1.

19 MEASUREMENT STANDARDS: GTU, December-2011, 2012; May-2012, 2015

measurement standard.
All instruments are calibrated at the time of manufacture against a
There are four categories of standards :
(1) International standards are defined by international agreement. These standards are maintained at the
International Bureau of Weights and Measurers in Paris and are periodically evaluated and checked by
absolute measurements in terms of fundamental units of physics.
(2) Primary standards are maintained at national standard laboratories in different countries. The principal
function of primary standards is the calibration and verification of secondary standards. Primary standards
are absolute standards of such high accuracy that they can be used as the ultimate refcrence standard.
(3) Secondary standards are basic reference standards used by measurement and calibration laboratories
in industries, Each laboratory periodically sends its secondary standards to national standard laboratory
for calibration.

(4) Working standards are used to check and calibrate the instruments used in laboratory.
An absolute standard is one whose value can be calculated from physical dimensions only. e.g. self inductance
of asuitably shaped coil can be calculated from its physical dimensions.
The term standard is applied to any piece of equipment of known accuracy or calibration which may be
used for checking other measuring equipment.
 Electrical Measurements and
clectrica!
spccd, strain etc. in to
temperature,
quantities like pressure, be mcasured
clectrically.
physical
capacitance which can
the
24 transducers convert resistance or
Electrical inductance, Excitation
emf.
quantities like

Transducer Output
Input (Elcctrical signal)
(Physical quantity)

GTU, December-2014
OF TRANSDUCERS:
2.4 CLASSIFICATION
follows :
be classificd as
The transducers can
Types of Tansducers

On the basis Primary Active Analog Transducer

of transduction and and and and Inverse
form uscd Secondary Passive Digital Transducer

CLASSIFICATION OF TRANSDUCERS

2.5 ON THE BASIS OF TRANSDUCTION FORM USED :

Transduction means conversion of input, quantity (which may be physical) into the electrical quantity.
These tranducers can be classified into following
(a) Resistive tranducers :
mt
By the help of resistive transducer, the óztygof the transducer change into the resistance.
For example : Potentiometer,, Resistance strain gauge, Pirani gauge, Resistance thermometer,
Thermistor, Photoconductive cell etc.
(b) Capacitive transducer :
By this transducer, the input is changed into capacitance.
For example :Variable capacitance pressure gauge, Capacitance microphone and Dielcctric gauge etc.
(c) Inductive transducers :
By the belp of this transducer, the input is converted into the inductance.
For example : Reluctance pick-up transformer, Eddy current gauge, Magnetic circuit, Magncto
restriction etc.
(d) Voltagelcurrent generating transducers :
By this transducer, the input quantity is converted into voltage or current.
For Example : Piezoelectric, Thermoelectric, Magnetoelectric, Electron-tube, Radio-active, Electro
kinetic etc.
2.6 PRIMARY AND SECONDARY TRANSDUCERS:
According of this category, the very first input is converted into the intermediate quantity by the primary
transducer.
Then this intermediate quantity is converted into the final electrical quantity by the secondary
transducer.
 Elcctrical Measurements and Measuring Instruments

e'= Induced voltage

where,
B = Flux density
l= Length of coil
d

But, dt
= relative velocity of coil with respect to magnet (cm/s)
TRANSDUCER : GTU, Dec. 2014, 2015; May-2017, 2018, 2019
2.37 HALL EFFECT
The Hall effect transducers are working on Hall effect which was discovered in 1879.
The Hallefect is nothing but a galvanometric phenomena where the magnetic field interacts with moving
electrical charges and results into the development of forces which reduce the motion of charges.
Basically Hall effect is observed in almost all metals. But
is is observed that this prominent the semiconductor I

materials.
AHall effect sensor is a transducer th¡t varies its output
i.e. voltage in response to a magnetic field.
Following figure explains the hall effect principle.
These sensors are used for proximity switching, positioning,
speed detection, and current sensing applications. Magnetic
Electricity carried through a conductor will produce a field, B
magnetic field that varies with current, and aHall sensor
R
can be used to measure the current without interrupting
the circuit.

Typicall, the sensor is integrated with a wound core or

permanent magnet that surrounds the conductor to be
measured. FIG. 2.55 : HALL EFFECT SENSOR PRINCIPLE

Frequency, a Hall sensor is combined with circuitry that allows the device to act in a digital (on/off) mode,
and may be called a switch in this configuration.
Application of HalI Effect Transducer:
1 For current measurement.
2 For displacement measurement as a displacement transducer.
3. Magnetic to Electric transducer.
2.38 INSTRUMENTATION AMPLIFIER : GTU, May-2012, 2013
They are also known as measurement amplifiers or data amplifiers. They are available in both modular and
integrated circuit form.
Three amplifier configuration of instrumentation amplifier is as shown in Fig. 2.56.
1. Working :
ASsume that amplifiers in the input stage take no current at their input terminals. Then same current will
flow through 3 resistors R, - R, - R Assume negligible voltage between amplifier input terminals, then

R R,
 METER : COnsumed in a given interva!
3.5
ENERGY defined as the total power
(E.E.) may be electrical power and time i.e. mathematically
Electrical Energy product of
energy is the
words electrical |E.E = Power x Time
meter with measure
watt hour or the bigger unit is klo watt hour. The
are
T units of electrical energy kWH meter.
electrical energy 1s known as Energy meter or
the consumption of
consumption of electrical energy in a single phase circuit are known as single
The meters which measure the 3-0 circuits are 3-phase energy meters or poly phase
other which are used in
nhase Energy meters and the
energy meters.

