UNIVERSITI TUNKU ABDUL RAHMAN

Faculty of Engineering and Green Technology

Bachelor of Engineering (HONS) Electronic Engineering

UGEA1253 SIGNALS, CIRCUITS AND SYSTEMS

Individual Report

Student(s) detail(s):
Name ID. No.

Date of Submission:
Introduction
The practise of configuring an electrical load's input and output impedances to reduce signal reflection or
increase power transmission is known as impedance matching. An electrical circuit comprises of electrical loads
with source impedances, such as a lightbulb or transmission line, and power sources, such as an amplifier or
generator. Resistance in series with reactance is the equivalent of this source impedance. The maximum power
transfer theorem states that the most power is transmitted from the source to the load when the load resistance is
equal to the source resistance and the load reactance is equal to the opposite of the source reactance. It means
that if the load impedance is equal to the complex conjugate of the source impedance, the maximum power can
be transferred. The frequency is not taken into account in the case of the DC circuit. Hence, the condition is met
if the source resistance and load resistance are equal. The reactance in an AC circuit is a frequency-dependent
quantity. As a result, if the frequency is altered after the impedance has been matched for one frequency, it may
not match.

When the load's resistive value is equal to the internal resistance of the voltage source, maximum power transfer
occurs and the maximum amount of power can be delivered. The source resistance, or impedance if inductors or
capacitors are used, is typically fixed and measured in ohms. The impedance of the load will change from an
open-circuit state to a short-circuit state when a load resistance, RL, is connected across the output terminals of
the power source, making the power being absorbed by the load dependent on the impedance of the real power
source. Then, in order for the load resistance to efficiently transfer the maximum amount of power, it must be
"Matched" to the impedance of the power source. When the magnitude of the load resistance is exactly equal to
the resistance of the power source, the Maximum Power Transfer Theorem is another helpful circuit analysis
technique to guarantee that the maximum amount of power will be lost in the load resistance. The power in the
load is determined by the relationship between the internal impedance of the energy source and the load
impedance.

Objectives:
(a) To measure the power transfer coefficient of a circuit.
(b) To show how impedance matching can improve the power transfer to
the load for a narrowband about the frequency of interest.

Equipments and components:

(a) Signal generator and oscilloscope
(b) One each (10, 33, 56, 68, 100, 220, 330, 470 and 680 Ω) resistors.
(c) Resistance box

Procedure:
Experiment (3.1)
Measurement of the Power Transfer Coefficient
(a) Set a sine wave f = 3 kHz and vg =16 Vpp. vg(peak value) = 8 Vp then calculate vs(rms).
(b) Set the Rg of signal generator is 50 − 60 Ω.
(c) Calculate the maximum power available.
(d) Measure vL(rms) for various values of resistor load RL given: 10, 33, 56, 68, 100, 220, 330, 470, and 680 Ω.
(e) Calculate PL.
(f) Calculate the power transfer coefficient, t.
(g) Plot a graph of t against RL.
(h) Discuss the results obtained.

Experiment (3.2)
Impedance Matching for maximum power transfer
Suppose Rg is as measured and the load resistor Ω hence a mismatching. Calculate the power transfer ratio, t.

Experiment (3.2.1)
Here, we wish to evaluate an LC circuit as an impedance transformer so that the 680 Ω load resistor appears as
Rg to improve the power transfer ratio at an operating frequency. Assume that a 10 mH inductor is provided.
Given L = 10 mH, = 58 Ω (estimate) and = 680 Ω, determine f0 and C values.

Experiment (3.2.2)
The circuit in (3.2.1) is referred to in this section. The value of the inductor and the capacitor are from Section
(3.2.1).
Assuming vs is a 7 Vrms, 100 Hz sine wave. RL = 680 Ω and the inductor is ideal.
(a) Calculate VL and PL.
(b) Calculate the power transfer coefficient t.
(c) Fill the results from (a) and (b) in the table given below.
(d) Repeat (a), (b) and (c) for other frequencies listed in the table below.
(e) Discuss the results obtained.

