights of the population projection given by the Technical committee:
•• The population of India is expected to increase from 1029 million in 2001 to 1400 million
in 2026. This means an increase of 36% in 25 years.
•• The crude birth rate is expected to decline from 23.2 per thousand during 2001–05 to 16.0
during 2021–25. The decline in the crude death rate during this period, however, will be
marginal from 7.5 to 7.2 per thousand.
•• Infant Mortality Rate (IMR) which was 63 per thousand in 2002 is expected to decline
to 40 by 2025, of figure which will still remain shockingly high if we make international
comparisons.
•• In absolute terms, India’s youthful population in the age group 20–29 years is estimated
to increased from 174 million in 2001 to 238 million in 2016 or an increase of 64 m illion.
Creating employment opportunities for 64 million youngsters in a time span of just
15 years is a daunting task before the country. One can argue that this upsurge in youthful
population, far from being a demographic dividend (a fashionable term of late and per-
haps an endearing term for ageing Europe) can turn out to be demographic burden.
•• It is distressing to note that the number of females per thousand males (sex ratio) is
expected to decrease from 933 to 930 in 2026. The spread of female foeticide which

started in Haryana and Punjab, thanks to modern technology, is bound to spread all over
India in spite of the PCPNDT Act. Millions of young men without wives and without
jobs will pose a grave threat to India.
•• The Total Fertility Rate (TFR) is expected to decline from 2.9 during 2001–05 to 2.0 dur-
ing 2021–2025.
•• The urban population which was 28% in 2001 is expected to increase 33% by 2026.
•• The projections also take note of the possible decline in population growth rate because
of AIDS. It is estimated that by 2026, the population of India is expected to be 1,400
million (without AIDS) and 1,384 million (with AIDS).
•• Of the projected increase in population of 371 million during the period 2001–2026,
the Registrar General estimates that the increase “187 million is likely to occur in seven
states of Bihar, Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand, Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh and
Uttaranchal (termed as BIMARU states)”. Incidentally, the term BIMARU for the states
of Bihar, Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan and Uttar Pradesh to pinpoint India’s demographic
malady as far back as 1985 when India’s family-planning programme was launched. It is
unfortunate that the BIMARU states continue to be BIMARU even today and what is
worse, these states will continue to be BIMARU states even after 25 years, as per the Reg-
istrar General’s projections. The acronym “BIMARU” refers only to demographic sick-
ness. Of late, Rajasthan and Madhya Pradesh have made some progress on the economic
front but unfortunately on the demographic front, they continue to be BIMARU as is
evident from the National Family Health Survey (NFHS) records.
Growing Demographic Divide

•• In the erstwhile BIMARU states, the population is expected to grow by 44% while in the
southern states the comparable figure is only 21%, that is, the growth rate in BIMARU
states will be more than double that of southern states.
•• The share of BIMARU states in the absolute increase in India’s population during 2001–
26 will be of the order of 50.4% while the share of South will be only 12.6%. It means
that the good progress in family planning in the southern states cannot compensate for
the slow progress of family planning in the northern states in bringing about population
stabilization. This will considerably delay the target date for population stabilization be-
cause of the weightage of BIMARU states.
•• Uttar Pradesh is expected to achieve the magic figure of 2.1 only by 2027. It will still have
a TFR of 2.6 during 2021–25. If Uttar Pradesh, the most populous state in India lags far
behind, India’s prospects of population state in India lags far behind, India’s prospects of
population stabilization will be bleak. The record of the hilly state of Uttaranchal (now
called Uttarakhand) which was carved out of Uttar Pradesh has a much better record than
Uttar Pradesh. Another hilly state Himachal Pradesh has an even better record on the
demographic front. It achieved TFR of 2.1 in 2002 and the TFR is expected to be 1.8 by
2021–25.
•• Perhaps the most disturbing figure for ill health among rural women is in respect of the
incidence of anaemia among married women in the reproductive age group (15–49) years).
The figures are shockingly high all over India. It is as high as 73.7% in Jharkhand, 68.2% in
Bihar, 61% in Madhya Pradesh and surprisingly 63.7% in Andhra Pradesh.

The Spread of Female Foeticide

In the acronym “DEMARU”, D stands for daughter, E for eliminating, M for male, A
for aspiring, R for rage and U for ultrasound, that is to say: daughter eliminating male
aspiring rage for ultrasound. The D category districts are indeed the black holes, in India’s
demographic transition and a symptom of civilizational collapse.
Those familiar with the field situation in Punjab, Haryana, Himachal Pradesh, Chan-
digarh and Delhi know that the ready availability of doctors during the ultrasound test and
consequent female foeticide, the good transportation network and the ability to pay for the
services of the mobile doctors are factors responsible for the widespread recourse to ultra-
sound in rural areas also. In the BIMARU states (Bihar, Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan and
Uttar Pradesh), these factors do no operate. It could be argued on the basis of field work
that it is not the son complex in confined to Punjab and Haryana—it is all over India and is
also creeping in the enlightened state of Kerala but what matters is the ready availability of
doctors and the paying capacity of the people which are conspicuous in Punjab, Haryana and
Himachal Pradesh.
Why not get at the fundamentals? What is the cause of female foeticide? The society is
blindfolded by a myth which considers girl child are liabilities for a family because of dowry
fear at the time of marriage. On the other hand, boys are considered as asset. Why not make
the girls assets? Why not flood this country with women’s polytechnics and train millions of
young girls in modern skills so that they can have their own income and stand on their own
feet and resist dowry. Why not reserve 50% of jobs for women? It is tragic to note that the
nurses from Kerala, with a reputation for excellence all over the world, have to save money for
dowry. Otherwise they cannot get married. Rukmini Menong, one of India’s first women dip-
lomats said: “Kerala nurses have to buy husbands!” Where does the so-called empowerment of
women lead us to?
As things are, the child sex ratio is very likely to go down further in the years to come. The
shortage of women will distort society, the crime against women will increase, polyandry will
emerge on the scene and there will be growing conflict and violence. It is a horrendous scenario.
The then Secretary of Family Welfare, A R Nanda got into trouble for saying the population
stabilization can wait; it is more important to correct the sex imbalance. Nanda was ab-
solutely right. Population stabilization achieved through producing only two sons cannot be our
goal, unless we opt for demographic imbalance and social disaster.
Successful Models of Population Transition

The National Population Policy (NPP) was announced by the Government in February 2000.
The immediate objective of NPP was to address the unmet needs for contraception, health
care, infrastructure and health personnel, the medium-term objective was to bring the Total
Fertility Rate (TFR) to replacement level by 2010, and the long-term objective was to achieve a
stable population by 2045’, at a level consistent with the requirements of sustainable economic
growth, social development, and environmental protection” (NPP, 2000).
Apart from Kerala and Tamil Nadu, which have succeeded in curbing population growth,
with Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh as runners up, the small state of Himachal Pradesh has
performed well and deserves recognition. In fact, Kerala has been over publicized and there is
not enough dissemination of other models of demographic transition, like those of Himachal

Pradesh and Andhra Pradesh. Before describing these models, let us state the main elements of
the Kerala model.
Kerala Model
Kerala is a shining success story in India’s quest for population stabilization. It is worth noting
that Kerala’s birth, death and infant mortality rates are lower than in China and the literacy rate
is higher than in China. All this was achieved in a democratic setup without any coercive mea-
sures. A number of factors have contributed to the Kerala model of demographic transition
which is unique in many ways, a model crafted by history and geography. We present below
in a summary from the main factors which led to Kerala’s successful demographic transition
(eleven ‘M’s).
Maharajas: The benevolent rulers of Travancore and Cochin had an enlightened policy to-
wards health and education. A human resource development strategy was initiated in Kerala
long back and no wonder, among all the states today, Kerala has the highest rating for Human
Development Index.
Missionaries: The Christian missionaries played a pioneering role in promoting health and ed-
ucation, they continued to run excellent hospitals, schools and colleges, not only in Kerala but
all over India.
Mass movements: There were several mass movements in Kerala led by social reformers and
visionaries who electrified the masses and empowered them to fight for their rights. The devel-
oped a high degree of political consciousness.
Marxist governments: The first elected Marxist government in India was in Kerala. They im-
plemented land reforms effectively. The land-owners who lost and realized that land alone could
no longer sustain them and they turned to education in a big way as an alternative source of
income. The beneficiaries of land reform also realized that they could not make a proper living
from the small parcels of land they had received. They also turned to education. Land reforms
thus created a high degree of motivation for education which yielded long-term dividends to Kerala.
Massive investment in health and education by successive State Governments in Kerala which,
combined with good administration, helped in human resources development, better health
standards and adoption of the small family norm.
Mega villages, high density, marginal difference between rural and urban areas, coupled with
a good transportation network (by road and water) made access to health and education easy.
Rural–urban continuum is a unique feature of Kerala’s human settlement pattern.
Matrilineal system though confined to certain higher castes created to helpful social environ-
ment and a higher status of women than in other states of India.
Marriage age of girls and boys increased continuously and this made a dent on the birth rate.
This in turn was the influence of education. Late marriages and educated mothers meant lower
rates of maternal, infant and child mortality and higher practice of contraception.
Migration: Historically, Kerala was always exposed to migration. After the oil crisis in the 70s,
there was a sudden spurt in emigration to the Gulf countries. Apart from easing population pres-
sure and unemployment, such migration meant considerable monetary remittances to Kerala.

This increased the per capita real income of the people which was not always reflected in the
national income statistics.
Media: Both the print and electronic media, along with moves helped in effective communi-
cation, including spreading family-planning messages and advocacy of the small family norm.
Malyalee newspapers, magazines and movies have a very high circulation.
Management of the family-planning programme was good in Kerala. In fact, the Ernakulam
camp experiment of mass (male) sterilization was an excellent exercise in logistics and mass
mobilization. Apart from the Government, private doctors, health co-operatives and hospitals
played a significant role in reducing mortality and fertility rates in Kerala.
Tamil Nadu Model

Briefly, the main factors responsible for the success of the Tamil Nadu model are as follows:
Social reform movements and strong political will: Tamil Nadu is known for several social
reform movements. In particular, leaders like Periyar (Ramasami Naicker) influenced the masses
in a big way and among other things made them conscious of responsible parenthood. Periyar’s
disciples became political leaders and ministers in course of time and this generated a strong
political will on the population front. In passing, it may be noted that in Tamil Nadu, it is quite
common to invite politicians to preside over marriage ceremonies, and the political leaders in-
variably advise young couples to adopt the small family norm.
Early start in the family-planning programme:
Mid-day meal programme: The mid-day meal programmed for school children introduced
by the Chief Minister MGR was a great success. It improved school attendance and also con-
tributed to the nutritional level of boys and girls. Thousands of women (mostly widows) were
employed for cooking hot meals for school children. This was truly a welfare scheme. This had a
good impact on the family-planning programme. It improved the credibility of the government;
the people put faith in the government’s proposition that a small family helped in improving the
welfare of the people.
Transport and Communication: Tamil Nadu is a much bigger state than Kerala and its hu-
man settlement pattern is quite different from Kerala’s; but one must note that Tamil Nadu has
a large number of towns and cities which are evenly distributed and the transportation network
is good. As a result, the diffusion process is efficient.
Himachal Pradesh Model

Another model of demographic transition is the Himachal Pradesh model of demographic
transition, which has not received much attention.
The crucial factor in influencing the demographic transition in this state is self-
empowerment of women. The main elements of the Himachal Pradesh model are as follows:
•• Realization on the part of the common people that the carrying capacity of land in this
hilly state is extremely limited.
•• Realization that out-migration of males is the only option for improving the economic
condition at the household level.

•• Self-empowerment of women who are left behind in the village. They have no option but
to learn how to take care of land, cattle, children, ole people and themselves.
•• Realization of the value of education of boys and girls and the need for such education to
get employment in cities or in the army and for girls to get good husbands in cities. Both
these factors lead to high enrolment ration of boys and girls in schools and colleges. The
people fully realize the value of education of girls, unlike in states like Haryana.
•• Prosperity brought about in certain areas, for example, in the apple belt, by rapid strides in
the development of agriculture, orchards and horticulture.
•• Impact of Chinese aggression in 1962 on construction of roads even in remote areas,
leading to vastly improved transportation network.
•• Success of state governments in providing water and electricity to almost all villages.
•• The general acceptance by people of philosophy of living in tune with nature, respect for
forests, rivers and mountains and an abiding interest in religion, God and a moral code.
•• A history of good political leadership in early years and fairly good governance, compara-
tively a low level of corruption and respect for honesty among God-fearing people.
Andhra Pradesh Model

Andhra Pradesh lags behind Kerala and Tamil Nadu with regard to social and economic devel-
opment. The literacy rate of females is comparatively low, and so is the female age at marriage.
Yet in the last decade, Andhra Pradesh has taken rapid strides in curbing the fertility rate. It
could be described as SURPRISE PPP model where SUR stands for subsidized rice, PRI for
priority (to), S for sterilization, E for exposure to media and the three PPPs for political leader-
ship, people’s mobilization and programmed push.
The next factor is a high exposure to the mass media (i.e., radio, newspaper or maga-
zine, television, cinema/theatre). Andhra Pradesh has also a good network of cinema halls and
cinema-going habit is very pronounced in this state. In spite of a low literacy rate, people are
exposed to TV and cinema message and this has greatly contributed to the raising of the motiva-
tional level of family-planning practice. Above all, the strong political leadership provided by the
Chief Minister (Chandra Babu Naidu) contributed to the Andhra model demographic transition.
In fact, Andhra Pradesh was the first state in India to have come out with a State Population
Policy (Andhra Pradesh Government 1997). This state has also done well in mobilizing people
at the grassroots level through the Janmabhumi program (Andhra Pradesh, 1998). Finally, a com-
mitted bureaucracy has given a big push to the family welfare programme.
Population Stabilization Fund (Jansankhya Sthirata Kosh–JSK)

In June 2005 the Jansankhya Sthirata Kosh (JSK) was set up by the Ministry of Health and Fam-
ily Welfare, Government of India, as an autonomous body duly registered as a Society under the
Societies Registration Act, 1860.
The Government of India provided a Rs.100 crore Corpus fund to signify its commitment
to the activities of the Kosh. JSK was mandated to use the interest on the Corpus and also raise
contributions from organizations and individuals that support population stabilization.
JSK has been promoting a drive for membership from among experts in population stud-
ies and allied sectors, medical associations, associations of Industry and Trade, banks, NGOs,
paramedics and general citizens. The main aim is to bring the need for population stabilization

into focus. The work is being undertaken according to decisions taken by Governing Board
which has blend of both government and non-government members with the governing mem-
bers acting as umpires and facilitators.
The aims and objectives of JSK are as follows:
1. To provide or undertake activities aimed to achieve population stabilization, at a level
consistent with the needs sustainable economic growth, social development and environ-
ment protection, by 2045.
2. In order to achieve the objective of National Population policy 2000 and unmet needs
for contraception and reproductive and child health care, government should encourage
innovative ideas, programme, projects of government, private and sector.
3. To facilitate the development of a vigorous people’s movement in favour of the national
effort for population stabilization.
4. To provide a window for canalizing contributions from individuals, trade organizations
and others within the country and outside, in furtherance of the national cause of popula-
tion stabilization.
Among the innovative activities of JSK, mention must be made of their detail GIS maps.
JSK has mapped 450 districts in India through a unique amalgamation of GIS maps and Census
data which gives a picture of each district, its sub-divisions and the population of every village
along with the distance to the health facility. The maps highlight iniquities in coverage down to every
village to enable resources to be targeted where they are needed most. The GIS mapping and
amalgamation of census data has been completed for the entire country except north-eastern
states and Himachal Pradesh due to the non-availability of village level boundary data there.
National Commission on Population

The National Commission of Population is chaired by the Prime Minister and consists of chief
minister of all states, chief ministers of UTs, minister of health and family welfare and concerned
ministries from the Department of Education, Department of Social Justice and Empowerment
in the Ministry of HRD, Ministry of Rural Development, Ministry of Environment and Forest
and others as necessary, and reputed demographers, public health professionals, and NGOs as
members. This Commission oversees and reviews implementation of policy. The Commission
Secretariat is provided by the Department of Family Welfare.
•• State/UT Commissions on Population: Each State and UT may consider having a

State/UT Commission on Population, presided over by the Chief Minister, on the analogy
of the National Commission, to likewise oversee and review implementation of the NPP
2000 in the State/UT.
•• Coordination Cell in the Planning Commission: The Planning Commission will have
a Coordination Cell for inter-sectoral coordination between Ministries for enhancing per-
formance, particularly in States/UTs needing special attention on account of adverse de-
mographic and human development indicators.
•• Technology Mission in the Department of Family Welfare: To enhance performance,
particularly in States with currently below average socio-demographic indices that need fo-
cused attention, a technology mission will be established to provide technical support for
projects and programme.

PRACTICE QUESTIONS
1. Population is an asset to India if the youth population is put to productive use. In the light
of the statement, discuss the impediments in creating skilled and productive labour force
in India.
2. “Due to rapid growth of population, natural resources are becoming scarce and lack of
land causes overcrowding in many areas of the world”. With reference to this statement,
explain various other impacts of population with examples in Indian context.
3. Critically examine the inter linkage between underdevelopment and population explosion
India. How far the governmental efforts are effective in containing population explosion?
4. Suggest some measures to capitalize India’s “demographic dividend”. What are the hurdles
faced by the Government of India in capitalizing the benefits?
5. Briefly discuss about the impact of rapid population growth on Environment.
PREVIOUS YEAR QUESTION

1. Critically examine whether growing population is the cause of poverty or poverty is the
main cause of population increase in India. (2015, 10 marks)

Chapter 4
Poverty and Developmental
Issues
Learning Objectives

• The Concept of Poverty
• Different Views on Poverty
• Measurements of Poverty
• History of Calculation of Poverty in India
• Causes of Poverty
• The Consequence of Poverty
• Measures to Alleviate Poverty
• Some of the Reasons Why the Scheme Is Not Cent Percent Productive
• Effective Measures for Poverty Alleviation
• International Organisation for Poverty Reduction
• Conclusion
INTRODUCTION
Poverty is a state or condition in which a person or community lacks the financial resources and
essentials to enjoy a minimum standard of life and well-being that is considered acceptable in
society. Poor generally lacks basic skills, treated not at par with others in certain social settings,
lacks power to acquire what he or she wants, etc. Poverty is the type of social illness, and those
who live with poverty understand the miserable aspect of life.
Poverty is generally of two types:
1. Absolutely poverty: It refers to a condition where a person does not have the minimum
amount of income needed to meet the minimum requirements for one or more basic liv-
ing needs over an extended period of time. It may be calculated in monetary terms, nutri-
tion attainment or calories terms. It is generally same everywhere as people devoid of basic
materialistic or absolute standards of living.
2 Relative poverty: It occurs when people do not enjoy a certain minimum level of living stan-
dards as determined by government (and enjoyed by the bulk of population) that vary from
country to country, which is said to be increasing and may possibly never be eradicated.
It is only in the second half of the 20th century that poverty and the poor have come to
be matters of our apprehension and concern. After a long disregard of the poor during the
British rule, the measures adopted after independence indicated the identification of poverty and
69

the social responsibility to assuage it. How did this happen? What have we done? How far have
we succeeded? Before attempting to answer these questions, let us first discuss the concept of
poverty.
CONCEPT OF POVERTY
The definition of poverty matters because how it is defined determines how much poverty there
is believed to be. The definition can also influence the explanations of poverty and the possible
solutions that are put forward. As Ruth Lister puts it, How we define poverty is critical to political, policy
and academic debates about the concept. It is bound up with explanations and has connotation to solutions.
A feeling of discrepancy will arise because of poverty. There exists a huge gap between
what one had and what one should have. But when we consider what one should have differs
from person to person as it is an internal construct. Hence, poverty is unique and different from
one to another. But, the feeling of ‘powerlessness’ and ‘resourcelessness’ is experienced by all
poor people. Henry Bernstein (1992) has identified the following dimensions of poverty:
•• Lack of livelihood strategies
•• Inaccessibility to resources (money, land, recognition)
•• Feeling of insecurity and frustrations
•• Inability to maintain and develop social relations with others as a consequence of lack of
resources
Generally three perspectives are used to define poverty at large; first, the resource or
money required for a person to live a subsistence life. Second, the definition of ‘minimum sub-
sistence life’ at a given time and place. Third, comparison of rich and poor—how can both co-
exist? The last approach explains poverty in terms of relativity and inequality. Whereas the first
two percepts refer to the economic concept of absolute poverty, the third one vies it as a social
concept, that is, in terms of the share of the total national income received by those at the bot-
tom. We will explain each of the three vies separately.
DIFFERENT VIEWS ON POVERTY

The First Dimension
The first dimension deals with psychological needs, such as safety, security and survival. The
minimum requirements for fulfilling the physiological needs are food and nutrition, shelter, and
preventive and protective health care. This requires ‘minimum’ income (varying from society to
society) to buy necessities and availing of facilities.
Here, poverty line is drawn in order to access the poverty. Poverty lines are drawn based on the
prevailing stands and it may differ from place to place and time to time. In practice and in India, the
basic necessary caloric needs are taken as the poverty line. In India, the poverty line was drawn in 1978
on the basis of a per capita (adult) daily intake of 2,400 calories for the rural and 2,100 calories for the
urban areas. Then the cost of food grains that fulfils this normative standard was calculated. Accord-
ingly, at present, the poverty line stands at Rs. 368 per person per month for rural and Rs. 559 per
person per month for urban areas, which is just enough to buy 650 g of food grain for a day.

Chapter 4 • Poverty and Developmental Issues 71
The Second Dimension

This view maintains that poverty has three main aspects of want of material goods or ma-
terialistic possessions: (i) those necessary to avoid physical suffering and needed to fulfil the
requirements of hunger and shelter, which are indeed needed to survive; (ii) those essential to
meet human needs of health, that is to get nutrition and to avoid disease and (iii) those needed
to maintain a minimum subsistence level. In simple terms, this refers to a minimum amount of
food intake, adequate housing, clothing, education and health care. In India, according to the
Planning Commission, at current prices, anyone spending Rs. 965 per month in urban areas and
Rs. 781 in rural areas are supposed to be poor.
The Third Dimension

This view defines poverty as a condition of falling below the minimum standards of livelihood
survival appropriate to each society, or ‘the absence of enough money to secure life’s necessities’
or ‘a condition of acute physical want—starvation, malnutrition, disease and want of clothing,
shelter and medical care’. The latter is measures by comparing the condition of those at those
bottom of the society with the other segments of the population. It is, thus, a matter of subjec-
tive definition rather than of objective conditions.
Poverty is determined by the standards that exist within a society. From a sociological
point of view, this definition is more important in terms of the impact which inequality of in-
come has on the life situation and life chances of the poor. Absolute poverty can be reduced/
eliminated by putting wealth into the hands of the poor, but ‘inequality’ cannot be solved by
moving people above a certain relative line. As long as there are people at the bottom of the
income scale, they some way remain poor always. Such a condition will continue to exist as long
as we have social stratification.
Sociologically speaking, the poor are caught up in vicious circles. Being poor means living
in poor neighbourhood, which means being unable to send children to schools, which means
not only the poor themselves but their children too will have low-paying jobs or no jobs at all,
which means being doomed to remain poor forever. Also, being poor means eating poor food,
which means having poor health, which in turn means being handicapped or too weak to handle
the heavy manual work, which also means accepting low-paid work, which leads to remaining
poor forever. Thus, each circle begins and ends with being poor.
MEASUREMENTS OF POVERTY
First, researchers have disagreement in whether poverty should be measured in ‘absolute’ or
‘relative’ terms. Some writers have argued that there is a common minimum standard that can be
applied to all societies below which individuals can be said to be in poverty.
Measures of absolute poverty are usually based upon the idea of subsistence. In other
words, people are in poverty if they do not have the resources to maintain human life.
Supporters of the concept of relative poverty, however, tend to dismiss this view. They
argue that a definition must relate to the standards of a particular society at a particular time. Ac-
cording to this view, the point at which the dividing line separating the poor from other mem-
bers of society is drawn, poverty will vary according to how affluent that society is.

Now the question arises; what are the measurements of poverty? The important mea-
surements are: malnutrition, low consumption expenditure, low income, chronic illness or poor
health, illiteracy, unemployment and/or underemployment and unsanitary housing conditions.
Broadly, the poverty of a given society is expressed in terms of poor resources, low national
income, low per capita income, high disparity income distribution, weak defence and the like.
HISTORY OF CALCULATION OF POVERTY IN INDIA

Calculation of poverty was started before independence. Initially it was Dada Bhai Naoroji who
estimated poverty in the second-half of 19th century. He concluded the base line in 1867–68
price which was based on the cost of a subsistence diet consisting of ‘rice or flour, daal, mutton,
vegetables, ghee, vegetable oil and salt’. Later, in 1938, Congress President Subhash Chandra
Bose set up the National Planning Committee (NPC) with Jawaharlal Nehru as the Chairman.
The Committee regarded the irreducible minimum income between Rs. 15 and Rs. 25 per capita
per month at pre-war prices. However, this was also not tagged something as a poverty line of
the country. Further, working group of planning commission in 1962 finalised each household
of five persons should be not less than Rs. 100 per month for rural and Rs. 125 for urban at
1960–61 prices. These estimates excluded the expenditure on health and education, which both
were expected to be provided by the state. By 1979, it was decided that poverty should be mea-
sured precisely based on starvation. Y. K. Alagh Committee was constituted which gave its rec-
ommendation as the people consuming less than 2,100 calories in the urban areas or less than
2,400 calories in the rural areas are poor.
Suresh Tendulkar Committee
In 2005, Suresh Tendulkar Committee was constituted by the Planning Commission. The cur-
rent estimations of poverty are based upon the recommendations of this committee. This com-
mittee recommended to shift away from the calorie-based model and made the poverty line
somewhat broad based by considering monthly spending on education, health, electricity and
transport. It supported nutritional intake rather than caloric intake. The committee also drew a
line based on cost of living. The Tendulkar panel stipulated a benchmark daily per capita expen-
diture of Rs. 27 and Rs. 33 in rural and urban areas, respectively
C. Rangarajan Committee
The committee raised the cost of living per day to Rs. 32 and Rs. 47 for rural and urban areas,
respectively. Hence, the poverty percentage of India worked closely to 30% and in absolute
terms close to 40 crores poor.
Arvind Panagariya Task Force
The task force suggested setting up of committee to identify people ‘Below Poverty Line (BPL)’.
It also suggested participation of states. The paper talks of considering four options for track-
ing the poor. First, continue with the Tendulkar poverty line. Second, switch to the Rangarajan
or other higher rural and urban poverty lines. Third, bottom 30% of the population tracking
over time and fourth, tracking the bottom 30% on specific components, such as housing, sanita-
tion, electricity, nutritional intake, etc.

CAUSES OF POVERTY
There are two extreme perspectives on the basis of which we can analyse the causes of poverty:
the old and the modern. One view of poverty is that it is providential, and it is the result of an
individual’s past karmas (deeds) or sins. The other view ascribes poverty to be the result of a
failure of an individual’s working abilities or due to his/her lack of motivation. Describing the
richness of a rich person in terms of his/her destiny and the poverty of a poor person in terms
of his/her lack of abilities serves the economic interest of the rich people as they escape paying
high taxes to be used for uplifting the poor. According to the modern view, poverty is beyond
individual control, and it is the social system functioning which is the major cause of poverty.
The following are generally considered as the cause of poverty.
Individual
The ideology of individualism states that one’s poverty is the result of individual failure. It states
that his/her poverty is because of laziness, dullness, ineffectiveness and lacking of initiatives
and innovation. The concept emphasized as poverty is good to society which results in survival
of the fittest.
Another aspect of this ideology is the Protestant Ethics described by Max Weber, which
lays emphasis on an individual’s success through the individual’s hard work, virtue and honesty.
If he or she fails, he or she has no one but himself or herself to blame, for he or she has vices,
he or she is idle and has bad habits as well. The typical ‘victim-blamer’ is a middle-class person
who is enjoying reasonably good material success and has a good job and steady income. He or
she says, ‘I had to struggle to make it; why can’t the poor? There must be something wrong with
them’. Spencer, Carnegie and Lane believed in this ideology.
Culture or Sub-culture of Poverty

The second cause of poverty is the culture of poverty, or the way of life of the poor. Such
culture blocks are the attempts of the society to change the values, norms, beliefs and lifestyle
of the poor. The ‘Culture of Poverty’ concept suggests that despite economic changes, the
poor have remained so because of their culture or subculture. The culture of the poor fosters
behaviour and values associated with poverty; it has kept the poor out of the mainstream of
industrial society.
Oscar Lewis popularized the notion of culture of poverty in 1959. He mentioned that it
was a special culture that passes on poverty from generation to generation. This conservative
concept, often shared by the politicians and the public, has given our society a reason for do-
ing little or nothing about the poor and poverty as a social problem. Advocates of this ideology
categorize lower-class culture and assume that the lifestyle of the poor is the cause of continued
poverty. Ryan and Chilman believed in this school of thought.
Social Structure
While ‘individual’ and ‘culture of poverty’ are accepted as causes of poverty by the conserva
tives, the liberals, and the radicals, but the sociologists link poverty to social structure or to
‘miserable and unjust social conditions’. Our social institutions, our economy, low educational
attainment, lack of employable skills, long-term unemployment are the causes and factors

responsible for poverty. Change in social and economic structures is not brought about, and
unfortunately hindered by vested interests. Sociologist Herbert Gans has pointed out three
functional gains—economic, political and social—that the middle class gets hold of from hav-
ing a poverty group in the society. These range from getting society’s dirty work done to pre-
serving one’s high status or keeping oneself in power. Thus, the fault of poverty lies with
those individuals/groups who do not want to change the social structure, values and norms
for their vested interests.
The Causes of Poverty in Indian Context

1. Population Growth
The population during the last 45 years grew at the rate of 2.2% per annum. On average,
17 million people are added every year to its population which raises the demand for con-
sumption goods considerably. When the population increases, the scared resource sharing
is at stake which will create huge poverty gap.
2. Agriculture Productivity
Lack of capital, fragmentation of land, non-upgradation of technology has left Indian ag-
riculture with very low productivity when compared to international per acreage produc-
tivity. The utilization of resources are under-utilized in India, which is the key to improve
productivity.
3. Economic Development
The rate of economic development in India has been below the required level. Therefore,
there persists a gap between level of availability and requirements of goods and services.
The net result is poverty.
4. Inflation
The persistent steep increase in the price of goods and services drastically affects the poor.
For BPL people always find it difficult to cope up with these situations and their spending
pattern gets affected.
5. Employment
The continuously expanding army of unemployed is yet another cause of poverty. The
jobseekers are increasing in number at a higher rate than the expansion in employment
opportunities.
6. Capital and Able Entrepreneurship Deficit
Capital and able entrepreneurship have important role in accelerating the growth. But
these are in short supply making it difficult to increase production significantly.
7. Social Factor
The social setup is still backward and is not conducive to faster development. Laws of in-
heritance, caste system, traditions and customs are putting hindrances in the way of faster
development and have aggravated the problem of poverty.
8. Political Factors
The Britishers started lopsided development in India and reduced Indian economy to a
colonial state. They exploited the natural resources to suit their interests and weaken the
industrial base of Indian economy. British destroyed the traditional industries and equal
development in modern industries also got hampered by them.

In independent India, the development plans have been guided by political interests. Hence,
the planning has not been successful to tackle the problems of poverty and unemployment.
Concluding the discussion on the causes of poverty, it may be said that poverty in India
needs to be perceived in relationship to the following three factors:
1. Diverse historical and cultural roots of Indian attitudes, ideas, beliefs and values, that is,
people’s strong linkages with the past;
2. Fundamental relationship between the biological and psychological characteristics of man and
3. Changes in Indian society pertaining to public policy, particularly during and after lib-
eration from the British rule. As such, if poverty existed in India, it was because of the
economic policies of the British government, lack of incentives to the people, lack of ed-
ucation and technological knowledge, lethargy, callousness and exploitation of the rural
people, and religious and social barriers to control family size. If after independence efforts
are being made to contain poverty, it is through family planning, new industrial and agri-
cultural policies, spread of education and giving subsidy and training to the needy people.
THE CONSEQUENCE OF POVERTY

Health: The poor are always more likely to have many kinds of health problems, including
infant mortality, earlier adulthood mortality and mental illness, and they are also more likely to
receive inadequate medical care. Poor children are more likely to have inadequate nutrition and,
partly for this reason, to suffer health, behavioural and cognitive problems. These problems in
turn weaken their ability to do well in school and land stable employment as adults, helping to
ensure that poverty will stick with the society across generations.
Education: Poor children typically go to badly maintained schools with inadequate facilities
where they receive poor coaching. They are a great deal less likely than wealthier children to
graduate from high school or to go to college. Their lack of education in turn restricts them and
makes their own children to suffer from poverty, once again helping to ensure a vicious cycle of
sadly continuing poverty across generations.
Housing and Homelessness
The poor are, not surprisingly, more likely to be homeless than the not so poor but also more
likely to live in dilapidated housing and unable to buy their own homes. Many poor families
spend more than half their income on rent, and they tend to live in poor neighbourhoods that
lack job opportunities, good schools and other features of modern life that wealthier people
take for granted. The lack of adequate housing for the poor remains a major national problem.
Even worse is the case for the complete homeless people.
Family Problems
The poor are at greater threat with family problems, including divorce and domestic violence.
Even in families that are not so poor, running a household can cause stress, children can cause
stress and paying the bills can cause stress. Families that are poor have more stress because of
their poverty and the ordinary stresses of family life happen to be even more intense in poor
families. Majority of family problems occurs because of fewer resources.

Economy
Among the effects of poverty, its impact on the economy of the country is a major issue of
concern. Mainly, the number of people existing in poverty influences employment rates heavily.
Without an education, people are unlikely to find a lucrative or rather a decent paying job. Un-
employment holds back a country from developing into a stronger economic system. A high
unemployment rate will definitely slow down a country from progressing in all aspects.
MEASURES TO ALLEVIATE POVERTY

Generally, the social sector schemes are concentrated on poor section of the society, because
they are always in the receiving end of benefits. It will have educationally, economically and so-
cially backward class people, landless, small and marginal farmers engaged in casual work in the
informal sector, living virtually on a daily wage basis, etc.
They are the most susceptible section prone to exploitation, domination and do not have
any voice or can be said to be ‘silent sufferers’ or a ‘mere spectator’ to their pitiable and feeble
condition oblivious of the fact that India is today one of the fastest-growing economies.
The government has adopted the following three-branched strategy to address the social sector:
1. Distributive strategies
2. Specific strategies
3. Social security
Distributive Strategies
The government of India (GOI) targeting holistically in the following sectors:
1. Irrigation
In order to reduce the poverty in rural areas, agricultural inputs should be well-organized.
The most important of such input is irrigation. Hence, Pradhan Mantri Krishi Sinchai Yo-
jana was introduced by GOI with the vision of extending the coverage of irrigation. The
basic theme of the PMKSY is ‘More Crop Per Drop’.
2. Rural road connectivity
Transport plays a very important in economic development of the country. The Pradhan
Mantri Gram Sadak Yojana (PMGSY) was launched by the GOI to provide connectivity
to unconnected habitations as part of a poverty-reduction strategy. GOI is endeavouring
to set high and uniform technical and management standards and facilitating policy devel-
opment and planning at State level in order to ensure sustainable management of the rural
roads network. This programme covers all villages with population more than 1,000 and
villages in hilly and tribal areas with population more than 500.
3. Housing
In order to build house for poor in India, two new schemes were introduced. Pradhan Mantri
Awas Yojana—Housing for All (Urban) and Pradhan Mantri Gramin Awas Yojana (Rural).
The Mission will be implemented during 2015–2022 and will provide central assistance to
Urban Local Bodies (ULBs) and other implementing agencies through States/UTs for:
1. In situ rehabilitation of existing slum dwellers using land as a resource through pri-
vate participation
2. Credit-linked subsidy

3. Affordable housing in partnership

4. Subsidy for beneficiary-led individual house construction/enhancement
4. Rural electrification
GOI has launched the scheme ‘Deendayal Upadhyaya Gram Jyoti Yojana’ for rural electri-
fication. Under DDUGJY-RE, Ministry of Power has sanctioned 921 projects to electrify
1,21,225 un-electrified villages, intensive electrification of 5,92,979 partially electrified vil-
lages and provide free electricity connections to 397.45 lakh BPL rural households.
Specific Strategies
The government is attempting narrow targeting through:
a. Wage Employment Scheme—primarily through Mahatma Gandhi NREGA
b. Self-employment schemes—primarily through Swaran Jayanti Grameen Sah-rozgar
Yogana (SGSY) in the rural areas and through Swaran Jayanti Shahri Rozgar Yogana
(SJSRY) in the urban areas
c. Food security—primarily through TDPS, AAY, Annapurna Scheme for senior citizens
(details in the next section)
d. Skill Development—Deen Dayal Upadhyaya Grameen Kaushalya Yojna was introduced
by the GOI to engage rural youth specially BPL and SC/ST segment of population in
gainful employment through skill training programmes.
e. Universal basic income (yet to be implemented and suggested in economic survey) is a
radical and compelling paradigm shift in thinking about both social justice and a produc-
tive economy. In simple language, Universal Basic Income (UBI) refers to an uncondi-
tional minimum income paid by a government universally to all its citizens. It is premised
on the idea that a society just needs to guarantee to each individual a minimum income
which they can count on, and which provides the necessary material foundation for a life
with access to basic goods and a life of dignity.
Social Security
The government is providing social security under its various programmes like:
a. Aam Admi Bima Yojana: This scheme is targeted at the rural landless households where
one earning member within the age group of 18–59 years is insured at a premium of
Rs. 200 per year borne 50% by the Central Government and remaining 50% is proposed
to be borne by the state governments.
The coverage is Rs. 30,000 for natural death and Rs. 75,000 in case of accidental death.
As an added incentive, children of the insured studying in class 9–12 would get scholar-
ship of Rs. 300 per quarter.
b. Universal Health Insurance Scheme (UHIS): This scheme of the government is being im-
plemented by Oriental Insurance Company aimed at BPL families.
This scheme provides for coverage of hospitalization expenses up to Rs. 30,000 per
year per person insured under the scheme. The premium is Rs. 165 per annum for individ-
uals, Rs. 248 per annum for a family of five and Rs. 330 per annum for a family of seven.
c. Janashree Bima Yogana (JBY): This scheme is being implemented by the Life Insurance
Corporation of India aimed at BPL families, providing insurance cover at a premium of

Rs. 200 per annum (50% to be borne by the insured and 50% by Social Security Fund).
The cover is Rs. 20,000 for natural death and Rs. 50,000 for accidental death.
d. Swavalamban Scheme: This scheme has been launched by LIC, on behalf of the govern-
ment in 2010 as a pension scheme for the unorganized sector.
e. Atal Pension Yojana: It was launched in 2015 as a pension scheme in order to unorganized
sector.
Some of the reasons why the scheme is not 100% productive:
a. The Government has well-thought of and meaning schemes. The question is not about in-
tention but that of implementation of these schemes, proper identification of the targeted
beneficiaries.
b. There is also lack of awareness of these schemes amongst the masses given their illiteracy
and ignorance.
c. There is also absence of any monitoring mechanism for the efficacy of such schemes or
to know the end result. The focus is on increased outlays and new schemes but no mecha-
nism of tracking down the outcome.
d. It may possibly be better to implement these programmes through NGOs after a strict
screening process and with proper checks and balances in place.
e. There is need to bring in an independent ‘social audit’ of these schemes not for fixing ac-
countability but for plugging leakages, improving delivery so as to make the schemes ef-
fective and true to their intention for the overall benefit of the social sector
f. Today, there is availability of modern technology which can be deployed for capturing
information and creating a database which will enable a tracking mechanism for the target
group and their reach and be useful in refining the schemes in future.
g. And finally the focus of the government has been on schemes, so many that they overlap
with diffused focus and accountability at different levels.
EFFECTIVE MEASURES FOR POVERTY ALLEVIATION

Poverty alleviation has to go hand in hand with a vigorous drive for reforms. A former
member of the Planning Commission suggested the following measures for economic re-
forms in India:
1. Distribution of income: Not only income has to be increased by stimulating polices of eco-
nomic growth by the government (i.e., growth of output and employment), but distribu-
tion of income has also to be given importance in the country. The reforms must have an
affirmative impact on the poor.
2. Encouraging private investment: Investment of capital in private industries has lagged behind
in our country. It can come if there is a belief that profitability will increase over a period
of time. Adopting liberalization can assure such beliefs.
3. Raising resources and planning expenditure: Till private investment increases, there has to be sub-
stantial public investment in infrastructure. This requires raising resources and planning
expenditure. The latter has to focus on cutting expenditure or reducing non-essential
expenditure and raising revenue. The revenue can be raised not by increasing taxes but by
increasing tax collection. At present, a very small fraction of people pay income tax. We
have to double the number of those who should be taxed compared to what we have today.