Energy Meter :
3.5.1 Induction Type Single Phase
GTU, May-2010, 2011, 2012, 2014, 2016; December-2011, 2012, 2015
Electrical Energy in A.C. circuits. The
Single Phase Energy meters are mostly used for the measurement of
the two are similar except
principle of working is the same as that of induction watt meters. Constructionally,
energy meter by brake
that the control spring and the pointer of the watt meter are replaced, in the case of
magnet and counting mechanism of the meter.
The brake magnet induces eddy currents in the disc which rotates continuously instead of rotating through
only a faction of a revolution as in the case of watt meters.

10

16
A.C.
supply V

A
D

FIG. 3.13: CONSTRUCTION OF SINGLE PHASE ENERGYMETER

1. Spindle 6. Aluminium disc

2 Shunt magnet
7. Permanent magnet (break magnet)
3 Series magnet 8
4. Pressure coil (PC)
Copper shading band
5. Current coil (CC)
9. Registering mechanism
10. Jeweled bearing
Measurement of Parameters
Eie 36 shows an Induction type Single 87
Phase Energy Meter. It consists of the
following narts
1. Two a.c. electromagnets, the series magnct and shunt magnet.
2. An aluminium disc.
3. Brake magnet.
4. Counting mechanism.

The shunt magnet consist of M-shapcd silicon steel stampings assembled together to form a core. The shunt
magnet is wound with a fine cnamellcd copper wirc of many turns,ánd is connected across the supply voltage
Itcarries current proportional to the voltage. The coil is known as potential coil nd is highly inductive.
Since the potential coil is highly inductive, so the current lags the voltage by almost 90°.
The series magnet consists of U-shaped silicon steel stampings assembled together. It is wound with a heavy
gauge copper wire of few turns. The coil is known as current coil and it connected in series with the load
So it carries load current,

Athin aluminium disc is mounted on the spindle and is supported on a sapphire cup contained in a bottom
bearing screw. The disc moves between the electromagnets and cuts the fluxes of series magnet and shunt
magnet.
The braking torque is obtained by placing a C-shaped, permanent magnet near the rotating disc. When the
disc rotates in the field set up by apermanent magnet, controlling torque or retarding torque is produced
due to the eddy currents induced in the rotating disc.

A copper shading band also known as (power factor compensator) is provided on the central limb of the
shunt magnet.
By adjusting the copper shading band, the shunt magnet flux can be made to lag the supply voltage exactly
by 90°, which is necessary for obtaining the driving torque.
A counting mechanism is geared to the rotating element which records the consumption of electrical energy
in kWH or kilowatt hours.
When single phase energy meter is connected in the circuit to measure the consumption of electrical energy,
the current passes through both the magnets or coils, i.e., series coil and shunt-coil.
Hence fluxes are set up which are being cut by rotating disc and hence eddy currents are reduced which
provide the necessary driving torque.
Driving Torque or Deflecting Torque :
T, « I,·I, sin(90° - )
oc , : sin(90° - )
oc V·I, coso
c Power

The braking torque is produced due to eddy currents set up magnetic field of 90°
Brake Magnet. The magnitude of the eddy currents is proportional to the speed
of the rotating disc.
FIG, 3.14
T «N (Disc speed)
For steady speed of rolation, T, = T,
Power oc N
 working of these inStruIme
circuit breakers etc. The
transformers.
Primary
Ip winding

A.C. |Load
supply
A.C. Load
supply
-Primary
winding Secondary
1, winding
A -Secondary
winding
(a) (b)
FIG. 3.19

3.8.1 Current Transformers (C.T.) : GTU, May-2012, 2018; Dec, 2011, 2012, 2013, 2015
current of large
A current transformer is an instrument transformer which is used to measure alternating
magnitude by stepping down by transformer action.
current is to be
The primary winding of current transformer is connected in series with the line in which
measured and the secondary is connected to the ammeter as shown in the Fig. 3.20.
The secondary winding has very small load impedence which is the
current coil of the ammeter.

