WIUII LIIIe.

7.5 REFRACTORY MArERIALS AND THEIR APPLICATIONS :

Definition
Refractory materials are special materials of construction, which are capable of withstanding high temperatures.
Refractory materials are used in various fields of the
national economy, such as iron and steel, nonferrous
metal, glass, cenent, ceramics, petrochemical.
machinery, boiler, light industry, electric power,
military industry, etc.
It is an essential basic material to ensure the
production and operation of the above-mentioned
industries and the development of technology.
In this chapter, we'll take a look at the types of
refractory materials and their applications. FIG. 7.3:TYPES OF REFRACTORY MATERILALS
 Electrical Engineering Materials
166

7.5.1 What Are Refractory Materials ?

materials with a refractory degree of 1580 "C
Refractory materials generally refer to the inorganic nonmetal
various products made by certain purpOses and
or above. Refractory materials include natural ores and
properties and good
requirements through certain processes, which have certain high-temperature mechanical
volume stability. They are the necessary materials for various high-temperature equipment.
7.5.2 Functions of Refractories
The two principal functions of refractories are :
1. Thermal insulation
2. Low electrical conduction
In the outside walls of a furnace, refractories serve the following purposes
(a) Confining the heat.
(b) Preventing excessive heat loss to the atmosphere. Heat-resisting quality of refractories is very important.
It is by no means the only requirement. Sometimes, it becomes of secondary importance.
7.5.3 List of Refractories :
 Thisalloy is extremely heat-resistant and has great oxidation and corrosion resistance in high temperatues
This is a strong metal that is ideal for heat work.
3. Applications of Nickel Alloys :
Nickel and nickel alloys are uscd for awide variety of applications, the majority of which ínvolve corrosion
resistance and/or heat resistance. Some of these include :
() Aircraft gas turbines
(2) Steam turbine power plants
(3) Medical applications
(4) Nuclcar power systems
(5) Chemical and petrochemical industries

7.2 HIGH FREQUENCY MATERIALS :

High frequency can he defined as frequency above I GHZ.
Currently. PTFE material is widcly used in high frequency PCB manufacturing. it's also called Teflon, which
frequency is normally above 5 GHz.
PTFE is commonly known as Teflon.
PTFE :
Polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE) is aFluoropolymer that has a large number of industrial applications because
of its many properties.
One brand name for PTFE is Teflon, which is well-known for its non-stick and heat-rcsistant properties.
The properties that make Polytetrafluoroethylene or PTFE so useful include :
() Low friction
(2) Inert
(3) Self-cieaning
(4) Durable
(5) Effecçve across a wide range of temperatures
(6) Non-flammable
(7) Corrosive resistant
(8) High electrica! resistance
Advantages und benefits of Using PTFE :
The biggest advantage of PTFE is its versatility, and the range of applications over so many products
and different industries for this material is staggering.
2. The use of PTFE can have massive benefits in manufacturing "and engineering, not just in making tubcs
or liners for handling or storing corrosive chemicals, but by coating parts such as bearings or screws
to increase the lifetime of both the parts themselves and the machinery they are part of.
3. APTFE-coated screw will be resistant to corrosion, due to PTFE's ability to repel water and oil, and
lubricated by the material to smoothly drive into whatever surface you are fastening to, with reduced
friction, resulting in less wear on both the screw and the surface, and a longer-lasting, more secure finish
4. Friction and wear can also be factors with bearings, and a PTFE coat can give the same benefits ns
with coating screws, with the additional advantage that the coating will also be heat-resistant
 159
Special Purpose Materials
5 I's clear that longer lasting, higher-performance parts can add to the efficicncy of any machinery, reducc
he ncedto constantly acquire replacement parts, both saving money and the time nceded to fit the
likely
replacements, as well as reducing waste. This will also reduce maintenancc nccds as there are less
to be faults with the cquipment, and also greatly reduce, or cven eliminate, any expensíve manufacturing
downtime due to faults or repairs.
7.3 PERMANENT MAGNETS MATERIALS :
valuCs, high cOcrcive
The des1red properties of materials for making permanent magnets are high saturation
force and high residual magnctism. When carbon is added to the material., its hysteresis loop arca is incrcascd.
cheap, magnetS made
That is why in early days, carbon steel was used for permanent magnets. Although it is
influence of knocks and vibrations.
trom carbon steel lose their mágnetic properties very fast under the
its magnetic properties arc
When materials like tungsten, chromium or cobalt are added to carbon steel,
improved. Cobalt steel is expensive even though it has superior magnetic properties.

7.3.1 Alnico :
making permanent magnets. They
Alloys like alnico (aluminium-nickel-cobalt) are most commonly used for
alnico is cheaper.
are manufactured by special casting techniques. As compared to cobalt stecl,
7.3.2 Hard Ferrites :
ferromagnetic materials are made of crystals and
They are for making lightweight permanent magnets. The
permeability and is, therefore, most casily
every crystal has a particular irection along which it offers high
magnetised.
are more easily magnetised are callcd the
Such axes along which the crystals have high permeability and
"preferred" or "easy" or "soft" directions.
7.3.3 Types of Permanent Magnets :

1. Ceramic
2. Alnico
3. Samarium Cobalt
4. Neodymium Iron Boron
5. Injection Molded
6. Flexible

1 Ceramic :
and barium or strontium
Ceramic, also known as Ferrite, magnets are made of a composite of iron oxide
materials used in
carbonate. These materials are readily available and at a lower cost than other types of
permanent magnets making it desirable due to the lower cost.
diamond whccls
Ceramic magnets are made using pressing and sintering. These magnets are brittle and require
if grinding is necessary. These magnets are also made in different grades.
Ceramic-1 is an isotropic grade with equal magnetic properties in all directions. Ceramic grades 5 and 8
are anisotropic grades. Anisotropic magnets are magnetized in the direction of pressing.
The anisotropic method delivers the highest energy product among ceramic magnets at values up to 3.5 MGOc
(Mega Gauss Oersted).Ceramic nagnets have agood balance of magnetic strength, resistance to demagnetizing
and econony. They are the most widely used magnets today.
 160 Electrical Engineering Materials