4. Containing inflation: Inflation may be contained by increasing production.

5. Creating independent banking institutions: In a market-based system, we must have institutions
which are independent. We must, therefore, work for more autonomy of the Reserve
Bank. But, the interest rates and the foreign exchange rate should not be entirety deregu-
lated. The fundamental rates should be stable.
6. Reframing of disinvestment policy: The policy pertaining to disinvestment in public sector needs
to be framed in such a way that if the unit is incurring losses, the government must get
out. We have to have existed policy. Then there are units which have to be improved. The
government can sell its shares and use the money for improvement. Since there are units
which are making huge profits, selling the shares of such units is quite like selling the as-
sets. It is a bad policy.
The economists thus accept it a truth that only economic reforms like these can really
help in reducing poverty in our country. However, the leftists feel that a mixed economic sys-
tem in the country obstructs alleviation of poverty. The absence of a minimum wage policy has
increased discontentment among the labourers who today take more interest in strikes than in
increasing production.
The capitalists think that lack of free licensing policy has hampered industrial growth. The
socialists maintain that measures like control over prices of manufactured commodities, fixing
the profit margin of industrialists, action against black money and control over urban property
will alleviate poverty in the country. Intellectuals believe that change in the tax structure, control
over conspicuous consumption, reduction in administrative expenses, change in the distribution
system and added incentives to medium-class entrepreneurs will contain poverty.
Broadly speaking, the measures for alleviating poverty can be classified into the following
four groups:
1. Those affecting the demand for work;

2. Those affecting training in labour skill;
3. Those affecting the transfer of income and
4. Those affecting change in the existing social system.
All these necessitate the following measures for eradicating poverty or at least reducing it
significantly.
Creating Employment
The understanding so far has shown that certain kinds of economic activities do not generate
jobs. To this group belong all large industries using a lot of capital and all industries which neces-
sitate import of machinery, components and raw materials. These industries only produce goods,
which increase the well-being of the upper and upper-middle classes. They spawn little employ-
ment on which the poor classes depend. As such, small and cottage industries and agriculture,
which now remain neglected areas since employment generating sources, need to be identified
and the credit and tax incentives need to be channelized more intensely to such areas.
Creating employment by such means as the MNREGS is not enough. Now, initiatives in
the eco-political policy are also needed. If the estimated 20 million people who are unemployed

and therefore also unproductive be converted into productive in the process of being employed,
they would become an enormous productive asset for the community.
Some innovative schemes for generating work and increasing income of the poor people
in villages could be:
1. dissemination of knowledge in eco-technologies to cultivators;
2. training in horticulture, tree plantation and use of unused lands:
3. creating artisan units in villages;
4. establishing micro-enterprises for women;
5. establishing community facility centres; and
6. mobilizing role of NGOs in villages.
Distributive Justice
The setback of poverty is not necessarily the problem of GNP growth only, but about distri-
bution also. It is true that wealth has to be created before it is properly distributed among the
different sections of the society, but the modality and extent of development also conclude the
level of benefits that will dribble down to the poor who are the indicator of society’s develop-
ment. And, hence, the necessity of the ‘reordering of priorities’ for stopping the growing in-
equality between the rich and the poor.
Total classlessness, egalitarianism in income and property might not be possible;
but at least, the laws can be so enacted and implemented that the rich do not escape paying
taxes, and the land in villages may be protected from benami (Benami is a South Asian word
that means ‘without name’ or ‘no name’. In this Act, the word is used to define a transaction in
which the real beneficiary is not the one in whose name the property is purchased. As a result,
the person in whose name the property is purchased is just a mask of the real beneficiary.) trans-
fers and deals.
Land–Man Ratio
Despite the fact that land cannot be made greater than before, productivity can be increased by
use of advanced technology. Even shall holdings can be made advantageous and profitable by
proper irrigational facilities, use of modern techniques and by diversification. The land–man ra-
tio in India fell from 0.15 hectare per person in 1965 to 0.13 hectare per person in 1975 to 0.12
hectare per person in 1995; but the human reliance on land increased from 60% in 1970 to 70%
in 1996. Therefore, for a country to prosper, industry must absorb most working people. The
share of agriculture in the US national income came down from 69% in 1839 to 12% in 1928
to 4% in 1992 and is 3% at present. This has been the pattern in most developed countries and
they are paying a price for it undoubtedly.
Controlling Population Growth

If India’s population had been frozen by some miracle at the 1947 level (300 million), the
growth achieved so far would have been enough to abolish poverty completely. What has put
emphasis on poverty is the lack of modern outlook in the people. The indication is that a large
number of men and women are not using the required methods for controlling the size of their
families. The primary task, therefore, should be to control population by persuasion, if we can,
and by coercion, if we must. It is also time to build a political consensus on population control.

Providing disincentives for more than two kids will also help in changing the outlook of the
people, which in turn is necessary for control over population, where lies the growth of the
nation.
Elimination of Black Money

Black money is unaccounted money, tax evaded, concealed income and undisclosed wealth.
Many ingenious and imaginative ways are employed by industrialists, export houses, the film
industry, business men and the corporate sectors to hoodwink and dupe the taxman in the on-
going game of hide and seek. This money is usually spent on conspicuous consumption and
corrupt practices to further generate income and wealth.
Decentralizing Planning and Its Execution

For the success of such anti-poverty/rural development programmes, it is necessary that they
should be planned by the village panchayats. Unless the planning and its execution is decentral-
ized, unless the families living in poverty are objectively identified by individual village panchayats
at the local level, the programmes will not do good to the person for whom they are made.
In the urban areas also, the municipal councils should plan the self-employment programmes
based on local resources and the skills of the slum dwellers. Decentralized plans alone can help
in reducing and ridding ourselves of poverty.
Other Measures
Besides the above-mentioned measures, the following measures can also contribute to poverty
alleviation:
1. Forming a time-bound, result-oriented action plan for rapid industrialization. The expan-
sion in industrial investments will provide employment to millions of people.
2. Participation in the emerging global markets.
3. Change in budgetary outlays to reduce irrelevant government expenditure.
4. Reforms in power sector such as sustainable power supply, arresting transmission losses,
etc. (5) Financial institutions needs to be improved.
6. Voluntary organizations resources should be increased.
7. Mass rapid transit system in big cities should be developed.
8. Training centres should be established for youths to acquire skills on electronic platform,
MSME, etc.
9. Helping women to be self-reliant through a carefully planned programme.
10. Formulating, implementing and monitoring job-oriented policy in every states and involve
people in development of all developmental activities.
12. Strengthening the Panchayati Raj Institutions, so that they can become institutions of
democratic management of rural development both at the district and block levels. The
government officials at the district and village levels can provide technical managerial and
marketing support on the one hand and on the other hand stimulate social awareness and
mobilize the poor households.
13. The help of non-government organizations may be taken in the administrative arrange-
ment for the accomplishment of rural and urban development programmes. It calls for

keeping the official staff to the minimum and increasing the non-formal staff as part or
full-time consultants drawn from academic or voluntary organizations.
Non-government organizations here include professional/technical institutes, polytechnics,

agricultural universities, university faculties, management institutes, research organizations, welfare/
voluntary organizations and professional resources of business organizations and banking sectors.
Above and beyond all the above measures, some measures, such as redistribution and
elimination of industrial monopolies, plugging of national drainage, efficient and democratic
management of public sector enterprises, also help in reducing poverty in our country.
So long as we have a double mind about what path of developmental style to adopt, we
will fail economically in our goals. It is not lack of resources or technical skills which are hin-
drances in our development, it is lack of the political policies at a larger stake. Planning is to be
based on the fact that poverty is not a cause but a result. Elimination of poverty is not merely a
question of economic upliftment, but it is a social and a political concern related to the level of
the political and social awareness of citizens.
INTERNATIONAL ORGANIZATION FOR POVERTY REDUCTION

Since, poverty is not only a local phenomenon, there are numerous organizations trying to trim
down poverty. Some of the organizations are listed as follows:
United Nationals Development Programme (UNDP)
Economic growth will not lessen poverty, improve equality and produce jobs unless it is inclu-
sive. Inclusive growth is also essential for the success of the Sustainable Development Goals
(SDGs). The globalization process, when properly managed, becomes an important ingredient
for inclusive growth. In this context, UNDP works to make real improvements in peoples’ lives,
opening up their choices and opportunities.
Oxfam
It is a non-profit organization, which is an international confederation of 19 organizations
working together with partners and local communities in more than 90 countries. Every one
person out of three in the world lives in poverty. Oxfam is determined to revolutionize that
world by mobilizing the power of people against poverty.
Using its six-sided strategy to weave together the complex web of our efforts and joining
with others, it seeks to overcome poverty.
1. When people have the power to claim their basic human rights, they can flee poverty,
permanently out away. This nucleus belief underpins our development programs in more
than 90 countries. With our partners, allies and with local communities, we lend a hand to
people so that they claim rights for themselves.
2. Human development is given by empowered women. But women and girls are still mas-
sively under-represented and often oppressed. It should be worked to help them speak
out and demand justice, and to assert their leadership. The right to gender justice under-
pins all of these work.
3. When disaster strikes, there are people out there. They help people when caught up in
natural disasters and conflict. They are typically provided with clean water, food and

sanitation in disaster zones. As far as possible, it is strived to ensure that civilians are pro-
tected too. It is also sought to reduce the risk to poor people of future disasters by con-
tinuing to work with them long after the immediate crisis is over.
4. Poor people are often not getting their fair share of natural resource. It is very important
for the prosperity of poor people. The climate change affects the situation much more and
our duty is to make sure government follows right policy towards land and resources.
5. To stop people going hungry, we must work to secure global food supplies so that people
always have enough to eat. Already, almost a billion of our brethren go to bed hungry
every night. Not because there is not enough, but because of the deep injustice in the way
the food system works. We can GROW in a better way—one that contributes much more
to the wellbeing of all humans.
6. Being able to access basic services such as health and education is indispensable to peo-
ples’ well-being and to human development. We press on to secure adequate financial
flows to uphold the basic services for poor people.
Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO)

Reducing the rural poverty is the centre mission of FAO. It is because many of the poor live in
rural areas of the world. Hence, bringing the poor out of poverty is much important to safe-
guard their human dignity and attainment towards global food security. It is also good econom-
ics. Successful economic development anywhere typically has been propelled in its initial stages
by fast agricultural productivity growth and broader rural development.
International Labour Organisation (ILO)

The nexus between poverty eradication and employment promotion has been a major area for
ILO analytical and advisory work. The Philadelphia Declaration states that ‘poverty anywhere
is a danger to prosperity everywhere’. The ILO holds that promoting productive employment is
the best route out of poverty.
World Bank
Poverty is a complex problem that must be addressed at all levels of society. The Bank’s poverty
reduction experts work within many areas and programs to meet the goals. Some of the key
areas World Bank focuses are: Climate change, community-driven development, disaster risk
management, energy, education, microfinance, nutrition, transport, etc. The World Develop-
ment report was released by the World Bank, and it is responsible for Poverty Line. Recently, the
poverty line was changed to $1.90 per day.
CONCLUSION
Among some individuals, poverty is considered as a necessary or desirable condition, which
must be embraced to reach certain spiritual, moral or intellectual states. Poverty is often un-
derstood to be an essential element of renunciation in religions such as Buddhism (only for
monks, not for lay persons) and Jainism. On the other hand, in Roman Catholicism, it is one of
the evangelical counsels. The main aim of giving up things of the materialistic world is to with-
draw oneself from sensual pleasures (as they are considered illusionary and only temporary in

some religions—such as the concept of dunya in Islam). This self-invited poverty (or giving up
pleasures) is different from the one caused by economic imbalance.
PRACTICE QUESTIONS
1. ‘Significant progress has been made by all international community over 20 years in com-
bating global poverty in various dimensions’. With reference to this statement, critically
examine the efforts taken by India for poverty alleviation.
2. ‘Every development scheme launched by the Government is targeted towards poverty al-
leviation’. With reference to this statement, evaluate AMRUT and RURBAN mission with
respect to poverty alleviation.
3. Explain the challenges faced by poor in India and the steps taken by the government to
break the vicious cycle.
4. The reason for poverty is not only individual but the structure of society as well. Explain
with references to Indian society
5. “Poverty in the root cause for all social evils in India” – Comment.

1. ‘An essential condition to eradicate poverty is to liberate the poor from deprivation’. Sub-
stantiate this statement with suitable examples. 2016 – 10 marks
2. Critically examine whether growing population is the cause of poverty OR poverty is the
main cause of population increase in India. 2016 – 10 marks

Chapter 5
Urbanization,Their Problems
and Their Remedies
Learning Objectives

• The Concept of Urbanization
• Evolution of Urbanization in India
• Reasons for Urban Population Growth
• Characteristics of Indian Urbanization
• Characteristics of Urban Community
• Problems of Urbanization in India
• Changing Social and Economic Institutions
• Urbanization and Social Mobility
• Remedies and Suggestions for Urban Problems
• State Policy on Urban Problems
• Governmental Measures to Address the Issue of Urbanization
• Government Intervention Programmes
• Conclusion
THE CONCEPT OF URBANIZATION

Urbanization is the process of becoming urban, it is the process by which towns and cities
are formed and develop into larger parts as more and more people begin living and working in
central areas, as defined by Merriam. In other words, it is a demographic process whereby an
increasing proportion of the population of a region or a country lives in metropolitan areas.
The progression of society’s conversion from a chiefly rural to a predominantly urban
population is known as “urbanization”. It includes two things:
1. An increase in the number of people living in urban settlements
2. Increase in the percentage of the population engaged in non-agricultural activities, living
in such places.
It is a characteristic of developing nations, where it is occurring at much more rapidly
than it did historically in the developed (western) world. Urbanization is coupled with industri-
alization. Economic development is generally associated with the growth of urbanization. Some
writers go so far as to emphasize that the acid test of development lies in the shift of population
from the rural to the urban areas.
The process of urbanization has to be explained both in demographic and social contexts.
In demographic sense, the term “urbanization” is largely used to explain the process of built-up
growth. In this sense, it refers to the proportion of a total population living in cities and towns
at a given point of time. In sociology, the term urbanization is also used to denote a distinct
85

way of life, which emerges in cities due to their large, dense and heterogeneous population.
Obviously this life is dissimilar to the life and activities of the people living in villages.
For the first time since Independence, the absolute increase in population is more in urban
areas than in rural areas. The rural–urban distribution is 68.84% and 31.16%, respectively.
The level of urbanization increased from 27.81% in the 2001 census to 31.16% in the
2011 census, while the proportion of rural population declined from 72.19% to 68.84%.Of the
121 crore Indians, 83.3 crore live in rural areas while 37.7 crore are settled in urban areas.
An urban area has been defined (by the 2011 census) as follows:
1. All places with a municipality, corporation, cantonment board or notified town area
committee.
2. All other places which satisfy the following criteria:
(i) a minimum population of 5,000;
(ii) at least 75% of male working population engaged in non-agricultural pursuits; and
(iii) a density of population of at least 400 people per sq. km.
The first category of urban units is known as Statutory Towns. These towns are notified
under law by the concerned State/UT Government and they have local bodies like municipal
corporations, municipalities, municipal committees, etc., irrespective of their demographic char-
acteristics as reckoned on 31st December, 2009 .
Examples: Vadodara (M Corp.), Shimla (M Corp.), etc.
According to Census 2011 there were 53 cities those have more than 1 million population,
on the other hand it was just 35 in 2001. Population of these 53 cities was 166 million, which
was about 44% of total urban population. Ranking of the first seven cities remained intact, with
Greater Bombay topping the list.
EVOLUTION OF URBANIZATION IN INDIA

Urbanization in India can be traced back to the ancient Indian period. Harappan urbanism in
Indus valley civilization is considered to be the first phase of urbanization in India. Harappan
cities had a long period of urbanization for about 600 years (between 2350 BC and 1750 BC).
Harappa and Mohenjodaro are the two important cities in Indus valley civilization.
Important towns of the Harappan culture located in India are Lothal, (Gujarat), Kalibangan
(Rajasthan), Banwali (Haryana) and Rupar (Punjab).
Urbanization in India during the ancient and medieval periods was associated with the
seats of administrations, capitals and trading centres. At the invasion of the Europeans, Indian
urbanization rate was accelerated mainly because of the location and establishment of many
new and modern factories and industries.
Onset of the British East India Company changed the nature of urbanization process
extraordinarily. The major contribution of the British to the Indian urban prospect can be
enlisted as follows:
1. The formation of three metropolitan port cities of Mumbai (Bombay), Kolkata (Calcutta)
and Chennai (Madras).
2. Creation of a chain of hill stations in the Himalayan region and in South India.

Chapter 5 • Urbanization, Their Problems and Their Remedies 87
3. The modification of the urban landscape of the existing cities with the introduction of
civil lines and cantonments.
4. The introduction of railways and modern industry.
5. The improvements in urban amenities and administration.
During the early years of the 20th century, India stumbled upon a phase of economic
s tagnation. After independence the process of industrialization, though initiated during the
Second Plan could make little impact on the economy in terms of population-shift to urban areas
till 1961. Although the Second and the Third Plans decided to have a big programme of industri-
alization, the plans emphasized the development of heavy and basic industries. The employment
prospective of these industries being limited, their growth did not lead to absorption of labour
from the rural to urban areas to such an extent as to have a marked impact on the economy.
One can, therefore, observe that the process of industrialization, though started during
the sixties could not gather momentum. Urbanization could hardly absorb a little more than the
natural increase in urban population. As a result, a serious dent in terms of the shift of popula-
tion from rural to urban areas could not be made.
During a single decade, between 1981 and 1991 alone, urban population soared by 60
million approximately which indicated a growing trend towards urbanization. Urban popula-
tion, in absolute terms reached the figure of 375 million accounting for 31% of the total popula-
tion in 2011.
REASONS FOR URBAN POPULATION GROWTH

Natural Increase in Population
Population is consistently increasing in the country. Naturally, the urban population is also in-
creasing. The natural cause for the increase in urban population is that, in the urban areas always
the number of birth exceeds the number of death. Availability of better medical and health ser-
vices, good drinking water supply and sanitation, higher rate of literacy, etc., must have been the
reasons for the extended longevity and so relatively low level of death rate in the urban areas.
Continuous Migration of People Towards Cities

Both economists and non-economists are of the opinion that the economic and non-economic
forces have been in performance of their role in driving the people from the rural surrounding
area to the urban regions. Of the total increase in urban population, a major contributory factor
is the natural growth and a part is also contributed by immigrations from rural areas. Their exact
number at the moment can never be properly known. It can only be guessed. The factors that
induce people of the rural areas to shift towards the cities are of two types, namely:
1. Push factors
2. Pull factors.
1. “Push” Factors: People from the rural areas are moving towards the cities for finan-
cially viable reasons and various other reasons too. A large number of agricultural workers,
small and marginal farmers depend upon agriculture for their subsistence. Many of these

people who possess small holdings are not able to ensure productive employment to all
the adult members of the family. Added to this, there is also the disguised unemployment.
These people all the time feel pressure to migrate to towns/cities. Most agricultural work-
ers find only seasonal work and the wages they earn from this work are definitely not suf-
ficient to run their life throughout the year. Hence, they look forward to some other work
in their own village or nearby villages. If they are not able to get one, then the economic
forces “push” them out of the village, mostly towards towns and cities in search of better
opportunities to lead a decent life.
2. “Pull” Factors: If certain factors are forcibly “pushing” the villagers towards the cit-
ies certain attractions of the cities are also “pulling” or drawing the rural natives towards
them. These “pull” factors are of two types:
(i) The “Pull” of the better job opportunities and
(ii) The Pull of city attractions.
(i) T he “Pull” of better job opportunities: The comparatively better job opportunities
that are available in some cities, are attracting people towards them. All cities do not
have such attractions. Cities or towns with heavy public investments in industry and
mining and other establishments are the areas of heavy population concentration. In
the same manner, industrially advanced cities such as Bangalore, Mumbai, Kanpur,
Ahmedabad that belong to the industrially developed states of Karnataka, Maharash-
tra, Uttar Pradesh and Gujarat respectively are attracting villagers towards them with
the promise of better wages and better lifestyle. Urban wages are generally higher as
compared to rural wages. Therefore, the “pull” of relatively high urban wages is quite
strong and a large number of people, particularly the young men and women, keep
migrating to the cities to make the best out of the available opportunities.
(ii) The “Pull” of city attractions: The city is undoubtedly a centre of attraction. From
the beginning the city has been attracting a large number of people especially from
the village areas. The city is pulling people from various corners towards its nucleus.
The people belonging to rural areas, who face various economic problems, burdened
with too many children, bored with the monotony of the routine life, and attracted
by the glamour of the city, have started moving towards the cities. The city is tempt-
ing the rural people with its employment opportunities, educational facilities, medi-
cal facilities, recreational facilities, such as movies, dramas, night clubs, cabarets,
gambling centres, horse race, library, public parks, museums, orchestra, zoo, circus
shows, concerts, etc.
Since cities are places of high volume of economic, commercial, political, educational,
scientific, literary and technological activities, they attract lot of migrants and also pro-
vide sufficient scope and opportunities for personal advancement. The rural people
are highly influenced by the attractiveness of the city in its appearance, glamour, luxury
and other infrastructural developments. Moreover, the above aspects also influence
the rural people’s ideology and make them believe that money making is much easier
in cities.
The city men and women, their dresses, fashions, habits, styles, tastes, interests, in-
telligence, talents, comforts, luxuries, etc., have a great impact on the rural people and it al-
lures them. As a result, they have started flocking towards the cities in a big number. This has

contributed to the process of urbanization. Urbanization resulted in urban concentration on the

one hand and rural de-population, on the other.
Migration is a complex phenomenon and an enquiry about the motives behind it is the
most difficult part of the analysis of the process of migration. With regard to the determinants
of population, distinction has been made between push factors and pull factors. Push factors
are those that operate in areas of out-migration and compel the people to move to other areas.
Pull factors are those that operate in areas of in-migration and attract the people to these areas.
It is not necessary that in an area only push or only pull factors should operate. In fact, both
push and pull factors operate simultaneously in the same area. It is because of this that it some-
times becomes difficult to differentiate between push and pull factors.
It is in this context that a scheme other than the push-pull syndrome has to be recom-
mended for a detailed inventory of determinants of migration. All migrations in the modern
context are because of growing process of industrialization, technological advancement and
other changes that are taking place in the social and economic spheres. In addition, wars, politi-
cal events, regional disparities increase, in employment potentials, in wages and non-availability
of agricultural land are other stimuli for population movements.
There are several factors in an area that hold the people of the area to it or attract more
people to it and there are innumerable factors that keep the people away from it. The former
category of factors is termed as positive factors and the latter category as negative factors. It
is also suggested that there are always certain indifferent factors in all areas. According to this,
each place of origin as well as of destination has its own set of positive, negative and indiffer-
ent factors for each potential migrant. Thus, a factor may be positive for a particular person,
and might be negative for the other and indifferent for still another. It is this complexity of the
factors that makes most of the generalizations about determinants of migration vague.
The determinants of migration for the convenience of understanding may be classified
into three broad categories of economic, social and demographic determinants.
1. Economic determinants: Observations reveal that economic motives constitute the
most vital determinants of population movement. Included among the various economic
determinants which govern the magnitude and direction of migration are the general eco-
nomic conditions of the area, the availability of good agricultural land, size of landholdings
and the rate of growth of employment opportunities. The depressed economic conditions
in an area generate tendencies of out-migration, here as the conditions reflecting the eco-
nomic prosperity offer greater employment potential and attract in-migrants. Within this
general framework, the industrial pull has proved to be more dynamic than the agricultural
push, both in industrial and agricultural countries.
The availability of good agricultural land continues to be most powerful economic factor
determining magnitude and direction of population migration. The areas which have acute
pressure of population upon their limited agricultural land resource base, thus, generate out-
migration, whereas those where new agricultural lands are reclaimed receive such migrants.
Countries like India, where the processes of agricultural development are in progress,
have been witnessing such migrations in the newly reclaimed areas or to the areas where
extension of irrigation has improved the general conditions of agriculture significantly.
The names of Terai region of Uttar Pradesh and Dandakaranya of Madhya Pradesh, Odi-
sha and Andhra Pradesh have often been quoted in this regard. Closely associated with
this factor is the factor of size of landholdings. Migrations all over the world have been

stimulated by the temptation of increasing the size of one’s landholding. It has commonly
been observed that the regions of dwindling landholdings send out the streams of mi-
grants to the areas of developmental activities.
This takes us to next factor of availability of employment opportunities. The areas
that are experiencing developmental activities are widening their employment potential.
This has proved to be a powerful economic factor governing population movement. The
development of means of transportation and communication in recent times has also
stimulated migratory tendencies. In most cases the expansion of transport network has
increased the spatial interaction and has accelerated both migration and commuting.
2. Social determinants: Equally noteworthy determinants are the socially rooted determi-
nants of migration. There are certain social customs that generate specific type of migra-
tion. For instance, females move from the place of their parent’s residence to the place of
residence of their spouses after their marriage. This is a type of migration that owes nothing
to the desire of economic gains. It is due to this factor that in India the number of female
migrants is considerably high, although Indian population is considered as least itinerant.
Other few social factors controlling population include socio-economic status, informa-
tion network, cultural contact, desire for social uplift and government policies. The socio-
economic status of the potential migrant has been considered as an important factor in
determining the magnitude and direction of migration.
However, in the contemporary developed and developing world, there is an overwhelm-

ing evidence that better educated, more skilled and economically-sound people have greater
predisposition to migrate, particularly over long distances. Higher status people have the ability,
the training and the information and thus become more mobile. The labour market for higher
status jobs is also territorially wider. It shows that not all the higher status groups have high
rate of spatial mobility. Highly-earning professionals like doctors, lawyers, architects, require to
make appreciable investment and needless to say that it takes several years to build an appre-
ciable base of clients, and based on this aspect, they do not move very easily.
Closely associated with this aspect is the feature of information network. The availability
of information through education, cultural contacts, spatial interaction also widens the migra-
tion propensity spectrum. The communities that are ruled by ancient traditions, customs and
strong communal ties are less mobile than those which are socially more awakened and where
people have cultural contact with the other world and possess intense desire for social uplift.
The information network and cultural contacts widen the horizons for job opportunities.
Similarly, it is also widely recognized that migration probability is functionally related to
the migration experience. That is to say that in-migrants of a particular area are more likely to
move further in comparison to the long-term residents of the area. Thus, migration generates
further migration signifying the role of information network and spatial interaction in stimulat-
ing more of migration.
Finally, government policies make their own contribution in giving a specific direction
to the population movement. China, France and Russia reveal the role of government policies
in the migration of population. In the early years of communist regime in China, large number
of people moved out from the countryside to the urban areas as a result of collectivization of
farms. Likewise, the political totalitarianism in Russia resulted in the flight of people from their
homeland at the time of Bolshevik Revolution.

Changes in City Boundaries

The boundaries of the towns have been extending for various reasons and at different times. As
cities get expanded, the semi-urban or entirely rural areas that are found on the outskirts of the
cities also get included in the urban areas. It is not that these rural areas suddenly become urban
areas. They may even continue to retain some of the characteristics of villages. But their inclu-
sion in the expanding cities put them under the areas classified as towns. The people living in
these areas start to get hands on some or many features of urban life. The rural population that
gets included in these areas increase the number of urban population.
It is clear from the above explanation that the process of urbanization continues to take
place even today. It is just that ever-happening phenomenon. It has acquired new momen-
tum towards the end of the 20th and in the beginning of the 21st centuries. Expansion of
educational facilities, technological and industrial development, availability of employment
opportunities, and such other factors continue to play their role in accelerating the process of
urbanization.
A number of demographic factors also play a determining role in the migration-propensity
spectrum. For instance, age has been recognised as one of the important demographic factors
controlling the degree of desire to move among the potential migrants. No wonder, young
adults are more migratory than other groups. Similarly, the regional disparities in the rate of nat-
ural increase provide the basis for all movements by way of their role in giving a specific pattern
to population-resource nexus of an area. It is the rate of growth of population that determines
the scope of population pressure in an area. The varying degree of population pressure vis-a-
vis resource potential of the area finds expression through migration of population. The great
historic movement of European population across the Atlantic was an expression of increasing
stress upon the resources of Europe.
Similarly, in contemporary India, the re-distributional tendencies among its population are
so an expression of regional disparities in their population-resource relationship. Large scale
out-migration from intensely crowded parts of Bihar and Uttar Pradesh is largely due a poor
population-resource ratio in these areas. It signifies that the relationship between human and
physical resources form the basis of all population movements.
CHARACTERISTICS OF INDIAN URBANIZATION

•• Subsistence nature: It implies that the migrants from rural areas are attracted to the
urban centres not only for urban environment but mainly for employment. They may be
eating low-quality food or may be living in ill-maintained houses but they stick to the cities
for jobs. This affects badly the quality of life in the urban places, especially in the class I
and metropolitan cities.
•• Poly-metropolitan apex in which the million cities (more than 1 million citizens) domi-
nate the entire urban scheme accounting for one-third of India’s total urban population.
At present there are as many as 53 million cities, including three mega cities (more than 10
million inhabitants), Mumbai, Kolkata, and Delhi. Eighteen new UAs/Towns have been
added to this list by recent 2011 census
•• Indian towns are growing more on the basis of tertiary rather than the secondary
sector: It is very ironical that cities in India have developed as a result of the growth of

tertiary sector. The growth in communication sector, transport, services and construction
were the main factors for the growth of Indian cities. But in developed countries it is the
manufacturing sector which led to the growth of cities.
•• Southern India is more urbanized than that of the Northern and Eastern India:
This is because of the historical, socio-cultural and educational resource factors widely
available. With the introduction of globalization in India, the development of South India
was very high due to high FDI and establishment of various kinds of industries in these
states.
Urbanization in India, 2001–2011

The process of urbanization gradually seems to be getting intensified. While in 2001 only 27.8%
of the country’s population had urban residence, on the other hand, by 2011 the percentage
of urban dwellers in the country had improved to 31.16. The number of urban dwellers in the
country increased from 286 million in 2001 to 377 million in 2011. Also the number of towns in
the country increased significantly.
While in 2001 there were 5161 towns in the country, their number increased by no less
than 2774 and reached 7935. Thus, there was an increase of 53.74% in the number of towns
in the country just in 10 years. It indicates that a significant number of large villages earned the
urban status for the first time during 2001–2011 as census towns. These are those large villages
which by virtue of census definition of a town have grown in to a small town. These towns are
a new addition to the urban centres list and therefore their contribution in the growth of urban
population in the country was significant in the sense that these are likely to emerge as new
centres of concentration of non-agricultural activities in approaching decades.
Between the years 2001 and 2011, there are wide inter-state variations both in the propor-
tion of urban population and change in the proportion. Although the country had only 31.16%
of its population living in urban areas in 2011, there were states like Goa where this proportion
was as high as 62.17. Not only that, it has also improved by 12.47% points during the recent
inter-censual period from 49.7% in 2001 to 62.17% in 2011. At the other end of the scale was
state like Himachal Pradesh which not only had the lowest proportion of urban population in
the country but also had the lowest improvement in the proportion of such population during
2001–2011. This being a hill state had very little scope for urban development. No wonder, only
10.04% of its population had urban residence in comparison to the national average of 31.16%.
The decade 2001–2011 does not seem to have changed this scenario of low urban development
in the state as the proportion of urban population was almost stagnant with only a marginal
change from 9.8% in 2001 to 10.04% in 2011.
Generally, union territories in India are highly urbanized as they cover some city region
of national/regional significance. Therefore, in case of all the Union Territories the proportion
of urban population was much higher than the national average. Delhi, the National Capital
Territory (NCT) had the highest percentage of urban population among the union territories.
In the NCT of Delhi. 97.50% population lived in urban areas. Thus, just 2.5% of population of
NCT of Delhi lived in villages which was gradually becoming non-existent either due to their
transformation into small towns or due to their merger in the neighbouring town. It needs to
be stressed here that the decade 2001-2011 has witnessed large-scale development of housing

colonies in the proximity of all big cities and towns. Mushrooming of a large number of residen-
tial flats has been a common scene in the neighbourhoods of most of the union territories in the
country especially NCT of Delhi and Chandigarh which are hard-pressed for space and mount-
ing pressure of population. Chandigarh also had a very high proportion (97.25%) of its popula-
tion living in urban areas. In fact, there is hardly any village left in these two territories—NCT of
Delhi and Chandigarh.
However, the union territory of Andaman and Nicobar Islands recorded the lowest pro-
portion of urban population (35.67%) from among the union territories. Dadra and Nagar
Haveli (46.62%) also had comparatively smaller component of urban population. In case of
Lakshadweep (78.08%), Daman and Diu (75.16%) and Puducherry (68.31%), the proportion of
urban dwellers was considerably high.
These observations reveal that
1. India is still poorly urbanized with only one in every three people in the country living in
urban areas.
2. During the last two decades, the proportion of urban dwellers in the country has improved
only by 5.06 percentage points from 26.1% 1991 to 31.16% in 2011.
3. The union territories in the country are highly urbanized as most of them constitute city
region of some big city of either national or regional significance.
4. There are wide inter-state variations in percentage of urban population as the same varies
from 10.30% in the hill state of Himachal Pradesh to 62.19% in case of Goa which has
emerged as one of the most attractive tourist spots in the country.
5. In case of union territories, the proportion of urban dwellers varies from 35.67% in
Andaman & Nicobar Islands to 97.50% in NCT of Delhi.
6. The states with high proportion of non-agricultural workers display higher degree of
urbanization signifying positive correlation between urbanization and high growth of
non-agricultural sector although it may be difficult to assess as to which of the two was
dependent/independent variable.
7. The hill states, by and large, displayed poor urban development associated with their dif-
ficult terrains and the limitations of such physiography in terms of movement of goods,
services and people due to poor accessibility.
8. There were still some backward states in terms of urban development where the propor-
tion of urban population continued to be extremely low.
9. All the states and union territories in the country recorded an increase in the proportion
of their urban populations during 2001–2011.
10. The states of Himachal Pradesh, Bihar, Assam, Odisha, Uttar Pradesh, Jharkhand, R ajasthan
and Jammu and Kashmir have remained stagnant in terms of urban development as in their
case the proportion of urban dwellers has remained stagnant for the last three decades.
11. It is expected that the upcoming decades will steer to a sea change in the urban scenario of
the country due to immense expansion of tertiary and quaternary sectors of economy.
By comparison, vast areas of central and northern India still displayed comparatively
low degree of urbanization with less than 20% of their population living in urban areas
implying that

(i) India still live in the countryside,

(ii) north and south divide in urbanization still exist, and
(iii) east and west divide in the degree of urbanization also continue in the country.
Not only that, in states like Sikkim (-5.20%), Nagaland (-14.59%), Goa (-18.56%) and Kerala
(-25.96%) and the union territories like Chandigarh (-68.51%) NCT of Delhi (-55.61%), Daman
and Diu (-40.18%), and Lakshadweep (-58.08%) suffered rural depopulation during 2001–11, as
all these states and union territories recorded a negative growth rate of population in their rural
areas. It is a significant transformation in the history of demographic evolution of the country.
In comparison to the states, the union territories recorded extremely high rate of growth
of urban population during 2001–2011. For example, Daman and Diu registered a growth rate
of 218.37% in its urban population. It was followed by Dadra and Nagar Haveli (216.73%), and
Lakshadweep (86.55%). In the remaining four union territories, the growth rate of urban popu-
lation was less than the national average of 31.8%. However, the lowest growth of urban popu-
lation among the union territories was recorded by Andaman and Nicobar Islands (16.64%). It
shows how wide was the contrast within union territories of the country with respect to growth
rate of their urban population. Such differences were the result of differences in terms of poten-
tial of the concerned union territory to absorb in-migrants from rural areas. In case of Andaman
and Nicobar Islands, its distance from mainland seems to be the chief deterrent.
The above observations divulge that:
1. India still continues to be a poorly urbanized country with only 31.8% of its population
living in urban areas.
2. The last three decades have seen only a marginal increase in the proportion of urban
dwellers.
3. There are wide inter-state variations in the proportion of urban dwellers with Himachal
Pradesh being the least and Goa being the most urbanized parts of the country.
4. The hill states in general display poor urbanization due to difficult terrain and the limita-
tions associated with the same.
5. All the states and union territories in the country recorded an increase in the proportion of
urban population during 2001–2011.
6. The growth rates of rural and urban populations during 2001–2011 were contrastingly dif-
ferent in the country.
7. While the rural areas recorded lower rate of growth of only 12.18%, the urban areas re-
corded a growth rate of 31.8%.
8. Growth in rural areas was even below the national average of natural rate of increase, the
growth in urban areas was more than double this national average.
9. Thus, rural areas have suffered heavy losses in their population on account of rural to ur-
ban migration.
10. Many states and union territories in India have suffered depopulation in their rural areas
which is a significant transformation in the history of demographic evolution in the country.
11. High rate of growth of population in urban areas was the product of
(a) emergence of a large number of new towns especially the census towns,
(b) merger of villages in the big cities and
(c) considerable in-migration of villagers into urban areas.
12. The states and union territories that have suffered huge losses of rural population through
rural depopulation include Kerala, Goa, Nagaland, Sikkim, Chandigarh, NCT of Delhi,
Daman and Diu, and Lakshadweep.

13. The country seems to have reached a take-off stage as far as its urban development is
concerned.
14. Emergence of large number of huge housing complexes in the vicinity of cities/towns of na-
tional regional significance signals the initiation of new era in the country’s urbanization process.
15. It is expected that the coming decades will usher in the sea change in the urban scenario of
the country.
16. Privatization, globalization, IT-hubs, mushrooming of higher technical and educational insti-
tutes in the country signal the vast expansion of tertiary and quaternary in the decades to come.
CHARACTERISTICS OF URBAN COMMUNITY

There are a number of characteristics associated with an urban community. They include:
1. Social heterogeneity
2. Secondary relations
3. Anonymity of city life
4. Secondary control
5. Large scale division of labour and specialization
6. Large scale social mobility
7. Individuation
8. Voluntary association
9. Social tolerance
10. Spatial segregation
11. Unstable family
PROBLEMS OF URBANIZATION IN INDIA

India is one of the less urbanized countries of the world with only 31% of its population living in ur-
ban agglomerations/towns. The country is facing a serious crisis or urban growth at the present time.
Whereas urbanization has been an instrument of economic, social and political prog-
ress, it has also led to serious socio-economic problems. The unprecedented migration of the
rural people to urban areas poses a great challenge to transport, sanitation, housing, electricity,
education and other infrastructural bottlenecks. Poverty, unemployment and under employ-
ment among the rural immigrants, beggary, thefts, dacoities, burglaries and other social evils are
also on rampage.
Consequences of urbanization: Urbanization has brought about many changes in various
spheres of urban life, namely physical, social, psychological and cultural aspects. These aspects
are elaborated here.
Physical aspects:
•• Growth of cities • Homelessness
•• Suburbanization
Social:
•• Family • Prostitution
•• Crime • Gambling
•• Unemployment • Beggary
•• Poverty • Conflicts

Psychological:
•• Alcoholism • Stress
Cultural:
•• Impersonality of relations • Urban outlook
•• Mechanical way of life • Cosmopolitan outlook
Economical:
•• Industrialization • Emergence of services sector
•• Migration
Political:
•• Environmental
1. Urban Sprawl: It refers to the rapid expansion and spread of urban areas along the erst-
while rural areas. As the population in cities increases, the rapidly growing cities expand
beyond the carrying capacity of the land and hence lead to multiple problems. Massive
immigration from rural areas as well as from small towns into big cities has taken place
almost consistently; thereby adding to the size of cities.
2. Suburbs are historically developed along the major roads leading to the towns and cities.
This type of growth is known as ribbon settlement. But soon the demand for subur-
ban homes causes the land between ribbon settlements to be built and made accessible
by constructing new roads. This type of development is known as infil.
3. Simultaneously small towns and villages within the commuting distance of major cities are
also developed for residential purposes. In this way towns keep continuously growing and
in some areas the suburbs of a number of neighbouring towns may be so close together as
to form an almost continuous urban belt which is called conurbation. Urban sprawl tak-
ing place at the cost of valuable agricultural land is a sad thing no one can deny.
4. Overcrowding happened when cities experience huge migration of people and in limited
space large size of population has to be accommodated. This situation is seen almost in all
major Indian cities.
Overcrowding leads to a chronic problem of shortage of houses in urban areas. This
problem is specifically more acute in those urban areas where there is large incursion of
unemployed or underemployed immigrants who have no place to live in when they enter
cities/towns from the surrounding areas.
5. The natural sequel of unchecked, unplanned and haphazard growth of urban areas is the
growth and spread of slums and squatter settlements which present a striking feature in
the ecological structure of Indian cities, especially of metropolitan centres. The rapid ur-
banization in conjunction with industrialization has resulted in the growth of slums.
Practically it is very difficult to distinguish between slums and squatter settlements ex-
cept that slums are relatively more stable and are located in the inner parts of the city
which are generally very old. On the other hand squatter settlements are relatively tempo-
rary and are scattered in all parts of the city especially outer zones and in outskirts where
urban and rural areas merge.

6. With traffic bottleneck and traffic congestion, almost all cities and towns of India are suf-
fering from acute form of transport problem. Transport problems increase and become
more complex as the town grows in size. With its growth, the town performs varied and
complex functions and more people travel to work or shop. As the towns and cities grow
the usage of vehicles both public transport and private vehicle also increases. In commer-
cial places it is obvious that those localities always face traffic congestions.
7. Homelessness: Lack of proper shelter is one another important and acute problem in
Indian cities. Since cities attract huge number of migrant population it is very difficult to
plan and build houses to accommodate all urban population. Moreover, rent and cost of
living has increased very exorbitantly. Hence, it becomes very difficult for lower class and
middle class people to have a decent house for living. The real estate market and builders
largely focus to construct high-end flats and housing projects.
So most of the people in urban areas either live in highly crowded areas or in slums and
squatter settlements. In order to overcome this problem we have to focus on construction
of low-cost housing projects.
8. Suburbanization: Suburbanization is one another phenomena associated with urban
areas. During the initial phase of city development people wanted to stay at the centre
of the city because of various facilities and conveniences. But with the growth of the city
and huge influx of population the city centre became no more a happy place to stay. So
affordable class of people moved from city centre to the outskirts or suburbs. Suburbs
are areas that were once villages and the cities in the spree of expansion have engulfed
these villages. They are characterized by relatively low housing density. Suburbs can be
identified from the fact that they are separated from the central city in the physical aspects
but functionally they are strongly dependent on it for employment, services, goods and
administration.
Suburbs have been differentiated based on their functions—the residential suburbs and
employment suburbs. The residential suburbs are those that provide only residential space
to their inhabitants and these inhabitants commute to the urban centre for their livelihood
whereas employment suburbs, which are also called satellite towns, are formed when some
industrial complexes provide residences to their employees.
However, rapid increase in population is disturbing the suburbs as well. Presently sub-
urbs are facing lot of problems of as like an urban centre ranging from traffic congestion
to theft, robbery, poverty, land grabbing and other social crimes as well as air pollution,
despoliation of physical environment, housing problems and financial challenges.
Whatever may be the problems, suburbanization seems to be a new trend. Unlike the
early haphazard and unplanned suburbanization process, it may become more planned
and achieve an orderly growth in the days to come.
9. What is one of the most essential elements of nature to sustain life and right from the begin-
ning of urban civilization, sites for settlements have always been chosen keeping in view the
availability of water to the inhabitants of the settlement. However, supply of water started
falling short of demand as the cities grew in size and number. Today we have reached a stage
where practically no city in India gets sufficient water to meet the needs of city dwellers.
In many cities people get water from the municipal sources for less than half an hour
every alternate day. In dry summer season, taps remain dry for days together and people

are denied water supply at a time when they need it the most. The individual towns require
water in larger quantities. Many small towns have no main water supply at all and depend
on such sources as individual tube wells, household open wells or rivers.
10. Urban areas in India are almost invariably plagued with insufficient and inefficient sew-
age facilities. Not a single city in India is fully sewage. Resource crunch faced by the mu-
nicipalities and unauthorized growth of the cities are two major causes of this pathetic
state of affairs. According to latest estimates, only 35%–40% of the urban population has
the privilege of appropriate sewage system.
Most of the cities have old sewage lines which are not looked after properly. Often sew-
erage lines break down or they are overflowing. Most cities do not have proper arrange-
ments for treating the sewerage waste and it is drained into a nearby river (as in Delhi)
or in sea (as in Mumbai, Kolkata and Chennai), thereby polluting and contaminating the
water bodies.
11. As all Indian cities grow in number and size, the problem of trash disposal is assuming
alarming proportions. Huge quantities of garbage produced by our cities pose a serious
health problem. Most cities do not have proper arrangements for garbage disposal and the
existing landfills are full to the brim. These landfills are hotbeds of disease and innumer-
able toxic things leaking into their surroundings and spread infections.
Wastes become rancid in the open inviting disease carrying flies and rats and a filthy,
poisonous liquid, called leachate, which leaks out from below and contaminates ground
water. People who live near the rotting garbage and raw sewage fall easy victims to several
diseases like dysentery, malaria, plague, jaundice, diarrhoea, typhoid, flu, etc.
12. Modern cities present a meeting point of people from different walks of life having no
affinity with one another. Like other problems, the problem of crimes increases with
the increase in urbanization. In fact the increasing trend in urban crimes tends to disturb
peace and tranquility of the cities and make them unsafe to live in particularly for the
women. Growing materialism, consumerism, competition in everyday life, selfishness in
the crowd is some of the primary causes responsible for alarming trends in urban crime.
Not only the poor, deprived and slum dwellers take to crime; youngsters from well-to-do
families also resort to crime in order to make fast buck and for meeting requirements of a
lavish life. Occasional failures in life also drag youngsters to crime.
The problem of urban crime is becoming more complicated in the present day world
because criminals often get protection from politicians, bureaucrats and elite class of the
urban society. Some of the criminals reach high political positions by using their money
and muscle power.
Crime: Social crime in urban places is one another important issues that require high
attention. There are various crimes like
1. Social crimes 2. White collar crimes
3. Political crimes 4. Economic crimes
Social crimes largely comprise of poverty, crime against women and children, crime
against old-age people, juvenile crime, theft, robbery and human trafficking.
Technological advancement has led to the emergence of the so called white collar
crimes. Some of them are cyber crimes, E-banking fraud, social media deception, online
black mail, online business fraud, etc.