Result and Discussion:

Experiment 3.1
𝑉𝑠(𝑝𝑒𝑎𝑘 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒)
Vs (rms) = = 5.656V
2
2
𝑉𝑠 (𝑅𝑀𝑆)
Pmax = 4𝑅𝑔
= 0.154W
2
𝑉𝐿 (𝑅𝑀𝑆)
PL = 𝑅𝐿
𝑃𝑙
Power transfer coefficient, t = 𝑃𝑚𝑎𝑥

Table 1: Result of Experiment 3.1

No RL(Ω) vL(rms) PLW t

1 10 1.061 0.113 0.735

2 33 2.16 0.141 0.917

3 56 2.828 0.143 0.929

4 68 3.11 0.142 0.920

5 100 3.536 0.125 0.813

6 220 4.525 0.093 0.605

7 330 4.808 0.070 0.455

8 470 4.95 0.052 0.338

 9 680 5.303 0.041 0.269

vL(rms) is obtained by using various values of resistor load RL given.

Figure 1: Graph of t against RL

In Experiment 3.1, the Vs(rms) was calculated by using the formula that is given and we got a value of 5.656V.
Pmax is then calculated with the value that we get in Vs and Rg as 52Ω and Pmax that we obtained is 0.154W.
After that, VL, PL and t was measured by using different values of RL. Table 1 was prepared to record the
value of VL, PL and t. A graph was plotted based on the result in the table where the graph is t against RL.
When R is 10Ω, the t we get is 0.7345. It appears to rise until R equals to 56Ω where t is 0.9295 then it starts to
drop slowly when the resistance value becomes higher. The value of the power transfer coefficient depends on
several factors, including the resistance of the circuit. When the resistance of the circuit is small, the power
transfer coefficient is generally high. This is because a small resistance means that the circuit has less
impedance, and therefore, more power can be transferred through the circuit. On the other side, the power
transfer coefficient tends to drop when the circuit's resistance is high. This is due to the fact that a high
resistance indicates a higher impedance in the circuit, which limits the amount of power that can flow through it.
Because of this, there is a reduced power transfer coefficient and more power is lost as heat.
The power transferred in a circuit is equal to the product of the voltage across the circuit and the current flowing
through it where P=VI. According to Ohm's law (V=IR), when the circuit resistance is low, the current flowing
through the circuit is high for a given voltage. The outcome is a high power transfer because the voltage and
current product is high. To put it another way, a circuit with low resistance enables the transfer of more power
by allowing more electrical current to flow through it. A low resistance circuit reduces the amount of power
wasted as heat as a result of electrical resistance, to put it another way. Due to the resistance of the wires and
components, some of the electrical energy that is transferred through a circuit as current flows is transformed to
heat. The circuit's efficiency and the amount of power that may be delivered are both reduced by this energy
loss. A higher power transfer coefficient occurs when the resistance is low, minimising the energy loss caused
by resistance. In general, a low resistance circuit has the maximum power transfer coefficient because more
electrical current can pass through it with little energy loss, increasing the amount of power that can be
transferred.

Experiment 3.2.
Power transfer ratio, t
RG = 52Ω
4𝑅𝐺𝑅𝐿
𝑡= 2 = 0.264
(𝑅𝐺+𝑅𝐿)
Rg is measured by using the multimeter and we get the value of 52Ω and then we substitute the value into the
equation shown above and we got the value for power transfer ratio.

