Contents x

7 VP STRUCTURE ........................................................................................................... 290

7.1 Types of predicates ................................................................................................... 290
7.1.1 Equational and identificational predicates ........................................................ 290
7.1.1.1 Inchoative verb té: ‘become’ (VO) or ‘be done’ (intransitive) .................. 290
7.1.1.2 Inchoative verb tè ‘become’ with adverbial complement .......................... 292
7.1.1.3 Existential tê ‘happen, take place’ ............................................................. 292
7.1.1.4 Identificational ‘it is (not) X’ (nôŋ, màn tù+H) ....................................... 293
7.1.1.5 ‘It is (not) X’ (màn tù+H ~ màn tì) .......................................................... 294
7.1.2 Locational ‘be’ (H+gò:, sí:, bárâ, cìndî) .......................................................... 295
7.1.3 Obligational kàl+H .......................................................................................... 298
7.1.4 Possessive predicates......................................................................................... 298
7.1.5 Verbless predicates with missing ‘do’ verb (absent) ........................................ 300
7.2 Mood-aspect-negation (MAN) morphemes .............................................................. 300
7.2.1 Primary MAN morphemes and sequences ........................................................ 301
7.2.1.1 Unmarked MAN morphemes ..................................................................... 301
7.2.1.2 Perfective negative (màn+H ~ màŋ+H) .................................................. 301
7.2.1.3 Imperfective negative (sù+H) and subjunctive negative (ḿ sù+H)........ 302
7.2.1.4 Subjunctive (m̂ ~ ŋ̂).................................................................................... 302
7.2.1.5 Imperfective positive (gù+H ~ ẁ+H) ..................................................... 304
7.2.2 Functions of basic perfective and imperfective aspects .................................... 305
7.2.3 Presentative constructions ................................................................................. 307
7.2.3.1 Presentative (H+gò:+H) .......................................................................... 307
7.2.3.2 Presentative negative (as such) is absent ................................................... 307
7.2.3.3 nè: ‘here’ as presentative with NP ............................................................. 308
7.2.4 Marked imperfective categories ........................................................................ 308
7.2.4.1 Future (nàm+H ~ nàŋ+H) ....................................................................... 308
7.2.4.2 Extraction-indexing imperfective (bò ẁ+H ~ bò:+H, bò kú=ŋ̂) ........... 309
7.2.4.3 Progressive constructions with ‘be’ (H+gò:) ........................................... 311
7.2.4.4 Progressive (nò ẁ+H, 3Sg object nò kú­=ŋ̂) ......................................... 312
7.2.4.5 Progressive (nà bò ẁ+H, 3Sg object nà bò kú­=ŋ̂) ............................... 313
7.2.4.6 Progressive negative (sí:+H, 3Sg object sí: kú­=ŋ̂ ) .............................. 313
7.2.5 Perfect constructions ......................................................................................... 314
7.2.5.1 Perfect (nàŋ, 3Sg object nàŋ kú­=ŋ́) ........................................................ 314
7.2.5.2 Perfect negative (nàŋ sí:+H)..................................................................... 316
7.2.6 Transitive (ŋ̂ ), a bidirectional case-marker....................................................... 317
7.3 Imperatives ............................................................................................................... 319
7.3.1 Singular-subject imperative (-ŋ) ........................................................................ 320
7.3.2 Plural-subject imperative (wò) .......................................................................... 323
7.3.3 Irregular singular subject imperatives ............................................................... 323
7.3.4 Objects of imperative verbs ............................................................................... 324
8 DISCOURSE-FUNCTIONAL CONSTRUCTIONS AND EXTRACTION ............ 326
8.1 Focus constructions .................................................................................................. 326
8.1.1 Nonsubject focus constructions ......................................................................... 326
8.1.1.1 Direct-object focalization........................................................................... 326