Political crimes include criminalization of politics, bribery, treason, etc. Economic

crimes like tax evasion, money laundering, black money, fake currency have become more
common in Indian cities.
13. With rapid pace of urbanization, industries and transport systems grow rather out of pro-
portion. These developments are primarily responsible for pollution of environment,
largely the urban environment.
14. Energy crisis: With the demand for power consumption increasing day by day because
of industrialization and the increasing use of electronic gadgets of various types, almost
all the cities in India face this problem. It is of urgent importance that we promote other
sources of energy like solar and other renewable sources of energy.
15. Unemployment: Urbanization can lead to unemployment. People are drawn to urban
areas in the false hope of a better standard of living, better healthcare and job opportuni-
ties. In fact, a high density entry of people to the cities only exasperates the situation and
people find themselves in a world where they have an inferior quality of life. Very few
people make their fortunes, and the rest must still find ways to eat and sleep while they
wait for their chance. This leads to one of the most obvious bad effects of urbanization—
the growth of crimes.
Another reason why unemployed people are increasing in the urban areas is due to
mechanization. The machines are replacing humans, and only a few, who can learn how to
use these machines, are finding employment. The rest remain unemployed. Thus, unem-
ployment is becoming a greater problem in the cities rather than in the rural areas.
As there are more people competing for fewer jobs in the city, unemployment is a con-
stant problem.
16. Family: One of the most important impact of urbanization on family structure is the emer-
gence of nuclear family. The erstwhile joint family structure got broken down due to migra-
tion and high cost of living in urban places led to the preference for nuclear family system.
Moreover, urbanization has also led to the need for dual income families, because of
this phenomenon it led to the emergence of secondary institutions like preschool, nursery
schools and day care centres.
More number of women entered into labour force thus making them economically indepen-
dent and thus improved the position of women in decision making. At the same time the emo-
tional bondage between family members weakened and more secondary relations developed.
17. Prostitution: Urbanization leads to trafficking of women and children from both urban
as well as rural areas. Often, women and children are brought from poor rural areas to the
economically more advanced urban areas, some abducted from their home villages and
sold in large cities. Some women and children are even trafficked across the borders for
prostitution, cheap-labour and adoption.
18. Gambling: Gambling is the risking of money or other valuables on the outcome of a
game, race, contest or other event. Although few societies in general have ever wholly ap-
proved of gambling, none has been able to eradicate it.
Gambling is an organized and planned activity in many urban centres. People living
in cities have a craze to make money. So, they are ready to espouse many means to make
money. Gambling gives them an opportunity to make instant or quick money. The hope
of making quick money easily is what gives gambling its appeal. If the appeal of gambling

is winning money, the thrill of it is in the risk that the wager may be lost. Many people get
addicted to gambling. It is not confined to people of particular economic status but it is
prevalent across all classes of people. It is also not confined to any particular sex as many
women are also involved in these kinds of activities.
CHANGING SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC INSTITUTIONS

The process of urbanization also leads to breakdown in the functioning of traditional insti-
tutions and patterns of behaviour and of social control. It leads to a situation of continuity
and change in the sense that the traditional forms often continue to persist, but their functions
undergo major re-adaptations in the face of urbanization. As pointed out by Yogendra Singh,
“Many new roles, often rational and modern and orientation, are added on to the traditional
institutions forms.” In India, the traditional institutions like caste, joint family and neighbour-
hood, etc., are ample evidence of such continuity and change in cities.
Isolation
In other words, a city-dweller is physically in proximity with others in different walks of
life, but socially he is under conditions of relative isolation, if not absolute isolation. People
socially-isolated are rarely found in village communities. In the city, people are usually unable to
make intimate and emotionally strong relationships. This tendency goes on increasing as the city
grows in the face of rapid population growth. Older people, the migrants who are still strangers
in the city, people who are unable to get along with others, socially rejected people, and people
who do not find people of their liking often suffer acute isolation even amidst thousands of the
urban dwellers.
The rapid growth of urban population leads to greater divisions of labour and special-
ization of work which, in turn, creates interdependence among individuals participating in
a given economic activity. Such an inter-dependence is partial and restricted only up to the
fulfilment of a given fraction or a portion of the total activity. Thus, there is extremely limited
scope for sharing a totality of experiences and social life. The heterogeneity of population,
especially in matters of social status, caste, class, religion, income, occupation, etc, creates
partial isolation.
Maladjustment
The process of urbanization adds to the complexities of city life. It generates and strengthens
the forces of social change, leading to new social reality and inevitable pressures of conven-
tionality. As the process of urbanization accelerates, the city life tends to be rapidly character-
ized by cultural diversities, socio-economic inequalities, competition, conflict and several other
manifestation of complexities of social reality. The fact of social mobility also affects the life
of the city-dwellers. In a way, all these social forces impose a functional adjustment on the part
of the city dwellers to lead a peaceful and fuller life. However, all the city dwellers are not for-
tunate enough to satisfactorily adjust to the diverse challenges of a growing city. For example,
in the field of economic activities, even in a rapidly growing city, the number of opportunities
for successful adjustment is smaller than the number of competitors. In such a situation, several

among those, who are the losers, fail to suitably adjust to the reality, and become victims of
frustration, inferiority complex and loss of a meaningful integration with the totality of city life.
All such failures give rise to the problem of maladjustment. Similarly, even among the successful
ones, many fail to conform to the new situations, and become maladjusted
Beggary
Out of many, few people, who migrate to the urban centres in search of better opportunities,
end up as beggars. They in fact are a financial burden to the country. The beggars are economi-
cally unproductive and almost remain as parasites in the society. This problem also has social
and moral aspects apart from the economic aspects. Most beggars usually stay in such an un-
healthy and unhygienic environment that they develop some or the other diseases. Thus, they
become lithe which means to spread infectious diseases in the city and nearby localities.
URBANIZATION AND SOCIAL MOBILITY

It is an accepted fact that urbanized and industrialized societies afford greater prospects for so-
cial mobility. Highly urbanized societies or societies that are moving in this direction commonly
have expanding economies, which means increasing job opportunities and rising incomes, which
in turn involves the creation of new occupations or more jobs, and a need for personnel to fill
these positions. Thus, there are opportunities for upward occupational mobility or possibility
for downward mobility.
Social mobility also occurs in urban centres because of the breakdown of the traditional
society and the firmer strict social class boundaries. Much mobility comes from the changes in
social structure rather than from individual efforts and achievement. The chances of upward or
downward mobility vary greatly according to various situations or the prevalence of particular
attitudes. Take for instance, M.N. Srinivas description of the Indian society that the pre-British
rule resulted, on one hand, in closing the traditional avenues to mobility and on the other, in
opening several new ones.
More importantly, it had set forces in motion, which altered fundamentally the overall
character of society. Indian society ceased to be stationary and became mobile and the quan-
tum of mobility increased as the years went by. The two most potent sources of mobility in the
rigid caste system of Indian cities were the fluidity of the political system, especially at the lower
levels and the change in the education system, law and order, and the overall technological de-
velopment. In modern industrial society multiple factors are involved in the process of social
mobility.
Consequences of Social Mobility

Social mobility may lead to disruptive interpersonal relationships that are dependent on face-to-
face relations. It also creates stress and strain in individuals as they have to adjust themselves to
new social situations including interpersonal and institutional structures. Upward social mobility
is associated with spatial mobility. Thus, a person moving from lower to upper class likes to shift
his/her place of residence from the existing locality to the locality where most of the people
belonging to his class reside.

REMEDIES AND SUGGESTIONS TO URBAN PROBLEMS

India can become strong economically, socially and culturally only when our cities remain devel-
oped in all aspects. It is the cities that act as the backbone of economic expansion and urbaniza-
tion is being taken as the positive light which acts as the engine of growth and as a strong agent
of socio political transformation.
Lot of efforts have been taken to face the challenges posed by urban crisis but with little
or no success. National Commission on Urbanization (NCU) has, in its policy proposal of 1988,
emphasized the necessity for
1. The evolution of a proper spatial pattern of economic development and suitable hierar-
chies of human settlements.
2. An optimum distribution of population between rural and urban settlements, and among
towns and cities of various sizes.
3. Distribution of economic activities in small and medium-sized growth centres.
4. Dispersal of economic activities through the establishment of counter magnets in the
region.
5. Provision of minimum levels of services in urban and rural areas. The other major devel-
opment programmes include
i. Urban Basic Services for the Poor (UBSP) programme
ii. The Environmental Improvement of Urban Slums (EIUS) programme
iii. The Integrated Development of Small and Medium Towns (IDSMT)
iv. Various housing and infrastructure financing schemes of Housing and Urban Devel-
opment Corporation (HUDCO)
v. The Mega Cities Project
vi. The Integrated Urban Poverty Eradication Programme (IUPEP)
It is very ironical that almost all urban development projects suffer from chronic dis-
ease of resource crunch. Ever since the first five year plan, urban development has been
given a low priority in the development agenda with hardly 3%–4% of the total plan out-
lay being allocated to the urban sector. The National Commission on Urbanization rec-
ommended in 1988 that at least 8% of the Plan outlay should be dedicated to urban sector.
There is not a single city in the world which is free from problems. Indian cities are no
exception as well. It does not mean that these problems are beyond solutions. Efficient urban
planning and effective implementation of the same can bring about positive results. A few sug-
gestions to face and to solve the urban problems are mention in the following:
Efficient and Integral City Planning

Lack of proper planning is one of the major causes of urban problems. Hence, city administra-
tion has to take sufficient care in making a comprehensive planning for the improvement of
the city. The city planners must have far-sightedness and must take into account the probable
growth of the city in at least another 50 years. There should be coordination among the city
administration, the state administration and also the central administration. While drafting a
plan for the improvement of the city, advice and suggestions of the experts must be sought. It
is equally important to make use of the latest technological knowhow in preparing the plan for
the future. Political interference invariably is the hindrance of the implementation of any suc-
cessful plan.

Financially Independent City Administration

It is essential that the municipal administration must have sufficient financial resources to un-
dertake developmental programmes for the benefit of the city dwellers. City administration can-
not always depend upon the state and the centre for finance. It has to find its own financial
resources to meet its requirements. By revising property, water and electricity taxes money can
be collected and more money per head per annum can be made available for providing neces-
sary facilities. City administration is to be toned up and bureaucrats must be made to commit
themselves to the service of the people.
Increased Job Opportunities

We have been concentrating on the rural areas to provide more job opportunities for rural peo-
ple through IRDP, NREP, JRY and such other programmes to hold back people in rural areas.
It is time now to do something for creating better job opportunities for the urban people. This
will not only help jobless urbanites but also add to the urban income. By spreading out various
economic activities and by increasing income in the city it is possible to pay more attention to
the requirements of the people.
Better Transportation Facility
Most of the cosmopolitan cities of India are overcrowded and are not able to provide the nec-
essary transportation facility to the people. Hence, it is necessary to make proper arrangements
to face this problem. Private transport system can be encouraged along with the existing public
transportation system. Healthy competition between the two systems can help solve the prob-
lem to a great extent.
Efficient and Workable Housing Policy

People who migrate to the city stumble upon the housing problem. Existing residents of the
cities do not have satisfactory housing accommodation. Hence, city administration must make
it a policy to persuade for a good housing industry. It can give encouragement to the private
builders, relax the rigid rules for the construction of houses. Private, public and the cooperative
housing boards may be given all the necessary help to construct as many houses as possible.
Employees, government servants and private individuals who want to construct houses for self-
occupation must be helped in getting loans from the nationalized banks, housing boards, coop-
erative societies, etc without much of hassles. The National Housing Policy which the central
government presented in 1988 to the Parliament should be made more workable. The exist-
ing Rent Control Act must be amended so as to give courage to the owners of houses to give
houses on reasonable rent to the needy people.
Limited Environment Pollution
Environment pollution is becoming a major problem in the mega cities. Sufficient care is to
be taken to control this pollution. New industries should not be given permission to start their
establishments near the residential areas. On the other hand, industries should be established far
away from the cities. Scientific arrangement is to be made to dispose of the solid waste includ-
ing the garbage. People should be educated properly in order to maintain cleanliness in the city.
Voluntary organizations and the media can play a vital role in this regard.

To conclude, it may be said that urbanization wherever it takes place, is bound to create
socio-economic problems. These problems are to be countered in a planned and scientific man-
ner though they cannot be completely solved. However, we can keep them under control and
find effective solutions for some of them. City administration or government alone cannot do
that. City dwellers themselves should take an active role and must be prepared to cooperate with
the administration in the elimination of these problems.
STATE POLICY ON URBAN PROBLEMS

In India, it is now recognized that urbanization is not a trivial aspect of the processes of eco-
nomic development and social change. This has led to demand that there ought to be a nation
policy statement on urbanization, as it is true in matters of industrial development, population
growth and education.
It should be noted here that, by and large, the emphasis of these efforts has been towards
the amelioration of the conditions of the poor and the lower income group. A brief appraisal
of the efforts to solve the problem of housing, sanitation and water supply, along with several
other problems of urban development are discussed in the next paragraph.
One of the grave problems of urbanization has been acute shortage of housing facilities in
cities. This problem has reached almost a breaking point in the case of the metropolitan cities.
In order to meet his problem planned efforts are made in the following two directions.
1. Rent Control Act (RCA), 1948
2. Urban Land Ceiling and Regulation Act (ULCRA), 1976
The Rent Control Act, 1948

The Rent Control Act was enacted with a view to control and regulate the rent of the houses.
It was first enacted in the Bombay State, in 1948, and later on in several other states. The Rent
Control Act also protects the tenants from the atrocities of the house owner, especially in the
sense that the owner of a house can neither force the tenant to vacate house, nor can he raise
the rent of the house at his own will. Further, the Rent Control Act also imposes the responsi-
bility of repairs of the house on the owner rather than on the tenant living in it.
The ill-effects of the Rent Control Act are not systematically recognized and in order to
put a curb on such effects the Ministry of Urban Development has taken some serious steps.
In 1987, The National Commission on Urbanization was appointed under the auspices of the
Ministry of Urban Development, Government of India. The Commission also went into the
details of the Rent Control Act, and recognized the seriousness of the adverse effects of the Act.
In its interim report, the National Commission on Urbanization made several recommendations
relating to the amendments in the terms and conditions of the existing Rent Control Act, and
these recommendation are as follows:
1. The continuation of the protection of the interests of the existing tenants.

2. The inclusion of the possibility of raising rent.
3. The separation of the rules the regulations of renting houses for commercial purposes
from houses to be rented for residential purposes.

4. The provisions of providing incentives to build new houses, etc., It is believed that the
inclusion of these amendments, while not necessarily solving the acute problem that has
been growing over the years, will certainly lessen the adverse effects of the existing Rent
Control Act.
Urban Land Ceiling and Regulation Act, 1976

The second important step relating to the management of urban land is the enactment of the
Urban Land Ceiling Act of 1976. This Act has the following three fundamental objectives:
1. Redistribution of Land,
2. Prevention of speculation in land, and
3. Regulation of construction on vacant land.
Under the provisions of this Act, the excess land, that is, land excluding the prescribed
size of the available plot, can be procured by the local authorities or the state government for
wider public interests. Usually, the excess land under this act is procured for the construction of
houses for the urban poor and the low income groups. Moreover, this Act imposes restrictions
on the sale of excess land so as to curb speculation in urban land.
Critics have pointed out that despite the existence of this Act the prices of land in every
city have reached far beyond the capacity of common man and speculation in land in flourishing
almost unchecked. Moreover, the land procured for construction of houses for the urban poor
and other public utilities is also negligible in size. In several cases, the owner’s excess land has
been successful in escaping the demands of the Land Ceiling Act through corrupt practices and
use of their political connections.
Programmes of Slum Clearance and Construction of New Houses

We have seen that in the face of rapid urban growth, a large section of urban population, is
living in slums and suffering from acute shortage of houses, water-supply, sanitation and other
basic facilities. These urban problems have assumed massive proportion, warranting social leg-
islation and special attention in our national planning. Following from these efforts, one of the
significant programmes is the slum clearance scheme and programme of construction of new
house for the urban poor and the low income groups.
Under the scheme, low-cost houses, equipped with latrine, bathroom, water-tap., sanita-
tion and drainage facilities, are made available to the poor people, who can afford to pay a token
amount as rent from their meagre earnings. Moreover, under the scheme of slum clearance
an entire, area inhabitated by economically and socially weaker sections is provided with these
common utilities to be shared by all. These programmes under the slum clearance scheme are
subsidized to provide assistance to the state governments for construction of one crore and 40
lakh new houses at the rate of Rs. 5000 per house for the benefit of the urban poor and the low
and middle income groups. In addition, the state government and the local bodies of the cities
also provide necessary funds for execution of such projects. It should, however, be noted that
the voluntary agencies have still lagged behind in taking up the activities of slum clearance and
construction of houses for the poor people.

The Five-Year Plans

The policy of decentralization in our national planning had lately been found useful in matters
of urban development also. In the First Five-Year Plan, no special attention was paid to the
solution of urban problems. Yet, it did recognize the acute shortage of housing and steep rise
in land prices in big cities. By the end of the First Five-Year Plan, Several institutional set-ups
to ease this problem came into existence. For example, a new ministry of works and housing
was first established and later renamed as the Ministry of Urban Affairs. The National Building
Organization was established to design low cost housing.
Steps were taken to train personnel in town planning. The Second Five-Year Plan em-
phasized the need for planned development of cities and towns, and advocated an integrated
approach to rural and urban planning in regional framework. During this plan, The Urban De-
velopment Authority came into existence, and a master plan was prepared for the first time for
the development of Delhi. This was a major step in urban planning and its implementation,
which was later followed in the case of other big cities in several states.
The Third and Fourth Five-Year Plans laid emphasis on town planning for which the re-
sponsibility was shifted from the Centre to the states. A model town-planning Act was prepared
in 1957 by the Town and Country Planning Organization in Delhi, and this led to the enactment
of laws in other states. The Third Five-Year Plan extended financial support for the preparation
of master plans for the development of cities and towns in the states. As a result of such efforts,
nearly 400 master plans were prepared. Moreover, the Third Plan also initiated urban commu-
nity development schemes in selected cities as an experimental scheme to solve social and hu-
man problems associated with urban slums.
The Fourth Plan recognized the need of financial urban development schemes. It was
during this plan period that an agency—Housing and Urban Development Corporation
(HUDCO)—came into existence to provide funds for the metropolitan authorities, State Hous-
ing Board and other urban institutions for the construction of houses in urban areas.
The Fifth Plan document, in a separate chapter on urban and regional planning, laid down
the following objectives of its urbanization policy;
1. Enhance the prevailing civic services in the urban centres.
2. Tackle the problems of the metropolitan cities on a regional basis.
3. Promote the development of small towns and new urban centres.
4. Assist inter-state projects for the metropolitan projects.
5. Support industrial townships under government undertakings.
The Sixth Plan also had a special chapter on urban problems but greater emphasis was
given to the problem of housing both in urban and rural areas. In this plan, necessary attention
was drawn, for the first time, to regional variations in the levels of urban development. It should
also be mentioned here that, during the Sixth Plan, Provisions were made to develop adequate
infrastructural and other facilities at the small, medium and intermediate towns so as to make
them “growth-centres” in promoting rural development. Further, 200 towns were to be identi-
fied for integrated development of water supply schemes in 550 towns, and sewerage projects in
110 towns in the country. Thus, The Sixth Plan recognized the problems of basic needs of the
urban dwellers and took some concrete steps towards the betterment of their conditions.
The Seventh Plan, on one hand, stressed the need for integrated development of small and
medium towns and, on other, minimising the growth of the metropolitan cities. To attain this
objective, special incentives are offered for the establishment of industries in small and medium

towns. It also advocates for greater financial support to local bodies by the state governments.
In terms of institutional set up, the Seventh Plan recommended the establishment of the Na-
tional Urban Infrastructure Development Finance Corporation, to provide capital for the devel-
opment of infrastructure in small and medium towns. Apart from these steps, the emphasis on
housing for the urban poor and the low income groups, integrated development and provisions
for promotion of basic amenities for the urban-dwellers are continued in the Seventh Plan and
proposed draft of the Eighth Five-Year Plan.
In brief, although the Five-Year Plans do not as yet exhibit any comprehensive policy on
India’s urbanization and urban problem, there are obviously certain aspects which have received
greater attention to improve the conditions of the urban-dwellers. Special mention may be made of
1. finance for housing,
2. slum clearance and improvement,
3. town water supply and sewerage,
4. urban transportation, and
5. the preparation of master plans for the development of cities.
GOVERNMENTAL MEASURES TO ADDRESS THE ISSUE

OF URBANIZATION
Smart Cities
1. What is a smart city?
A “smart city” is an urban region that is highly advanced in terms of overall infrastructure,
sustainable real estate, communications and market viability. It is a city where information
technology is the principal infrastructure and the basis for providing essential services to
residents. There are many technological platforms involved, including but not limited to
automated sensor networks and data centres. Though this may sound futuristic, it is now
likely to become a reality as the “smart cities” movement unfolds in India.
In a smart city, economic development and activity is sustainable and rationally incremen-
tal by virtue of being based on success-oriented market drivers such as supply and demand.
They benefit everybody, including citizens, businesses, the government and the environment.
2. The origin: The concept of smart cities originated at the time when the entire world was
facing one of the worst economic crises. In 2008, IBM began to work on “smarter cities”
concept as part of its Smarter Planet initiative. By the beginning of 2009, the concept had
captivated the imagination of various nations across the globe.
Huge investment on research and formation of smart cities were done by South Korea,
UAE and China. These projects have become a model for India to emulate.
3. In India: Increasing urbanization and pressure on rural land poses a great challenge to
quality of life in urban areas. Moreover these urban areas have to act as engines of growth
as well. These two aspects were the main reasons behind the government’s announcement
of smart cities project in India with initial development of 100 cities.
To start with few cities with ongoing or proposed smart cities projects include Kochi
in Kerala, Ahmedabad in Gujarat, Aurangabad in Maharashtra, Manesar in Delhi NCR,
Khushkera in Rajasthan, Krishnapatnam in Andhra Pradesh, Ponneri in Tamil Nadu and
Tumkur in Karnataka. Many of these cities will include special investment regions or spe-
cial economic zones with modified regulations and tax structures to make it attractive for

foreign investment. This is essential because much of the funding for these projects will
have to come from private developers and from overseas.
Urban Development Ministry sources said the States get the flexibility of designing
schemes based on the needs of identified smart cities and in their execution and monitoring.
Smart City aspirants will be selected through a “City Challenge Competition” intended
to link financing with the ability of the cities to achieve the mission objectives. It is for
each state to identify potential cities to be earmarked as smart city and send the proposal
to the central government for its support.
According to the decision, all States will get at least one such smart city.
4. Features of a Smart City: The key features of a Smart City is in the intersect between
competitiveness, capital and sustainability. The smart cities should be able to provide
good infrastructure such as water, sanitation, reliable utility services, health care; attract
investments; transparent processes that make it easy to run commercial activities; simple
and online processes for obtaining approvals, and various citizen centric services to make
citizens feel comfortable, safe and happy.
Competitiveness refers to a city’s ability to create employment opportunities, attract
investments, experts, professionals and people. The ease of being able to do business and
the quality of life it offers determines its competitiveness.
Sustainability includes social sustainability, environmental sustainability and financial
sustainability.
Quality of life includes safety and security, inclusiveness, entertainment, ease of seeking
and obtaining public services, cost-efficient healthcare, quality education, transparency,
accountability and opportunities for participation in governance.
5. Pillars of a Smart City
i. Institutional infrastructure including governance
ii. Physical infrastructure including
•• Urban mobility
•• Reliable utility services
•• Water supply
•• Sanitation
•• Solid waste management
•• Storm water drainage
•• Electricity
•• Internet and telephone
•• Urban development
iii. Social infrastructure including
•• Education
•• Healthcare
•• Entertainment
•• Good sports facilities
iv. Economic infrastructure including
•• Incubators and creation of jobs
•• Financial hubs
6. Instruments that make smart cities possible
•• Energy efficiency
•• Demand management
•• Improved access to information

•• Environmental sustainability
•• Use of clean technologies
•• Use of ICT
•• Participation of the private sector
•• Citizen participation
•• Smart governance
7. Challenges: Smart city project obviously has certain challenges. Success of smart city
project depends on its residents, entrepreneurs and visitors as well. It is all these three
groups which make cities sustainable. Moreover, it takes anything between 20–30 years to
build a smart city.
8. Better e-governance: The Indian government has experimented various e-governance initia-
tives, most of which have failed to materialize, given poor cyber security and significant privacy
and data protection risk. But the implementation of a secure ICT Infrastructure, comprising
wireless hotspots, wi-fi networks, and fibre optic Internet delivery at home, remains fundamental.
E-governance could be learnt from these examples. The U.K.’s “Tell us Once” service
allows citizens to inform public authorities about birth, death or significant life events
just once. San Francisco’s DataSF.org displays public transportation arrival and departure
times, recycle zones, crime patterns and more. Service requests for pothole repairs can be
tweeted. Sweden has verksamt.se, both for entrepreneurs and for citizens to use theme-
based portals on healthcare, taxation, etc. All procurement and invoicing is conducted
electronically, restricting corruption. India is towards achieving perfection.
9. Land titling: Providing affordable housing remains a critical challenge. The land prices
have been spiralling than the intrinsic prices. This situation is an attribute to the poorly
conceived policies of the central and state governments. Urban development projects in
India are required to undergo a lengthy approval process. It takes 2–3 years to get ap-
proval for urban development project.
Titling issues and the lack of property rights information make this worse. While the law re-
quires compulsory registration of the sale of land, it does not ask the registration authority to
verify land history or ownership from the seller, weakening buyer protection and acting more as
a fiscal instrument for the state, instead of a statutory support of certainty to title. Cities recog-
nize presumed ownership to land, a questionable claim, which can be challenged on many fronts.
Globally, many countries offer streamlined online processes and incentives to facilitate
affordable housing—these can include tax deductions, density bonuses, direct subsidies, land
grants, land use charges etc. Many countries such as Malaysia and Canada have revamped their
administrative requirements through fee waivers and fast-tracking procedures.
Smart cities make everyday life easier for its residents by simply automating routine func-
tions and providing for better housing and transportation facilities.
Atal Mission for Rejuvenation and Urban Transformation (AMRUT)
Providing basic services (e.g. water supply, sewerage, urban transport) to households and build
amenities in cities which will improve the quality of life for all, especially the poor and the disad-
vantaged is a national priority. Observations by the earlier missions have shown that infrastruc-
ture creation should have a direct impact on the real needs of people, such as providing taps and
toilet connections to all households.
Therefore, the purpose of Atal Mission for Rejuvenation and Urban Transformation
(AMRUT) is to

1. ensure that every household has access to a tap with assured supply of water and a sewer-
age connection.
2. increase the amenity value of cities by developing greenery and well maintained open
spaces (e.g. parks).
3. reduce pollution by switching to public transport or constructing facilities for non-motor-
ized transport (e.g., walking and cycling).
Thrust Areas: The Mission will focus on the following thrust areas:
1. Water supply
2. Sewerage facilities and septage management
3. Storm water drains to reduce flooding
4. Pedestrian, non-motorized and public transport facilities, parking spaces
5. Enhanced amenity value of cities by creating and upgrading green spaces, parks and recre-
ation centres, especially for children.
Coverage: Five hundred cities will be taken up under AMRUT. The list of cities will be notified
at the appropriate time. The category of cities that will be covered in the AMRUT is as follows:
1. All Cities and towns with a population of over one lakh with notified municipalities,
including cantonment boards (civilian areas).
2. Cities not covered under the scheme include all capital cities of states and union territories.
3. Total of 13 cities/towns with the population of 75,000 to one lakh and situated at the stem
of main rivers.
4. All cities/towns classified as Heritage Cities by MoUD under the HRIDAY Scheme.
5. Ten Cities from hill states, islands and tourist destinations (not more than one from each state).
National Mission on Sustainable Habitat
To promote energy efficiency as a core component of urban planning, the plan calls for:
•• Energy Conservation Building code has to be extended.
•• Putting more emphasis on recycling of urban waste and its proper management including
power production from waste.
•• Strictly
enforcing the economy standards of automotive fuels and using pricing measures
to encourage the purchase of efficient vehicles.
•• Incentives for the use of public transportation.
National Air Quality Index

National Air Quality Index (AQI) monitors the quality of air in major urban centres across the
country on a real-time basis, which will help governments at national level and regional level to
reduce air pollution and associated health issues. The index will provide the current status of the
level of pollution in a given city, with this being depicted through a colour-coded system indicat-
ing air quality, ranging from dark green as “good” to maroon as “severe”.
Developed by the Central Pollution Control Board in consultation with the Indian Insti-
tute of Technology, Kanpur and a group of experts, the index will also alert people about the
possible health impacts of each of its six categories.
The AQI may prove to be a major initiative for improving air quality in urban areas, as it
would enhance public awareness and involvement, and would create a competitive environment
among cities to take steps for air pollution mitigation.

The National Urban Housing and Habitat Policy

The National Urban Housing & Habitat Policy 2007 seeks to promote various types of public-
private partnerships for realizing the goal of “Affordable Housing for All” with special em-
phasis on the urban poor. This Policy intends to promote sustainable development of habitat
in the country with a view to ensuring equitable supply of land, shelter and services at afford-
able prices to all sections of society. Since both the central and state governments are lacking
sufficient funds, the policy seeks to include various stakeholders like private sector, cooperative
Sector, the industrial sector for labour housing and the services/institutional sector for employee
housing. In this manner, the Policy will seek to promote various types of public-private partner-
ships for realizing the goal of “Affordable Housing for All.”
The salient features of the National Urban Housing & Habitat Policy, 2007 are:
1. Focus on affordable urban housing with special emphasis on the urban poor.
2. Role of housing and provision of basic services to the urban poor has been integrated into
the objectives of the Jawaharlal Nehru Urban Renewal Mission (JNNURM).
3. Scheduled castes/Tribes/Backward classes/Minorities and empowerment of women are
covered within the ambit of the urban poor so that they get benefitted.
4. Achieve the goal of “Affordable Housing for all” significant emphasis has been laid on
proper urban planning, special incentives like additional floor area, transferable develop-
ment rights, increased fund flow, use of new technologies related to renewal sources of
energy.
5. Encourage integrated townships and Special Economic Zones.
6. 10%–15% of land in every new public/private housing projects of 20%–25% FAR
whichever is greater to be reserved for EWS/LIG Housing through appropriate spatial
incentives.
7. States to be advised to develop 10 years perspective plan for housing of EWS/LIG.
8. Primacy to provision of shelter to urban poor at their present location or near their work
place.
9. Approach will be in-situ slum rehabilitation. Relocation will be considered only in specific
cases.
10. Micro-finance institutions to be promoted at state level to expedite flow of finances to
urban poor.
11. Model municipal laws to be prepared by the Central Government.
12. Detailed city maps to be prepared based on GIS, aerial survey and ground verification.
13. Use of proven cost effective technology and building materials to be encouraged.
14. Development of Mass Rapid Transit System at sub-regional level is envisaged.
15. Emphasis on green cover for balanced ecological development
16. Habitat infrastructure Action plan to be developed by all states where the city population
is over one lakh.
The Action Plan stated in the Policy is as follows:
•• Encouragement and support to be provided to State Governments by the Central Gov-

ernment for preparation of State Urban Housing and Habitat Policy and Action Plan.
•• State/UT Action plans to focus on accelerated flow of funds.

•• State/UT level policy to provide road map for institutional, legal and financial incentives.
•• Preparation of 15–20 years perspective plans in the form of City Development Plans
(CDPs) based on spatial planning at the city level.
•• Settingup of a High-Level Monitoring Committee for periodic review and implemen-
tation of the Policy and for making amendments, modifications wherever considered
necessary.
National Policy on Urban Street Vendors
Urban economy essentially includes street vendors. Street vending not only provides a source of
employment to the urban poor but it also serves the majority of urban population by means of
providing various convenient services regularly.
The policy seeks to provide protection of livelihood-rights, social security of street ven-
dors, regulation of urban street vending in the country and other matters connected therewith
or incidental thereto.
Given the pace of urbanization and the opportunities presented through the development
of urban areas, the growth of street vendors’ population is likely to have an upward trend. It is vi-
tal that these vendors are enabled to pursue their livelihoods in a congenial and harassment-free
atmosphere. Inclusive growth strategy adopted by the 11th and 12th Five-Year Plans calls for a
facilitating mechanism for street vending to aid economic growth and inclusion simultaneously.
Main features of the policy
1. The policy provides for constitution of a Town Vending Authority in each Local Author-
ity, which is the fulcrum of the Bill, for implementing the provisions of the Bill.
2. In order to ensure participatory decision making for aspects relating to street vending ac-
tivities like determination of natural market, identification of vending zones, preparation
of street vending plan, survey of street vendors, etc., the TVC is required to have repre-
sentation of officials and non-officials and street vendors, including women vendors with
due representation from SC, ST, OBC, minorities and people with disabilities.
3. To avoid unpredictability of authorities, the policy provides a survey of all existing street
vendors, and subsequent survey at least once in every five years, and issue of certificate of
vending to all the street vendors identified in the survey, with preference to SC, ST, OBC,
women, people with disabilities, minorities/marginalized, etc.
4. Where the number of street vendors identified is more than the holding capacity of the
vending zone, the Town Vending Committee (TVC) is required to carry out a draw of lots
for issuing the certificate of vending for that vending zone and the remaining people will
be accommodated in any adjoining vending zone to avoid relocation.
5. The main objective of this policy is to protect the street vendors from harassment and to
promote their livelihoods.
6. Procedure for relocation, eviction and confiscation of goods has been specified and made
street vendor friendly. It is proposed to provide for recommendation of the TVC, as a
necessary condition for relocation being carried out by the local authority.
7. Relocation of street vendors should be exercised as a last resort. Accordingly, a set of
principles to be followed for “relocation” is proposed to be provided for in the second
Schedule of the Bill, which states that
(i) relocation should be avoided as far as possible, unless there is clear and urgent need
for the land in question;

(ii) a ffected vendors or their representatives shall be involved in planning and implemen-
tation of the rehabilitation project;
(iii) affected vendors shall be relocated so as to improve their livelihoods and standards of
living or at least to restore them, in real terms to pre-evicted levels
(iv) natural markets where street vendors have conducted business for over 50 years shall be
declared as heritage markets, and the street vendors in such markets shall not be relocated.
8. The local authority is required to make out a plan once in every 5 years, on the recommenda-
tion of TVC, to promote a supportive environment and adequate space for urban street ven-
dors to carry out their vocation. It specifically provides that declaration of no-vending zone
shall be carried subject to the specified principles namely: any existing natural market, or an
existing market as identified under the survey shall not be declared as a no-vending zone;
declaration of no-vending zone shall be done in a manner which displaces the minimum
percentage of street vendors; no zone will be declared as a no-vending zone till such time as
the survey has not been carried out and the plan for street vending has not been formulated.
9. There is a provision for establishment of an independent dispute redressal mechanism un-
der the chairmanship of retired judicial officers to maintain impartiality towards grievance
redressal of street vendors.
10. The policy also provides for promotional measures to be undertaken by the Government,
towards availability of credit, insurance and other welfare schemes of social security, ca-
pacity building programmes, research, education and training programme etc. for street
vendors.
11. Section 29 of the Bill provides protection of street vendors from harassment by police and
other authorities and provides for an overriding clause to ensure they carry on their busi-
ness without the fear of harassment by the authorities under any other law.
The National Urban Sanitation Policy
The Government of India, Ministry of Urban Development developed and published the
“National Urban Sanitation Policy” in 2008. It lays out a vision for urban sanitation in India.
It instructs all the states to come up with their own detailed state-level urban sanitation strate-
gies and city sanitation plans.
Funding options are laid out including direct central and state support including through exist-
ing schemes, public-private partnerships, and external funding agencies. It directs that at least 20% of
the funds should be earmarked towards servicing the urban poor. The Centre also plans to institute
awards to the best performing cities, reminiscent of the Nirmal Gram Puraskar awards for villages.
Sanitation is defined as safe management of human excreta, including its safe confine-
ment treatment, disposal and associated hygiene-related practices. While this policy pertains to
management of human excreta and associated public health and environmental impacts, it is
recognized that integral solutions need to take account of other elements of environmental sani-
tation, that is, solid waste management; generation of industrial and other specialized/hazardous
wastes; drainage; as also the management of drinking water supply, to generate awareness of
the benefits of a hygienic and clean environment and thereafter bring about behaviour change,
elimination of open defecation, integrated citywide sanitation, safe disposal and proper opera-
tion and maintenance of all sanitary installations are some of the goals of the project.
Special focus has been given to hygienic and affordable sanitation facilities for the urban
poor particularly for the urban poor and women and will ensure improved cleanliness in cities and
towns.

The National Urban Sanitation Policy envisages transforming all the towns and cities of
India into 100% sanitized, healthy and livable spaces—ensuring sustained public health and im-
proved environmental outcomes for all its citizens.
The exact contents of this framework may be adapted to suit the state’s urban sanitation
strategy and used for its cities. This policy focuses on achievements of outcomes rather than on
mere construction of infrastructure and emphasizes building capacities at the city level.
The National Environment Policy (NEP)

The National Environment Policy (NEP) by the Ministry of Environment and Forests (MoEF)
aims at mainstreaming environmental concerns into all developmental activities. It emphasizes
conservation of resources, and points that the best way to aid conservation is to ensure that
people dependent on resources obtain better livelihoods from conservation, than from degrada-
tion of the resources. It is disputed that environmental degradation often leads to poverty and
poor health outcomes amongst population.
Principles underlying the policy that emphasize:
•• Important role of human beings in the sustainable development processes.
•• The non-negotiability and incomparable value of environmental resources.
•• Right to development for all.
•• Equity in the use of environmental resources.
•• The need for the decentralized and multi-sectoral approach in dealing with environmental issues.
The objectives of the policy include:

•• Conservation of critical environmental resources
•• Intra-generational equity
•• Livelihood security for the poor
•• Inter-generational equity
•• Integration of environmental concerns in economic and social development
•• Efficiency in environmental resource usages
•• Environmental governance
Enhancement of resources for environmental conservation
Residex
Residex is a housing price index updated quarterly by National Housing Bank (NHB). NHB,
the Apex level housing finance institution wholly owned by Reserve Bank of India (RBI),
regulates activities of housing finance companies (HFCs) in India. NHB Residex tracks resi-
dential property prices in 26 JNNURM cities with the starting index value of 100 and 2007 as
the base year.
Residex tracks prices over a period of time by dwelling size (small/medium/large) and
location (city/zones/locations). Data on housing prices is collected from diverse sources such
as survey of real estate agents, CERSAI registry and housing prices being collected from banks
and HFCs based on home loans sanctioned by them. The data is then put through a model that
produces the index. The index has been constructed using the weighted average methodology
with Price Relative Method (Modified Laspeyre’s approach).

Residex can be used by policy makers, home buyers, banks & HFCs, builders and developers.
•• For buyers and investors, the index helps them compare prices between cities in India
and across various localities within a city of their choice. Further, investors can identify
emerging housing markets and trends by looking at the price movements each quarter.
•• For lenders, residex helps in estimating the value of the property being financed.
•• For developers and builders, it helps in assessing the demand for housing in various urban
locations.
Housing prices for the following Indian cities are being tracked currently: Delhi with
NCR, Bangalore, Mumbai, Kolkata, Bhopal, Hyderabad, Faridabad, Patna, Ahmedabad, Chen-
nai, Jaipur, Lucknow, Pune, Surat, Kochi, Bhubaneshwar, Guwahati, Ludhiana, Vijayawada, In-
dore, Chandigarh, Coimbatore, Dehradun, Meerut, Nagpur and Raipur.
GOVERNMENT INTERVENTIONS/PROGRAMMES
Pradhan Mantri Awas Yojana—Housing for All (Urban)
The Hon’ble President of India, in his address to the Joint Session of Parliament on 9th June, 2014
had announced “By the time the Nation completes 75 years of its Independence, every family will
have a pucca house with water connection, toilet facilities, 24x7 electricity supply and access.”
Honourable Prime Minister of India announced Housing for All by 2022 when the Nation
completes 75 years of its Independence. In order to achieve this foremost objective, Central
Government has launched a comprehensive mission “Housing for All by 2022.”
Housing for All (HFA) mission is since launched in compliance with the above objective
of the Government and with the approval of competent authority.
The mission seeks to address the housing requirement of urban poor including slum
dwellers through following programme verticals:
•• Slum rehabilitation of slum dwellers with participation of private developers using land as
a resource.
•• Credit-linked subsidy to promote affordable housing for weaker sections.
•• Providing subsidy for beneficiary led individual house construction.
Scope
1. Mission will be implemented as Centrally Sponsored Scheme (CSS) except for the compo-
nent of credit-linked subsidy which will be implemented as a Central Sector Scheme.
2. A beneficiary family will comprise husband, wife, unmarried sons and/or unmarried
daughters. The beneficiary family should not own a pucca house either in his/her name or
in the name of any member of his/her family in any part of India to be eligible to receive
central assistance under the mission.
Coverage and Duration
1. All 4041 statutory towns as per Census 2011 with focus on 500 Class I cities would be
covered in three phases as follows:
•• Phase I (April 2015–March 2017) to cover 100 cities selected from States/UTs as per
their willingness.