The primary winding carries the full Ioad current I, and has few number Primary
winding
of turns only one or two but the secondary winding has large number
of turns. Supply
The current is stepped down to a suitable value which is within the
range of measuring instrument. I2 Secondary
winding
The secondary winding should be in aclosed circuit and under no Ammeter
circumstances, the secondary winding of the C.T. should be left open
FIG. 3.20
while priumary is connected in the line.
Because due to the absence of opposing ampere turns of the secondary winding, the primary ampere turms
will induce high voltage in the secondary which is not safe for men or the transformer itself.
Burden of an instrument transformer : GTU, May-2012, 2013; December-2013
The operation of current transformer differs slightly from power transformer. In case of current transformer,
the secondary winding has very small load impedance or "burden". So the current transformer operates on
short circuit conditions.
 3. Greater accuracy and precision.
4. Operation is programmable.
5. Digital circuits are less affected by the noise.

6.2 COMPARISON BETWEEN ANALOG" AND DIGITAL" INSTRUMENTS:

S. No. Aspects Analog Instruments Digital Instruments

1. Power supply Not required Required
2. Visual indication of changes in the reading Better Not that much better
3. Bffect of electric noise Less More
4 Isolation problems Less More
5. Accuracy Less High
6. Interface of the output with extermal equipment Not possible Possible
Construction Simple Complicated
8. Size
Bigger Smaller
9. Cost Less More

6.3 DIGITAL VOLTMETER (DVM) :

GTU, December-2014, May-2017, 2018
A Digital Voltmeter (DVM) is an instrument which converts analog voltage signals into digital
form.
Digital voltmeter is used to measure analog d.c. voltage.
Advantages of DVMs :
Following are the advantages of DVM over other voltmeters
1. Higher accuracy and resolution.
2. Grealer speed.
3. No parallax.
4 Reduced human error.
5 Compatibility with other digital equipment for further processing and recording.
 175
Display Devices
of DVM :
6.3.1 Basic Block Diagram
first block in a general DVM
Any dicital instrument requires analog to digital conveiter at its input. Hcnce
Fig. 6.2.
is ADC as shown in
Data
Signal transmission Display
ADC processing clemcnt
Analog
input
Referencc
OF DVM
FIG., 6.2 : BASIC BLOCK DIAGRAM
depends
The reference is generated internally and reference generator circuitry
Every ADC requires a reference. is decoded and signal is processed
in the decoding
used. The outpui of ADC
on the type of ADC technique
transmitted to
stage.
seven segment display. The data from decoder is then
drive the displav
Such adecoding is necessary to latches, counters etc. as per the requirement. A digital
element, may be a
the display. The data transmission
result of the measurement.
shows the necessary digital
Digital Voltmeters
6.3.2 Classification of
classified as follows :
The digital voltmeters can broaily be
l-Ramp-type DVM.
(Voltage-to-frequency conversion).
2. Integrating type DVM
DVM.
3. Dual-slope integratirg type
Successive-approxi mation DVM.
4.

Voltmeter :
6.3.3 Ramp Type Digital the wave shapes are shown in Fig.
6.3.
DVM is shown in Fig, 6.3 and
The block diagram of ramp type
Input
D.C. Ranging
and
Comparator
inpt attenulator
voltage

Gate Counter
Oscillator

Ramp
geterator

Ground Digital
Comparator readout
Sample
rate
multivibrator

FIG, 6.3 : RAMP-TYPE DVM

through the range and attenuator circuit.

D.C. input voltage to be measured is passed
It is then applied to the input comparator.
generated by the input comparator which
When the comparator voltage equals the input voltage a pulse is
opens the gate.
 176 Electrical Measurements and Measuring Instruments
The timing pulses generated by the OScillator are available at the output which are
counted by the counter.
The negative going ramp is also compared with the ground comparator. This generates a
pulse which is applied
to the sampling gate to stop counting.
At the end of counting the counter content transferred to the counter, content is tranisferred to the memory
by opening latch.
The sample rate multivibrator determines the rate of
measurement cycle. The rare can be adjusted by the front
panel control. It provides an initialising pulse for the ramp generator to start its
next ramp voltage. At the same
time a reset pulse is generated which resets the counters.

-Start of measurement
T-+12 y Coincidence
Voltage
being
measusred
0V
Time

- 12 V+ Ramp

Gating
time interval

Clock ylses
to count

FIG. 64 :
VOLTAGE-nTIME CONVERSION USING GATED CLOCK 2ULSES
Advantages :
1 In this
method an analog d.c. signal is Cunverted
into time and the time can he
2. By adding external logic, easily digitized.
the polarity of the ignal to be
3. Resolution of digital measured can be indikated.
readout is directly proportional t9 the.
the local oscillator frequency,
better resolution is obtained.frequency of local oscillaor. So by adjusting
Disadvantages :
Generally the swing of ramp is
Volts. This limits the range of
2
Accuracy of the system depends of linearity of ramp, the measurement to 10 Volts.
So with the variation in
these parameters, the accuracy ofslope
the
of ramp and stability of local
oscillator.
3 The drift and
offset of two comparators will system is changed.
reduce the accuracy of the system.
í.3.4 Integrating Digital Voltmeter :
It is one type of voltage to
If V, is the input
frequency converter. Higher the voltage, higher is the frequency.
voltage, then V, of the operational
integration is given by :
RC