Contents ix

5.9.7 Simple and complex postpositions of spatial position ...................................... 260

5.9.7.1 Simple spatial postpositions (‘behind’, ‘in front of’, ‘under’) ................... 260
5.9.7.2 Complex spatial postpositions (‘behind’, ‘inside’, ‘in front of’, ‘under’) . 261
5.9.8 zá: ‘since’ and hâl ‘until’ ................................................................................... 263
5.9.9 ‘Without’ ........................................................................................................... 264
5.9.10 Temporal postpositions (hán-ê, wát-ê, bándé ) ............................................... 264
5.10 Apposition............................................................................................................... 265
5.11 Instrumental, comitative, and conjoined NPs ......................................................... 265
5.11.1 Instrumental and comitative functions. ........................................................... 266
5.11.2 Extraction of complement of instrumental or comitative ńdù+H .................. 267
5.11.3 Conjunction [A [ńdù+H B]] .......................................................................... 267
5.11.4 Conjunction of two personal pronouns ........................................................... 268
5.11.5 Comparative ńdù+H ‘than’ ............................................................................ 269
5.11.6 Idioms and adverbial phrases with and without ńdù+H ................................ 269
5.12 NP disjunction (wàlà ‘or’) ...................................................................................... 269
5.13 Spatiotemporal adverbs and phrases ....................................................................... 270
5.13.1 Spatial adverbs ................................................................................................ 270
5.13.2 Temporal adverbs ............................................................................................ 271
5.14 Vocatives ................................................................................................................ 271
6 VERBAL VOICE (VALENCY) AND VERB DERIVATION ................................... 272
6.1 Subcategorization for objects and adpositional phrases ........................................... 272
6.1.1 Verbs, quasi-verbs, and the referentiality of subject NPs ................................. 272
6.1.2 Underived simple intransitives .......................................................................... 273
6.1.3 Underived simple transitives ............................................................................. 273
6.1.4 Ditransitives and other verbs with dative complement ..................................... 273
6.1.5 Verbs with nondative adverbial complements .................................................. 274
6.1.6 Verbs with instrumental complement (ńdù+H) ............................................... 274
6.1.7 VO verbs ........................................................................................................... 275
6.1.8 Verbs taking unmarked postverbal NPs ............................................................ 277
6.1.9 Verbs of saying/telling (nê, cì, hárú) ................................................................. 277
6.2 Derived voice (valency) forms ................................................................................. 278
6.2.1 Zero derivation and derivation by tone shift ..................................................... 278
6.2.2 Causative -éyndí ................................................................................................ 279
6.2.3 Intransitivizing (resultative passive or unspecified object) -à ........................... 281
6.2.4 Potential passive -éyndí ..................................................................................... 282
6.2.5 Verb plus cliticized =ńdù+H or suffixed -ńdù+H ‘with’ .............................. 283
6.3 Compound verbs ....................................................................................................... 285
6.3.1 N-V and verbalized N-N compounds ................................................................ 285
6.3.2 Verb-verb compounds with infinitival linker .................................................... 287
6.3.3 Compound verbs with noun or adverb as final ................................................. 288
6.3.4 yèkà ‘come back’ and related forms ................................................................. 288
6.3.5 Frozen combinations of verb and negation (absent) ......................................... 288
6.3.6 Verb-stem iteration and (partial) reduplication ................................................. 289