•• Phase II (April 2017–March 2019) to cover additional 200 cities

•• Phase III (April 2019–March 2022) to cover all other remaining cities
inistry, however, will have flexibility regarding inclusion of additional cities in earlier
M
phases in case there is a resource backed demand from States/UTs.
2. The mission will support construction of houses up to 30 square meter carpet area with
basic civic infrastructure. States/UTs will have flexibility in terms of determining the size
of house and other facilities at the state level in consultation with the Ministry but without
any enhanced financial assistance from Centre.
Basic civic infrastructure like water, sanitation, sewerage, road and electricity is essential
for the success of slum development and affordable housing projects.
Implementation Methodology
The scheme will be implemented through four verticals to all the beneficiaries. The four verti-
cals are given below.
“In situ” Slum Affordable Housing Affordable Subsidy for benefi-

Redevelopment through Credit Housing in ciary led individual
Linked Subsidy Partnership house construction
• Using land as resource • Interest subvention • With private sector • For individuals of
• With private subsidy for EWS or public sector EWS category
participation and LIG for including Parastatal requiring individual
new house or agencies. house.
• Extra FSI/TDR/FAR
incremental housing. • Central Assistance • State to prepare a
if required to make
projects financially • EWS Annual per EWS house in separate project for
viable Household Income affordable housing such beneficiaries
Up to Rs. 3 lakh and projects where • No isolated/
house sizes up to 30 35% of constructed splintered beneficiary
sq. m houses are for to be covered
• LIG: Annual EWS category
Household Income
Between Rs. 3–6
Lakhs and house
size up to 60 sq. m
Backward Regions Grant Fund (BRGF)

The BRGF programme launched in 2007 is now applicable in 272 identified backward districts
of 27 states, except Goa. The untied funds under the BRGF provide financial resources for sup-
plementing and converging existing development inflows and bridging the critical gaps in local
infrastructure and other development requirements that are not being adequately met through
other sources of funding. The planning is participatory in nature by PRIs with a bottom-up
approach.
National Urban Livelihoods Mission (NULM)

Swarna Jayanti Shahari Rozgar Yojana (SJSRY), replaced by the NULM in September 2013, aims
to endow with rewarding employment to the urban unemployed and underemployed. The NULM

will focus on organising urban poor in SHGs, creating opportunities for skill development lead-
ing to market-based employment, and helping them set up self-employment ventures by ensuring
easy access to credit. The mission aims at providing shelter with basic amenities to the homeless
in the urban areas. It also plans to address livelihood concerns of urban street vendors.
During 2013–2014, an amount of more than 700 crore was released, and the number of
people skill-trained and assisted for self-employment was 6 lakh and 1 lakh respectively.
CONCLUSION
Historical experiences imply that urbanization is an inevitable progression.
In light of this observation, combined with the positive impacts of urbanization outlined,
it is clear that the main challenge at present is not that of slowing-down of urbanization, but of
learning how to cope with rapid and ever-challenging urban growth. In recognition of the role
of cities as engines of economic development, there has recently been a resurgence of interest
in urban management as the main tool for coping with rapid urban growth and maximising the
positive demographic and socio-economic impacts of urbanization.
PRACTICE QUESTIONS
1. “A comprehensive plan is needed to make our over grown cities liveable with respect
to all factors”. With reference to above statement, critically analysis various government
schemes directed towards sustainable urbanization.
2. “The growth in number of cities without proper proactive approach brings in multiple
problems which in near future can’t be solved”. With reference to above statement, bring
out all problems of urbanization in India.
3. Discuss various suggestions to solve urbanization induced problems in India.
4. Examine the social problems and challenges present in urbanized area in India.
5. Establish the relationship between the characteristics of urbanization in Indian with that
of social issues in India.

1. Discuss the various social problems that originated out of speedy process of urbanization
in India. (200 words) (10 marks)


Chapter 6
Effects of Globalization
on Indian Society
Learning Objectives

• Globalization: Initial Phase
• Globalization and India
• Social Dimension of Globalization
• Globalization Has Impacted Indian Society Progressively on the Following Areas
• Globalization and Its Cultural Dimension
• Conclusion
INTRODUCTION
In very simple terms, globalization can be defined as increasing global interconnectedness. It is
not an outcome, but it is a process which tends to interconnect different parts of the world. The
interconnectedness is primarily an exchange of social, economic, political, cultural and techno-
logical attributes. These attributes happen to interchange when societies of the world comes in
contact with one another. According to some scholars, the process of globalization started ever
since the beginning of mankind and affected everyone and influenced all cultures but on dif-
ferent degree. Though this exchange process is going on for time immemorial, this process was
termed as ‘globalization’ for the first time around the second half of 20th century, while much
of the literature on this has appeared since the late 1970s and 1980s.
The idea of globalization oriented with modernization was mentioned in writing of
famous sociologists like Karl Marx and Saint-Simon. Both these scholars have talked ex-
tensively about the modern society that provides for various kinds of modern means of
communication to keep people in different locations to get connected through one or other
means. The process of globalization started ever since the beginning of human being itself.
But one can find a significant difference between present and past trends in globalization.
The contemporary globalization differs in terms of the quantum of exchange and intercon-
nectedness and its subsequent impact on the society. Because of technological advancement,
the process of globalization is much faster also. The current process of globalization, which
is gradual in nature, removes the barrier for trade and investment. Globalization aims to
achieve economic efficiency by competitiveness, while seeking to achieve the broader ob-
jectives of economic and social development. It influences to each and every institution in
which humans interact and involve multiple platforms, such as economic, social, political,
cultural and environmental.
119

The present era of globalization can be referred to as growing integration of various

countries and societies, in terms of economy, social, cultural and political. The easy and free
movement of capital, including human capital, products, processes, ideas and information, is
the outcome of globalization process. But as already mentioned, the process affects not only
economy but also political, cultural, social and environmental aspects. With the process, far
ways places are linked with each other and hence, an event in one end of the world affects the
other end as well. The social relationship between the countries are intensified, and a culture
gets affected by many other cultures.
As mentioned earlier, the globalization as a process develops manifold because of the In-
formation and communication technologies. The process of the integration was speeded up
because of information and communication technology. But in recent decades, the centrality
of globalization was debated around the issue of global capital. Few scholars argue that the
process of globalization was speeded up because of the global capital was its driving force. But
one should understand that both information and communication technology and global capital
played equal role for the enhancement of the globalization process.
Globalization as understood from neoliberal perspective emphasizes that free market
economy would act as the panacea for the entire problem that happens around the world. In-
creasing integration will reduce the conflict between the countries. It rests on the premise that
by bringing all human actions into the domain of the market and by maximizing the reach and
frequency of market transactions, social good could be maximized.
The intervention of the state in economy is not encouraged in a free society. It believes
that the economy will be more efficient and produce high when it is not intervened by the state.
If the barrier for trade and investment is lifted, it leads to development of the countries; hence
countries adopt free market economy which promoted growth and spread of globalization. But
the controversy arises when capitalist and advanced economies are not following the exact sprit
of free economy and trying to push developing and emerging economics to remove trade barri-
ers, which may hinder the local production and further development of these countries.
GLOBALIZATION: INITIAL PHASE

The Second World War provided an opportunity for scholars to advocate for more market-
based economy. The push for internationalization of economic activities increased. This ten-
dency increased further when United States and United Kingdom moved towards more market.
Jimmy Carter and Margaret Thatcher emphasized market economy in late 1970s. The adaptation
of export-oriented development strategies and trade liberalization was wide spread. The former
socialist countries were also in transition to market-oriented economy. This path was seen as a
favoured and most efficient means for achieving development, and many times it is voluntary
by countries; but at times, it is forced by international financial institution, such as International
Monetary Fund (IMF), World Bank, etc.
The globalization of national policies, policy-making techniques, implementation strat-
egies, etc., of national governments is the result of globalization itself. Various policies and
acts enacted by national government come increasingly under the influence of international
organization and corporate bodies. These bodies influence not only economic policy as seen in
1991, but also other policies, such as social, cultural, environmental and technological. The re-
structuring of national economies with thrust areas, such as more openness, free trade and less

Chapter 6 • Effects of Globalization on Indian Society 121
intervention of government on market are influenced and pressured by international organiza-

tions. The national governments are asked by the international organizations supporting free
market, either to increase the taxes or reduce the government spending by reducing expendi-
tures on social sectors, such as education, health, public distribution system, transport, etc. The
organization wanted less intervention of governments on market. The national governments
had to dismantle the administered price mechanism applicable to the essential commodities of
mass consumption.
The globalization has some externalities associated with it and thus, it creates a set of global
‘bads’. These global bads are climatic change, global warming, depletion of ozone layer, etc.
GLOBALIZATION AND INDIA

Indian adopted New Economic Policy in 1991 because of major economic crisis. Indian foreign
exchange reserve was depleted because of much import than export. India approached IMF for
short-term loans in order to manage its deficit. Impetus came from IMF to structurally alter the
economy. This includes the elements of ‘liberalization’, ‘privatization’ and ‘globalization’. Liber-
alization is making Indian economy liberal in terms of foreign investment, decreased govern-
ment spending, lowering tariff, etc. The privatization means engaging private sector and ending
monopoly of government. These two can be seen as direction or methodology to attain the said
objective of globalization.
SOCIAL DIMENSION OF GLOBALIZATION

It is of the view that the current pace of globalization is reflected only on the perspective of
economics is a myth as it can be observed in social and cultural arena as well. Incidentally un-
derstanding these varied dimensions of globalization is essential for the development of a ra-
tionalist response. The societal perspective refers to its impact over the lifestyle of civilians and
their surroundings. There are many issues being raised on its impact over employment, social
protection and working conditions, etc. In this section, let us see some of the social dimensions
of globalization.
Impact on Family, Marriage and Kinship Ties

The globalization process affects each and every activity of human activity and associated in-
stitutions, hence, family is not exceptional. The traditional family system, that is, joint family
system has its certain inherent advantages, like economic coordination, primary socialization of
children, strong emotional bondage, etc. The globalization process has altered the family system
to a large extent. Traditional joint family is now replaced with nuclear family. Globalization has
led to large-scale migration and urbanization. Since it is difficult to maintain joint family system
in urban places because of high cost of living, people prefer to live in nuclear families. Increase
in awareness also influences people to have small families. Emergence of nuclear family has got
its own advantages and disadvantages.
Nuclear families lack emotional bondage, the relationship is largely based on mutual ben-
efits between the partners. This has also given rise to secondary institutions which performs the
erstwhile functions of family.

Globalization has also influenced to the marriage pattern in India. Earlier people used to
prefer bride or bridegrooms from their own caste. But nowadays, individual choice has become
more common. Love marriages, inter-caste and inter-religious marriages have become more
common. As a reaction to these changes, we could see the prevalence of khap panchayats and
honour killing.
The impact of cosmopolitan culture and economic independence amongst the youngsters
have led to the emergence of live in relationships in metropolitan cities and towns in India.
The concept of kinship is much important in Indian context as one’s social, cultural and
economic life is always dependent upon their kinship. It is now, even true in tribal culture; but
in globalized culture, it is no more an important part. The kinship ties have become less diffused
and more of calculative in nature. People maintain relationship with other only based on their
benefits.
Impact on Labour Market

Labour market has seen explicit deregulation since ages by legislative means and inadequate
implementation and bypassing of various laws and systems. There has been an enormous gov-
ernment intervention in the labour market through wage fixation, employment policies and se-
curities which had to be relaxed, for which the states around the world are compelled to ease
standards of the labour and its regulations and to bring in modification in tax regulations to at-
tract more foreign direct investments. The subcontracting of production done by major MNCs
have resulted in insecurity of jobs for the labours and diminished labour welfare since there is
improper overseeing authority over their welfare.
The present trend of globalization also has its effect over casualization and informalization
of the work force that leads to poor wages for labourers and insecurity in jobs, though there are
increasingly employment opportunities. The rise in the informal sector gives us ideas that the
benefits related to traditional employment and protection mechanisms are unavailable to the
people working in this sector. The demand for skilled labour has also rised due to increased
mechanization and growth in latest technology and has put before the government a challenge
to improve the skills that can match with the demand. This has also left unskilled labours unem-
ployed which has provided an additional burden to the government.
Liberalization, that is, opening up of the market and free trade agreements has increased
the movement of goods and services which have in turn reduced the employment opportunities
for Indians.
Impact Women and Employment of Women

Industrialization, in the globalization perspective is both male-led and export-led as well (UN
1999) and the rate of economic activity of women (20–54 age group) has approached 70%
in 1996. The export-oriented sector has seen much of its rise and is widely attributed to the
increasing Export Processing Zones and Special Economic Zones and in industries that has
moved to developing nations looking for cheap labour. Women are highly preferred in soft in-
dustries, such as apparel and leather, and industries that require unskilled or semi-skilled labours.
Since women are largely in informal jobs, their status has not improved and there are also very
poor labour conditions and poor pay. Call centres in India comprise an estimated 40% of the
workforce as women.

The increased women participation in employment should be seen as a livelihood op-

tion rather than labour market expansion, because they are not given a chance to exercise their
choice regarding the kind of employment owing to the increased family burden. This may not
be considered the only reason as the other important one is the asymmetrical power and sexual
division of labour which left women less advantaged as household work and reproductive re-
sponsibilities still seen as an obstacle.
Entry of women in the labour market is seen to bring in various changes at the household
level, may it be educational or nutritional status. This is one important perspective and others
like changes in work participation rates, sectoral divisions, which are other perspectives to un-
derstand the importance of reforms.
With the onset of globalization, the position of women changes from mere dependent
to a self-liberator. The globalization provides an opportunity for them to stand up in life and
empowering themselves through economic independence. But recently, the economic indepen-
dence have created ripples in Indian family system as women started to devote much time on
economic pursuit than the family orientation. The family system is getting collapsed because of
the above phenomena. It is evident in increasing divorce rates in India.
Globalization and Poverty Level

Initially, it was theorized that the reforms in economy will boost the growth, and benefits of
growth will trickle down to poor. By opening the economy, it is believed the trade, investment,
etc., will increase and act as ‘engine of growth’ and it brings goodness to economy. But later
it was understood that the result is mixed. Many countries reported that the inequalities are
widening in their economies. This is contrary to the conventional trade theory prescriptions.
Widening wages disparity, contractual labours market, incentives based on skills, etc., were the
results of globalization’s impact. Impoverishing of the lower strata was the consequence, which
is against the initial theories.
Almost every sector was affected by the globalization process. Agriculture-based nations
was suffering from numerous ill effects, such as corporate intervention and genetic engineering
because of liberalization process. The cost of agriculture was increased and hence, the farmer’s
income was adversely affected by the non-sustainable industry-based agriculture. The affected
countries are either in developing or least-developed slot. A blend of devaluation of currencies,
sky rocketing costs of production and a collapse of goods and services prices, all resulting from
the liberalization of the economy.
Indian poverty is increasing year by year which results in social unrest. The formation of
naxalism has its base on poverty issues in India. The gap between rich and poor is kept on in-
creasing in India, which results in such movements. Globalization on its core promised that the
gap can be reduced but the evident shows other way. The rich is getting further richer but the
poor is getting further poorer. Hence, globalization does not lived its dreams.
Economic liberalization and globalization had a direct impact both on rural and urban
poverty. The effects of globalization equally affected both urban and rural areas. The immediate
effect was seen in urban areas. This is because the initial reforms or first generation reforms is
concentrated on industrial economy than agriculture. The effect on urban areas can be seen in
land use pattern and employment opportunity. Initially, it was proposed that reforms will bring in
employment opportunity, but studying the post-reform period will definitely prove the other way.

The income disparities and incidence of poor increased at the same time, number of billionaires
also increased which is paradox.
The decreased spending on social sector has a profound effect on rural poverty. Initially,
the reach of banks was so good and the rural credit was growing at the greater phase. Later, the
cost of agriculture also increased simultaneously, whereas the profit did not increase, which
pushed the farmers into a vicious cycle. Bank’s bad loan also increased and the rescue is mini-
mal. Farmers’ suicide starts to increase rapidly especially in agriculture-based starts. Govern-
ment of India announced the rationalization of subsidies disbursed to farmers which will have
major effect on the returns to farmers. The matter is also taken up in WTO, an international
trade regulator, which may push India further into subsidy reduction.
Globalization and Sustainable Development

The sustainable development was not present in the practice of the globalization. Initially, the
development made by globalization was not sustainable, as it just satisfied the present needs
only without considering the next generation’s demands. Hence, impact was made to environ-
ment and the society because of not considering equitable distribution of wealth and resources.
The goal of improving and raising the standards and quality of living for everyone and environ-
ment was in vein, because the unsustainable practice involved in globalization. Following the
globalization, the unsustainable development practices were characterized with high level of
market competitiveness.
For instance, the replacement of native seeds by imported hybrid seeds or cash crops in
India has trickled down problems which were not present indigenously in the country. Firstly,
the increased siphoning of ground water through tube wells is occurring since these crops need
more water. As a result, the ground water table has depleted, leading to famine and hence ul-
timately leading to poverty. Secondly, the usage of pesticides has risen umpteen times because
of the heavy vulnerability of high-yielding hybrid seeds to pest attacks. Thirdly, the crops re-
quire high amounts of fertilizers for increasing production, which results in indiscriminate use
of chemical-based fertilizers. This also increase the production cost. Fourthly, the usage of the
fertilizer results in degradation of land ultimately affecting the ecology and ecosystem in the
area. The degradation of land is visible via decreased productivity, which leads to low food pro-
duction and increased incidence of poverty.
Further, because of unsustainable practice, the ponds and wetlands are getting affected
which results in huge loss for economy and society. The unsustainable practice also pollute air
thus industrial town are getting polluted by smog, PM2.5, PM 10, etc.
Another example, the export-oriented policy in fisheries sector opened up the waters of
the Exclusive Economic Zone to corporate for fish trawling. This resulted in the indiscriminate
destruction of the marine eco system and the livelihood of the traditional fishing community.
Because of globalization, the input cost is increasing in agriculture which have eliminated ma-
jority of small farmers from agriculture. The farmers’ suicides are evident because of increasing
debt burden, because of the increasing input cost of certain corps which are genetically modi-
fied such as Bt. Cotton, etc.
Migration, Urbanization and Globalization
Migration is not a new phenomenon. It is impossible to trace when human beings first migrated
and the reason behind the migration. It may be for better employment, education, marriage and

even for entertainment. The migration is not always confined with the State’s boundary but also
outside the boundary. The global migration cause global uprootedness and also displace human
in extraordinary scale. Estimates say that nearly 1 out of 6 people in this world, more than one
billion people, are crossing national borders as migrant workers. Migration for many becomes
a necessity rather than choice mainly because of the lack of ubiquitous development between
nations, and between rural and urban centres in a country.
Urbanization becomes an important catalyst for migration because urban areas offer many
economic opportunities to rural people. Urban markets offer people opportunities to switch
jobs rapidly, diversify incomes and enhance upward mobility with a very low asset base and
skills even though there is a lot of variation in the rate of urbanization around the world. The
pattern of economic force, not the rate of economic force, acts as a determining factor in the
increasing rate of urbanization. Economic growth is now based on the expansion of manufac-
turing industry—a trademark of current globalization tends to be associated with higher rates
of urbanization—while growth based on the expansion of agriculture is associated with the re-
verse. Increasing globalization also leads to expansion of tertiary sectors, which concentrated in
and around urban centres also results in migration of workers for finding employment.
Though it is too early to predict how agreements through WTO will affect urbanization, it
is predicted that if the economic growth pattern is shifting towards manufacturing, there is likely
to be a higher rate of urbanization than there would be with agriculture-based growth in India.
It is therefore likely that countries such as China and India whose comparative advantage lies
mainly in labour-intensive manufactured produces will see an acceleration of rural urban migra-
tion, both temporary and long term. The driving force will be the expansion of labour-intensive
exports, which will boost the demand for labour in urban areas, and widen wage gaps between
rural and urban areas.
Globalization and Commercialization of Indigenous Knowledge

The globalization process infiltrates territories, habitats and resources of indigenous people,
which may lead to destruction of their way of life. Big corporate entities get access to indig-
enous knowledge and patent it for their gain and profit. The result can be that the indigenous
people and the rest of humanity will have to pay for access to the knowledge which would have
also been commercialized.
Pharmaceutical corporations in the United States, under the auspices of Human Genome
Diversity Programme, are patenting the indigenous people knowledge themselves. They mo-
nopolize the use of seed, medicines and traditional knowledge systems and human genomes.
Even the essential needs of humanity, such as land, water, wildlife, aquatic life, and mineral
resources, became commodities in the present globalization process at the cost of the lives and
livelihoods of vast majorities around the world: This may result in environmental devastation,
social displacement, wiping out of cultural and biological diversity. The inter-generational and
intra-generational sustainability is absent in centralized management of natural resources.
Globalization and Wealth Concentration

Globalization is a very asymmetrical process, with unequal distribution of benefits and losses.
In the ongoing process of globalization investment resources, growth and modern technology
are concentrated in few developed countries, such as North America, Europe, Japan, and the
East Asian countries, which are the industrialized nations of the world. The majorities of the

developing countries are excluded from the process and are used for satisfying the interests of
developed nations that are often detrimental to their interests: for instance, import liberalization
may harm their domestic producers and financial liberalization may cause instability.
Globalization has varied impacts on varied nations. While growth and expansion is vis-
ible in fully participating countries, moderate and fluctuating growth is seen in some countries
attempting to fit into the new globalized framework and marginalization and deterioration are
experienced by many countries unable to get out of acute problems such as commodity prices
and debt. The uneven and unequal nature of the present globalization process is manifested
in the fast-growing gap between the world’s rich and poor people and between developed and
developing countries and in the large differences among nations in the distribution of gains
and losses. The divide of rich and poor is found in India in more deliberate way. Every city has
rich and poor coexists which is just a classic examples of uneven process of globalization. The
investment is also concentrated on southern states and few other north states in India which
again proves the biased connotation of globalization. Polarization among countries has also
been accompanied by increasing income inequality within countries. In India, the widening gaps
between rural and urban areas were felt greatly by increasing average incomes in urban areas
than in rural areas between 1993 and 2000.
Globalization and Social Sector Expenditure

The role of state in the economic governance of the country has been minimal post-liberal-
ization of Indian economy, in turn reducing the public spending in the country. The access of
people to employment, capital and social services like education, housing and health services
will be much less because of the reduced role of the public sector and the government which
are replaced by the growing private sector. The structural adjustment policies of the national
government involving the relinquishing of economic activities from the public sector into the
hands of the private sector, that is, the state moving away from economic planning and leav-
ing economic decisions to the market, will result in the withdrawal of social protection to the
public. ‘Social dumping’ is also evident now-a-days in order to make the industries competitive.
It means the process of reducing the cost of product by low wages to workers and creating sub-
standard social conditions.
The social sector expenditure, as a percentage of GDP, in India had been stagnant in the
1990s and the concentration of rural development is really menial. The share of health expendi-
ture had been stagnant, and the present National Health Survey-4 clearly says it is just above 1%
and that of education had been declining even though India wants to achieve the full literacy.
The government is further trying to reduce the size of current expenditure by reducing expendi-
ture on pensions, subsidies, etc., which will have propounded effect on India society.
GLOBALIZATION HAS IMPACTED INDIAN SOCIETY PROGRESSIVELY

ON THE FOLLOWING AREAS
Employment Opportunities
The increased demographic dividend is highly favourable to India; it is indeed important for
us to provide employment opportunity to all in order to keep up the phase of growth. Glo-
balization process is much indeed important in this scenario. With globalization, trade and in-
vestment increases which ultimately increases economic opportunity for fellow citizens. Indian

government needs to increase the skills set and training of Indian youth to qualitatively increase
the employment opportunity. Special Economic Zone, National Investment and Manufacturing
Zone, etc., are created to boost exports which results in job creation. There are numerous ex-
amples for investment-based job creation as India provides cheap labour.
Competition Level Is High

Globalization results in increased competition between MNCs and domestic firms. Meritori-
ous selection process, as opposed to seniority, in international firms, boosts the profit which
results in increased competitions. The management structure also changes which involves best
practices followed in various countries that leads to corporate culture which keep on motivating
every individual working in companies.
Improvement in Living Standards and Purchasing Power

Globalization has resulted in higher income to both business people and also salaried class
because of entry of MNCs and higher pay packages to qualified workforce. The nation’s
wealth will increase because of higher earnings from taxation and increased spending which
results in increasing nation’s wealth, which push for development. Development creates better
standard of living to the people, and thus globalization leads to development and higher stan-
dard of living.
Indian Youths Getting Empowered

Globalization brings in higher-end technologies and process which a skilled worker can handle.
In order to cope up with the situation, Indian youths develop their skills and empower them-
selves. The pride of working in global organizations has been on the increase among the young
professionals and that has done wonders in increasing their outstanding confidence levels even
in their early 20s, which is not seen in any other age group. This is a wide positive fact in these
destination cities, and this is also trickling to the young professionals in other centres of growth.
The skill set of IT employees is far better when compared to counter parts in other countries.
Their increased skill set contributes in the form of increased investment attraction from all
around the world.
Increased Outreach on Human Rights

With increasing global integration, the awareness about human rights keeps on increasing. The
best practices are seen and people try to adopt such in India. For example, child labour took a
serious turn only after comments from European nations. The concept of human rights entered
into labour reforms which resulted increased safety arrangements in factory setup.
Increased Multiple Opportunities

Since globalization, not only the traditional opportunity increased but also non-traditional op-
portunity increased. Non-traditional opportunities can be said that one chooses the career
which is not traditionally available in India. For example, sports person, coaches, disk jockeys,
event management, information and communication technology, etc. The improvement in tech-
nology orientation also increased or diversified job opportunities. For example, exploitation of
gas hydrates technology results in increased job creation in marine sector.

Free Flow of Information Across the Society

With increased awareness and empowerment, people look for information and it forces the
government to disclose information to prove their transparency. The international media, espe-
cially West media, dominate the news industry and capture the inefficiency and ineffectiveness
of government at various stages and bring in awareness about the working of government. This
lead to media activism. The investigative journalism is much celebrated concept which has both
positive and negative aspect in it. For example, government officials are encouraged to disclose
non-sensitive information to people rather than RTI route.
Indian economy will be further motivated strongly because of these positive phenomena.
The expansion is seen significantly in real-estate sector, both housing and commercial dimen-
sions. The economic status of the people and the economic status of the country as the whole is
benefitted by globalization.
GLOBALIZATION AND ITS CULTURAL DIMENSION

Globalization profoundly affects all our cultures and the ways human beings live their lives.
Globalization impacts our daily life style, it influences the behaviour of a person, what one
should eat, wear, hear, read, etc. It even decides the communicating language which lets certain
language extinct from face of the earth. Latin is goof example as it died because if English.
English has become lingua franca. It is believed that the penetration of English language is in-
creasing and the East, generally stick to their language, is also adopting English for competitive
edge. Not every time local language will die when it is encountered by global languages. People,
with awareness, are bi-lingual and multilingual, trying to protect their local language and con-
siderably adopting global languages also. For example, a person in Kerala generally speaks three
languages: Malayalam, Hindi and English. Here, you can find cultural assimilation.
Many scholars spoke about cultural homogenization which is completely against cultural
heterogenization. Cultural homogenization results in cultural marginalization. It may further lead
to exclusion of a culture as well. The following are the few cultural dimensions of globalization:
Increased Pace of Cultural Penetration

Cultural change or cultural dynamics is the result of interaction and integration of various cul-
tures. But one cannot omit the internal or endogamous change or development; cultural limits
are quite often porous results in interpenetration of cultures. Cultural dynamism is the result
of a process of blending, borrowing and adapting tenets and attributes of alien culture. The
cultural dynamism is so visible in those places where the trade and investment have been high,
frequent and continuous. The people movement became important for such trades and hence, it
is important to accommodate other cultures which push for dynamism.
Cultures of the world, presently, are invariably a result of assimilation and integration of
various tenets from other culture. The interpenetration results in a culture which has tenets of
integrating cultures. Further it is impossible to distinguish between the original tenets and incor-
porated tenets of a culture.
Cultural interpenetration through the exchange of commodities is today so pervasive that
it is difficult if not impossible to distinguish between original and imported cultural attributes.
Firstly, consider food and beverage sector in India. All international chain of restaurants opened
their outlets because of globalization. Consider a person drinking ‘Ethiopia Coffee’ in Delhi.

The coffee originated in Ethiopia, the sugar from New Guinea, the porcelain cup in China, the
tablecloth in the restaurant is made from cotton, which originated from a plant domesticated in
Central America and the restaurant itself is a French invention. Secondly, disease which origi-
nated in one place of the world, spreads to other parts of the world, for example, HIV/AIDS
spread from Africa to the rest of the world and a superbug which originated in India was found
in an American women. Thirdly, the penetration of global music with various sophisticated
instruments has resulted in the marginalization of traditional music among different cultures
of the world. Today, pop music and its local variations can be heard in all social settings from
weddings to religious festivals and birthday celebrations rather than traditional music in India.
Development of Hybrid Culture

Like the two sides of a coin, the globalization at times has been inclusive and integrating and at
other times unequal and exclusivist. This is certainly true in cultural impact. Earlier, the cultural
traits of various communities are not known broadly to other communities as the exchange is
been restricted by various means. But the advancement of the science and technology made the
whole world as a global village. The cultural settings of every country, even the remotest, were
brought so close to humans through various advancements in technology. All the local cultural
tenets are easily available through TV channels, Internets, plays, etc. Hence it is very easy for cul-
tural transfusion. Globalization has the power to create what is called as Hybrid Culture which
may lead to homogeneity of the culture across the world. It is social innovation as everybody in
the world may follow the single culture, but the broad culture cannot overcome the core cultural
phenomenon which exists in every culture and it is unique to each other. The new culture form
is a combination of various aspects of various cultures.
The concept of valentine day is very much celebrated among Indian youth. The culture it-
self was imported from the West nations, which have totally different cultural settings. Because
of various cultures entering in to Indian social settings, the cultural nationalism emerges which
is profoundly creating cultural conflicts. These types of cultural conflicts are predominant in
urbanized area as it has combined population from various social settings. For example, the
issue of moral policing activities in states like Kerala and Uttar Pradesh which has led to huge
unrest amongst youth and various socio-cultural organizations,thus expressing the conflict
between tradition and modernity in India.
The globalization and free-market economy leads to the corporate advancing its culture so
rapidly in various countries, especially in India. The corporate formed their own culture that fits
into its broad objectives, such as fun with responsibilities, customer first, etc. Hence, the corpo-
rate culture may attain the status of hybrid culture.
Resurgence of Cultural Nationalism

The globalization provides impetus for the rise of cultural nationalism. The local communities
start to campaign against cultural integration and defend local identities. The local histories,
identities, cultural traits, practices, etc., will surface again in order to defend their own culture.
The people involved will start rejecting integration of cultures as they feel integration is a threat
to their community. The rejection may be at times passive and not involving violence, but at
times it became very active and involves violence. For example, various organizations commit-
ted to religious and cultural principles campaign against Valentine’s Day. Another example is
the European and South American nations campaigned against the threat of Americanization

(standardization) and have defended the diversity and difference of European cultures. Moral
policing activities are very high when the level of cultural nationalism prevails very strongly
across the country or a specific region.
Apart from the above aspects, we could see a lot of cultural impacts like emergence of
mail culture in Indian cities. Malls of various dimensions have become places of much attraction
for the urban people. We get everything in a mall, it has made purchase and recreation more
comfortable but at a higher price.
Cultural revivalism is also because of globalization. Emergence of yoga, traditional medi-
cine, and traditional recipes in hotels are as a result of globalization process.
New art forms like cinema, music and sports have lot to do with their impact on Indian culture.
CONCLUSION
Globalization is such a process which left its imprints in every such human endeavour. It has
reached far as the all the nations of the earth are involved in the process but on various degrees.
As India is moving towards the modernization of various arena, it receives imputes in vari-
ous degrees from various countries. The people with much awareness and self-consciousness
started to approach the modernization because it involves identity. For example, the cultural
modernization needs to be approached much consciously as it may affect the core character
of Indian society. Hence, modernization needs to be approached carefully. The vigour of the
transformed sense of self-awareness among the people in India is vital for success of globaliza-
tion. The sense and globalization inputs should not mismatch and need to reconcile each other
at the time of mismatch. The interconnectedness between various cultures in India should rein-
force without disturbing national unity. As the cultural sphere gets affected by the globalization
and modernization, the linkage will get stronger.
PRACTICE QUESTIONS
1. Critically examine the cultural dimension of the globalization process.
2. Globalization, as a process, affects Indian society both on positive and negative connota-
tion. Explain.
3. “Globalization has led to religious resurgence, newfangled religious and god business in
different parts of the world”. Discuss the relevance of the statement in changing Indian
Social context
4. Globalization has brought about the much needed Gender Equality in India-Critically
examine.
5. Briefly discuss about the impact of Globalization on Indian youth highlighting on the so-
cial, economic, cultural and psychological dimensions.

1. Critically examine the effect of globalization on the aged population in India. (200
words) 10 (2013)
2. Discuss the positive and negative effects of globalization on women in India. (200
words) 12 ½ (2015)

Chapter 7
Communalism
Learning Objectives

• Definition of Communalism
• Various Perspectives to Understand Communalism
• Background of the Growth of Communalism in India
• Communalism in India
• Cause and Character of Communalism
• Main Characteristics of Communalism
• Communalism in India: A Comparison
• Some Features of Communal Riots Taking Place in India
• Incidents of Communalism in India: Few Examples
• How to Tackle Communalism?
• Role of Various Institutions/Bodies
• Prime Minister’s New 15 Point Programme for the Welfare of Minorities
• Communalism: International Context
• Conclusion
INTRODUCTION
In broad sense what does communalism mean? Does it simply mean an individual’s adherence
to a religion and religious system and practices? Or does it mean an attachment to a religious
community or religiosity? Both the above contexts does not exactly explain the term communalism.
If religion and religious system is exploited for personal (or) a particular community’s benefit,
then we term it as communalism. Using one religious community against other communities and
against the Nations is communalism. Merely one’s affiliation to any social, cultural and service
organization of a religious community does not amount to communalism. Communalism is
basically an ideology which advocates that the followers of a religion have common interest that
differs from another religion. It is an ideology which preaches hatred against the followers of
other religion or religious communities. Communalism is often seen as a modern phenomenon
and not a phenomenon of the past. It is a sectarian, prohibitive and negative response to the
modernization process and national building.
131

DEFINITION OF COMMUNALISM
Communalism can be defined in different ways.Some of them are as follows:
1. Bipin Chandra: ‘The concept of communalism is based on the belief that the religious
distinction is the most important and fundamental distinction and this distinction over-
rides all other distinctions’. He further adds ‘since Hindus, Muslims and Sikhs are different
religious entities, their social, economic, cultural and political interests are also dissimilar
and divergent. As such, the loss of one communal group is the gain of another communal
group and vice versa. If a particular section or community of the society seeks to better its
social, political and economic situation, it is doing at the expense of the other’.
2. Ram Ahuja: ‘The antagonism practiced by the members of one community against the
people of other community and religion can be termed as communalism’.
Communalism is characterized by strong antagonism between different religious groups.
This antagonism goes to the extent of falsely accusing, harming and deliberately insulting a
particular community and extends to looting, burning the homes and shops of the vulnera-
ble section, dishonouring women and even killing persons.While communalism is an ideology,
‘communal violence is a demonstration of this ideology’.
Communal persons are those who practice politics through religion. Every religion has a
leader who perceptively has control over the large segment to run religious communities, such
as business, enterprises and often raise the slogan ‘Hinduism, Islam, Sikhism (or) Christianity is
in danger’. This land of hue and cry is usually witnessed when the fund mobilization is low or
the leadership in questioned outrightly.
Thus, communal is a person who is ‘a man of religion’, but ‘one who is not following the
basic tenants of Hinduism (or) Islamism, Sikhism, Christianity (or) for that matter any other
known religion’. Communal people tend to believe God and religion as instruments to gain po-
litical support. In older society, the King and church head used the same religion to live luxuri-
ously and one can see this in present society also.
T.K. Oomen, a famous sociologist, has suggested that there are six dimension of commu-
nalism. These are described in the succeeding paragraphs.
Assimilationist (or) Communist Communalism

In this type of communalism, small religious groups are assimilated/integrated into big reli-
gions group. Here, scheduled tribes are Hindu or that Jains, Sikhs, Buddhists are Hindus and
they should be covered by Hindu Marriage Act, 1955.
As far as the personal law is concerned, all of them are covered under the same legisla-
tion. Hence, a Sikh, Buddhist, Jain does not identify himself/herself too much different from a
Hindu and Hindu religious beliefs and sentiments.
Welfarist Communalism
Here, the main emphasis is to provide welfare for the particular community. For example: pro-
viding education, scholarship, financial assistance in higher studies.
Matrimonial assistance, skill development, residential accommodation, etc., are such com-
munal mobilizations that aim at working only for member of one’s own community. In the mod-
ern Indian society, we can see a member of these welfarist organizations involved in different kind
of charitable and other social upliftment activities related to their particular community alone.

Chapter 7 • Communalism 133
Retreatist Communalism
Is a type of communalism where a small religious community keeps itself aloof from politics
and any other politically related activity. They keep themselves away from any kind of political
activity, for example, Bahai religious community belongs to this category and keep themselves
away from any political activity.
Retaliatory Communalism
This type of communalism attempts to harm, hurt and injure the members of other religious
communities. More often, this type of communalism is clearly seen in India where the fight
between different groups either religious or caste is omnipresent across all regions in India, for
example, Godhra Riots and its aftermath
Separatist Communalism
Under this type, one religious (or) cultural group wants to maintain its cultural specificity and
demands a separate territorial state within the country, for example, the demand for Gorkhaland
by Gorkhas, Bodoland in Assam by Bodos, Vidharbha in Maharashtra, separatist tendencies in
Mizoram.
Secessionist Communalism
It is one in which a religious community demands for a separate political identity and insists to
have a separate state, for example, the demand for Khalisthan, the demand for an independent
Kashmir by militant groups in Muslims is engaged in practicing this type of communalism. A
recent example under this category is the demand for ‘Nagalim’ from the erstwhile parts of
Nagaland and Myanmar.
Of the six types of communalism, the last three create problems engendering agitations,
communal riots, terrorism and insurgency.
VARIOUS PERSPECTIVES TO UNDERSTAND COMMUNALISM

Communalism, regionalism and casteism have become very closely associated and are consid-
ered in building negative slants in the contemporary Indian political and social system. Increas-
ing awareness and emergence of self-assertion amongst the minority groups are direct examples
of communal tendencies in India.
Particularistic Approach of Minority

This approach basically is concerned about two aspects as follows:
1. Why do communal conflicts pertain to the Hindu majority and Muslim minority alone?
2. Why are Muslims, rather than any other religious minority in India are so conscious of
their grievances?
The prevalence of minority consciousness amongst the Muslims is an age-old phenomena
since pre-partition days due to the deliberately devised divisionist policy of the British.
Entry of British also led to the downfall of Mughal rule, and the elites in Muslims lost their
market and their position was lowered or subordinate to the British.