Experiment 3.2.1

L = 10mH, RG = 58Ω and RL = 680Ω

1 1
𝐿 = ω
𝑅𝑔(𝑅𝐿 − 𝑅𝑔) = 2π𝑓
𝑅𝑔(𝑅𝐿 − 𝑅𝑔)
f0 = 3022Hz
1 𝑅𝐿−𝑅𝐺 1 𝑅𝐿−𝑅𝐺
𝐶 = ω𝑅𝐿 𝑅𝐺
= 2π𝑓𝑅𝐿 𝑅𝐺
C = 2.5359 x 10-7

Experiment 3.2.2
Vs = 7Vrms, 100Hz sine wave, RL = 680Ω
Table 2: Result of Experiment 3.2.2
No f Hz VL(RMS) 2
𝑉𝐿 (𝑅𝑀𝑆) 𝑡 =
𝑃𝐿
𝑃𝐿 = 𝑅𝐿
W 𝑃𝑚𝑎𝑥

1 100 6.455 0.061 0.290

2 500 6.577 0.064 0.301

3 1000 6.983 0.072 0.340

4 2000 8.994 0.119 0.563

5 2500 10.741 0.170 0.803

6 3000 11.981 0.211 0.999

7 3500 10.574 0.164 0.779

8 4000 7.764 0.089 0.420

9 5000 4.138 0.025 0.119

10 6000 2.544 0.010 0.045

11 7000 1.736 0.004 0.021

12 8000 1.268 0.002 0.011

 Figure 2: Graph of t against f
F0 and C has been calculated with the values of L, Rg and RL given and we got f0 = 3022Hz and C = 2.5359 x
10-7. VL was calculated using the formula below by inserting different value of frequency:

Table 2 was prepared to record down the value of VL, PL, t. After that a graph of t against f is plotted. In the
beginning it started to rise slowly until t = 0.999 when frequency is 3000Hz. In a sudden, it started to drop when
the frequency exceeds 3000Hz and there are big drop when frequency is 3500Hz and 4000Hz. The power
transfer coefficient may stop and decrease at 3000Hz for a variety of reasons, including impedance mismatch.
Impedance mismatch happens when the source and load circuits' impedances are not matched, which causes
signal reflections and poor power transfer. This is because the relationship between the impedance of the circuit
and frequency determines how high and low frequencies affect the power transfer coefficient in a circuit. Due to
the parasitic capacitance and inductance of the circuit's components, the impedance of the circuit may rise at
high frequencies. As a result, the circuit's effective resistance may rise, which could lower the power transfer
coefficient. The circuit's capacitive reactance might also drop, which would lower the power transfer coefficient.
Due to the parasitic capacitance and inductance of the circuit's components, the impedance of the circuit may
drop at low frequencies. This may lower the circuit's effective resistance and raise the power transfer coefficient.
The circuit's inductive reactance might also rise, which would raise the power transfer coefficient. Consequently,
the balance between the resistive, capacitive, and inductive components of the circuit determines how high and
low frequencies affect the power transfer coefficient in a circuit. Typically, components in circuits that are
intended to operate at a certain frequency range are chosen to achieve maximum power transfer efficiency at
that frequency range.

Conclusion
The purpose of an impedance matching circuit is to optimize the transfer of power between two circuits
by minimizing signal reflections and maximizing power transfer. The matching circuit guarantees that the
greatest amount of power is delivered from the source circuit to the load circuit without signal attenuation or
distortion by regulating the impedance of the circuits. Besides, the increase of resistance value of RL and also
different frequency will affect the power transfer coefficient. While the graph of different frequencies drop faster
than the graph of different resistance value of RL used when they reached the peak.
References
Basic Electronics Tutorials. (2013). Maximum Power Transfer Theorem in DC Theory. [online] Available at:
https://www.electronics-tutorials.ws/dccircuits/dcp_9.html.

Kuphaldt, T.R. (2015). Maximum Power Transfer Theorem. [online] Allaboutcircuits.com. Available at:
https://www.allaboutcircuits.com/textbook/direct-current/chpt-10/maximum-power-transfer-theorem/.

Electrical4U (2021). Impedance Matching: Formula, Circuit & Applications | Electrical4U. [online]
https://www.electrical4u.com/. Available at: https://www.electrical4u.com/impedance-matching/.