One of the other factor that led to the emergence of identity consciousness amongst the
Muslims is that after the division of subcontinent, they were looked down upon as traitors who
are disloyal to the motherland. The discriminatory attitude of the majority has further led to the
emergence of alienation amongst the Muslims.
Under this perspective, three important points are analysed as follows:
1. The Muslim-minority population feels marginalized at the hands of the Hindu majority.
2. Hindu–Muslim mistrust has developed into a feeling of fear and prejudice between these
two communities.
3. Government appeasement policy towards the minorities has to a large extent led to the
assertiveness amongst the minorities.
In the long run, for the structural balance in society, all groups (both majority and minor-
ity) have to be integrated into the mainstream society. Looking at the vertical and horizontal
division of the Indian social structure, it is difficult to ascertain the majority and minorities very
precisely.
PLURALIST APPROACH
This approach is based on the premise of one Nation theory that recognizes the co-existence
of various minorities and cultural groups. The advocates of this approach believe in protective
discrimination as a positive initiative to uplift the lower section of the society. The ruling party,
which subscribes to this theory, cannot adopt a genuine secular position, since it is concerned
with appeasing the religious sentiments of the majority for giving the obvious political benefit.
Communalism is not a religious phenomenon, because from the angle of sociopolitical
relationship, the area of conflict was confined to the ruling class only. Basically, it was a struggle
for power, and there are many instances when Mughal rules took the help of Rajputs and Shivaji
had a Muslim fighter brigade and Muslim generals.
BACKGROUND OF THE GROWTH OF COMMUNALISM IN INDIA

Much of the work done on communalism in the post-Independence period, that is till the pre-
vious decade, has a historical explanation of the phenomenon. Historians tend to view the
communal problem in Indian history as the problem of political relations between Hindus and
Muslims. History reveals that communal riots are neither a product of a day nor an outcome of a
particular event but has a determined historical evolution. These major factors, history indicates,
pertain to the presence of mutual animosities, distrust and prejudices. An analysis of communal
riots both in the past and the recent years shows that communal outbursts have often taken place
whenever religious festivals of the two communities have occurred on the same dates (Holi and
Eid or Dusshera and Muharram) or whenever religious symbols or scriptures are dishonoured.
History also indicates that the change of the government or political system has not helped in
changing communal behaviour. History, therefore, explains that communal behaviour is not
restricted to certain periods or situations but has been a continuous phenomenon.
Historians have hardly studied the communal problem as a problem for investigation in
itself. It has been studied as an aspect of the national movement. Most of the historians tend
to view communalism as a deviation from nationalism and set out to view the causes which
contributed to this deviation. For that matter, even those few historians who have studied

communalism as an object of study in itself have unconsciously been led to think that commu-
nalism represented deviation from the national movement.
The cultural–historical explanation describes it as: (i) the lasting heterogeneity between
Hindus and Muslims; (ii) that the pattern of interaction and relation between the two communi-
ties and their access to power before and during British rule; (iii) the nature and content of the
national movement which is alleged to be either strongly underscored by Hindu sentiments
or secular; (iv) the relative backwardness of the Muslims and their reluctance to benefit from
cultural and social reforms in the 19th century; (v) preservation of separatist identity as the reli-
gious community by the Muslims and their aspirations for political dominance.
COMMUNALISM IN INDIA
(a) Pre-independence
There is no precious account of communalism in India in pre-independence era, but one
can understand communalism from the attitudes of Muslim sultans and Muslim elite to-
wards the Hindus. Communal consciousness, usually found among the ruling elite, was
inspired more by political expedience than by religious sentiment in medieval India but
manipulation of religious sentiment became a prominent feature only in British India. The
uprising of 1857 completed the ruination of the Muslim elite and handover the power to
British crown. It was understood that Muslim–Hindu unity would displace British rule,
hence, British started intense communalism.
The British imperialists followed the policy of ‘Divide and Rule’. The Governor of
Bombay, Lord Elphinston wrote, ‘Divide at Impera was the old roman motto and it
should be ours’. The policy manifested itself for the first time in the form of the division
of Bengal. Viceroy Curzon announced the partition of Bengal in 1905 into the Muslim-
dominated eastern and Hindu-dominated western parts, ostensibly in the name of admin-
istrative efficiency, and convenience was a serious attempt by the British in the direction
of crystallizing the differences between the two communities. The manner in which the
partition was planned and the speeches made by Lord Curzon, the then Viceroy, revealed
that the real motive behind it was to divide the people on the basis of religion and pro-
mote differences and antagonism between Hindus and Muslims.
(b) Religious Revivalism in 1924
The Hindu and Muslim religious revivalism started in order to consolidate their own
group for their gains. The Shuddhi and Sangathan movements were started among the
Hindus and the Tabligh and Tanzim among the Muslims. The religious elite start invok-
ing their glorious past and try to compare with the present state to crystallize their religion
rigidly against other religion. As a result, the Hindus began to think and speak of Hindu
nationalism and the Muslims of Islamic nationalism, and thus the foundations of a two-
nation theory were laid. It was not difficult, therefore, for the British to use the cultural
and religious differences between the Hindus and Muslims for their imperial political pur-
poses. The lure of office and patronage was stronger than the appeal of nascent national-
ism, which summoned Indians to suffering and sacrificing but promised no rewards in the
immediate future.
(c) Communal Violence (1923–30)
This particular period of the British era was marked with intensive communal violence.
It started with the Moplah Rebellion, which intensified animosity between the two

communities. This period witnessed more serious riots than at any other time in history.
Serious riots occurred in Amritsar, Multan in Punjab. In the same year, violence broke
out in Meerut, Moradabad, Allahabad and Ajmer. The most serious of these disturbances
occurred at Saharanpur in connection with the Muharram festival. The communal senti-
ments were further aggravated because of communal award by British in the third round-
table conference.
Separate representation was provided not only for Muslims, but for the Sikhs, the
Anglo-Indians, the Indian Christians, the Europeans, the Landlords, the depressed classes
as well as commerce and industry. These awards created serious dent in the Indian history.
(d) Post-Independence
The post-independence communalism travel deep into the state apparatus as even the officials
of government, and the law and order machinery was compromised for personal and commu-
nal benefits. Contrary to the general impression, religion is not the root cause of the Hindu–
Muslim conflict: it is rather a powerful instrument in the hands of those interests, which seek
to play their game through it. What is relatively marked about the present phase is that the
ruling party and state itself are playing a direct role in communalism of the society. The ‘riots’
in Gujarat, Delhi, Meerut, Bhagalpur, Surat brought out the role of gangster politicians.
Competition for jobs, land, economic gain or political power is the root cause for commu-
nal clashes. The communalization of Indian politics and the creation of communal ‘Vote Banks’
have an important bearing on communal conflicts in our society. Moreover, in a backward and
communally divided society, the elites of the respective communities, taking advantage of eco-
nomic disparities, are able to exploit religious sentiments among the lower economic class. The
thrust of the argument is to analyse the role of the state in controlling, combating and manipu-
lating communal violence. The frequency of communal violence was increasing from 1970s,
which make State to work more towards bringing peace.
It is to be seen in Indian that electoral process, that is, nominations of candidates, cam-
paigning, communal representation, etc., accentuated the process of communalism in every state
of India. Communalism practiced by both the majority community and the minority communi-
ties is in consonance with the interests of ruling class/classes. Its presupposition of well-knit
and homogeneous communities, its association of Hindu, Muslim, Sikh or Christian interests
and its reliance on religion for mobilising the people comes in the way of changing the political
status quo and property relations.
The fight for consistent democracy and of class struggle implies the completion of anti-
feudal and anti-bourgeoise revolution. In fact, there are a number of scholars and analysts who
subscribe to this interpretation of communal conflicts in India.
If we study a riot in depth, one can understand that not the immediate cause but the
accumulated antagonism is the major reason for communal tension, violence and its associ-
ated activities. The sub-surface study only gives an insignificant matter as the cause but not in
reality. The communal atmosphere provides a ready-tilled soil for communal-minded people
to sow seeds of communal hatred and nurture them till the bitter harvest of a communal riot
is reaped.
Communal philosophy and ideas constantly propagated in communal papers and journals
and from other communal platforms instigate the feeling of hatred amongst both educated and
uneducated sections of the people. The strong communal feeling makes the people to look
down upon the other community with hatred and suspicion.

Communal violence, like wars, is also born in the minds of people. The socioeconomic,
religious and political causes only aggravate the disease of communal violence. It is, therefore,
imperative that efforts are made not only to secularise, but government and the administrative
machinery, particularly police personnel as well as the masses who must learn not only to toler-
ate each other but also to respect human life and dignity and respect law, with reference to the
rights and duties of all citizens, irrespective of caste, creed and community.
It is ignorance and prejudice that are the major reason for the communal riots, dislikes and
distrust between communities and it can be reduced and further eradicated effectively through a
secular, liberal and inclusive education.
The role of politics in communal violence can be understood in a number of ways. Since
economic growth is taking place at a very slow rate, the politicians can indulge only in politics
of distribution and not of production. Politics being the art of the possible, the politicians find
it more paying in terms of votes to appeal in the name of caste, religion and language. Thus,
local politics often assumes the character of a zero-sum game with built-in potential for social
conflict. At the same time, since in a mixed constituency legislators have to depend on the vote
of both the communities, the Muslim legislation belonging to all-India parties are often con-
strained to avoid the more militant form of protest when it comes to Muslim cause.
In most cases, the riots are politically motivated. Also, in almost all riots, the role of ru-
mours in rousing communal passions is quite prominent. It is reported that the knives used by
rioters were used in a particular manner, suggesting that the users are trained to handle the knife.
Of late, the participants in the riot have begun using lethal weapons and bombs.
Riots are pre-planned and politically-oriented, preceded by almost identical incidents
which rouse religious passions followed by the desired similar results conducive to the growth
of anti-secular politics.
Rajni Kothari, a famous Indian political scientist while analysing the phenomenon of inter-
religious conflict in modern India, relates it to the electoral politics of the post-Independence
era. He provides a provocative explanation, ‘since then politics has meant a constant struggle
of survival. Survival is through the “number game.” Once this happened, the notion of plural-
ism in democracy got perverted into communalism by emphasising the numerical power of
majorities versus minorities. In this sense, those who argue that communalism is a direct child
of secular politics are right. Thus, viewed from this perspective, the phenomenon of inter-
religious conflict appears to be essentially related to the struggle for power, political power and
generation of inter-religious conflicts in a multi-religious society becomes an imperative on the
part of those who ‘are involved in the struggle for power’. The success of the vanquisher would
depend on how deep are the cleavages one succeeds in making in society among the varied
religious groups.
CAUSE AND CHARACTER OF COMMUNALISM IN INDIA

(a) Causes for the Growth of Communalism
The main factors and forces which have encouraged the growth of communalism in India can
be mentioned as follows:
1. Communal political parties and organizations that have been fanning the fire of separatism.
2. Minority appeasement policy which the Indian National Congress and some other politi-
cal parties have been nursing since decades.

3. The elections which make the political parties and organizations to make a communal ap-
peal to the voters and to keep alive the communal feelings.
4. The media, literature and textbooks that have communal slant and that give support to
communal forces.
5. The recent issues of conversion and re conversion (Ghar wapsi).
6. Emergence of interreligious marriages (–e.g., Love Jihad controversy).
7. People’s religious sentiments (cow slaughter and related issues) (e.g., Dadri lynching).
8. Separation and isolationism found among the Muslims.
9. The economic and educational backwardness found amongst the big minority group that
is the Muslims.
10. The aggressive Hindu chauvinism championed by a few forces.
11. Political opportunism which is found in almost all the political parties in India, which
makes the political leaders to give priority to their partisan political interests rather than to
the national interests.
12. ‘Divide and rule’ policy which the British had followed caused lot of damage to our na-
tional interest. The same type of policy is continued in a surreptitious manner even now.
In addition to the above mentioned factors, we can also list a few other factors which
are contributing to the phenomenon of communalism in the Indian society.
13. Politization of religion and ideologies of political parties (Hindutva party).
14. Role of foreign forces which have been instigating communal activities and communal
riots in India. The role of these forces in giving training to the communal extremists and in
supplying sophisticated technical equipment’s for fanning the fire of communalism.
15. Religious conversion is also a reason, as almost all religion is taking place in such conver-
sion in India, which contributes to communal tensions. These conversions are often made
in a forcible manner and sometimes by means of temptations and so on.
16. The subversion of secularism by the political parties is also a factory encouraging commu-
nalism. Political parties which speak of secularism pay only lip sympathy to secularism but
in practice support communalism.
17. The growing disappointment among the Hindus who constitute the majority community
is also a factor in favour of communalism. The Hindus believe that due to the ‘vote-bank
politics’ of the minority community, the larger national interests are sacrificed.
18. The Hindu militancy too has added to the problem of communalism. In their attempt to
defend Hindu interests and counteract attacks on it, some Hindu organizations have re-
sorted to militant activities. These activities have caused communal frictions and conflicts.
Clash in Economic Interest of Both Communities

The traditional occupational pattern of both Hindus and Muslims were different. Advent of In-
dustrialization and Globalization has led to the change in occupational pattern, thereby bringing
both the communities into conflict with each other.
On the eve of partition, the Aristocratic Muslims and the lower class stayed back in India.
Educated Muslims preferred to migrate to Pakistan as they would get better employment and
other opportunities. With the introduction of Zamindariv Abolition Act, the upper-class Mus-
lims lost their hold over the land and property and lower class people also were employed/took
up self-employment in low-income generation jobs.
Hence it is the situation of fight for survival for the Indian Muslims. Hence, in the process
of development, the competing groups were Hindus.

Integration of the Community

The integration amongst the people of minority groups is also an interesting factor that unites
them towards any common goal. A sense of lack of security amongst the minority group also
helps them to unite into a strong close-knit group. So their attachment to the group and the
level of integration remains high.
MAIN CHARACTERISTICS OF COMMUNALISM
In the present day India, communalism as a socio-political problem is becoming more and more
complex, and it has become very difficult to arrest the spread of communalism.Unless we un-
derstand the true nature of communalism, it becomes very difficult for us to identify the dif-
ferences between what communalism is and what it is not.Using a religious community against
other communities and against the whole nation is communalism. Let us now discuss the main
characteristic of communalism as follows:
1. Communalism believes that a particular religious community is separate from the rest of
the other communities.
2. It further believes that not only the religious sentiments, but the secular interests of the
community, are also separate from the rest of the other communities.
3. Communalism is driven by the idea that the specific interests of the community can be
promoted by keeping a separate identity and organizing it separately so that their interest
gets served better.
4. Communal interests always super impose on the national interests.
5. Communalism provides fertile ground for the emergence of mutual distrust and dishar-
mony amongst the communities.
6. Communalism treats some citizens not as citizens but as member of some specific reli-
gious community.
7. The communal riots, earlier happened to spur the movement, but did not last long; but in
recent years, it is more prolonged. The communal riot in began in Baroda in 1981 lasted
for more than a year.
8. The strength and numbers of communal organization is growing and is acause of concern.
9. Communalism leads to abuse of power. It seeks to emphasis on the social and religious
norms of the community on the other communities by including force, fraud, economic
and other allurements and even assistance from foreign powers.
10. In its extreme form, communalism demands nationhood for the whole community and
seeks to form a sovereign state.
COMMUNALISM IN INDIA: A COMPARISON

Riots in 1950s Riots after 1960s Till Present
1 The number of communal violence The communal violence is growing in number
is low in numbers
2 The violence is of sudden outburst The violence is of well-planned and prolonged
and short-lived in nature in nature
3 Number of violence is very low in Number of violence is very high in comparison
comparison
(Continued)

Riots in 1950s Riots after 1960s Till Present

4 Loss of life is high in minority community Loss of life is high in minority community
5 Loss of property are high in minority Loss of property are in high with minority
community community
6 The communal riots are more visible The violence is moving towards rural areas also
in urban areas
SOME FEATURES OF COMMUNAL RIOTS TAKING PLACE IN INDIA

In order to understand the phenomena of communalism, various studies have been taken up in
India. A study was instituted to go into the major communal riots that took place in the country
for the last five decades.
•• In most of the instances, the communal riots are found to be politically motivated and
not instigated by religious factors. Madan Commission constituted to look into communal
riots in Maharashtra during 1970s also emphasized that the architects and the builders of
communal tension are the communalists and a certain class of politicians.
•• Apart from political interest, economic interests also play a vital role in augmenting com-
munal clashes. Illicit trade practices also bring communal violence.
•• Statistical reports clearly reveal that communal riots are more in North India than in the
South.
•• The possibility of recurrence of communal riots in a town where communal riots have al-
ready taken place once or twice is greater than in towns where riots have never taken place.
• • Most of the communal riots take place during the occasions of religious festival
(e.g. Vinayagar Chadhurthi).
•• The intensity of the riots is high if the two communities are almost equal in population.
•• Communal riots are found to be in larger number in urban areas compared to rural areas.
The main reason attributed is the larger concentration of minority people in urban area.
•• Communal riots preceding elections is usually very common in India.
•• Inter-religious conflicts are used by the government to divert the attention of the popula-
tion from genuine problems. The anti-reservation agitation (against the Scheduled Castes
and other Backward Classes reservation, professional colleges and government jobs) in
Ahmedabad in 1985 is cited as an example. This agitation, which was essentially an intra-
communal conflict, was conveniently turned into an inter-religious conflict.
INCIDENTS OF COMMUNALISM IN INDIA: FEW EXAMPLES

The biggest outcome of the communalism is communal tensions or riots. When religious matters are
politicalized, it leads not only to communalism but also to the communal riots. The riots that take place
due to clashes of communal interests of two or more communities are regarded as communal riots.
1984 Anti-Sikh Riots
The former Prime Minister Smt. Indira Gandhi was assassinated by her two Sikh security guards
in 1984. Because of such act, congressman and other community men unleashed violence in
Delhi and other parts of the India against Sikhs. The attackers targeted male Sikh which bought

lot of emotional pain to the family. These anti-Sikh riots not only hurt the feelings of Sikhs but
also shocked the conscience of all right-minded persons throughout the country.
2002 Godhra Riots
The Gujarat riot was caused by a fire incident in a train in which 58 Hindus were killed while they
were returning from Ayodhya. According to official figures, the riots resulted in the deaths of
790 Muslims and 254 Hindus; 2,500 people were injured non-fatally, and 223 more were reported
missing. Other sources estimated that up to 2,500 Muslims died. There were instances of rape,
children being burned alive, and widespread looting and destruction of property. Narendra Modi,
the then chief minister of Gujarat and government officials was accused of supporting the riots.
Muzaffarnagar Riots
The clashes between the Hindu and Muslim communities in Muzaffarnagar district of Uttar
Pradesh, India, in August–September 2013, resulted in at least 62 deaths including 52 Muslims
and 10 Hindus and injured 93 and left more than 50,000 displaced. By 17 September, the cur-
few was lifted from all riot-affected areas, and the army was also withdrawn.
The riot was worst in the state’s history and as a final resort, Army was deployed. Even
the Supreme Court hearing a petition in relation to the riot found prima facie evidence of guilty
against ruling government and officials for not preventing the innocents.
HOW TO TACKLE COMMUNALISM?

Suggestions to Control and Eradicate Communalism
Communalism has been increasing in this country for the past five decades. It has impeded the
process of development and also has hurt the scientific temper and the secular spirit. ‘Com-
munalism emerges in India as the most dangerous threat to the cultural modernization. It is a
complex process, but its causes generally subsist in the contradictions generated by the forces
of social restructuration’.
A study (conducted by Mainstream, Feb 9, 1988) has revealed that in the time span of 37
years after independence as many as 10,000 communal riots hastaken place due to which more
than 1,000 people lost their lives, and property worth a few crores was damaged. The Ayodhya
incident excelled the previous records and a few hundred lost their lives in 1990s. The commu-
nal riot which took place in Gujarat very recently (February–May 2002) cost the lives of more
than 800 people, and property worth crores of rupees was destroyed.
Communalism is a creeping paralysis which demands solution. Communal riots pose a
permanent threat to the religious harmony in this land. They must be effectively dealt with and
minimized. A few of the suggestions in this regard may be noted. It is true that giving sug-
gestions is an easy task, but putting them into practice is itself a big challenge. Communalism
problem can be overcome by two ways: (A) undertaking immediate remedial measures, and (B)
resorting to long-term remedial measures.
(A) Immediate Remedial Measures
1. Setting up Peace Committee: In the riot-torn places, peace committees consisting of
the respected leaders of the different religious communities are to be formed immedi-
ately after the outbreak of communal violence. These leaders must exercise their good-
will on the respective communities and persuade them to maintain peace and harmony.

2.
Use of New Strategies and Plans by the State: Since rioters are making use of mod-
ern sophisticated equipments and weapons to spread communal riots everywhere, it
is necessary for the state to resort to new strategies and plans to hook and book those
rioters and instil confidence in the minds of riot-hit individuals and innocent people.
3.
Supervision of the Media: The role of the media is very important in the course of
communal riots. The media must exercise great restraint in spreading rumours and
reports of communal riots. The State must have strict vigilance over the media (e.g.,
WhatsApp videos that spread during Muzaffarpur riots).
4.
Suppressing the Extremists: The Government in power must use its authority and
power in suppressing the communal riots. It should not hesitate to impose ban on
communal organizations directly or indirectly indulging in communal riots. All danger-
ous and extremist communal leaders must be arrested during the course of communal
riots preventing them from fanning the fire of communal riots.
5. Other Measures:
i. In the riot-torn areas, efficient and secular-minded police officials must be posted.
ii. Special Courts should be established to deal with the cases of communal riots.
Speedy disposal of the cases is an essential step in this direction.
iii. The riot-affected people must be given protection immediately, and sufficient care
should be taken to make arrangements for their rehabilitation if needed.
iv. Immediate legal action should be instituted against those who instigate communal riots.
(B) Long-Term Remedial Measures

1. To Make the People Free from Communal Frenzies and Passions: It is necessary
to educate the people to become free from communal prejudices, feelings, etc. Steps
should be taken to expose the communalist tendencies of the leaders who normally
instigate riots.
2. Preventing Communalization of the State and the Political Elites in Power:
Communal riots often reach new heights due to the support given to it by the politi-
cal parties, leaders and some bureaucrats. Hence it is necessary to see that the political
elites in power become free from communal attitude. All communal forces should be
tackled and treated equally.
3. P rotecting the Civil Society from Being Communalized: Communal riots grow
into new proportions when supported by people. Sometimes, ordinary people are also
drawn into communal carnage. Hence it is necessary to see that people do not become
the victims of communal strategies of the leaders. It is in this regard that the intellectu-
als, writers, journalists, voluntary organizations, freedom fighters and non-controversial
political leaders should take a lead in building up public opinion against communalism
and communal riots.
4. Educational System should be Free from Communal Ideas and Ideologies: It is
necessary to see that importance is given to the development of communal harmony
at all levels of education. The young minds should not be polluted with the narrow,
communal ideas. Hence patriotic feelings and sentiments must be strongly encouraged.
Extra care should be taken in writing and teaching lessons in history. Distorting histori-
cal facts is also unfair.
5. Role of the Media: This is an era of publicity and propaganda. The electronic media,
such as television, radio, newspaper, etc., must play a very responsible role. They must

not be allowed to contribute to communal feelings or riots. Communal press must be

banned, and legal actions must be instituted against communal writers.
6.
Ideology that Economic Development by Itself Brings Down Communalism Is-
not Correct: Some argue that economic development, industrialization, growth of capi-
talism and the growth of working class would automatically weaken communalism. But
our experience has proved to be contrary. Unless special care is taken, communal riots
cannot be suppressed even in times of economic prosperity. Economic development
alone cannot contain communalism. In fact, communal violence is more prevalent in de-
veloped states,such as Maharashtra, Gujarat and also in developed cities, such as Mum-
bai, Ahmadabad, Jamshedpur and Kanpur. Hence, separate and well-planned efforts
are needed to curb the growing disease of communalism.
7.
Legislation against Forcible Conversions: Since forcible conversion of persons
from one religion to another, particularly from Hinduism to Christianity and Islam, is
one of the major causes of communal riots, it is necessary that all forcible conversion
activities be banned and declared illegal. In fact, a legislation could be introduced in this
regard at the all India level. At the State level, Arunachal Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh,
Orissa and Tamil Nadu Governments have already made legislations prohibiting forc-
ible conversion activities.
• Mahatma Gandhi was also very much against religious conversions. Long back he
had written, ‘Every nation considers its own faith to be as good as that of any other.
Certainly the great faiths held by the people of India are adequate for her people.
India stands in no need of conversion from one faith to another’. As early as in 19th
Jan, 1928, Gandhiji wrote in Young India that we should not even secretly pray that
anyone should be converted, ‘but our utmost prayer should be that a Hindu should
be a better Hindu a Mussalman a better Mussalman and a Christian a better Chris-
tian. This is the fundamental truth of fellowship’. Gandhiji was totally against the
proselytizing activities of the missionaries. In his reply to Mahadev Desai’s question,
Gandhiji had once replied, ‘If I had power and I could legislate, I should certainly
stop all proselytizing. It is the cause of much avoidable conflict between classes and
unnecessary heart-burning among missionaries’. On various occasions, Gandhiji had
expressed his views very strongly against forcible religious conversion.
ROLE OF VARIOUS INSTITUTIONS/BODIES

In 1978, during Morarji Desai’s tenure as Prime Minister, the Minorities Commission was
started. The Union Government set up the National Commission for Minorities (NCM) under
the National Commission for Minorities Act, 1992. The Commission was to perform all or any
of the following functions, namely
•• Evaluate the progress of the development of minorities under the Union and States.
•• Monitor the working of the safeguards provided in the Constitution and in laws enacted
by Parliament and the State Legislatures.
•• Make recommendations for the effective implementation of safeguards for the protection
of the interests of minorities by the Central Governments or the State Governments.
•• Look into specific complaints regarding deprivation of rights and safeguards of the mi-
norities and take up such matters with the appropriate authorities.

•• Cause studies to be undertaken into problems arising out of any discrimination against
minorities and recommend measures for their removal.
•• Conduct studies, research and analysis on the issues relating to socioeconomic and educa-
tional development of the minorities.
•• Suggest appropriate measures in respect of any minority to be undertaken by the Central
Government or the State Governments.
•• Make periodical or special reports to the Central Government on any matter pertaining to
the minorities and in particular the difficulties confronted by them.
•• Any other matter which may be referred to it by the Central Government.
Over the years, the commission recommendations are not binding to central and state govern-
ments, but, the statutory status had changed the position. Its role will not only investigative but
also a judicial one. It is expected that with more powers, the Commission would now become a
truly effective tool in tackling the deteriorating communal situation in the country and ensuring
the welfare of the religious minorities which comprise 17% of the total population of the country.
PRIME MINISTER’S NEW 15-POINT PROGRAMME

FOR THE WELFARE OF MINORITIES
(A) Enhancing Opportunities for Education
1. Equitable Availability of ICDS Services
The Integrated Child Development Services (ICDS) scheme provides various benefits
to children,pregnant and lactating mother belonging to disadvantaged sections of the
society. The benefits are provided through Anganwadi centres. A certain percentage of
the ICDS projects and Anganwadi Centres will be located in blocks/villages with a sub-
stantial population of minority communities to ensure that the benefits of this scheme
are equitably available to such communities also. The services such as immunization,
nutrition supplementary, heath check-up, etc., are provided through this scheme.
2. Improving Access to School Education
The SarvaShikshaAbhiyan and various related scheme looks after the school availability
in villages which have certain amount of population.It also tries to improve the enrol-
ment ration of children.
3. Greater Resources for Teaching Urdu
Promoting Urdu language by appointing Urdu teachers in primary and upper primary
schools.
4. Modernizing Madrassa Education
The Central Plan Scheme of Area Intensive and Madrassa Modernization Programme
provides basic educational infrastructure in areas of concentration of educationally
backward minorities and resources for the modernization of Madrassa education.
Keeping in view the importance of addressing this need, this programme will be sub-
stantially strengthened and implemented effectively.
5. Scholarships for Meritorious Students from Minority Communities
The minority community students can avail pre- and post-matric scholarships schemes
for improvement in education status of minority community.
6. Improving Educational Infrastructure through the Maulana Azad Education Foundation

The Government shall provide all possible assistance to Maulana Azad Education

Foundation (MAEF) to strengthen and enable it to expand its activities more effectively.
(B) Equitable Share in Economic Activities and Employment

7. Self-Employment and Wage Employment for the P
(a) The Swarnjayanti Gram Swarojgar Yojana (SGSY), the primary self-employment
programme for rural areas, has the objective of bringing assisted poor rural families
above the poverty line by providing them income-generating assets through a mix
of bank credit and Governmental subsidy. A certain percentage of the physical and
financial targets under the SGSY will be earmarked for beneficiaries belonging to
the minority communities living below the poverty line in rural areas.
(b) The Swarn Jayanti Shahari Rojgar Yojana (SJSRY) consists of two major compo-
nents, namely the Urban Self-Employment Programme (USEP) and the Urban
Wage Employment Programme (UWEP). A certain percentage of the physical and
financial targets under USEP and UWEP will be earmarked to benefit people below
the poverty line from the minority communities.
8. Upgradation of Skills through Technical Training
Minority community population generally engages in very low level of technical work,
which is the major hindrance for them to earn substantially. Hence, by providing tech-
nical education, the people can increase their skills and earning capabilities. Therefore,
a certain proportion of all new ITIs will be located in areas predominantly inhabited by
minority communities, and a proportion of existing ITIs to be upgraded to ‘Centres of
Excellence’ will be selected on the same basis.
9. Enhanced Credit Support for Economic Activities
(a) The National Minorities Development & Finance Corporation (NMDFC) was
set up in 1994 with the objective of promoting economic development activities
among the minority communities. The Government is committed to strengthen
the NMDFC by providing it greater equity support to enable it to fully achieve its
objectives.
(b) Bank credit is essential for creation and sustenance of self-employment initiatives.
A target of 40% of net bank credit for priority sector lending has been fixed for
domestic banks. The priority sector includes, inter alia, agricultural loans, loans to
small-scale industries and small business, loans to retail trade, professional and self-
employed persons, education loans, housing loans and micro-credit. It will be en-
sured that an appropriate percentage of the priority sector lending in all categories is
targeted for the minority communities.
10. Recruitment to State and Central Services
(a) In the recruitment of police personnel, State Governments will be advised to give
special consideration to minorities. For this purpose, the composition of selection
committees should be representative.
(b) The Central Government will take similar action in the recruitment of personnel to
the Central police forces.
(c) Large-scale employment opportunities are provided by the railways, national-
ized banks and public-sector enterprises. In these cases also, the concerned

departments will ensure that special consideration is given to recruitment from mi-
nority communities.
(d) A scheme for providing coaching to students belonging to minority community in
public and private institution with well-known credibility.
(C) Improving the Conditions of Living of Minorities
11. Equitable Share in Rural Housing Scheme
The Indira Awaas Yojana (IAY) is a scheme that concentrates on rural housing, and
it provides financial assistance. At present, Pradhan Mantri Awas Yojana-Gramin
(PMAY-G) replaced IAY.
12. Improvement in Condition of Slums/Areas Inhabited by Minority Communities
(a) AMRUT was launched in order to bring various measures in urban area and one
such is slum development. PMAY provided financial assistance for building homes
in urban areas. It would be ensured that the benefits of these programmes flow
equitably to members of the minority communities and to cities/slums, predomi-
nantly inhabited by minority communities.
(b) Under Urban Infrastructure and Governance (UIG) scheme, Urban Infrastructure
Development Scheme for Small and Medium Towns (UIDSSMT) and National
Rural Drinking Water Programme (NRDWP), the Central Government provides
assistance to States/UTs for provision of infrastructure and basic services. It
would be ensured that the benefits of this programme flow equitably to cities/
towns/districts/blocks having a substantial minority population.
(D) Prevention and Control of Communal Riots
13. Prevention of Communal Incidents
In areas prone for communal riots, well-deserved, highly efficient and secular officers
should be posted. Their performances in this regard should be an important factor in
determining their promotion prospects.
14. Prosecution for Communal Offences
Punishment should be severe to those who induce the communal riot, and speedy
justice is necessary. In this regard, we need a strong law against communal violence
and special courts to deliver justice.
15. Rehabilitation of Victims of Communal Riots
Rehabilitation plays a very important role in any communal riots, and it is important
for government to provide relief facilities.
COMMUNALISM: INTERNATIONAL CONTEXT

International communities of various countries are constantly engaging in tussle amongst one
another because of growing communal ideologies and thoughts. The tension prevails in various
regions of the world especially in Middle East, which is very much a cause of concern for India.
Indian citizens who are working there have been constantly brought in to the fold of violence.
The rise of ISIS as a strong terrorist organization in recent years is based on communal feeling
and hatred towards other religion. The men of certain religion are driven by communal ideolo-
gies and started to show hater feeling towards other religion. Violence is very much intensified,
and they are seen as threat to whole world.International forces belonging to various countries

are fighting against ISIS, but ‘the battles are won not the war’. The notorious organization has
so much potential, as one cannot forget its attack on the UK’s parliament.
Other such community-based organization is ‘Boko Haram’. It happens to be originated
in northern Nigeria, whose main aim is to convert the Nigeria into an Islamic nation. They
always indulge in violence, and their most notorious crime activity is they kidnap girls of other
communities and try and force them to convert to Islam.
Many countries use communal feelings against other countries to defeat them. The coun-
try which uses terrorism against other countries is generally called ‘State-sponsored terrorism’.
The proxy war is a type of strategy used by some countries (e.g., Pakistan). In the name of re-
ligion, Pakistan is sponsoring terrorism against India, which creates huge security breach and
internal security problems.
CONCLUSION
Communal violence, now a days, has become very common in the world as well as in India.
The communal violence is polluting the young minds of the present generation, which is evi-
dent from increasing ISIS and other terrorist organization’s strength. They are known by vari-
ous alternative names;as in China, the communal violence in Xinjiang province is called ethnic
violence. Communal violence and riots have also been called non-State conflict, violent civil or
minorities unrest, mass racial violence, social or inter-communal violence and ethno-religious
violence.
Violence between Buddhists and the Muslim Rohingya, inhabit Rakhine state (formerly
Arakan province), which stretches along most of Myanmar’s coast up to the Bay of Bengal and
borders the Chittagong province of Bangladesh, erupted in 2013. Such violence in neighbouring
countries like Myanmar, Bangladesh, and Pakistan causes violence in retaliation in India also.
It also catalyses the problem of refuges, as in case of Pakistani Hindus, etc. Sri Lanka is also
facing international critics related to ethnic clashes and action of government against minority
Tamilians, which has direct bearing on India and Sri Lanka relations and India’s internal security
aspect as well.
Communalism has played a major role in affecting the secular character of India. It has
been one of the major problems persistent in India since known times. It has always affected the
unity of India and disturbed the prevailing peace and order in the country. Communalism has al-
ways been a major threat to the secular fabric of India. Time and again, the people have suffered
due to this extreme practice of religious fundamentalism.
Rationalism seems a possible answer for it. The attitudinal change, a changed outlook and
tolerance towards other community are the need of the day in order to stop all the communal
tension and its associated violence. It is the duty of the educated citizens to propagate the ad-
verse effects of communalism on the development of the country. We should take every pos-
sible step to avoid communalism from entering political, social and economical spheres of the
nation. They are to be opposed not to be appeased.
In India, religion and caste should not be mixed with politics to maintain common broth-
erhood. The unity and integrity of the nation should be attained and the ideology of sarva dharma
sambhavas hould be encouraged amongst all.
Repeated and instigating media coverage that may induce communal prejudice and hatred
should be censored.
Also the division of the society on the basis of majority and minority religion should
be done away with. The policy of acquiring votes through such means has proven to be

detrimental for India. Above all, an overall and equitable development of society will, in
the long run, provide for the much-needed unity where people of all religious faiths will be
united on the common belief and sentiment that we are all one and belong to the common
motherland.
PRACTICE QUESTIONS
1. Communalism has spread its wings in India intensively, which cost too much for Indian
unity and stability. Elaborate.
2. Communalism affects both the sections of the People, the perpetrators of communalism
and the passive people. Critically Examine
3. Trace the origin of communalism in India and explain communalism in the present
context.
4. Communalism gains new ground in rural India as Incidence of violence grows in rural
areas and turn into a battleground for communal politics. In the light of the statement
discuss with recent examples the emergence of communalism in rural India
5. Bring out the relationship between Reservation policy and communalism with recent rel-
evant examples from Indian society.
1. Debate the issue of whether and how contemporary movements for assertion of Dalit
identity work towards annihilation of caste. (2015)

Chapter 8
Regionalism
Learning Objectives
• Region
• Regionalism
• Different Forms of Regionalism in India
• Development of Regionalism in India
• Causes and Determinants of Regionalism in India
• Reason for Persistence of Regionalism
• Regional Political Parties and Regionalism
• Regional Issues in India: Few Examples
• Indian Constitution and Regionalism
• Measures and Solutions to Prevent Regionalism
• Government Measures to Promote Nationalism
• Regionalism: International Context
• Conclusion
REGION
A region is a part of a country or the world which is generally demarcated based on some special
characteristics. Even though every region, conceptually, have boundary, practically it is hard to
define it. The region may be as small as a group of village and as big as a whole state.
The following are the characteristic basis for demarcating a region:
1. Language or linguistics basis

2. Caste (jatis) basis
3. Ethnic groups basis
4. Tribes basis
5. Particular social settings form as a basis
6. Cultural pattern form as a basis
7. Music, dance, folk arts, etc.
These above sentiments are shared by those people living in a continuous geographical
area and they have the sense of togetherness and uniqueness when compared with other such set
of people. Those characteristics has completed merged with people and it can be seen in every
149

activity of humans living there. They have been socialized with these factors and will not shed
these characteristics even if they move away to any other region.
REGIONALISM
Regionalism is defined as the extreme attachment or affection to one’s region, and in Indian
context it is a state mostly. The attachment may result in developing an antagonistic view against
other region or state. Sometimes the feel may develop as big as it questions the national unity
itself.
The reason for such feelings to arise may be, due to the feelings of constant negligence
of a particular region by others or by government. It even arises when people of a region ac-
quired political knowledge and awareness about the backwardness of their region. The increased
knowledge of those people serves as fuel for regionalism. As we already saw, regional feelings
demand for autonomy, which question the unity of a country itself.
There are two different connotations associated with the concept of regionalism. Those
are as follows:
1. Negative sense: In this sense, people tend to hate or show antagonistic feel towards oth-
er’s region, which results in unhealthy environment that threaten the unity and integrity of
a country. In Indian context, various regions demand for separate statehood or national
hood, which cannot be encouraged.
2. Positive sense: In this sense, people show their love for their own region, culture, etc.,
which results in protection of their unique identity that further accelerates the sense of
fraternity and oneness.
Quite often we see that the sense of regionalism is being encouraged by political leaders
for their electoral gains. They use various strategies to achieve their intended targets. Often they
make political statements, targeting other groups, which generally induce the feeling of regional-
ism. Normally they bring forth various issues in their region without mentioning the solution to
the problem. This adds a regional flavour and makes it as a historic negligence from government
side, which automatically kindle the feeling of regionalism.
One should understand that mere existence of a region, does not per se give rise to region-
alism. The nexus between various factors put foundation for regionalism.
Those factors are as follows:
1. Historical negligence from the government
2. Slow phase of socioeconomic development
3. Unscrupulous politicians
4. Politically conscious people
Even though the above factors appear in a region or society, the government should be
competent enough to curtail the raise of regionalism by acting upon the grievances immediately.
But many a times, we see the government’s non-proactive attitude that gives way for regional-
ism to appear. This affects not only the region but also the entire country. The internal relation
of a region also goes through a complete reversal which many a times results in further intensi-
fied communalism.

Chapter 8 • Regionalism 151
DIFFERENT FORMS OF REGIONALISM IN INDIA

Indian regionalism is unique in the sense that it is multilingual, multicultural, multiregional and
multicommunal society. The following are the various forms of regionalism in India:
Demand for State Autonomy

Regionalism oftentimes motivate people to demand a separate state so that the state can have
more autonomy. In India, people of a region, within a state or states, feel that they are continu-
ously been targeted or rejected combined with political mobilization, the regionalism develops,
which further gets intensified. This evokes people to fight for their separate statehood so that
they can enjoy more autonomy. The demand for statehood or more autonomy has been a rising
trend since India’s independence.
One of the best examples is the demand for ‘Gorkhaland’. The Darjeeling district’s people
have been demanding for a separate state as even languages differ between the whole of West
Bengal and Darjeeling district. Darjeeling district’s people speak Nepali, whereas the rest of
West Bengal speaks Bengali. Gorkhaland Janmukti Morcha is the largest party in Darjeeling dis-
trict, and it pushes for the creation of a Gorkhaland state.
The other examples are Telangana and Andhra Pradesh. Telangana people, for more than
four decades fought with Andhra Pradesh and government of India (GOI) in order to carve
out the state Telangana from the erstwhile Andhra Pradesh. It was successfully done in ‘The
Andhra Pradesh Reorganization Act, 2014’.
Secession from the Union

India is a union and hence no state has any legal right to secede from the union. But sometimes
the regionalism feeling becomes intense and underestimates the sense of nationhood and asks
for independence from the union. The people feel that they want to develop separate identity
and protect those. This type of regionalism is generally associated with complete violence.
This can be exemplified by citing ethno-national terrorism in the north-east part of
India. People here are demanding complete independence from the ‘Union of India’ and
many political parties are working towards it. Here, the secessionist movement got an ugly
turn and the GOI was forced to take a hard step of bring in ‘The Armed forces (special pow-
ers) Act, 1958’, to restore peace. Recently, GOI signed a peace accord with National Socialist
Council of Nagaland (IM). The NSCN demand a separate nation called ‘Greater Nagalim’.
A Greater Nagalim comprising ‘all contiguous Naga-inhabited areas’, including Nagaland. It
includes several districts of Assam, Arunachal Pradesh and Manipur, and also a large tract of
Myanmar.
Inter-State Disputes
Majority of inter-state disputes are the consequence of intensified feeling of regionalism. The
people of a particular region or state feel aversion towards other people and they behave so dif-
ferently which questions national unity. The inter-state water disputes, son-of-the-soil concept,
employment to local people only are some of the inter-state conflicts that arise because of such
rationalistic sentiments. In this case, migrated people from another state or region feel insecure
and attacks are seen now and then by people of the host state.

While looking into the number of inter-state river water dispute tribunal, one can con-
clude the presence of intensified regionalism in India. As of 2017, there are eight different tri-
bunals functioning to resolve water dispute between the states. The problem arises just because
the people see the natural resource as their own and do not consider fellow-citizens’ need of
such water.
DEVELOPMENT OF REGIONALISM IN INDIA

During British Period
This phenomenon in the Indian political system can be traced back to the pre-independence era
where British imperialist encouraged the people to think about their own region’s development
rather than considering others. The sense of oneness is too dangerous for British imperialism,
hence they encouraged regionalism
After Independence
Immediately after independence, the national leaders tried to bring in the feeling of ‘oneness’
in the country. It was bought in by various ways, in the form of a common constitution, single
citizenship, integrated judiciary, all India services, federalism with unitary bias, etc. Ever after
capitalizing various measures, regionalism showed right from independence because India is a
‘Land of Lands’. From independence, regionalism acted as a potent force in Indian politics.
The early manifestation of regionalism was seen in the demand for reorganization of states
on linguistic basis. The freedom fighter and Gandhian ‘Potti Sriramulu’ died in 1952 after 52
days of fasting, demanding for a separate state of Telugu-speaking ‘Andhra Pradesh’ from Ma-
dras state. This forced Jawaharlal Nehru, the then PM of India, to think in the same lines of
language-based states. Hence, Fazal Ali commission was formed and new states based on lan-
guage was formed in 1956 by enacting ‘States Reorganization Act’.
Later, the regional sentiments came in all states when state parties rose to power defeat-
ing Indian national congress. The victory of the DMK against Congress in Tamil Nadu in 1960
was the initiating point. In the same decade, one can see mass migration for employment which
resulted in violence in many parts of India. The region-oriented feeling, initially, thought to be
confined only with Tamil Nadu, but it was later started to develop everywhere in India, posing
threat to the unity of India. Initially congress enjoyed power in both centre and state; hence, the
feeling of regionalism was highly suppressed, but the regional parties opened the ‘Pandora Box’.
Following Tamil Nadu, Punjab’s Akali movement gained attention and momentum, followed
by Sheikh Abdullah who revived the National Conference in J&K.
Afterwards, the regionalism entered the north-eastern part of India, which again resulted
in enacting North-Eastern Areas (Reorganization) Act, 1971. It was the response to north-east-
ern insurgency and violent riots by tribal people for separate statehood and later nationhood.
Later by 1990s, a violent struggle for separate statehood emerged in central and northern
India. By the year 2000, three states were created, such as Uttaranchal, Jharkhand and Chhat-
tisgarh. It should be noted that Andhra Pradesh was bifurcated into Telangana and Andhra
Pradesh.
In every state in India, regional political parties kindle the sense of regionalism, which re-
sults in much defame to India in the international arena.

CAUSES AND DETERMINANTS OF REGIONALISM IN INDIA

The following factors decisively affect the nature or outcome of regionalism:
1. Sociocultural factor: Socio-cultural setting brings in huge difference between regions,

which is especially true in India, and this encourages the feeling of regionalism. The mi-
norities want to protect their sociocultural symbols, such as kinship relations, caste and
sub-caste, language, etc., from the majority. The ability to protect directly related to vari-
ous factors, such as economic power, social power, time factors, etc. The symbols give the
identity for an individual, and every individual often tries to protect themselves even at
the cost of others. In the course of protection, sometimes people believe in violence and
sometimes believe in peaceful means.
2. Economic factor: Under development is basis for every type of problem. There is a link-
age between development and extremism. Whenever development shows sluggish growth,
people feel the heat of economic disproportion and resort to kindle the regionalism. Eco-
nomic imbalance in a country brings in regionalist attitude in people. Economic disparity
prevails in India as one can see islands of richness and ocean of poverty. The regionalism
is getting a strong base due to economic disparity.
3. Political factor: Political factors act as steering factors of regionalism. Without politicians,
the regional tendency cannot pick up. They add fuel to volcano, because it is important to
keep the heat of regionalism all the time to make sure they gain. Without political mobili-
zation, the regionalism will die eventually. The political leaders play regional cards to gain
political mileage. It is called as politics of natives.
At times, in order to bring oneness and the sense of nation, the central government at-
tempts to improve a particular factor in states which may be seen as onslaught of their cul-
ture. The states have very strong desire of protecting their own sub-culture and language.
For example, when GOI give more important to Hindi, the non-Hindi-speaking states
start hue and cry, which is nothing more than regionalism.
4. Geographical factor: The geographical uniqueness plays a major role for the resurgence
of regionalism from time to time. People living in a geographically contiguous area have
same sense which many a times turn to be hated over other area.
5. Historical factor: Common historical experiences, such as social heritage, attitudes, myths,
etc., result in bust of regionalism.
6. Population factor: The population explosion fuels regionalism on the basis improper
scared resource sharing.
REASON FOR PERSISTENCE OF REGIONALISM

The following are the reasons for persistence of regionalism in India:
1. Lack of pro-active approach: The central government and state governments are not
aligning their operations with dynamic society. They need to have long insight so they can
take steps which complement the changing society.
2. Low rate of economic growth: Economic growth, as we already deal, keeps the regional-
ism ongoing. With right level of economic growth, regionalism can be put down.

3. Lack of political will: For every problem in India, political will is the solution. The lack of
political will and not educating the people in right direction is another reason for persis-
tence of regionalism.
4. Low level of literacy rate: The literacy rate is directly linked to the thinking ability of
masses, which is an important factor for regionalism to grow.
REGIONAL POLITICAL PARTIES AND REGIONALISM

Indian political design allows multi-party system in which the multiple political parties run for
national elections and state elections. It is one of the striking features of the Indian party sys-
tem. Probably, no other countries in the world have such number of political parties. Political
parties can be divided into national parties and regional parties. A national party means the party
which operates in all states or majority of states and a regional party means a political party
which generally plays within a single or handful of states. Both national and regional parties are
recognised by Election Commission of India (ECI). It should be noted that in India, the num-
ber of regional parties is very high than the national-level parties.
Generally, national parties work towards the national interest and those interests are very
diverse in nature. On the other hand, the regional parties represent the interest of a particular
state in general or area they operate. Hence, the outlook and interest drastically differ between
both. If a national party wins election in a state and forms a government, it is possible for them
to act with region attitude.
As we already know, the political parties are the hub of regionalism where political parties
constantly fuel regionalism. The regional political parties try to play the regional card in elec-
tions and capture power. They try to solve local problems through their programmes. Some of
the important regional parties are DMK and AIADMK in Tamil Nadu, National Conference in
Jammu and Kashmir, Asom Gana Parishad in Assam, Telugu Desam in Andhra Pradesh, Shiv
Sena in Maharashtra, Mizo National Front in Mizoram, All Party Hill Leaders Conference in
Meghalaya and Indian National Lok Dal (INLD) in Haryana.
These regional political parties also participate in forming the national government by
making alliance with other parties. For example, Mrs. Indira Gandhi’s government was con-
tinued even after split in the party in 1969 and lost majority in parliament because the DMK, a
regional party supported it. In the 13th general election, Telugu Desam Party made an alliance
with BJP, a national party, and formed Nation Democratic Alliance and came to power.
The most important work of political parties is that they focus the issues of people in re-
mote area. They work for political awareness and try to bring in the people to the main stream
of politics. The national parties cannot build a differential attitude; hence, the presence of re-
gional parties plays an important role in fulfilling the local problem.
The regional political parties, for their gains, kindle the regionalism tendency which turns
violence as we have seen in Maharashtra and undivided Andhra Pradesh. The parties inflict the
‘Son-of-the-soil’’ concept. The regional political parties have vital role to play in Indian unity,
but they are behaving unscrupulously.
REGIONAL ISSUES IN INDIA: FEW EXAMPLES

Anti-North Indian Attitude of MNS Workers
Mumbai, the commercial capital of India has grown in to a global financial hub. Mumbai and
its suburban area inhabit a big population of migrant workers. The 2008 attack on the migrant

workers and various other attacks especially on people from Uttar Pradesh and Bihar by the
members of MNS showed the rising anti-North Indian attitude of the party. The justifications
for the attack were that the migrants spoil the tradition and culture of Maharashtra and that with
rising migrants, the job opportunities of the people of the state gets reduced. The anti-North
Indian feeling is a result of language politics and regionalism being used for political gains. In
the recent years, the MNS has stated that they would shed their anti-North Indian image. The
Shiv Sena, another political party, founded in 1996, launched agitation against Karnataka and
other South Indian migrant workers.
Attacks on Bihar Labourers by the ULFA

The United Liberation Front of Assam (ULFA) is a terrorist and separatist group based out of
Assam. It seeks to establish an independent Assam using armed means. It is a banned organiza-
tion and is classified as a terrorist group. The US State Department lists it under ‘Other groups
of concern’. It had been killing Bihar migrant workers.
Demand for Dravida Nadu
The early 20th century saw a rise in social reforms movement in Tamil Nadu and other southern
states of India. The Justice party and the social reform leader E. V. Ramaswami accused the
Brahmins and the North Indians for dominating the Dravidians and forcing Hindi language and
culture. The movement was an anti-Brahmin, anti-Aryan and anti-Hindi movement. As early as
1960s, the DMK and other pro-Tamil organization arranged for a joint campaign throughout
Madras state demanding for a sovereign and independent ‘Tamil Nadu’. Later, DMK proposed
that the states of Madras, Andhra Pradesh, Kerala and Mysore should come to together and
secede from the Indian union and form an independent ‘Republic of Dravida Nadu’.
In 1962, C. N. Annadurai alleged that south India has been neglected and ignored by na-
tional governments for a long time and demanded for separate nation.
In 1963, a Constitution bill which makes penalties for sovereignty and integrity of Indian
union was introduced by the Government. DMK dropped its demand of Dravida nation. Even
now, one can see sporadic incidents for the demand of separate country.
Bodoland Demand within Assam
The Bodoland movement has its genesis in the early 1930s where they submitted a memoran-
dum to the Simon Commission demanding a separate political administration for the indigenous
and tribal people of Assam (the Bodos). Though the Assam Gin 1993 formed the Bodoland
Autonomous Council, several provisions were not implemented that led to further agitation.
The increasing number of migrant Muslim workers from Bangladesh instigated fear among the
Bodos of being reduced in to minorities in their homeland. Violent attacks on the Muslims and
Adivasis of the area was a result of regionalism, demographic fears and vote bank politics. The
problem is yet to be solved, as the Bodo leaders are asking the government to resume talks to
find a permanent solution.
Demand for Khalisthan
The claims for Khalistan, as a separate theocratic country for the Sikhs, have its origin in the
1940s, due to the fear of being reduced in to a minority after the partition of India and Paki-
stan. The separatist movement reached its zenith in the 1970s and 1980s with increasing funds
from outside India. Within a short span of time, they started militant activities in Punjab, which

led to anti-militant operations by the Government of India. Operation Blue star was conducted
in 1984, in which the Indian security forces entered the Golden Temple forcibly and killed the
militants who were hiding inside the temple. This led to the assassination of then Prime Minister
Indira Gandhi, which resulted in anti-Sikh violence in Delhi and Haryana. The insurgency was
completely suppressed in the early 1990s. Some pro-Khalistan organizations are still active out-
side India.
INDIAN CONSTITUTION AND REGIONALISM

The Constitution of India has various measures to accommodate thereby reduce the feeling of
regionalism simultaneously and gave obligation to government. The following are the measures:
Non-Territorial Measure
The non-territorial measures of Indian Constitution are incorporated to accommodate ethno-
regional identity. The following are such measures:
First, Article 30 speaks about ‘Right of minorities to establish and administer educational
institutions’.
1. All minorities, whether based on religion or language, shall have the right to establish and
administer educational institutions of their choice.
2. The State shall not, in granting aid to educational institutions, discriminate against any ed-
ucational institution on the ground that it is under the management of a minority, whether
based on religion or language.
The above article clearly accommodates regional sentiments and incorporated in order to
appease the minorities.
Second, Article 345 speaks about official language or languages of a State: The legislature
of a State may by law adopt any one or more of the languages in use in the State or Hindi as the
language or languages to be used for all or any of the official purposes of that State.
Another Article, 347, Special provision relating to language spoken by a section of the
population of a State: On a demand being made in that behalf the President may, if he/she is
satisfied that a substantial proportion of the population of a State desire the use of any language
spoken by them to be recognised by that state, direct that such language shall also be officially
recognised throughout that State or any part thereof for such purpose as he/she may specify.
These two articles are incorporated in the constitution to accommodate the linguistic
groups in a state. The identity of the aggrieved people is satisfied which results in smooth func-
tioning of the system.
The 8th schedule of the India constitution has 22 languages in it. These languages act as
third languages in the India’s ‘three language formula’, that is, Hindi (official language), English
and the 8th Schedule language.
Further as a control mechanism, Article 350B speaks about Special Officer for linguis-
tic minorities. There shall be a Special Officer for linguistic minorities to be appointed by the
President and it shall be the duty of the Special Officer to investigate all matters relating to the
safeguards provided for linguistic minorities under this Constitution and report to the President
upon those matters at such intervals as the President may direct, and the President shall cause
all such reports to be laid before each House of Parliament and sent to the Government of the
States concerned.

Territorial Measures
Article 1 (1) of the Indian Constitution define India as ‘a Union of States’, which means all
states shall have no right to secede from the union. But the constitution does not specify the
number of states constituting the Union. Hence, it paves way for accepting regional sentiments.
It accepts the ethno-national movement based on separate identity and aspirations. The adjust-
ment and readjustments are possible to accept the diversified identity.
MEASURES AND SOLUTIONS TO PREVENT REGIONALISM

Regionalism is profit for India when political parties thrive for regional development without
attacking and exploiting the outsiders. The following are measures to contain the spread of
regionalism:
Immediate Measures
1. The area that are neglected and ignored, both conflict and non-conflict region should be
given preferential treatment as they should feel that they are part of one nation. This can
be done by providing funding, developing infrastructure, recognizing their culture, etc.
2. The interference of central government in the affairs of the state should be minimal or
interfere in unavoidable situations, such as national interest, national security, etc. In other
all areas, the state governments should be given with genuine autonomy or transfer of
power.
3. The legislative mechanism should be put in place so that the leaders who inflict regional-
ism gets punished which will act as deterrence. The sedition should be discouraged and
the beholder should get punished.
4. A peaceful and constitutional method should be used to solve already existing problem
which should set an example for resolving other issues.
5. Election Commission should provide rules for regional parties as they should not use re-
gionalism as the main agenda to gain political mileage.
Long-term Measures
1. Moral education and national education is the key to reduce regionalism. Governments should
use their arms to give free and compulsory moral education, which will reduce unemploy-
ment, increase the rate of skill development, etc., which will ultimately reduce regionalism.
2. Promoting inclusive growth and try to achieve even development. This can be done by
planning accordingly involving all stake holders without any discrimination.
3. Non-Government Organization’s should be used to spread nationalism in every nook and
corner of the country. Although it is a painstaking process, still it is much effective.
GOVERNMENT MEASURES TO PROMOTE NATIONALISM

1. The then Prime Minister of India, Jawaharlal Nehru, convened National Integration
Council in 1961, to find a suitable way to combat the evils of communalism, casteism,
regionalism, linguism, narrow-mindedness, and to formulate definite conclusions in order
to give a lead to the country. It can discuss and review all the matters related to national
integration.

2. The Interstate Council under Article 263 was constituted by GOI after accepting the Jus-
tice Sarkaria Commission’s report on centre-state relation. The Council consists of Prime
Minister as Chairman, Chief Ministers of all States, Chief Ministers of Union Territories
having a Legislative Assembly and Administrators of UTs not having a Legislative As-
semble and Six Ministers of Cabinet rank in the Union Council of Ministers to be nomi-
nated by the Prime Minister, as members. Its vision is to develop the Inter-State Council
Secretariat as a vibrant organization to support Centre-State and Inter-State coordination
and cooperation in India.
3. Establishment of Zonal councils under Part III of the state re-organization act, 1956. The
idea was mooted by the first PM of India, Jawaharlal Nehru, in a parliamentary debate.
Hence, in the light of the vision of Pandit Nehru, five Zonal Councils were established.
The present composition of each of these Zonal Councils is as follows:
(i) The States of Haryana, J&K, Himachal Pradesh, Punjab, Rajasthan, NCT of Delhi and
Chandigarh are included in the Northern Zonal Council,
(ii) The States of Chhattisgarh, UP, Uttarakhand and MP are included in the Central
Zonal Council.
(iii) The Eastern Zonal Council, comprising the States of Bihar, Jharkhand, Orissa, Sikkim
and West Bengal.
(iv) The Western Zonal Council, comprising the States of Goa, Gujarat, Maharashtra and
the Union Territories of Daman & Diu and Dadra & Nagar Haveli.
(v) The Southern Zonal Council, comprising the States of Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka,
Kerala, Tamil Nadu and the Union Territory of Puducherry.
(vi) A special zonal council set up for North-eastern Indian states as North Eastern Coun-
cil under the North Eastern Council act, 1972. This council also includes Sikkim which
was added in 2002.
4. Annual conference of Governor’s, Chief Ministers, chief secretaries, etc.
5. Constitution of Inter-State River Water Disputes commission: In order to solve the water
dispute between states, GOI enacted Inter-State Water Disputes Act, 1956, which extends
to whole of India.
REGIONALISM: INTERNATIONAL DIMENSION

Regionalism in international context includes group of countries in a particular region, which
are earlier neglected and ignored from development process. These now come together and
form regional organizations for the purpose of accelerating their growth, collective bargaining
and influence other countries for their own growth. The examples for such organizations are
ASEAN, African Union, SCO, etc. In World Trade Organization, Trade Facilitation Agreement
was seen as an onslaught on developing countries because of it has a provision of doing away
with subsidies. India and China, together with developing countries started to resists it.
Here, the regionalism feeling is been used in positive manner to promote growth and co-
operation between the nations. A single nation cannot influence the international community,
but if likeminded countries come together, they can influence and their voice can be heard. The
regionalism also helps in stable economic policies.
In international regionalism, countries shed the historical difference, their cultural and so-
cioeconomic development in order to form an organization, which paves way for development
of the participating country and region as a whole.

CONCLUSION
The natural willing of the people is always inclined to the development of their own and fur-
ther their region. In the process, they may be carried away by self-centred and narrow-minded
politicians’ words, restore violence against the fellow countrymen. This gives a very bad image
about the country in an international forum and creates unnecessary hindrance for strengthen-
ing national unity and development. The regionalism, per se, is not an anti-national and negative
concept, but, the way how we handle regionalism is more important and using regionalism, we
can achieve, the grass-root level development as what ‘Gandhi ji’ had dreamed.
PRACTICE QUESTIONS
1. We find an increasing trend of regional consciousness. However, regional conscious-
ness is part of Indian social evolution. Elaborate the old and new reasons for regional
consciousness.
2. Will the demand for separate smaller states lead to disintegration of India? Give your
opinion in the light of the emerging demand for creation new, smaller states in India and
its consequence on national integration and unity.
3. Increasing regional attitude is a direct threat to the unity and integrity of India. In this con-
text discuss various steps taken by the government to promote national unity.
4. Explain the role of political parties in balancing federalism and regionalism in India
5. “Regionalism is people’s love for their region, culture or language “. Examine

1. Growing feeling of regionalism is an important factor in generation of demand for a sepa-
rate State. Discuss. 10 (2013)


Chapter 9
Secularism
Learning Objectives

• Secularism and Its Different Facets
• Historical Roots of Secularism
• Secular Imprints in Modern India: Pre-Independence
• Secular in Indian Constitution
• Western Secularism: American Model
• Characteristics of Indian Secularism
• Comparison of Indian Secularism with Western One
• Theories on Secularism: Gandhian and Nehruvian Perspective
• Advantageous of Being a Secular State
• Challenges and Threats of Secularism
• Steps Taken to Promote Secularism
• UCC for India—Issues and Challenges
• Suggestions to Improve Secular Credentials
• Conclusion: Securing Secularism in Secular Way
SECULARISM AND ITS DIFFERENT FACETS

Secularism does not mean irreligion or atheism or even stress on material comforts. It proclaims that it lays stress
on the universality of spiritual values which may be attained by a variety of ways
—Dr. Radhakrishnan
The term “secularism” delineates the nexus between the state and religions. It also enlightens
us on the role of religious institutions in
the governance of state. Secularism can State
broadly be categorised into three groups.
The first one is restricting the role
of religion in politics, that is, religious in- (Citizenship) Separation of State
stitutions should not play any role in the form Religion
functioning of the state administration. It
regards religion as purely a private affair
of state. Meanwhile, the state remains im-
partial in the religious matters and con-
Indivdul Religion
siders people of all the religions equally. Freedom of Religion
161

This is viewed as scientific secularism that evolved after French Revolution, questioned the
domination of church in state affairs and was widely adopted in the Western countries, such as
the United States, United Kingdom, Germany, France, and Italy.
The second aspect is abrogation or abolition of religion in the state. The communist
ideology asserts materialism an alternative name for secularism. Karl Marx, the Father of
Communism, once called religion the opium of the masses. Communist countries like China and
North Korea are immersed with this kind of extreme secularism.
To move on to the third one, ensuring the equal social participation and recognition to
all religion, especially minority religions, is another important principle of secularism. The state
should be unbiased in promoting religions. It should safeguard the religious institutions. India,
as a patron of many religions, follows this kind of positive secularism to ensure the judicious
attitude in dealing with religions.
Further, as it is known well, Hinduism is not a religion by itself, whereas it teaches the
moral and way of life to its followers. The population of Hindus accounts for more than 80%
of the total population in India. Naturally, Hinduism must play an unbreakable role in the
Governance. Yet the state is not tilted towards a specific religion in the matter of governance.
Therefore, it can be concluded that secularism is creating space for all the religions to make
the citizens feel comfortable. It may also reduce and monitor the role of religious institutions in
the governance of the state to protect the rule of law. In the words of Dr Radhakrishnan,
We hold that no one religion should be given preferential status, or unique distinction, that no one religion
should be accorded special privileges in national life, or international relations, for that would be a viola-
tion of the basic principles of democracy and contrary to the best interest of religion and government . . . No
group of citizens shall arrogate to itself right and privileges which it denies to others. No person shall suffer
any form of disability or discrimination because of his religion but all alike should be free to share to the
fullest degree in the common life. This is the basic principle involved in the separation of church and state.
But what is contrary to the secular state is bringing up a religious state where the state is sym-
pathetic to a particular religion and does accept a specific religion as a state religion, for example,
Pakistan, Bangladesh, Afghanistan, Saudi Arabia, UAE, Iran, etc. This kind of religious ideology
stands adverse, regressive, narrow and conventional that other religions are overtly cornered.
This kind of approach may not comply with modern democratic ideals and human rights.
HISTORICAL ROOTS OF SECULARISM

Secularism in India is as old as Indus Valley civilization. The cities of lower Mesopotamia and
Harappa were not ruled by priests. Dance and music were secular in these urban civilizations.
If history is traced, it can be understood it was actually Ashoka, the Mauryan Emperor, who
promulgated the concept of secularism in the name of Dhamma (right way of social behaviour)
and made that famous in the continent. As early as third-century BC, he categorically expressed
that the state would not prosecute any religious sect. In his 12th Rock Edit, Ashoka exhorted
the tolerance of all religion sects and the tendency to respect all the religions. He prayed that
people should desist themselves from criticising other religious sects. He expected the people
to be concerned with other religious scriptures. Followed by Ashoka, Harsha also patronised all
the religions equally.
The art and architecture of Ashoka, especially Lion Capital in Sarnath Pillar and Ellora
cave, epitomise India’s secular values.

Chapter 9 • Secularism 163
During Sangam period, poets such as Agastyar, Tolkappiyar, Nakkirar, Thiruvalluvar,

e ncouraged the rich tradition of secularism in their works. That’s the reason the time immemo-
rial Sangam literature (like Tolkappiyam) is called secular literature.
In late medieval India, the Sufi and Bhakti movements restored secular character of I ndian
society which was in a bad state because of orthodox Ulmas who led Muslim rule in the early
medieval India. The torchbearers of these movements were Khwaja Moinuddin Chisti, Baba
Farid, Saint Kabir Das, Guru Nanak Dev, Saint Tukaram and Mira Bai. They spread the differ-
ent facets of secularism like tolerance, sense of brotherhood, universalism, harmony and peace
in the society.
There is no Hindu and no Musalmans there is no distinction between man and man.
— Guru Nanak, First Sikh Guru
The great Akbar, the Mughal emperor, protected secular fabric by insisting tolerance
among different religions. His promotion of Din-e-Illahi (divine faith) and Sulh-e-kul (peace with
all) was mainly based on developing a sense of secularism among the people of all religions. The
construction of Ibadat Khana (house of worship) in Fatehpur Sikri was done with a view to
nurturing religious harmony by allowing different religious leaders to express their opinions in
the same place. Despite the dominance of Hinduism, India remained acceptable to the minority
Muslim rule, but for the secular credentials it had.
SECULAR IMPRINTS IN MODERN INDIA: PRE-INDEPENDENCE

Socio-religious reform movements paved way for the modern secular Indian society. Raja
Ram Mohan Roy’s Brahma Samaj, Derozio’s Young Bengal Movement, Swami Vivekananda’s
Ramakrishna Mission, Annie Besant’s Theosophical Society and Aligarh Movement actively
tried to get rid of the orthodox and outdated, superstitious beliefs of various religions. These
movements set the beginning of religious harmony, tolerance and respect towards other reli-
gion. Both Sepoy Revolt (1857) and partition of Bengal (1905) sustained great unity between
Hindus and Muslims. To learn more, stalwarts such as E.V.R. Periyar doubted the existence of
God himself and propagated secular and rational thinking in the society through his self-respect
movement. Sahodaran Ayyappan, who was also a rationalist thinker from Kerala, expressed No
Caste, No Religion, and No God for Human-beings.
Later, Indian National Congress (INC), from the time of inception, did not subscribe to
any particular religion and stood neutral. So, the formation of INC with secular values united
the people from all sects and took the freedom movement on a constructive and successful
path. Moreover, appointment of Badruddin Taiyabji and Rahimtulla Mahomed Sayani as INC
presidents confirmed the secular attitude of INC members and spread harmony in the country.
Moreover, INC rejected the Minto–Morley Reforms, 1909 which suggested separate elec-
torate on religious basis. Nehru gave a detailed report (1928) which called for the abolition of
separate electorate in order to found a secular state. This report is preemptive that it not only
underlined the secular spirit of our freedom movement, but it led to draft a secular constitution
after independence.

Appointment of Liaquat Ali Khan (Finance) and Ghaznafar Ali Khan (Law) as members
of Interim Government (1946) and Maulana Abul Kalam Azad as the first Education minister
of the Independent India justifies the secular spirit in the political arena.
In Ismail Farooqui vs Union of India, 1994 (famously called Ayodhya Case), Supreme court
held that The concept of secularism is one facet of the right to equality woven as the central golden thread
in the fabric depicting the pattern of the scheme in our constitution.
SECULAR IDEALS IN INDIAN CONSTITUTION

Indian Constitution is the soul and tentacle of Governance. It provides for equality and secular-
ism. The following provisions make clear the secular principles in the Constitution.
Preamble: India is called a secular state. It insists secularism in the governance of the coun-
try but the term secularism was not precisely used in the constitution until it was inserted
after the 42nd amendment during Indira Gandhi’s regime. But the clear definition of the
term “Secularism” is yet to be added in the Constitution though attempt was made during
the 45th amendment bill because it was rejected by council of states.
Article 14: It grants equality before law and equal protection of law to all, irrespective of
religion.
Article 15: It elaborates prohibition of discrimination on religious ground in public places.
Article 16: It renders equal opportunity for all citizens in public employment, irrespective of
religion.
Article 25: It empowers the citizens with freedom of conscience to choose profess, practice
and propagate any religion. It also gives them the freedom of conversion. However, forcible
conversion is prohibited.
Article 26: It allows religious denominations to manage its own affairs which include right to
acquire property and administer the same in accordance with law. Article 25 guarantees rights of
individuals, while Article 26 secures the right of religious denominations.
Article 27: It prohibits states from compelling anyone to pay tax for promoting a particular
religion. It also prohibits state from patronising any particular religion ignoring other religions.
However, a state can use fund to support all religions equally.
Article 28: It provides for freedom to citizens for attending religious instructions in Educa-
tional institutions. It also allows educational institutions to impart religious instruction, which is
not maintained and administered by state.
Article 29: It empowers religious minorities to conserve their language, script or culture.
Article 30: It gives privileges to religious minorities to establish their own educational institu-
tions. It also mandates that state give due compensation in case the state need to acquire the
properties of minorities. It also sets away any discrimination in terms of giving aid.

Article 44: Uniform Civil Code (UCC) ensures that the Civil Rights like marriage, divorce and
adoption of children be governed by the laws of the respective religion. For example, divorce in
Muslim community is governed by Triple Talaq method as envisaged in Koran. This article also
intends to give one civil law for all religions to strengthen the secular fabric of Indian society.
But when it comes to criminal cases, the penal code applies to one and the same to the people
of all religions.
Article 51A(e): It promotes peace and the spirit of fraternity among all the people of India
regardless of religious, linguistic and regional or sectional diversities; it also renounces practices
derogatory to the dignity of women.
Judiciary: To clarify the secular character of the Indian constitution, the Supreme Court men-
tioned There is no mysticism in the secular character of the State. Secularism is neither anti-God nor pro-god,
it treats alike the devout, the antagonistic and the atheist. It eliminates God from the matters of the State and
ensures that no one shall be discriminated against on the ground of religion.
In S.R. Bommai Vs union of India case, the Supreme court held that “secularism is a basic
feature of the constitution . . . politics and religion cannot be mixed.”
The Supreme Court has held that the right to propagate religion does not include any right
to forcible conversion as these may disturb public order (Stanislaus vs. State of M. P, 1977).
WESTERN SECULARISM: AMERICAN MODEL

The secular states have a commonality in secular principle that they are neither theocratic nor
the advocates of religions. But the plausible conception, especially based on the American
model, is of the view that separation of religion and state is to be perceived as mutual exclusion:
the state will not interfere with the affairs of religion, so do the religions in terms of the affairs
of the states. Both religion and state have their own arena with independent jurisdictions.
Furthermore, the state should not be a benefactor of any religious institution. It ought not
offer any financial support to educational institutions run by religious communities. Nor can it
intervene the activities of religious communities, as long as they act within the realms of the com-
mon law of the land. For example, if a religious institution forbids a woman from becoming a priest,
then the state is not fully entitled to impose common law to deal with this issue. If a religious com-
munity excommunicates its dissenters, the state cannot question the power of the religious heads in
such case. If a particular religion forbade the entry of some of its members into the sanctum sancto-
rum of its temple, the state would not have any option but to let the matter rest exactly where it is.
In this perspective, religion is a private matter, not a matter of state policy or law. This
common conception interprets freedom and equality meant for each individual in the state.
Liberty refers to the freedom of individuals. Equality is equality among many individuals. But
community, which is the group of individuals, is not allowed to implement or practice anything
at their desire. The scope is very little for community-based rights or minority rights. The his-
tory of Western societies explains why the communities have less freedom. But for the presence
of the Jews, most of the Western societies are known for a great deal of religious homogeneity.
Given this fact, they naturally focus on intra-religious domination, that is, they would not allow
any individual or group to supersede the established rules of their religion. On the contrary, the
Western governments emphasise the separation of the state from the church to achieve among
other things, individual freedom and inter-religious issues. To realise this, freedom of individu-
als, as a matter of religion, is ignored.

Finally, this form of mainstream secularism does not allow the state to do any religious
reform under its control. This feature follows directly from its understanding that the separation
of state from church/religion involves mutual exclusion.
CHARACTERISTICS OF INDIAN SECULARISM

The pluralistic dimensions in culture and the diverse history of the state has led to the evolution
of multifaceted secularism in India. The following are its features:
1. No official religion: India does not recognize any religion as official. Nor does it owe
allegiance to any particular religion.
2. Religious neutrality: India does not intercept the affairs of any specific religion. It
respects all religions on par with one another.
3. Freedom to all: It assures religious freedom to the members of all religions. Citizens are
free to choose and abide by their religions. It also allows them to build and maintain places
of worship and other religious institutions.
4. Separation of religion from polity: Religious institutions have a diminutive role in
Indian governance. India is not ruled by religious heads. Political parties in India do not
advocate or subscribe to any particular religion. But some of the incidents that happened
in India might question the credibility of this kind of secularism.
5. Strategy of non-interference: A state does not interfere with changing the crux of
religious entities with a view to respecting their traditions, customs and belief. However
it might intervene productively to remove obsolete, superstitious, backward looking, and
gender biased practices, like child marriage, sati, and polygamy. It might also, by law,
impose restriction in order to protect the wealth and resources of religious authorities and
prevent unscrupulous administrations.
6. Supremacy of law: The functions of Indian administration are based on Legislation and
Constitution. But these are not the beliefs and principles given by the dogmas and cus-
toms of any particular religion, whereas they are neutrally enacted to uphold the sover-
eignty of the state.
7. State is sovereign: None of the religious institutions, be they temple, church or Madrasa,
is above the State. Everything is legal and accountable for the sovereignty of the state.
8. Not anti-religion: Indian secularism is not atheistic that it questions the existence of any
religion. It allows any kind of religious worship. It accepts the multiple spiritual quests, but
it disapproves of the action of any specific religion that claims of its superiority in the mat-
ter of religious quests.
9. Secularism as fundamental right: Secularism is constitutionally protected. Religious
freedom is more protected and is subject to be enforced by judiciary, in case of breach.
The awareness about the religious rights and their limits would help the government and
judiciary for taking actions during the violations of the same.
10. Secularism as scientific education: Indian education is scientific and predicated on the
Western system. Education here is not a reinforcement of religious maxims.
11. Secularism as humanism: Indian secularism is humane and is not affected by spiritual
beliefs or values of any particular religions. It considers the people “Citizens” but not
“sympathizers of a religion”. So, the state is at the service of all people irrespective of their
religions. In the words of Swami Vivekananda “Service to mankind is service to God.”

12. Secularism as universal faith: (Ekam sat viprabahudhavadanti): Rig Veda (Truth is
one; sages call it by various names.). The secular ideals of India were not inherited only
from those of a very few countries. But they are the collections of East and West. They are
also the sources of goods ideas and vales abundant in all religions and do aim to promote
universalism and brotherhood.
13. Secularism as means of modernization: Our secularism is not shaped by orthodox,
obsolete and narrow beliefs, but it is the replica of modern values, progressive thoughts
and scientific outlook.
14. Secularism as cultural heritage: Indian secularism is embedded to rich ancient culture
of our country. It respects the traditional customs, beliefs and practices and also protects
them at the interest of citizens.
COMPARISON OF INDIAN SECULARISM WITH THAT

OF WESTERN SECULARISM
Indian secularism has aped Western secularism in some aspects, but still there are fundamental
differences. Shashi Tharoor opines “Western dictionaries define secularism as absence of reli-
gion but Indian secularism does not mean irreligiousness. It means profusion of religions”.
It is a convincing view that American secularism is ideal for Western secularism. There-
fore, it is appropriate to compare the Indian model with the American model.
Similarities
1. The first amendment of the US Constitution has confirmed that legislature is prohibited
from declaring any religion as official. In short, giving preference to one particular religion
is against constitution. Indian secularism is very much similar to this secular principle of
the United States.
2. India and the Unites States are faced with handling the same crisis of fundamentalism,
radicalization of youth by Islamic State and Islamophobia.
Differences
S.
American Secularism Indian Secularism
No.
1 In the United States, there is Taking away religion from the purview of state is not possible
a hedge between state and in India for state can intervene in religious affairs. And It has
religion. Neither the state nor a deep religious construct as well.
religious entities can interfere
with their respective affairs
2 Focus is less on intra-religious Focus is more on intra-religious domination because of
aspects because of reformed sanction of Varna system by Hinduism. It is bound to
gender neutral nature of eradicate the stigma imposed by a religion. For example,
Christianity which is the Indian secularism opposes untouchability, oppression
predominant religion of the of Dalits and women within Hinduism and also the
West. discrimination against women within Indian Islam.
(Continued)

3 Less emphasis is on inter- It concentrates more on clamping up the inter-religious

religious conflicts because of dominations. The focus has been shifted to deal with the
religious homogeneity of the multi-religious nature of society and painful historical
Western society. experiences on inter-faith clash since medieval period.
Our secularism sanctions state control of religion to
prevent tyranny.
4 It is concerned with liberty It not only ensures the religious freedom of individuals but also
and equality among the provides for the religious freedom of minority communities.
individuals of the particular It enables an individual to freely pursue his religion and
religion. helps the religious minorities exist and maintain their culture
and educational institutions as a community.
5 Non-interventionist in nature. Reformist in nature. For example, India enacted several laws
abolishing child marriage and lifting the taboo on inter-caste
marriage sanctioned by Hinduism.
6 The role of Religious bodies As an implicit control, religious groups could persuade their
is meagre in politics. followers and control the ballot box. They could also
influence government in power in policy-making.
7 State can neither manage nor State not only gives aid to religious entities, including minority
aid religious institutions. education institutions but also administers many of religious
structures as part of preserving cultural heritage.
Example: Haj Subsidy, Amarnath pilgrimage subsidy, Shri
Nankana Sahib Yatra for Sikhs, etc.
THEORIES ON SECULARISM: GANDHIAN AND NEHRUVIAN

PERSPECTIVE
Before the mid-19th century, the term “Secularism” remained widely unaccepted. For the clergy,
it was similar to the term “Ignorance”. The term was politically popularized by Charles Brad-
laugh and Holyoake in the mid-19th century. It was not immediately accepted in politics as well.
Lincoln used the word only once but in a non-political context. It was not popular up until the
formation of nation-states. When democratic forms of governments increased, the usage of
secularism also increased. Now, this is on vogue because of the constitutional value it has.
The Motilal Nehru Committee Report on the Principles of the Constitution of India in
1928 did not use the word “Secularism” at all though the core part the Report insisted on it.
The Karachi Resolution in 1931, which Gandhi, Jawaharlal Nehru and Maulana Azad witnessed,
recounted the religious neutrality of the state. Secularism was the impetus to the resolution but
the word was not specified. A repeated usage of the term found its place in Gandhi’s writings
and speeches in 1933.
Gandhian Perspective
If officers of Government as well as members of the public undertook the responsibility and worked wholeheart-
edly for the creation of a secular state, we could build a new India that would be the glory of the world.
— Gandhiji in Deshbandhu Park, Calcutta, 1947

Private affair: Gandhiji said that religion is both a private and personnel affair. State has no role
in it. He added that religion has a set of moral principles that lead the men on the right path
of living. When he spoke in one of the Christian Missionaries, 1946, he contended “If I were a
dictator, religion and state would be separate. I swear by my religion. I will die for it. But it is my
personal affair. The state has nothing to do with it. The state would look after your secular wel-
fare, health, communications, foreign relations, currency and so on, but not your or my religion.
That is everybody’s personal concern!”
Religious equality: Gandhiji was ardently religious. He was not the man who accepted the
spiritualism only in Hinduism rather he respected the spirituality in all the religions including
Islam and Christianity. His principle of Ahimsa (doing no harm) could be traced in the Jain
philosophy. He regarded all religions equally and so popularised the concept of Sarva Dharma
Sama Bhava (equality of all religions). This concept was originally observed by Ramakrishna and
Vivekananda.
Equality within religion: Gandhiji did not accept all the practices of Hinduism blindfolded
rather he looked at it in the prism of liberal thoughts and modernism so that the secular value
of Indian culture would be sustained. He strongly opposed any religious practices that let down
the lower caste in the society (an outcome of Hinduism sanctioned Varna system) and those
that demeaned women. He was vocal in opposing untouchability as a custom hostile to the
moral sense of mankind. It can be understood that he supported the bill meant to abolish
untouchability (came before central legislature in early 1930s). In 1935, while Gandhi was ad-
dressing some members of the Central Legislature, he made himself clear that “even if the
whole body of Hindu opinion were to be against the removal of untouchability, still he would
advise a secular legislature like the Assembly not to tolerate that attitude”.
Non-communal politics: In the later years, a new trend emerged in order to separate the peo-
ple in the name of religion, especially after the advent of Muslim league and Hindu M ahasabha.
But Gandhiji reiterated on secular politics. In his own words “I felt that any form of political
association based exclusively on adherence to a particular religion was worse than undemo-
cratic.” In another circumstance he said “Religion was a personal matter and if we succeeded in
confining it to the personal plane, all would be well in our political life . . .”
Religious co-existence: Gandhiji believed that peaceful coexistence of different religions was
possible and would promote religious harmony and tranquillity. Referring to Karachi Resolution
which demanded the separation of Pakistan from India on religious ground, he asserted “What
conflict of interest can there be between Hindus and Muslims in the matter of revenue, sanita-
tion, police, justice, or the use of public conveniences? The difference can only be in religious
usage and observance with which a secular state has no concern”.
Secular state: Gandhi was a strong believer of secular state, particularly in the context of the
religious plurality in India. He wanted religions to be separated from politics. When he addressed
the gathering in Scottish Church College, Calcutta on the very next day after Independence, he
opined that “. . . India should undoubtedly be secular. It could never promote denominational educa-
tion out of public funds. Everyone living in it should be entitled to profess his religion without
let or hindrance, so long as the citizen obeyed the common law of the land. There should be
no interference with missionary effort, but no mission could enjoy the patronage of the state

as it did during the foreign regime.” These views are manifest in Articles 25, 26 and 27 of the
Constitution.
Nevertheless, he supported the intervention of the state in religion to safeguard the secu-
lar values. He unequivocally supported the “Untouchability Abolition Bill”. He also gave his
rejoinders to those who did not accept his views saying it was an undue interference in religion.
He clarified there were many situations in which it was necessary for the state to interfere even with religion.
Only undue interference ought to be avoided.
On the contrary, he opposed any financial aid given by the state for the promotion of any
religious structures in the name of secular governance. Speaking on Guru Nanak’s birthday by
the end of 1947, Gandhi opposed any possibility of state funds being spent for the renovation of the
Somnath Temple. His reasoning was: After all, we have formed the Government for all. It is a secular govern-
ment, that is, it is not a theocratic government, rather, and it does not belong to any particular religion. Hence it
cannot spend money on the basis of communities.
Therefore, it can be understood that Gandhiji was religiously secular. He learnt values
from religion to lead a right way of life. He understood the merits and demerits in all reli-
gions. He wanted all the religions to exist harmoniously. He acknowledged the Indian secular
principles.
Nehruvian Perspective of Secularism

Nehru’s secularism is based on a commitment to scientific humanism toned with a progressive
view of historical change. On the other hand, Gandhi’s secularism rests on a commitment to the
religious fraternity based on their respect for and pursuit of truth.
Jawaharlal Nehru proposed the concept of secular state. Indeed, the formation of India as
a secular state may be accepted as ‘one of his greatest achievements. To refer to Chester Bowles,
Nehru has a great aversion to the intrusion of religious factors into politics, and he is especially concerned with
transforming India from a “Caste – ridden society” in which communalism remains a major threat to all the
values that he cherishes to a national state which includes people of all religions and shades of opinion and is
essentially secular as a state.
Religion is all right, he has said, When applied to ethics and morals, but it is not good when mixed with
politics. He viewed the decision of Constituent Assembly in Karachi in 1953 to make Pakistan as
Islamic Republic as a medieval conception totally opposed to any democratic conception.
When a student asked him to spell out what secularism meant in the independent India,
he responded that “Equal protection by the State to all religions”. He expected the secular state
to be the one that should protect all religions, but does not favour one in place of others and does not itself
adopt any religion as the state religion. Nehru is the architect of Indian secularism. Nehru was not a
religious man inclined to any religion, nor was he the believer of God. But he made it clear that
secularism should never be hostile to any religion. In this sense, Nehru is very different from the
Turkish Revolutionary Leader, Ataturk. Nehru was convinced with the intervention of the state
in religious issues as long as it was required to uphold the sovereignty.
A secular state may interfere in the matters of religion to bring about social reforms.
Nehru himself played a pivotal role in enacting laws for eradicating caste discrimination, dowry
and sati, and providing legal rights and social freedom to Indian women.
While Nehru was lenient in many accounts, he was adamant and resolute about one thing;
he felt that secularism should chase away communalisms by all means. Nehru lambasted the
communities with majority for deliberately allowing communalism which posed a threat to

ational unity. Secularism, for him, is not only a matter of principles but is also the only sub-
n
stance of the unity and integrity of India.
Thus, Nehru was absolutely atheistic and scientific in nature, whereas Gandhi was cer-
tainly a man of religion. For Gandhi, religion and morality constituted the whole of life. They
were interwoven together. Nehru gave much more importance to moral values than religion.
For Nehru, religion was the concern of women. He directed the state to play a constructive role
in the political and economic spheres.
Though they differed with each other in terms of religious views, they had a consensual
realistaion about the circumstances in India that had many religions, especially after the inde-
pendence. They also felt the need of churning out secular principles to maintain integration
among the people of many religions in India. While they accepted the autonomy for religious
institutions, they also called for the state to play a reformist role.
DO YOU KNOW?
What Is KEMAL ATATURK’S Secularism?

It is a different kind of secularism practised in Turkey in the first-half of the twentieth
century. This type of secularism encouraged the direct intervention of sate in religions The
main principle kept the organized religions under its microscope. It openly involved itself
in the suppression of religion. This version of secularism was propounded and practised by
Mustafa Kemal Ataturk.
He came to power after the First World War. He took resolution to end the institu-
tion of Khalifa from the public life of Turkey. Ataturk was convinced that removing tradi-
tional thinking was the only way to elevate Turkey from the sorry state it was in.
He acted arrogantly to modernise and secularise Turkey. Ataturk changed his own
name from Mustafa Kemal Pasha to Kemal Ataturk (Ataturk translates as Father of the
Turks). The Fez, a traditional cap worn by Muslims, was banned by the Law. Western dress
code was encouraged for men and women. The Western (Gregorian) calendar replaced the
traditional Turkish calendar. In 1928, the new Turkish alphabet (in a modified Latin form)
came into use.
ADVANTAGE OF BEING A SECULAR STATE

Secularism and democracy are the twin pillars of our state, the very foundation of our society.
—Indira Gandhi
Excelling democracy: Secularism has marked the six decades of successful journey of the
Indian democracy. It has led the democracy on the path of progress and thereby created an
inclusive and matured democracy. Now Indian secularism is a prototype to the multi-religious
countries across the world. India had many Presidents from minority communities, including
Dr. Zakir Hussain, APJ Kalam and Giani Zail Singh. Dr. Manmohan Singh, who hails from Sikh
community, was elected twice by the people of India to the office of Prime Minister.

Peace and stability: Secularism inculcated extreme tolerance among the Indians and also
taught them to revere the belief and practices of other religions. This tendency of people
widely ensured religious harmony and peaceful co-existence of different religions. The crux of
India remains intact despite having attained the position of multi-religious country. Conversely,
Countries which advocate particular religions are faced with frequent issues of terrorism, vio-
lence (say bombing), religious fundamentalism, intra-religious conflict (Shia-Sunni), huge civil
causalities, etc. For example, Pakistan, Afghanistan, and many Middle-East countries.
Minority protection: Secularism undoubtedly prevents the major religious group from domi-
nating minor religious groups. This principle of secularism deters communal riots as they hap-
pened just before the Independence. It also resists the religious prosecution of minorities.
Hitler’s prosecution of Jews is the best example for religious prosecution.
Economic growth: Adherence to secularism would accelerate India to transform itself into
world’s fastest economy This would apparently remove the blemish created by the famines that
happened in 1940s. It has drastically improved the overall standard of living of Indian masses
by changing their outlook.
Cultural enrichment: Pursuance of secularism during freedom struggle and post-indepen-
dence journey made the communal strain on Indian society disappear, which was created by
medieval theocratic regimes and British’s decisive divide and rule policy.
CHALLENGES AND THREATS TO SECULARISM

In spite of the government’s adhering to religious equality by giving equal space for religious mi-
norities in socio-economic-politico and cultural sphere and being firm towards religious belief
and practices of citizens, following things continue denting India’s secular credentials:
1. Communal politics: Politicians play with the religious sentiments of masses. Usually, peo-
ple of one religion is aroused against other religion for political gains. It leads to religious
polarization of society by forming political parties, trade union and student unions on reli-
gious lines. All these would result in hatred and create rivalry towards the people of other
religions. Eventually, these would push the people to involve themselves in the activities
anathema to secularism like Babri Masjid demolition, and Muzaffarnagar riots in 2013.
2. Inter-religious domination: Equality to all citizens, particularly for minorities, is the pri-
mary principle of secularism. But the following incidents showcase that it is often neglected:
•• For about 2,700 Sikhs were massacred in Delhi and in many other parts of the country
in 1984.
•• Several thousands of Hindu Kashmiri Pandits were evacuated from their homes by the
Muslims in Kashmir valley in the early 1990s.
•• More than 1,000 people, especially Muslims, were massacred during the post-Godhra
riots in Gujarat in 2002.
3. Intra-religious domination: Despite the explicit prohibition of untouchability in any
form under Article 17, upper-caste Hindus still continue to suppress and humiliate the so-
called lower caste, particularly Dalits. The ban on of cow beef showing political interests,
Dadri lynching, the attack on Dalit youth in Una town of Gujarat for skinning dead cow,
are the worst instances that affect the secular model of our democracy.

4. Forced conversion: Allegations are continuously being made against the Christian
Missionaries for exploiting the lower status accorded to the Dalits in the fourfold Varna
System in order to persuade them for conversion to Christianity for which they use the
baits of good social status and a dignified life. As a reaction, Hindutva right wing groups
have started Ghar Wapsi (Home coming) movement which aims to bring back the con-
verted people into Hindu fold.
5. Discrimination: The overall participation of religious minorities in political sphere
continues to occupy a tiny space and they are not given their due shares. They were
discriminated in public services particularly in defence services. Their economic status is
unenviable and worse. Sachar Committee reported “while Muslims constitute 14% of the
Indian population, they comprise only 2.5% of the Indian bureaucracy”. The Commit-
tee also highlighted that the conditions of Indian Muslims are below those of scheduled
castes and scheduled tribes. It is to assume they are socially and politically more margin-
alised than the scheduled tribes and scheduled castes.
6. Constitutional contradiction: Constitutional provision meant for secularism has loop-
holes and is discriminative in nature. There are certain secular principles that are mutually
exclusive. For instance, Article 48 bans cow slaughter for respecting the religious senti-
ment of Hindu but such actions are approved of as a part of Muslim tradition. And also,
law objects to religious wearing religious cues, but Sikhs are allowed to wear Kripan and to
maintain religious identity.
7. Discriminative state intervention: To retain vote banks, governments show bias in reg-
ulating the religious customs and practices. For instance, polygamy is prohibited in Hindu
law, but it is allowed in Islam. But the state is not ready to deal with such ambiguities and
double stranded nature of law.
8. Growing fundamentalism: Religious fundamentalism refers to the blind and unquestion-
ing adherence to particular religious belief. It is manifest in orthodoxy, conservatism and
singularity as against democratic norms of modernism and plurality. It may motivate the
radicalization of youth and formation of anti-India terror group. The awful increase in the
participation of youth in terrorist activities and joining Islamic State Group reflect it clearly.
9. Saffronisation of textbook: Since 1977, after Jana Sangh joined government as part of
the Janata regime, there has been intervention in writing NCERT textbooks, especially his-
tory books. In 1999, when NDA came to power, all NCERT textbooks were saffronised.
Once UPA came back to power, it ordered the removal of such pieces of information or
snippets that deliberately favoured the then ruling government. For example, one religion
or its leader is glorified against another would sow the seeds of communalism in the minds
of children.
10. Practice of pseudo-secularism: Implementing the secularism in an indifferent manner
or pretending themselves as champion of secularism may explain the pseudo-secularism.
For example, the lack of political will to implement UCC and abolish regressive Triple
Talaq fearing the loss of Muslim votes.
STEPS TAKEN TO PROMOTE SECULARISM

1. Abolition of separate electorate and introduction of universal adult franchise (Article 326)
immediately after the Independence.
2. Establishing India as secular state with many constitutional securities.

3. Creation of Ministry of Minority Affairs in 2006 as an offspring of Ministry of Social

Justice & Empowerment.
4. National Integration Council (NIC) was formed in 1962 under the chairmanship of
Prime minister.
5. The council comprises a group of senior politicians and public figures, which may be
reconstituted and convened time and time to see to the mushrooming communalism and
other issues so that they can be avoided ab initio.
6. Prime Minister’s 15-point programme for minorities.
7. Sachar Committee was designated to find out the socioeconomic conditions of Muslims
(2005–2006), and Ranganath Misra Commission was set to ascertain the status of Reli-
gious and Linguistic Minorities (2004–2007).
8. National Minorities Development & Finance Corporation (NMDFC) was formed in 1994
to promote economic activities among the backward sections of notified minorities by
providing them financial aid with discounts for self-employment activities.
9. The government launched Multi-Sectoral Development Programme, which aims to
enhance the socioeconomic conditions of minorities, provide basic amenities for improv-
ing their quality of life and reduce imbalances in the identified minority concentration.
10. Beginning of welfare schemes like Nai Udhan, Nai Roshni (leadership development of
minority women), Seekho aur Kamao (Learn & Earn).
11. Skill development cum employment programmes like Udaan and Himayat to accommo-
date J&K youth into mainstream development of India were started.
12. Regularization and computerization of Wakf Board.
13. Introduction of value and moral education along with regular curriculum.
UCC FOR INDIA: ISSUES AND CHALLENGES

(a) Its Relevance to India
India is a miniature of the world which means that India is a multi-religious, multi-cultural,
multi-linguistic and multi-social division society. It is important to satisfy each and every
citizen of the country and try to bring equality among them all. The criminal laws are ap-
plicable to everyone in Indian society equally but not the civil law because of the religious
uniqueness. Personal laws attracted the attention of many in Indian society. Whether to
bring UCC or not is a matter of discussion, not only now, but also in constituent assembly.
In constituent assembly, the question of UCC sharply divided the members. Majority of
members from Islam community opposed and most of the Hindu members supported it.
B.R. Ambedkar opined in favour of interference in personal laws. Finally after debate, it
was decided to keep the UCC in Directive Principle of State policy.
Indian Government has a huge role of protecting certain section of the society, such as
women, religious minorities, etc., with its interventionist role in social connotation. But it
also needs to enforce the principle of equality in political connotation. Hence it is impor-
tant to bring UCC.
The following reasons are in support of India need for UCC:
Firstly, India is a secular republic that demands a common law for all its citizens rather
than differentiated set of laws based on religious customs and sentiments.
Secondly, the UCC will bring gender justice. The right of women is codified and re-
stricted in the religious laws. The gender inequality was practiced in both Hinduism and
Islamism.

Thirdly, it will integrate the nation as everyone will be under the same law.
Fourthly, it will help in reducing the vote bank politics as everybody will come under
one law for personal matters and criminal matters.
Lastly, it is written in Article 44 of DPSP in Indian Constitution and it is evident that
Indian Constitution makers had an egalitarian society in mind.
So, it is important to bring UCC in India.
(b) Constitutional Provisions Related to UCC
Article 44 of the Constitution of India: UCC for the citizens: The State shall endeavour to
secure for the citizens a UCC throughout the territory of India.
(c) Government Steps to Bring UCC
It is for the first time recently, the present ruling government (2016) asked the law com-
mission to examine the issue of implementing the UCC. The law minister said that “as far
as national integration is concerned, this (UCC) is one of the aspects that we have to take
care off”. But it cannot be implemented so soon because of so many customs, rituals and
sentiments attached to this issue. It can be only pursued slowly and steadily.
(d) Cases Related to UCC in India
1. Mohd. Ahmed Khan v. Shah Bano Begum (1985):
•• It is a case related to providing alimony under the section 125 of code of criminal
procedure. Shah Bano Begam was 62 years old and mother of five filed the case
after she was given triple talaq from her husband. The Supreme Court of India inter-
preted the law in favour of the women under Section 125 and said Muslim women
have right to get alimony from the husband.
•• The then Chief Justice of India Y.V. Chandrachud observed that A common civil
code will help the cause of national integration by removing disparate loyalties to law which have
conflicting ideologies.
•• After the judgment, nation-wide discussions and agitations happened, after which
the Rajiv Gandhi Government brought in an act to overturn the decision. The
Muslim Women (Right to Protection on Divorce) Act (1986) was brought in to cur-
tail the right of a Muslim woman for maintenance under Section 125 of the Code of
Criminal Procedure.
2. Sarla Mudgal v. Union of India (1995):
•• This case is related to the legitimization of his second marriage by converting him-
self to Islam. The court held that it is an offence under 495(5) of IPC.
•• Justice Kuldip Singh said that Article 44 is laying in cold storage for very long and he
raised question that if 80% of Indian are brought into a codified personal law, then
what is the hindrance for GOI to bring remaining under a law?
3. John Vallamattom v. Union of India (2003):
•• In this case, the right to give donation of property to religious at will but the section
118(7) of India Succession act bring in unreasonable restriction. The case is related
to Article 25 and Article 44. The court struck down the section.
•• The chief justice Khare regrets that GOI is yet to take steps to bring UCC in India.
The Common Civil Code will help the cause of national integration by removing the
contradictions based on ideologies.
•• These are the three important instances that Supreme Court supported for UCC.
•• Later in 2015, Supreme Court refused to direct the government to bring in UCC for
all citizens in India as it said it is the job of parliament to makes laws.

(e) UCC and Rights Issue

The personal law covers marriage, divorce, succession, adoption and maintenance. It is
discriminatory in nature which put women generally in biased position. The former prime
minister of India, Atal Bihari Vajpayee said that there will be a new code comprising all
best elements of personal laws, and it will bring gender equality. For example, it is impor-
tant to bring monogamy because the polygamy discriminated women against women and
violated Article 21 of the constitution. Further, validity of marriage will also solve as all
marriages should be registered when UCC was implemented. In the grounds of inheri-
tance, daughters will get equal share as of the son. Once UCC is introduced, the women in
all religions will enjoy equality. Now a Muslim women is not in par with a Hindu women
as far as Right to Equality is concerned. Thus introducing UCC will bring women at par
with men, at least lawfully.
(d) The Reason Why Some Section Is against It
1. To adhere to one’s own personal laws was one of the fundamental rights.
2. The personal law is part of way of life, hence, any interference to it would change their
way of life itself as they are following generation to generations.
3. The move will create insecurity in the minds of minority especially.
4. The problem with codification is the obstacle for implementation of UCC.
5. The prevalence of traditional values and mindset among the large section of citizens.
SUGGESTIONS TO IMPROVE SECULAR CREDENTIALS

To preserve the multi-religious India and protect the overall interest of Indians who are deeply
religious, following suggestions may be thought on to strengthen the secular fabric:
1. Put an end to communal politics and popularise principle-based secular politics.
2. Implementing the UCC by getting concurrence from the people across the various
Religious Sects.
3. Discard pseudo-secularism and avoid cajoling the people.
4. Harbouring on religious harmony and universal brotherhood by spreading the thoughts of
great leaders.
5. Frame policies and programmes in reference with Sachar committee findings.
6. Consider the following suggestions of Ranganath Misra commission:
•• A total of 10% reservation for Muslims and 5% for other minorities in government jobs
and seats in educational institutions.
•• Allot 8.4% of 27% existing OBC reservation to minorities.
•• SC reservation to Dalit converts.
7. Accepting the recommendation of Venkatachaliah who headed the National Commission
to review the working of constitution:
•• Establishment of Inter-Faith Commission for inter-religious harmony and social
solidarity.
•• Article 25 should be amended to separate Sikhism, Jainism and Buddhism from
Hinduism.
8. Periodical convention of the National Integration Council with the true spirit of secularism.
9. Recalibrate the contradictions in the constitutions and ensure conformity between various
statutes and laws in the light of secular ethos.

10. Consider the suggestions of 2nd ARC (4th report–Ethics in Governance, 5th report–Public
Order) to offer secular governance and handle communal clashes effectively and promptly.
11. Perhaps one way of preventing religious bias is to work together for mutual understand-
ing. Education is a mean to effect change in the mindset of people. Individual examples of
sharing and mutual help could reduce prejudice and suspicion between communities.
12. Learning more about other religions is the first step towards learning to respect and accept
other people and their beliefs.
CONCLUSION: SECURING SECULARISM IN SECULAR WAY

The history of civilizations and the painful experiences felt because of the communal prob-
lems have made us realise that the secularism is indispensable to overcome the religious anoma-
lies. Secularism is crucial to restrain the authority of the majority religion and restrict the use
of political clout on religious base. It is also to safeguard the freedom of individuals (i.e., to
exit from their religion, embrace another religion or have the freedom to interpret religious
teachings).
The kind of politics and governance run by the religious minorities across the world
(Middle-East) and in the neighbouring states of Pakistan and Bangladesh (pathetic status
of Shia Muslims) and Myanmar (Rohingyas) affirms the necessity of secularism which keeps
religion away from politics. Secularism is requisite for discouraging the minorities from claim-
ing for a separate space ruled by their religious leader. The history of Indian civilization stands a
testimony to the unity among the people of various religions in India. It occurred elsewhere in
the Ottoman Empire.
Need of the hour is to ensure intra-religious and inter-religious equality and freedom
(Sarva Dharma Sama Bhava) and accept the universality and plurality in religions (Ekam sat
viprabahudhavadanti–Rig Veda). Furthermore, it is mandatory to ensure adequate space for his-
torically suppressed communities and minorities to enable them to effectively participate in the
economic development. The intervention of the state in religious matter is necessary to reform
the religion that should suit futuristic change among the people’s mindset and worldview, but
this kind of reform must be in tandem with the ideals enshrined in the constitution. If we suc-
ceeded as an absolute harmonious state, India will acquire a lot more phrases of adulations like
“Unity in Diversity” and “melting pot” of multi-culturalism, “world in miniature,” etc.
PRACTICE QUESTIONS
1. Indian model of secularism is different from the Western model of secularism in both
structure and sprit. Elucidate.
2. India is secular in theory but not in practice. Elucidate.
3. Suggest some measures to improve the secular credentials in India.
4. “Indians are historically accustomed to secular ideals and principles”. Do you agree with
the statement, Discuss the relevance of this statement in the 21st century India
5. “Unity in diversity” is the outcome of secular nature of Indian society. Comment

1. How do the Indian debates on secularism differ from the debates in the West? (200
words) 2014


Chapter 10
Social Empowerment
Learning Objectives

• Introduction
• Definition
• Necessity of Social Empowerment
• Economic Empowerment Leads to Social Empowerment
• Socially Disadvantaged Sections of the Society
• Way Forward
• Conclusion
INTRODUCTION
The general vulnerable people’s role in economic development, in most countries of the world,
cannot be undermined. But their social, economic and political status is lower than that of other
sections of the, society and they are subjected to the domination and repression of a particular
order for centuries and de facto even today. They are customarily expected to confine themselves
and play only passive role. The decision-making capacity was tightened for centuries and with the
advent for “humanities and human rights”, their rights have improved. The concept of social
empowerment is much important here, which has potential to improve the lives of millions.
DEFINITION
Social empowerment is a continuous and ongoing process of developing a sense of autonomy
and self-confidence, and acting individually and collectively to change social relationships and
the institutions that exclude the socially disadvantaged section.
Social empowerment is the process of accessing opportunities and resources in order to
make personal choices (e.g., choosing what to eat, what to wear, what neighbourhood to live in,
etc.) and have some control over our environment.
Social empowerment = greater personal choices.
Social Empowerment is the process of enhancing the capacity of socially disadvantaged
individuals or groups to make choices and to transform those choices into desired actions and
outcomes by overcoming the social restrictions, taboos and barriers. Central to this process are
actions which both build individual and collective assets, and improve the efficiency and fair-
ness of the organizations and institutions which govern the use of these assets.
179

Socially empowered people have freedom of choice and action beyond the social barriers.
They can take better decision that affects them because of freedom of choices.
However, perceptions of being empowered vary across time, culture and domains of a
person’s life:
•• A low-caste person feels empowered when he/she is given a fair hearing in a public meet-
ing, which is comprised of men and women from different social and economic group.
•• A woman from a conservative household feel empowered if she’s allowed to go out alone
without being escorted by male from her house.
•• A transgender feels empowered when she’s given an employment.
In essence, empowerment speaks to self-determined change. It implies bringing together

the supply and demand sides of development—changing the environment within which socially
disadvantaged people live and helping them build and capitalize on their own attributes.
NECESSITY OF SOCIAL EMPOWERMENT

There are many challenges that we face in the present era. We need to tackle every challenge
so that we can live happily and sustainably. Innovative and revolutionary ideas are the result
of an empowered mind which takes time to develop. In fact, the best ideas happen when the
people have knowledge about the environment they act upon and aware about the related
consequences.
Further, being an individual, his/her life is always worth living when empowered and mak-
ing his/her to participate in societal settings. Hence, the empowerment is basic for the human
race to exist. Following are necessary for social empowerment,
Reduce Poverty
Social empowerment is one magic wand to reduce poverty. When people are empowered, they
tend to use the knowledge in right direction and somehow reduce their poverty which is so im-
portant for national growth also.
Unemployment
Social empowerment leads one to take the right job and hence reduce the incidence of unem-
ployment and under-employment.
Overall Development of Society

The main advantage of empowerment is that there will be an overall development of the
society. The money that people earn does not only help them and or their family, but it also
helps develop the society.
Economic Benefits
Social empowerment also leads to more economic benefits not to the individuals but to the so-
ciety as well. Next section deals with this briefly.

Chapter 10 • Social Empowerment 181
Reduction in Domestic Violence

Social empowerment leads to decrease in social violence engineered against the deprived section
early. In one empowered socially, they know the rights they enjoy and the duties they serve.
Reduction in Corruption
Social empowerment is also advantageous in case of corruption as people tend to understand
the exploitive class and restrain from giving any bribe which ultimately reduces the corruption.
ECONOMIC EMPOWERMENT LEADS TO SOCIAL EMPOWERMENT

Economic empowerment is thought to allow greater control over their resources and life
choices. The economic empowerment kindles people to think on long-term basic and beyond
immediate survival. It allows people to take wise decision in the matter of investment analyzing
the risk involved and maximize their income. It is evidently proven that economic empower-
ment leads to social empowerment by allowing the vulnerable section of society to think on
long-term basis and participation on decision-making process that affects them and national as
the whole. Hence, it is important to increase the cash flows to vulnerable section of the society
to make them participate in main stream of the society. The cash flow can be increased by em-
ployment generation programme, Universal Basic Income or by whichever mean suitable.
SOCIALLY DISADVANTAGED SECTIONS OF THE SOCIETY

The socially disadvantaged sections are as follows:
a) Women h) Rural population
b) Scheduled castes i) Transgender
c) Tribes j) Senior citizens
d) Socially backward class k) Disabled
e) Minorities l) People affected by various social crimes
f) Children m) Disease
g) Youth
Women
The women empowerment became as a subject matter all around the world in the past few
decades. Many international organizations and agencies including United Nations emphasized
the gender equality as an important issue. It is held that women cannot wait any further to claim
their equality in social, economical and politically space. The essence of equality has very wide
benefits which the whole nation can enjoy. It is said that empowering women is not alone mor-
ally essential, but also economically important for the country. Out of the total population in
India, women contribute 48%.
1. Problems Faced by Women in India: Even though Indian society has high respect
towards women in many spheres, such as worshipping women goddesses, considering

natural resources with that of women, women backwardness is very clear because they are
seen in inferior connotation. The following are the problem faced by women in India.
i. Patriarchal society and gender discrimination: The existence of patriarchal society
leads to gender discrimination which is an important cause of women backwardness. Patri-
archal society means male-dominated society, and gender discrimination is when one sex
is given preferential concern over the others. The discrimination is also seen in education
as male children gets good school, whereas girl children does not get the same privilege.
ii. Dowry: Dowry is such an issues where it is been practiced by near universally by Indian
communities. Dowry is defined as “when a man or his family, at the time of marriage
or later, gets any material benefits such as money, property, etc., from his wife or wife’s
family”. Here in India, dowry is seen as matter of prestige hence, at time it is voluntary
and many a times it is coercive. For example, in the Geetanjali “murder” case, the GOI
statement in 2015 states that over a total of 24,771 dowry deaths have been reported in
the country in past three years with maximum of them occurring in Uttar Pradesh with
7,048 deaths from 2012 to 2014.
iii. Workspace and domestic violence: The women encounter violence both within the
family and outside the family for very long time. It is said that “women has no safe
place in earth”. The women face violence within family, like dowry-related crimes, ver-
bal and physical abuse, marital rape, non-healthy foods, genital mutilation, etc., majority
of the violence are unreported and many women keep clam just to save family name.
These are called d omestic violence. Over three lakh domestic violence incidences have
been reported in 2013 by National Crime Records Bureau (NCRB).
Violence outside the family are sexual violence, such as rape, forced prostitution,
harassment in public places and offices, murder, kidnapping, etc. Because of high
awareness, women now-a-days are at least reporting such incidents, but it is minus-
cule. A total of 34,651 cases of rape were reported across India in 2015 according to
NCRB.
iv. Poverty: The poverty percentage is very high with women when compared with men,
because women are allowed with fewer resources in general. They are last to eat, have
least access to medical facilities and are occupied by routine unpaid domestic tasks.
v. Unemployment: The unequal treatment of women has been a characteristic of provi-
sion for unemployment throughout its existence. Even though women are generally
paid less, they are not preferred in many industries.
2. Constitutional Provisions for Protection and Empowerment of Women: The con-
stitution plays dual role as it ensures equality and also empowers states to positively
discriminate women in order to offset the disadvantage they have been facing from time
immemorial. The following are the articles related to women in India:
Articles 14, 15, 15(3), 16, 39(a), 39(b), 39(c) and 42 of the Constitution are of specific
importance in this regard.
Constitutional Privileges
1. Equality before law for women (Article 14)
2. The State not to discriminate against any citizen on grounds only of religion, race, caste,
sex, place of birth or any of them (Article 15 (i))

3. The State to make any special provision in favour of women and children (Article 15 (3))
4. Equality of opportunity for all citizens in matters relating to employment or appointment
to any office under the State (Article 16)
5. The State to direct its policy towards securing for men and women equally the right to an
adequate means of livelihood (Article 39(a)); and equal pay for equal work for both men
and women (Article 39(d))
6. To promote justice, on a basis of equal opportunity and to provide free legal aid by suit-
able legislation or scheme or in any other way to ensure that opportunities for securing
justice are not denied to any citizen by reason of economic or other disabilities (Article
39 A)
7. The State to make provision for securing just and humane conditions of work and for ma-
ternity relief (Article 42)
8. Not less than one-third (including the number of seats reserved for women belonging to
the Scheduled Castes and the Scheduled Tribes) of the total number of seats to be filled by
direct election in every Panchayat to be reserved for women and such seats to be allotted
by rotation to different constituencies in a Panchayat (Article 243 D(3))
9. Not less than one-third of the total number of offices of Chairpersons in the Panchayats
at each level to be reserved for women (Article 243 D (4))
10. Not less than one-third (including the number of seats reserved for women belonging to
the Scheduled Castes and the Scheduled Tribes) of the total number of seats to be filled by
direct election in every Municipality to be reserved for women and such seats to be allot-
ted by rotation to different constituencies in a Municipality (Article 243 T (3))
Various Criminal Legislations for Protection and Empowerment of Women

The Crimes under the Indian Penal Code (IPC):
1. Rape (Sec. 376 IPC)
2. Kidnapping & Abduction for specified purposes (Sec. 363 - 373 IPC)
3. Homicide for Dowry, Dowry Deaths or their attempts (Sec. 302/304-B IPC)
4. Torture - both mental and physical (Sec. 498-A IPC)
5. Molestation (Sec. 354 IPC)
6. Sexual Harassment (Sec. 509 IPC)
7. Importation of girls (up to 21 years of age) (Sec. 366-B IPC)
The Crimes under the Special & Local Laws:
1. Immoral Traffic (Prevention) Act, 1956
2. Dowry Prohibition Act, 1961
3. Indecent Representation of Women (Prohibition) Act, 1986
4. Commission of Sati (Prevention) Act, 1987
Steps Taken by GOI

First, the move to reserve one-third seats in the parliament for women could probably be
the bold and biggest step taken by the GOI in the area of women empowerment. The bill, if
passed, would result in more than 180 seats in the lower house occupied by women compared

to less than 30 occupied currently. This might also produce a “Trickle down effect” where even
the state governments would pass a similar bill to reserve one-third seats for women in the State
Legislatures.
Second, “Swayamsidha” was introduced in 2001 to provide integrated social empower-
ment of women. It also helps them to establish self-help groups (SHGs). It provides women to
control of resources for their development and empowerment.
Another initiative is a program called as STEP (Support to Training and Employment
Program for Women). The objective of this program is to empower women by providing sus-
tainable employment opportunities.
Further, Ministry of Women and child development’s National Mission for Empower-
ment of Women (NMEW) aims to achieve holistic empowerment of women through conver-
gence of schemes/programmes of different Ministries/Departments of Government of India
(GOI) as well as State Governments. Under the scheme women helpline, one-stop centre was
introduced.
Furthermore, National commission of women was started in 1992 to review the con-
stitutional and legal safeguard of women, recommend remedial measures, facilitate grievance
redressal and advice government on policy matters.
Schedule Caste
Varna system is a social division that happens to be in Indian society also. It is one of the oldest
institutions that exist in India which has huge role in everybody’s life. Each and every varna has
numerous castes in it. Its role has changed and its negative face is swelling which is creating so-
cial conflicts and unrest in major parts of the Indian society. The total population of Schedule
caste is approximately 16% to the total population of India.
(a) Problems Faced by Schedule Castes in India: The schedule caste population is facing
numerous disabilities in the present society. Early society practiced untouchability as a
part of their daily activities, but the present society still continuing this creates much social
confusion. The free Indian thought is been questioned in the way schedule caste develop-
ments. The following are the problems faced by schedule castes in the Indian society.
1. Social Problem: The concept of pollution and purity still exist in the Indian society.
Hindus still maintain social distance with schedule caste people. The SCs were d enied
many basic amenities, such as drinking water, entering temple, public transport, cem-
etery, etc. Many changes have been brought in, but, its hard reality that the social
disabilities still prevails.
2. Human rights violation: The schedule caste’s human rights are violated now and then
by Hindus and other sections of the society. They were forced to do manual scaveng-
ing, working as bonded labourer, etc., which violated their basic human rights.
3. Economic Problems: Because of the various social disabilities, their economic pros-
perity has been hindered. Traditionally, they were used for menial jobs and deprived
of property which seriously hampered there development. A GOI survey revealed that
backward districts have higher population of SCs.
4. Educational Problems: Traditionally, Hindus disallow education for schedule caste
which still persists. They have been treated discriminately in educational institution.
Recent, Rohith Vemula’s death can be cited as a befitting example in this aspect.

5. Religious issues: Many a times, schedule castes are denied into the temple as they are
still considered as untouchables. These disabilities are generally seen in rural areas and
mostly not seen in urban areas.
(b) Constitutional Provisions for the Protection and Empowerment of Women: The
safeguards provided to scheduled castes are grouped in the following broad heads:
1. Social Safeguards: The State to provide social safeguards to Scheduled Castes under
the articles 17, 23, 24 and 25(2)(b) of the Indian Constitution.
2. Economic Safeguards: Articles 23, 24 and 46 form part of the economic safeguards
for the Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes.
3. Educational and Cultural Safeguards: Articles 15(4) empowers the State to make
special provisions for the advancement of any socially and educationally backward
classes of citizens and for SCs
4. Political Safeguards: Article 243D and 243T speaks about the reservation in rural and
urban local bodies. Article 330 and 332 speaks about reservation of seats for Schedule
Caste and Schedule Tribes in House of People and state Legislative assembly
5. Service Safeguards: Article 16(4), 16(4A) and 335 are those article speaks about the ser-
vice related safeguards.
(c) Steps taken by Our Government: Firstly, the ministry of social justice and empower-
ment is responsible for various welfare measures for schedule castes. It provides schol-
arships for students from SCs, not only for schooling but also for beyond secondary
education. The objective of the “Central government Scholarship of Top Class Education
for SC students” is to promote qualitative education amongst SC students, by providing
full financial support for pursuing studies beyond 12th class. Babu Jagjivan Ram Chhatra-
was Yojana provides residential accommodation facilities to SC boys and girls studying in
middle schools, higher secondary schools, colleges and universities.
Secondly, National Commission for Schedule Caste was created as a constitutional
body. It is formed to investigate all the matter relating to safeguard provided the sched-
uled castes under this Constitution or under any other law for the time being in force or
under any order of the Government and to evaluate the working of such safeguards, give
policy recommendation to government, to inquire into complaint, etc.
Thirdly, “Stand up India” scheme was launched under which banks will give loans of
up to Rs. 1 crore to SC/ST and women entrepreneurs. This is to increase economic viabil-
ity of the SCs.
Fourthly, the Centrally Sponsored Scheme “Pradhan Mantri Adarsh Gram Yojana”
(PMAGY) is being implemented for integrated development of Scheduled Castes
(SCs)-majority villages having SC population concentration more than 50%. It has
multiple targets, such as poverty elimination, universal adult literacy, school e nrolment
ration, etc.
Tribes
Article 366 (25) of the Constitution of India refers to scheduled tribes as those communities,
who are scheduled in accordance with Article 342 of the Constitution. This Article says that only

those communities who have been declared as such by the President through an initial public
notification or through a subsequent amending Act of Parliament will be considered to be sched-
uled tribes. The schedule caste population is approximately 8% to the total population of India.
Identification of schedule tribes itself is a problem and the set of guidelines was first laid
down by the Lokur Committee, for a community to be identified as scheduled tribes are:
•• Indications of primitive traits;
•• Distinctive culture;
•• Shyness of contact with the community at large;
•• Geographical isolation and
•• Backwardness
(a) Problems Faced by Tribal People

1. Problems related to forest: The livelihood of the tribal community is based on forest.
They enjoyed their traditional rights of hunting, gathering, shifting cultivation but the
advent of modern government, in the name of forest protection stopped the move-
ment of STs which brought the question of existence. Further, their lands are taken by
various government agencies and private sector for minuscule compensation.
2. Poverty and exploitation: The tribal population are been exploited because of their
innocence and they are pushed to spiral of poverty. They been living in forests from
time immemorial, but after the government’s restriction, many became bonded labour-
ers and getting exploited.
3. Education: They have been deprived of education as they seen as outsiders, and the
development of STs is seriously hampered because of illiteracy.
4. Economic status: Their economic status is in very serious trouble, and they are
reduced to the state of poor. This is because of denial of the traditional factors of pro-
duction, that is, land.
5. Technology: The tribes have low level of technology which is not suitable for the
modern day. For example, they are still practicing shifting cultivation which is problem-
atic for environment.
6. Problem of assimilation: Now-a-days, the tribes are coming out of their tribal fold
and are increasingly getting assimilated into non-tribal population by which they are
losing their tribal culture, social institution, language, etc.
(b) Constitutional Provisions of the Schedule Tribes of India

i. Definition:
1. Article 342 empowers the President to notify any community as scheduled tribe in
India.
ii. Educational, economic and public employment-related safeguards
1. Article 15: Prohibition of discrimination on grounds of religion, race, caste, sex or
place of birth
2. Article 16: Equality of opportunity in matters of public employment
3. Article 19: Protection of certain rights regarding freedom of speech, etc.
4. Article 46: Promotion of educational and economic interests of scheduled castes,
scheduled tribes and other weaker sections
5. Article 335: Claims of scheduled castes and scheduled tribes to services and posts

iii. Political safeguards

1. Article 330: Reservation of seats for scheduled castes and scheduled tribes in the
House of the People
2. Article 332: Reservation of seats for scheduled castes and scheduled tribes in the
Legislative Assemblies of the States
3. Article 334: Reservation of seats and special representation to cease after 60 years
4. Article 243D: Reservation of seats (in Panchayats)
5. Article 243T: Reservation of seats
II.D: Agency for monitoring safeguards
338A: National Commission for Scheduled Tribes
(c) GOI steps for Schedule Tribes
Panchsheel: Nehru enunciated the policy of Panchsheel for tribal transformation, which
rested on the following five principles:
1. Avoiding imposing the culture of the majority people on them and encouraging in ev-
ery way their (tribal) own traditional arts and culture.
2. Respecting tribal rights on land and forest.
3. Training tribal leaders for administrative and developmental activities with the help of
some technical personnel from outside.
4. Avoiding over-administering of the tribal areas.
5. Judging results not on the basis of money spent but the quality of human character
evolved.
Reservation in the service: They are provided with concessions for their representation in
services. Those are, age limit exemption, reduction in standards of suitability and inclusion
at least in the lower category for purpose of promotion is otherwise than through qualifying
examinations.
Administration of scheduled and tribal areas: “Scheduled Areas” have been declared in the
States of Andhra Pradesh, Bihar, Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Odisha, Himachal
Pradesh and Rajasthan. The scheme of administration of ’ Scheduled Areas under the Fifth
Schedule visualises a division of responsibility between the State and Union Governments.
Tribes’ Advisory Council: The Fifth Schedule of the Constitution provides for the setting
up a Tribes’ Advisory Council in each of the States having scheduled areas. The duty of these
Councils is to advise the Government on such matters concerning the welfare of scheduled
tribes and development of scheduled areas.
Commissioner for the Scheduled Castes and Tribes: Under Article 338 of Indian Consti-
tution, a Commissioner has been appointed by the President of India. The main duty of the
Commissioner is (i) to investigate all matters relating to the safeguards for Scheduled Castes and
Scheduled Tribes under the Constitution and (ii) to report the President on working of these
safeguards.
Tribal Research Institute: Tribal and Harijan Research Institutes was set up in MP, Odisha,
Bihar, West Bengal and Rajasthan. They study the tribal life style, art and customs for their pro-
tection and documentation.

SOCIALLY BACKWARD CLASS

The “Other Backward classes” is the term used to identify a section of the society which is
socially and educationally disadvantageous. Article 340 speaks that the President may by o rder
appoint a commission to investigate the conditions of socially and educationally backward
classes within the territory of India. The backward class contributes approximately 45% of the
total population in India.
(a) Problems Faced by Them: There is definitional problem for backward class, and hence
the problems are very complicated.
1. Poverty: The incidence of the poverty is intermediate, between SC/STs and other
classes. The historical grievances lead to the landlessness, indebtedness, etc., which
increased the problem of poverty.
2. Education: The OBCs are generally denied of education because of their social posi-
tion. The incidence of the uneducated OBCs is decreasing because of right to educa-
tion being included as one of the fundamental rights under Article 21(A) by the 86th
Constitutional Amendment Act.
3. Health Indicators: Majority of the OBCs lives in unhealthy and unhygienic conditions
because of their poverty. Since they are not economically well off, they cannot maintain
nutritious food which is required.
4. Unemployment: The incidence of unemployment is high in OBC because of their
poor educational attainment and poverty. They get locked in vicious cycle, which de-
velop a sub-culture of poverty.
5. Asset ownership: They lack ownership of agri-land and other asset which leads to the
economic problem for OBCs.
(b) Constitutional Provision:
Article 14: Equality before law and equally protection of law is applicable to every section
of the society.
Article 15(4): It is to make special provision for the advancement of any socially and
educated backward classes of the citizen.
Article 16(4): This article speaks about the reservation for appointments or post in fa-
vour of any backward class.
Article 340: President may appoint a commission to investigate the condition of the
backward class in India.
Article 38(1): State should strive to promote the welfare of the people
(c) GOI Steps to Improve OBC:
Reservation: The 2nd Backward Classes Commission, known as the Mandal Commis-
sion, constituted under Article 340, submitted its Report and by 1990, government ac-
cepted 27% reservation in central Government posts. By Central Educational Institutions
(Reservation in Admissions) Act in 2007, 27% reservation in Central Educational Institu-
tions was given to OBCs.
Scholarship Scheme: Pre-matric and post-matric scholarship for OBC students for
studying in India. The pre-matric scholarship for OBC students is given when the parent’s
income from all sources does not exceed Rs. 44,500 per annum. Post-matric scholarship
is given for higher education which is 100% centrally sponsored scheme. Construction of
hostel for OBC boys and girls is revised in 2010.

Assistance to Voluntary Organizations for Welfare of OBCs: The main purpose of

this scheme of grants-in-aid to voluntary organizations is to involve the civil society and
non-Government sector for improving the socioeconomic conditions of OBCs, through
skill upgradation in various trades, to enable them, to start income generating activities on
their own and get gainfully employed.
Scheme under National Backward Classes Finance and Development Corporation
(NBCFDC): The NBCFDC was set up in the year 1992, as a Company, “not for profit”
under Section 25 of the Companies Act 1956 under the aegis of the Ministry of Social
Justice and Empowerment, GOI. The main objective of the Corporation is to provide
concessional financial assistance to the members of the Backward Classes for their so-
cioeconomic development and to upgrade the technological and entrepreneurial skills of
the individuals or groups belonging to the Backward Classes through State Channelising
Agencies (SCAs) nominated by respective State Government/UT.
National Commission for socially and educationally backward classes: Recently,
the Cabinet approved for setting up of national commission for socially and educationally
backward classes as a constitutional body, inserting an Article – 338B. It will replace the
national commission for backward class. The new body will have a chairman, vice-chair-
men and three other members and it cares for provisions relating to backward class.
MINORITIES
India is generally considered as a miniature of world, because of its diversity. India is the land
of multiple languages and multiple religions, and it is a good example of pluralistic society. GOI
recognised six different religious minorities. Those are Muslims (11%), Christians (2.32%), Jains
(0.41%), Sikhs (2%), Buddhists (0.77%) and Zoroastrians. The majority of these belong to Hin-
dus (82%). The Indian constitution gave equal rights to all people who are citizen of India.
By virtue of their numerical strength, the Hindus constitute the majority while the rest of
the religious communities come under what is known as “religious minorities.”
(a) Some of the Problems of Minorities in India: In spite of the various provisions, reli-
gious minorities in India often experience some problems among which the following may
be noted:
1. Problems of providing protection: Need for security and protection is very often felt
by the minorities. Especially in times of communal violence, caste conflicts, observance
of festivals and religious functions on a mass scale, minority groups often seek police
protection. Government in power also finds it difficult to provide such a protection to
all the members of the minorities. It is highly expensive also. State governments which
fail to provide such protection are always criticised.
2. Problem of communal tensions and riots: The minority interest is under stake when-
ever a communal riots and tension occurs. The number of social unrest also started to
increase post 1960s. Hence, combined with magnitude and frequency of communal
riots, the minority are losing the confidence over the system and it is highly tough for
government to restore the confidence on them
3. Problem of lack of representation in civil service and politics: The equality and
equal opportunities to all its citizens including the religious minorities is given in India

constitution, the biggest minority community, that is, Muslims, have not availed them-
selves of these facilities of basic human cause. There is a feeling among them that they
are neglected.
4. Problem of separatism: Some of the demands put forward by some religious com-
munities in some areas are not acceptable to others. This has widened the gap between
them and others (e.g., the separatist tendency present among some Muslim extremists
in Kashmir and their demand for the establishment of Independent Kashmir is not ac-
ceptable to others).
5. Failure to stick on strictly to secularism: India has declared itself as a “secular”
country. The very spirit of our Constitution is secular. All political parties in India claim
to be secular but in practice, none follows it. In India, the political parties play a major
role in politicising a religious issue for vote bank.
6. Problem relating to the introduction of a common civil code: The introduction
of a common civil code is not introduced in India because of problem of majority and
minority and in response to protecting the rights of religious minority.
(b) Constitutional Provisions
The constitution of India under the Article 15 prohibits discrimination on the basic of
caste, class, colour, sex, religion in order to provide equal opportunity to all.
Article 25 promises the right to profess, propagate and practise religion. It is clear that
there is no legal bar on any religious community in India to make use of the opportunities
(educational, economic, etc.) extended to the people.
According to Article 29 of the Constitution, any group living within the jurisdiction
of India is entitled to preserve and promote its own language, script or literature and
culture.
Article 30 states that a minority group “whether based on religion or language shall
have the right to establish and administer educational institution of their choice.”
Article 30 (1) states all minorities whether based on religion or language shall have the
right to establish and administer educational institutions of their choice.
(c) Government has Taken the Following Initiatives for the Welfare and Upliftment of
the Minority Communities:
•• USTAAD: The scheme aims at upgrading skills and training in the preservation of tra-
ditional ancestral arts/crafts of minorities.
•• Hamari Darohar: To preserve rich and diverse heritage of minority communities in
India.
•• Khwaza Garib Nawaz Senior Secondary School: Maulana Azad Education Founda-
tion (MAEF) will establish it in Ajmer for minority community students’ education.
•• Nai Manzil: A bridge course to bridge the academic and skill development gaps of the
deeni Madrasa pass outs with their mainstream counterparts.
•• Strengthening of State Wakf Boards: It is to provide support for training and adminis-
trative cost of State Wakf Boards, strengthen the state Wakf boards, etc.
•• Nai Roshni: The scheme is envisaged to reach out to women through nongovernmen-
tal organizations who will be provided with financial support for conducting leadership
development trainings so that women are empowered and emboldened to move out

of the confines of home and community and assume leadership roles and assert their
rights collectively or individually.
•• Seekho aur Kamao (Learn and Earn): Union Ministry of Minority Affairs, GOI on
23 September 2013 launched a central sector scheme for skill development of minorities.
•• Jiyo Parsi: Jiyo Parsi, the Central Sector Scheme for containing population decline of
Parsis in India. The main objective of the Jiyo Parsi scheme is to reverse the declining
trend of Parsi population by adopting scientific protocol and structured interventions,
stabilize the Parsi population and increase the population of Parsis in India.
Child
Introduction
The history of childhood as a modern concept is embedded in the narrative of the modern,
welfare state, and childhood as a protected and prolonged period of life owes its recognition
to popular struggles for welfare waged by the working classes in the context of the sweeping
changes brought into their lives by the industrial revolution during the eighteenth and the nine-
teenth centuries.
(a) Problems Faced by Them
1. Mortality rate: The infant mortality rate (IMR) is when a newborn dies before 1 year
of age out of 1,000 live births. It is calculated in territorial basis. The IMR of the world
is 49.4% according to the United Nations.
IMR of India: Total: 40.5 deaths/1,000 live births
Male: 39.2 deaths/1,000 live births
Female: 41.8 deaths/1,000 live births (2016 est.)
IMR comprises of two parts: Neonatal mortality rate and post-neonatal mortality rate.
A neonatal mortality is defined as a death during the first 28 days of life (0–27 days).
(No. of neo natal deaths/no. of live births) X 1,000
Neonatal mortality is declining globally. The worldwide neonatal mortality rate fell by
47% between 1990 and 2015 from 36 to 19 deaths per 1,000 live births.
The NMR is often broken down into early- and late-mortality rates.
Early: 0 to 7 days
Late: 8 to 27 days
2. Gender discrimination: Gender discrimination at each stage of the female life cycle
contributes to gender-based health disparities, including sex-selective abortions, neglect
in care of the female child and poor access to healthcare for girls. Female foeticide is
still a problem in India even in this modern age.
3. Child trafficking: Since children are vulnerable, the trafficking is comparatively easy.
The children are used as beggars, prostitutes and various illegal activities.
4. Child bonded labour: Child labour is again one of the biggest issues in India as they
are most obedient workers, no need to pay them, will not ask bonuses and would never
strike. They are majorly used for illegal business.
5. Poverty: Poverty is a vicious cycle and it affects the future generation also. Generally,
poor children cannot make it up to schools and hence suffer in poverty as a whirlpool.
6. Malnutrition and diseases

7. Poor health and Sanitation

Constitutional Provisions
•• Art 21(a): Right to live with human dignity.
•• Art 21(f): Right to health.
•• Art 21(o): Right against bonded labour.
•• Art 21 A: State shall provide free and compulsory education to all children of the age
of 6 to 14 years in such a manner as the State may determine. Thus, this provision
makes only elementary education as a fundamental right and not higher or profes-
sional education.
•• Art 23: Prohibits traffic in human beings, beggar (forced labour) and other similar
forms of forced labour.
•• Art 24: Prohibits the employment of children below the age of 14 years in any fac-
tory, mine or other hazardous activities like construction work or railway.
•• Art 41: Right to work, to education and to public assistance in certain cases.
•• Art 45: Provision for early childhood care and education to children below the age
of 6 years.
•• Art 46: Promotion of educational and economic interests of scheduled castes, sched-
uled tribes and other weaker sections.
•• Art 47: Duty of the State to raise the level of nutrition and the standard of living and
to improve public health.
(c) Government Initiatives
Integrated Child Development Services: Tackle malnutrition and health problems in
children below 6 years of age and their mothers
Janani Suraksha Yojana: One-time cash incentive to pregnant women for institutional/
home births through skilled assistance.
Kasturba Gandhi Balika Vidyalaya: Educational facilities (residential schools) for girls
belonging to SC, ST, OBC, minority communities and families below the poverty line
(BPL) in educationally backward blocks.
Midday Meal Scheme: Lunch (free of cost) to school children on all working days.
Revised National Tuberculosis Control Program (RNTCP): Tuberculosis control
initiative.
Udisha: Training Program for ICDS workers.
The Mother and Child Tracking System (MCTS): The Mother and Child Tracking
System, launched in 2009, helps monitor the health care system to ensure that all mothers
and their children have access to a range of services, including pregnancy care, medical
care during delivery and immunizations. The system consists of a database of all preg-
nancies registered at health care facilities since 1 December 2009, and all births since 1
December 2009.
Operation Smile-II and Operation Muskan: Rescue/rehabilitate the missing children.
National Child Labour Project Scheme: The National Child Labour Policy was
approved by the Cabinet on 14th August 1987 during the Seventh Five Year Plan Period.
The policy was formulated with the basic objective of suitably rehabilitating the children
withdrawn from employment, thereby reducing the incidence of child labour in areas of
known concentration of child labour.

Youth
Introduction
Approximately 600 million population in India is younger than 25 years of age and close to 70%
of the total population is less than 40 years of age. Near about 40% of the Indian population is
aged between 13 and 35 years that is defined as youth according to the National Youth Policy.
Such a huge population of young is not only exceptional in India but also in the World.
(a) Problems: The enthusiasm among today’s youth is eloping somewhere leading to frustra-
tion and lack of zeal. The reason may be unnecessary burden in the form of competition,
unemployment, lack of job skills and skill-based job, etc. Indian Youth at present is also
facing acute pressure in every field from getting job to performance at the job. In the com-
ing decade, it is expected that the Indian labour force will grow by more than 8 million per
annum. More and more youth will enter into the labour market. So the real challenge in
front of the policy makers is to create enough jobs in the market for this educated work-
force so as to direct the youth and nation.
•• Education: Today’s youth understand the importance of education and knowledge
capital, and hence they demand a better-quality education, skill development, industry-
oriented training, etc. Further, if India wants to utilize the demographic dividend for
national growth, employment for youth should be the first priority.
•• Job: Youth unemployment in India is on the rise. According to the World Develop-
ment Report 2013, 9% of males and 11% females aged between 15 and 24 years are
unemployed. As per data of 2009–10, 9.7% of young men and 18.7% of young women
in India were unemployed. At global level, chances of youth being unemployed is three
times more than adults.
•• Corruption: The youth of present generation is more disturbed with the persistent is-
sue of corruption. They need to shoulder the great responsibility to develop future In-
dia and hence, they fight against corruption in all quarters. They will need to fight for
rooting out corruption, for ensuring that no one is above the law and uniting the citi-
zens of India as “India first” instead of communal or geographic factions.
(b) Constitution Relating to Youth: Indian constitution has certain provisions relating to
youth. They are Articles, 21A, 23(1), 24, 39 (a), 39 (f), 46, etc.
1. Deen Dayal Upadhyay Gram Kaushal Yojana (DDU-GKY): The Deen Dayal
Upadhyay Gram Kaushal Yojana (DDU-GKY) is a placement-linked skill development
program for the rural youth. DDU-GKY funds a variety of skill training programs all
over the country that include over 250 trades such as retail, hospitality, health, con-
struction, automotive, leather, electrical, plumbing, gems and jewellery, to name a few.
2. Deendayal Antyodaya Yojana–National Urban Livelihoods Mission (DAY-
NULM): The main aim of DAY-NULM mission is to curb poverty of the urban poor
households by providing them access to their skill-related employment opportunities in
an organized manner. A major objective of the scheme is to help people earn a sustain-
able livelihood through skilling and upskilling.
3. Director General of Training-Modular Employable Skills (DGT-MES): GOI
and the Ministry of Labour under Skill Development Initiative (SDI) launched Modu-
lar Employable Skills (MES). Under this scheme, training will be given on employable
skills to workers of unorganized sector and school drops out. The scheme has been in
operation since 2007 and statistics show that a large number of school dropouts do not

have access to skill development for improving their employability through various vo-
cational training and apprenticeship programs.
4 National Rural Livelihood Mission – Ajeevika skills: Aajeevika- National Rural
Livelihood Mission (NRLM) is an initiative launched by Ministry of Rural Develop-
ment (MoRD), GOI. The Aajeevika Skill Development Programme (ASDP) operates
under NRLM. Its aim is to understand the professional aspirations and interests of
youth and to also increase their daily income. This mission provides young people from
poor communities an opportunity to upgrade their skills and enter the skilled work
force of the country. Some key features of the scheme include, post-placement support,
food and transport during training and assured placement.
5. Pradhan Mantri Kaushal Vikas Yojana (PMKVY): Pradhan Mantri Kaushal Vikas
Yojana (PMKVY) is a unique initiative by the GOI that aims to train about 2 crore In-
dian youths to be industry relevant, skill based and to prepare them for the global mar-
ket. Under this scheme, the trainees will also be given financial support and a certificate
on successful completion of training and assessment, which will help them in securing a
job for their better future. This scheme mainly focuses on the upbringing of youth and
to prepare them to face the challenges of the industrial world.
6 Sabla or Rajiv Gandhi Scheme for Empowerment of Adolescent Girls: Empower-
ing adolescent girls (Age) of 11–18 years with focus on out-of-school girls by improve-
ment in their nutritional and health status and upgrading various skills like home skills,
life skills and vocational skills. This scheme was merged with Nutrition Programme for
Adolescent Girls (NPAG) and Kishori Shakti Yojana (KSY).
Rural Population
•• Majority of population in India still lives in rural areas and it is best example of “India
lives in village” lines by Gandhi ji. Even though migration have happened lot of years, still
almost 65% population lives in village.
•• Nearly 70% of the country’s population lives in rural areas where, for the first time since
independence, the overall growth rate of population has sharply declined, according to
the latest census.
•• Of the 121 crore Indians 68.4% of them live in rural areas and 31.16% of them live in
urban areas.
(a) Problems faced: The rural society is much backward in India because of long-term neg-
ligent from policy makers. It is so deep in nature. Hence, any action to overturn it is really
slow and taking time.
1. Economic Factors
The problems concerning agriculture and allied sectors are as follows:
•• Natural catastrophes like drought, flood, etc.
•• Pest attacks
•• Monsoon failure
•• Unscientific use of fertilizers leading to Infertile soil
•• Soil degradation
•• Small and fragmented land-holdings
•• Lack of mechanization
•• Inadequate storage facilities

•• Credit Insurances for the failure of crops

•• Agricultural marketing
•• Poverty
•• Rural to urban migration

2. Social Factors
•• Illiteracy rate high
•• Inadequate infrastructure facilities like educational institutions
•• Unskilled labours
•• Gender gap
•• Taboo on women education
•• Prevalence of child marriage
•• Female foeticide
•• High unemployment
•• High caste prevalence

3. Health Factors
•• Malnutrition
•• High MMR and IMR
•• Poor health awareness
•• Poor sanitation
•• Negligible investments in health facilities
•• Art 38: State to secure a social order for the promotion of welfare of the people.
•• Art 40: Organization of village panchayats
•• Art 41: Right to work, to education and to public assistance in certain cases
•• Art 42: Provision for just and humane conditions of work and maternity relief
•• Art 43: Living wage, etc., for workers
•• Art 43A: Participation of workers in management of industries
•• Art 43B- Promotion of co-operative societies
•• Art 45: Provision for early childhood care and education to children below the age of 6 years
•• Art 46: Promotion of educational and economic interests of scheduled castes, sched-
uled tribes and other weaker sections
•• Art 47: Duty of the State to raise the level of nutrition and the standard of living and to
improve public health
•• Art 48: Organization of agriculture and animal husbandry
•• Art 48A: Protection and improvement of environment and safeguarding of forests and
wildlife
•• 73rd and 74th amendment Act of 1992 to strengthen the grassroots levels.
There are three important groups of programme. Those are wage employment, self-
employment, food and social security.
Jawahar Gram Samridhi Yojana (JGSY): Jawahar Gram Samridhi Yojana (JGSY) is
the restructured, streamlined and comprehensive version of the erstwhile Jawahar Ro-
zgar Yojana (JRY). It was started on 1 April 1999. The main aim of this programme was

development of rural areas. Infrastructure like roads to connect the village to different
area, which made the village more accessible and also other social, educational (schools)
and infrastructure like hospitals.
The Pradhan Mantri Gram Sadak Yojana (PMGSY): It was launched by the Govt. of
India to provide connectivity to unconnected Habitations as part of a poverty reduction
strategy. Govt. of India is endeavouring to set high and uniform technical and manage-
ment standards and facilitating policy development and planning at State level in order to
ensure sustainable management of the rural roads network.
PM Gramin Aawas Yojana: The condition of the poor homes is so miserable and
hence GOI started the scheme in order to house for the poor. Pradhan Mantri Awas
Yojana—Gramin will be implemented in rural areas across the country except Delhi and
Chandigarh. Government to construct 1 crore pucca (permanent) houses for the rural
poor in the next 3 years. A total of 4 crore homes would be constructed under PMAY-G
in rural areas across the country by the year 2022.
Annapurna: This scheme was started by the government in 1999–2000 to provide food
to senior citizens who cannot take care of themselves and are not under the National Old
Age Pension Scheme (NOAPS), and who have no one to take care of them in their village.
This scheme would provide 10 kg of free food grains a month for the eligible senior citi-
zens. The allocation for this scheme in 2000–2001 was Rs. 100 crore. They mostly target
groups of “poorest of the poor” and “impoverished senior citizens”.
Integrated Rural Development Program (IRDP): By providing income-generated as-
sets to the poor in rural India, IRDP is ambitious in alleviating rural poverty. The main
objective of IRDP is to raise families of identified target group below poverty line by
creation of sustainable opportunities for self-employment in the rural sector. Assistance
is given in the form of subsidy by the government and term credit advanced by financial
institutions (commercial banks, cooperatives and regional rural banks.) The program is
implemented in all blocks of the country as centrally sponsored scheme funded on 50:50
basis by the centre and the states.
National Rural Employment Guarantee Act (NREGA): The NREGA bill notified in
2005 and came into force in 2006 and further modified it as the Mahatma Gandhi National
Rural Employment Guarantee Act (MGNREGA) in Oct 2, 2009. This scheme guarantees 150
days of paid work to people in the rural areas. The scheme has proved to be a major boost
in Indian rural population’s income. The Ministry of Rural Development (MRD) is the nodal
Ministry for the implementation of NREGA. It is responsible for ensuring timely and ad-
equate resource support to the States and to the Central Council.
Transgender
Transgender refers to people who do not come under the exclusive biological distinction of
either men or women. The term transgender is different than transsexual in a narrow line. When
an individual accepts his or her changing external appearance and psychologically prefers to live
with that particular identity, then the person is called as transgender. While, people who prefer
to change from one sex to other either as a trans man or trans women through medical interven-
tion, then they are called as transsexuals. However, transsexuals are subset of the transgenders
since most of them are liked to address as such.

(a) Problems of the transgender in society: Though they are blessed to be born as a hu-
man being, more frequently they are being kept in the inhumane condition in the society.
The stigmas attached with those people by the society are not enabling them to stand up
in the society as a dignified one though they are striving to be. Although there has been
venues created by the law makers, they generally do not achieve the commendable posi-
tion they dream off.
1. Social stigma: Transgenders in Indian society have been considered as unwelcomed
and they are constantly being ignored in terms of benefits that others enjoy. They are
merely a victim in the society often prone to facing object social inequality. Moreover,
because of social taboo embraced upon them, they are even denied with the basic
fundamental rights enshrined in the Indian Constitution. We even came across lot of
incidents that parents abandon their children when they come to know their biological
identity is different from the assigned sex.
2. Education: Though transgender children like to succeed in education, he or she often
end up with drop out due to his or her peer group harassment as well as unequal treat-
ment of the school management. In addition to that, they do not even get facilities like
basic sanitation arrangements. This creates problem in their growth physically as well
psychologically.
3. Economic disparity: Since they are denied with basic education due to unequal treat-
ment in schools and colleges, they are vulnerable to meet their own necessities. Their
livelihood became a question. Though there are very few who completed their educa-
tion till graduation or higher level, couldn’t get the job that meet their educational quali-
fication. As the last option, either they end up working in menial job or entering into a
social sex worker or even as a vagabond.
4. Health: Unemployment and illiteracy acts as a catalyst to deprive their mental and
physical health. The mental stress makes them more susceptible to non-communicable
diseases and they couldn’t afford to relieve from it through hospitals. Some medical
practitioner’s perceptions on those people make them to suffer and die even without
getting the necessary health treatment.
(b) Measures by GOI: Thus unavailability, inaccessibility and unaffordability of education,
employment and health crippled them and made them as a disabled citizen. It makes them
to feel their presence as a burden on the society and motivates them to act against the
social norms at times. Therefore, to make them to be an able one, the attitude of the soci-
ety on the transgender must be changed. Before that, stringent and supportive legislative
intervention is needed to bring behavioural change among people. There are no compre-
hensive legal measures of transgender. The following are few measures:
Firstly, Odisha government gave transgender people social welfare benefits, such as a
pension, housing and food grains which are usually allocated for only the most impover-
ished. This move by the Odisha government will bring the transgender community at par
with the people living in BPL.
Secondly, Tamil Nadu government is forerunner in providing benefits to transgenders.
It includes housing programme, free education for them in selected colleges and univer-
sity, etc. Tamil Nadu also got a first transgender sub-inspector in the country.
Further, Karnataka State Women Development Corporation has taken a decision to
give Rs. 20,000 as financial assistance with 50% subsidy to the transgenders to enable
them to take up income-generating activities as a grant with immediate effect.

Furthermore, Mr. Tiruchi Siva, MP of the Rajya Sabha (representing DMK party) fa-
cilitated in passing a private member bill relating to the rights of transgenders. It is a major
achievement by the Indian Parliament and GOI announced a new bill relating to the same
after passing the bill in the Rajya Sabha.
Finally, The Supreme Court of India, on its various judgments recognized transgenders
as the third gender. The Court ruled that fundamental rights are applicable to the third
gender also. Further, non-recognition of third gender in both criminal and civil statutes
such as those relating to marriage, adoption, divorce, etc., is discriminatory to the third
gender. Centre and State Governments have been directed to take proper measures to
provide medical care to transgender people in the hospitals and also provide them sepa-
rate public toilets and other facilities. Centre and State Governments have been asked to
provide the community various social welfare schemes and to treat the community as so-
cially and economically backward classes.
Disease
(a) Major Problems:
1. Communicable Disease:
•• HIV/AIDS: Sex workers, intravenous drug users are most vulnerable to AIDS. De-
spite the alarming growth of the epidemic, most women in India have very little
knowledge of AIDS, while studies report that the number of women affected by
HIV would rise in the future. Even among those who had heard of the disease, there
were many misconceptions about modes of transmission.
•• Tuberculosis: Each year more than 2.2 million people are affected by TB in India.
People working in unhygienic environment are more susceptible of getting TB eas-
ily. TB treatment and care in India is provided by the government’s Revised National
TB Control Programme (RNTCP) as well as through private sector health providers.
Indian yet to introduce bedaquiline full-fledged in India.
•• Leprosy: As a result of the introduction of multidrug therapy (MDT) in the national
disease control programme, 98 out of 122 countries have reached the goal of elimi-
nation of leprosy as a public health problem. However, the prevalence of leprosy in
India is still around 5/10,000 population. The new case detection rate has also not
shown any appreciable decline. Twenty four other endemic countries share a similar
situation.
•• Malaria: The emergence of chloroquin resistance in P. falciparum and vector resis-
tance to commonly used insecticides are the main obstacles in the control of ma-
laria in the country. New technologies are being introduced for malaria control under
Enhanced Malaria Control Programme. The roll-back malaria programme has been
launched simultaneously in all malaria-endemic countries.
2. Non-communicable Disease:
•• Heart diseases: Heart disease is the number-one killer disease in both men and
women. Now researchers say India, a country with more than one billion people, will
likely account for 60% of heart disease patients worldwide. A study among Asian In-
dian men showed that half of all heart attacks in this population occur under the age
of 50 years and 25% under the age of 40. Although more men die of heart disease
than women, females tend to be under-diagnosed, often to the point that it is too late
to help them once the condition is discovered.

Cancer: Men are most vulnerable to skin, lung, prostate, colon and testicular can-
••
cers. Women mostly are affected by breast cancer and lung. It can be lowered by
adopting a healthy lifestyle. The indoor pollution, because of cooking using biomass,
has left women in India with lung cancer.
(b) Constitutional Provisions:
•• ARTICLE 21: Right to life and personal liberty. Thus, the right to health has become
an implied right in this article
•• ARTICLE 23 (1): Prevention of trafficking and forced labour
•• ARTICLE 24: Prevention of child labour: No child below the age of 14 years of age is
allowed to work under hazardous conditions and in factories (or) mines
•• ARTICLE 39e: The State shall, in particular, direct its policy in such a way that the
health and strength of workers, men and women, and the tender age of children are
not abused and that citizens are not forced by economic necessity to enter avocations
unsuited to their age or strength;
•• ARTICLE 42: Provision to secure the health of mother and infant by securing just and
humane conditions of work and for maternity relief
•• ARTICLE 47: Duty of the State to raise the level of nutrition and the standard of liv-
ing and to improve public health. State shall endeavour to bring about prohibition of
the consumption except for medicinal purposes of intoxicating drinks and of drugs
which are injurious to health
•• ARTICLE 48A: State shall endeavour to provide a pollution free environment for good
health
(c) Government Measures:
•• Universal Immunization Programme: The National Policy of Immunization of
all children during the first year of life with DPT, OPV, BCG to complete the series
of primary vaccination before reaching the age of 1 year. The vaccination schedule is:
BCG (Bacillus Calmette Guerin) 1 dose at birth (up to 1 year if not given earlier); DPT
(Diphtheria, Pertussis and Tetanus Toxoid); Oral Polio Vaccine; Hepatitis B vaccine;
Measles vaccine; Tetanus Toxid; in addition, Japanese Encephalitis (JE vaccine) vaccine
was introduced in 112 endemic districts in campaign mode in phased manner from 2006
to 2010 and has now been incorporated under the Routine Immunization Programme.
•• Rashtiya Swasthiya Bima Yojana (RSBY): RSBY (Rashtriya Swasthiya Bima Yojana)
has been launched by Ministry of Labour and Employment, GOI to provide health
insurance coverage for Below Poverty Line (BPL) families. The objective of RSBY is
to provide protection to BPL households from financial liabilities arising out of health
shocks that involve hospitalization. Beneficiaries under RSBY are entitled to hospitaliza-
tion coverage up to Rs. 30,000/- for most of the diseases that require hospitalization.
•• The New National Health Policy: The policy proposes to raise public health expen-
diture to 2.5% of the GDP in a time-bound manner with allocation of a major propor-
tion (two-thirds or more) of resources to primary care. The policy makes shift from
selective primary healthcare services to assured comprehensive primary healthcare with
two-way referrals, which include care for major non-communicable diseases (NCDs),
mental health, geriatric care, palliative care and rehabilitative care. It introduces use of
Electronic Health Records (EHR), use of digital tools for AYUSH services by AYUSH
practitioners, for traditional community level healthcare providers and for household
level preventive, promotive and curative practices.

•• DOTS: National TB treatment guidelines strongly recommend using a patient-centred

case management approach, including directly observed therapy (DOT), when treating
persons with active TB disease. DOT is especially critical for patients with drug-resis-
tant TB, HIV-infected patients and those on intermittent treatment regimens (i.e., 2 or
3 times weekly). DOT means that a trained health care worker or other designated indi-
vidual (excluding a family member) provides the prescribed TB drugs and watches the
patient swallow every dose.
SENIOR CITIZEN
(a) Major Problems
•• Failing Health: The aging process leads to failing health. The older people are sus-
ceptible to non-communicable diseases. Not good understanding about health, non-
availability of sensitive doctors is reason for failing health. In addition, poor accessibility
and reach, lack of information and knowledge and/or high costs of disease manage-
ment make reasonable elder care beyond the reach of older persons, especially those
who are poor and disadvantaged.
•• Economic Insecurity: Senior citizens lack the opportunity/capacity to be as productive
as they were. Increasing competition from younger people, individual, family and societal
mind-sets, chronic malnutrition and slowing physical and mental faculties, limited access
to resources and lack of awareness of their rights and entitlements play significant roles
in reducing the ability of the elderly to remain financially productive
•• Isolation: Isolation, or a deep sense of loneliness, is a common complaint of many
elderly is the feeling of being isolated. While there are a few who impose it on them-
selves, isolation is most often imposed purposefully or inadvertently by the families
and/or communities where the elderly live.
•• Neglect: A problem that occurs when a person is left uncared for and that is often
linked with isolation. Families and communities neglect elderly because of changing in
life style, changes in family structure from joint to nuclear family, etc.
•• Lack of Preparedness for Old Age: A large number of people enter “old age” with
little, or no, awareness of what this entails. While demographically, we acknowledge that
a person is considered to be old when (s)he attains the age of 60 years, there is no such
clear indicator available to the individual. Unfortunately, in India, there is almost no for-
mal awareness program—even at higher level institutions or organizations—for people
to prepare for old age. For the vast majority of people, old age sets in quietly, but sud-
denly, and few are prepared to deal with its issues.
•• In the Constitution of India, entry 24 in list III of schedule VII deals with the Welfare
of Labour, including conditions of work, provident funds, liability for workmen’s com-
pensation, invalidity and old-age pension and maternity benefits.
•• Item No. 9 of the State List and item 20, 23 and 24 of Concurrent List relates to old age
pension, social security and social insurance and economic and social planning.
•• Article 41 of Directive Principles of State Policy has particular relevance to old-age
social security. According to this Article, “the State shall, within the limits of its eco-
nomic capacity and development, make effective provision for securing the right to
work, to education and to public assistance in case of undeserved want”.

(c) Legal Protection:

•• Section 20 of the Hindu Adoption and Maintenance Act, 1956, speaks about the main-
tenance of parents.
•• Even in Muslim person law, it is important to take care of their parents. The Hanafi law
of succession also speaks about taking care of parents by children.
(d) Government Measures:
•• The GOI approved the National Policy for Older Persons on January 13, 1999 in o rder
to accelerate welfare measures and empowering the elderly in ways beneficial for them.
This policy included the following major steps: (i) Setting up of a pension fund for
ensuring security for those persons who have been serving in the unorganized sec-
tor, (ii) Construction of old-age homes and day-care centres for every 3 to 4 districts,
(iii) Establishment of resource centres and re-employment bureaus for people above 60
years, (iv) Concessional rail/air fares for travel within and between cities, that is, 30%
discount in train and 50% in Indian Airlines. (v) Enacting legislation for ensuring com-
pulsory geriatric care in all the public hospitals.
•• The ministry of Social Justice and Empowerment has announced the setting up of a
National Council for Older Person, called Age Well Foundation. It will seek opinion of
aged on measures to make life easier for them.
•• Attempts to sensitise school children to live and work with the elderly. Setting up of a
round the clock help line and discouraging social ostracism of the older persons are be-
ing taken up, settlement of pension, provident fund (PF), gratuity, etc., in order to save
the superannuated persons from any hardships. It also encourages to make the taxation
policies elder sensitive.
•• According to Sec. 88-B, 88-D and 88-DDB of Income Tax Act, there are discount in tax
for the elderly persons.
•• Former Prime Minister A.B. Bajpai was also launch “Annapurana Yojana” for the ben-
efit of aged persons. Under this yojana, unattended aged persons are being given 10 kg
food every month.
DISABLES SECTION
(a) Major Problems:
•• Isolation: The greatest challenge that disabled people have had to face has been soci-
ety’s misperception that they are not normal. Historically they have been pitied, ignored,
vilified, even hidden away in institutions.
•• Discrimination: Disabled people have some abilities, needs and interests as the rest of
the populations. Nevertheless, discriminations continued to exist in certain important
areas. Some employers were reluctant to take on or promote disables people; some land-
lords refused to give the land on rent to them; and courts sometimes deprived them of
basic rights, including custody of their children. In the recent decades, this situation has
undergone some positive changes through adjustments in legislation and public attitudes.
•• Infrastructure: The problems related to design of the vehicles (high and incompat-
ible steps of vehicles from the platform level especially in public transports), public
and private buildings beings built without proper provisions of being disabled friendly.
Absence of disabled friendly toilets, stairs and other basic infrastructure in the public
buildings is still a major problem in India

•• Apathy: The approach to disability in India has been motivated by charity and viewed
as an individual issue. Even the Governments rely heavily on charitable NGOs to secure
basic rights like education, work, shelter and health for persons with disabilities. As a
consequence, the entire process of development bypassed people with disabilities.
•• Psychological Issues: The psychological effects of physical and mental disability
causes detrimental effect on the disabled children. At times these disabilities become the
reason of their frustration, anxiety and anger. Disables children at times become pessi-
mistic and start holding them incompetent in comparison to other children.
•• Article 14: It recognizes that all persons are equal before the law. Persons with disabili-
ties are entitled to this guarantee to not be discriminated against in any manner and to
be treated equally, which includes the requirement for special treatment where required.
•• Articles 15 and 16: It prohibits discrimination on the grounds of religion, race, caste,
sex, place of birth or any of them and guarantees equal opportunity in matters of public
employment. Articles 16 (3) and (4) provide that the State can make provision for the
reservation of appointments or posts in favour of any backward class of citizens which,
in the opinion of the State, is not adequately represented in the services. It is on the
basis of Article 16, that the guarantees to reservation and equal opportunity in public
employment are made under the PWD Act.
•• Article 21: It guarantees the right to life to all persons, which has been interpreted by
the Supreme Court to include the right to live with dignity, the right to livelihood, and
the right to education. Article 21A guarantees the right to free and compulsory educa-
tion for all children between the ages of 6 and14 years.
•• Article 41: It enjoins that “The State shall, within the limits of its economic capacity
and development make effective provision for securing the right to work, to education
and to public assistance in cases of unemployment, old age, sickness and disablement”.
•• Under Article 253 of the Constitution read with item No. 13 of the Union List, the
GOI enacted “The Persons with Disabilities (Equal Opportunities, Protection of
Rights and Full Participation) Act, 1995”, in the effort to ensure equal opportunities for
persons with disabilities and their full participation in nation-building.
(c) Legal Provisions
•• The Rights of Persons with Disabilities Act, 2016: The important provision of the
bill is that the number of disabilities is been raised to 21 from earlier 7 and further, the
bill gives power to central government for adding further disabilities.
•• Reservation is increased from 3 to 4 percent which will benefit the disabled hugely.
•• Reservation on job, educational institute and allotment on land are given preference
to disable people. For strengthening the Prime Minister’s Accessible India Campaign,
stress has been given to ensure accessibility in public buildings (both Government and
private) in a prescribed time-frame.
•• Speech and language disabilities, acid attack victims, dwarfism are added for the first
time.
•• Accessible to public building to full fill PM’s Accessible India Campaign.
•• Right to free education for children with disabilities from 6 to 18 years of age.
•• Special court to handle cases elated to violation of rights of person with disabilities in
each district.


•• The Mental Health Act, 1987: This act was enacted to regulate admissions to psychi-
atric hospitals psychiatric nursing homes of mentally ill persons who do not have suf-
ficient understanding to seek treatment on a voluntary basis and to protect the rights of
such persons while being detained, to protect society from the presence of mentally ill
persons who have become or might become a danger or nuisance to others.
•• The Rehabilitation Council of India Act, 1992: This act was passed to regulate the
man power development programmes in the field of education of persons with spe-
cial needs. The main objectives are to regulate the training policies and programmes in
the field of rehabilitation of people with disabilities, to standardize training courses for
rehabilitation professionals, to recognize institutions/universities running degree/di-
ploma/certificate courses in the field of rehabilitation of the disabled and to recognize
and equalize foreign degree/diploma/certificate course
•• The National Policy on Education 1986: It is implemented to achieve the goal of
providing education to all including the disabled. The objective of this policy is to inte-
grate the physically and mentally handicapped with general community as equal partners
to prepare them for normal growth and to enable them to face life with courage and
confidence.
•• The Govt. of India launched the District Rehabilitation Centre Scheme in the year
1995, to provide comprehensive rehabilitation services to the rural disabled right at their
doorsteps.
PEOPLE AFFECTED BY SOCIAL CRIMES

(a) Problems
•• Caste Based Crimes: In India, former untouchable castes and several tribal groups
continue to be subjected to discrimination, economic and social exclusion and a stigma-
tized identity, similar to hate crimes in other parts of the world, these groups have been
victims of crimes and atrocities at the hands of the upper castes – largely on account
of their low caste identity – in the form of rape of women, abuse by police personnel,
harassment of lower caste village council heads, illegal land encroachments, forced evic-
tions and so on.
•• Crimes Against Tribals: The tribals were the recipients of severe social disabilities,
slavery and indignities. Bonded labour, debt trapping and violence of security forces are
the crimes unleashed over the tribes of India even to this day. Exploitation of the tribals
by mining companies and exploitation of the tribal resources are also taking place in a
large scale.
•• Crime Against Women: Crimes against women in India, including rape, molestation
and abuse, etc. It is a subject still shrouded in shame and stigma in a country governed
by conventional patriarchy - which means women who have suffered sexual attacks still
hesitate to report it to the police for fear of retribution and social isolation.
•• Female Infanticide And Sex Selective Abortion: Female infanticide is a historic
problem in India’s highly patriarchal society, as daughters are often viewed as a burden
because of the continuing prevalence of the dowry system. Although the 2011 census
showed an increased parity in the country’s overall sex ratio, the child sex ratio was at
an all-time low of 914 females for every 1,000 males.

•• Sex Workers: It is a problem not only in India but exists throughout the world. The
people engaged in prostitution are compelled to do it because of various personal and
social problems such as bad company, socially destitute people, economic cause, etc.
•• Trafficking: It is one of the major businesses in the world and India is not exceptional.
The trafficking of women between India and Bangladesh is so high and India took
many measures to secure them. The people affected by trafficking become so vulnerable
for further trafficking, they become so arrogant and fear for everything. It is important
for us to hold them back and integrate into the society.
•• ARTICLE 17: Untouchability is abolished and its practice in any form is forbidden. The
enforcement of any disability arising out of untouchability shall be an offence punish-
able in accordance with law.
•• ARTICLE 30: Article 30 which provides the right to minorities to establish and admin-
ister educational institutions, and various other statutes.
•• ARTICLE 341: Scheduled castes
•• ARTICLE 342: Scheduled tribes
•• ARTICLE 340: OBCs
•• The Constitution of India not only grants equality to women but also empowers the
State to adopt measures of positive discrimination in favour of women for neutraliz-
ing the cumulative socioeconomic, education and political disadvantages faced by them.
Fundamental rights, among others, ensure equality before the law and equal protection
of law; prohibits discrimination against any citizen on grounds of religion, race, caste,
sex or place of birth, and guarantee equality of opportunity to all citizens in matters
relating to employment. Articles 14, 15, 15(3), 16, 39(a), 39(b), 39(c) and 42 of the Con-
stitution are of specific importance in this regard.
•• ARTICLE 51(A) (e): To promote harmony and the spirit of common brotherhood amongst
all the people of India and to renounce practices derogatory to the dignity of women.
•• The Constitution of India guaranteed to all the people of India the civil, political, eco-
nomic, social, and cultural rights for their realization by all sections of the polity without
any kind of discrimination. However, due to poverty, customary and cultural practices
prevailing in the country, there have not much opportunity offered to various groups
and certain sections are frequently subjected to social crimes. There are various disad-
vantaged groups of people such as women, children, scheduled castes, scheduled tribes,
linguistic minorities, religious minorities, sexual minorities, etc. In order to expand their
rights, the Constitution of India has provided a number of concessions to protect them
from exploitation by other groups.
(c) Legal Provisions:
•• Section 357 of Code of criminal procedure award compensation by trail and further by
appellate courts. Subsection (1) empowers the courts to appropriate the whole or any
portion of fine recovered for the purpose mentioned in the clauses.
•• Subsection (3) empowers the court, in its discretion, to order the accuse to pay
compensation even though fine does not form part of compensation and hence
although inserted in 1973 added new positive dimension to Indian philosophy of
compensation.

•• Rape (Sec. 376 IPC).

•• Homicide for dowry, dowry deaths or their attempts (Sec. 302/304-B IPC).
•• Molestation (Sec. 354 IPC)
•• Sexual harassment (Sec. 509 IPC).
•• The Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes (Prevention of Atrocities) Act,
1989: The term atrocity has not been defined in law. However, atrocity has been made
punishable under the Section 3 of the scheduled castes and scheduled tribes (Prevention
of Atrocities) Act 1989. The Scheduled Castes (SCs) and the Scheduled Tribes (STs)
Prevention of Atrocities (PoA) Act, 1989, was amended recently to include new of-
fences and to ensure speedy justice to victims. It includes rationalization of the phasing
of relief amount payment to victims for various offences of atrocities. The rules also
specify relief amount for various offences of atrocities. Provision of relief for offences
of rape and gang rape was also included. The amendments to the act also mandate
establishment of exclusive Special Courts and appointment of Exclusive Special Public
Prosecutors to try the offences under this act. This is made to enable speedy justice and
expeditious disposal of cases.
•• National Commission for Women: The Government set up this statutory body with
a specific mandate to study and monitor all matters relating to the constitutional and
legal safeguards provided for women, review the existing legislation to suggest amend-
ments wherever necessary, etc.
•• The National Plan of Action for the Girl Child (1991–2000): This plan was set up in
order to build better future for girl child through protection, survival and development.
WAY FORWARD
•• Education: Education is one such powerful tool to break all odds faced by socially vul-
nerable people, and it is a best available tool to empower them. Needed measures must be
taken to eliminate discrimination based on any factor, through universalization of educa-
tion. It is important to include sex education, a secular curriculum and art of intolerance
through schools and university syllabus which not only bring awareness but also help to
mobilize large section of people to voice for vulnerable section of the society.
•• Economic opportunities: GOI should provide livelihood opportunities for those
people identified as vulnerable. Because, the present society demand people to be eco-
nomically empowered to be socially empowered. Providing MGNREGS, various socially
security scheme, Universal Basic Income, National urban livelihood mission are such in-
terventionist strategies.
•• Increase social security scheme: It is indeed important for GOI to provide for social
security such as pension scheme, insurance scheme, etc., in order to protect them from
any adverse situation. The pension should be concentrated not only to organized sector
employment but also to unorganized sector.
•• Psychological intervention: Another most important way to empower people is to build
the self-esteem and confidence on them. Government should start a specialized centres for
motivational lectures which will boost the confidence for downturned section of the society.

CONCLUSION
To take forward the development of our country, all the stakeholders—women, SCs, tribals, and
all stakeholders, need to participate. In this regard, the importance of social empowerment is far
reaching. The role of Ministry of Social Justice and empowerment along with the NGOs and
corporate in supplanting the formers efforts are crucial. “Social empowerment” enables the dis-
advantaged sections of the society to partake in the decision making and enhances their compe-
tency in turn it will empower the society as a whole. In this endeavour, it has to be accompanied
by economic and political empowerment.
PRACTICE QUESTIONS
1. Explain the necessity of social empowerment in India. Discuss the various components
that constitute social empowerment.
2. Do you think social empowerment is the only solution to the existing problems like com-
munalism and regionalism in India. Express your opinion with suitable examples.
3. “Empowerment of women is not only morally righteous but also economically viable for
our nation”. With respect to the above statement, bring out various constitutional and
statutory provisions for women empowerment in India.
4. “The poverty percentage of India has reduced considerably due to empowerment of vari-
ous section of society”. With reference to the above statement, elucidate the necessity of
social empowerment in Indian Society.
5. Bring out the problems related to the following section of society in India.
a. Children
b. Scheduled tribes
c. Scheduled castes

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About Pearson

Pearson is the world’s learning company, with presence across 70 countries

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Published by Pearson India Education Services Pvt. Ltd, CIN: U72200TN2005PTC057128,

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Chapter 1: Salient Features of Indian Society 1

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Successful Models of Population Transition 63

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Increased Job Opportunities 103

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Globalization and Sustainable Development 124

Chapter 7: Communalism 131

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Clash in Economic Interest of Both Communities 138

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Bodoland Demand within Assam 155

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Chapter 10: Social Empowerment 179

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STRUCTURE OF THE BOOK AND THE UPSC SYLLABUS

Chapter 1: Salient Features of Indian Society

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Chapter 2: Role of Women and Women Organization

Chapter 3: Population and Associated Issues

Chapter 4: Poverty and Developmental Issues

Chapter 5: Urbanization, Their Problems and Their Remedies

Chapter 6: Effects of Globalization on Indian Society

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S. No. Chapters 2013 2014 2015 2016

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S. No. Chapters 2013 2014 2015 2016

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CHARACTERISTICS OF INDIAN SOCIETY AND CULTURE

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DIVERSITY: INDIAN CONTEXT

MAJOR SOURCES OF DIVERSITY IN INDIAN CONTEXT

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Village and Its Economic System

Family, Marriage and Kinship

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Caste Structure and Kinship

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Caste Structure and Occupation

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1. the control of land and economic resources;

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Spatial Expansion of Intra-Caste Relations

Chapter 1: Salient Features of Indian Society 1

Chapter 7: Communalism 131

Chapter 10: Social Empowerment 179