Positive Negative
Low Cost Low Encrgy Product
High Coercive Force Low Mechanical Strength - Brittle
High Resistance to Corrosion
2. Alnico :

Alnico magnets are made up of a composite of aluminum, nickel and cobalt with small amounts of other
elements added to enhance the properties of the magnet.
Alnieo magnets have good temperature stability, good resistance to demagnetizaion due to shock but they
are easily demagnetized. Alnico magnets are produced by two typical methods, casting or sintering.
Sintering offers superior mechanical characteristics, whereas casting delivers higher energy products (up to
5.5 MGOe) and allows for the design of intricate shapes.
Two very common grades of Alnico magnets are 5and 8. These are anisotropic grades and provide for a
preferred direction of magnetic orientation. Alnico magnets have been replaced in many applications by ceramic
and rare earth magnets.

Positive Negative
High CorTOsion Resistance High Cost
High Mechanical Strength Low Coercive Force

High Temperature Stability Low Energy Product

3. Samarium Cobalt :

Samarium cobalt is a type of rare earth magnet material that is highly resistant to oxidation, has a higher
magnetic strength and temperature resistance than Alnico or Ceramic material. Introduced to the market in
the 1970's, samarium cobalt magnets continue to be used today.
Samarium cobalt magnes are divided into two main groups : SmlCo5 and Sm2Col7 (commonly referred
to as I- 5 and 2- 17). The energy product range for the I - 5 series is 15 to 22 MGOe, with the
2- 17 series falling between 22 and 32 MGOe. These magnets offer the best temperature characteristics
of all rare earth magnets and can withstand temperatures up to 300 °C.
Sintered samarium cobalt magnets are brittle and prone to chipping and cracking and may fracture when
exposed to thermal shock. Duc to the high cost of the material samarium, samarium cobalt magnets are used
for applications wlhere high temperature and corrosion resistance is critical.
Positive Negative
High Corrosion Resistance High Cost

High Energy Product Low Mechanical Strength - Brittle

High Temperature Stability
High Coercive Force

4 NeodymiumIron Boron :
Neodymjum Iron Boron (NdFeB) is another type of rare earth magnetic material. This material has similar
eOnerties as the Samarium Cobalt except that it is more easily oxidized and generally doesn't have the same
temperature resistance.
 Special Purpose Materials
NdFeB magnets also have the 161
and are generally used in very highest cnergy products approaching 50 MGOe. These
sclective applications due to the cost. Cost is also materiais are costly
property rights of the developers of this type of magnet. driven by existing intellectual
Their high encrgy products lend
lower manufacturing costs. NdFeB themsclves to compact designs that result in innovative
allow thcm to be used in most magncts are highly corrosive. Surface treatments have beenapplications and
cpoxy resin coating. applications. These treatments include gold. nickel, zinc and developed that
tin plating and
Positive
Very High Energy Product Negative
High Coercive Force Higher Cost (Except from us!)
Low Mechanical Strength - Brittle
Moderate Temperature Stability
Low Corrosion Resistance (When
5. Injection Molded uncoated)
Injection moldable magnets are a composite of resin and
parts to be made in an magnetic powderS of different materials allowing
injection molding procesSs.
Energy products are dependent upon the magnetic
for the manufacture of more powders used in fabrication. The molding process allows
complex
are limitations to the degree of shapes. These magnets are usually lower in magnetic strength as there
loading.
Positive
Negative
Moderate Energy Product High Cost
Moderate Coercive Force
Low Temperature Stabiity
High Corrosion Resistance
Highly Shapeable
6 Flexible:
Flexible magnets are very similar to the injection molded magnets but are
produced in fat strips and sheets.
These magnets are lower in magnetic strength and very flexible depending on the
in the compound with the magnctic powders. Vinyl is often used in
materials that was used
this type of magnet as the binder.
Positive
Negative
Low Cost Low Energy Product
High Corrosion Resistance Low to Medium Temperature Stability
Moderate Coercive Force

74 LOSSES IN MAGNETIC MATERIALS :

When magnetic materials are subiected to an alternating flux, two types of losses occur, whicn are :
|1. Hysteresis Loss
2. Eddy Current Loss

The above losses comprise the total

core Joss.
Electrical Engineering Materials / 2021 / 21
6.2 SUPERCONDUCTIVITY:

Superconductivity was discovered by Dutch Physicist

HEIKE
KAMERLINGH
ONNES
Heike Kamerling Ones in 1911.
He was awarded the Nobel Prize in
Physics in 1913
for his
iow-temperature research.
He found that when pure mercury (Hg)
was placed in
liquid helium, than mercury (Hg) suddenly lost its Heike Kamerlingh Onnes
resistivity at 4.2 K. It was found to be 10- 2 cm. Heike Kamerlingh Onnes (1853 -1926)
Some materials loose its resistivity when they are kept He was a Dutch physicist. He discoverered the
concept of superconductivity. In 1911 Kamerlingh
belowcertain temperature. This phenomenon is known Onnes measured the electrical conductivity of pure
as Superconductivity". metals (mercury, and later tin and lead) at very low
The value of temperature where resistivity of temperatures. He found that at 4.2 Kthe resistance
material in a solid mercury wire immersed in
liquid helium
becomes zero is known as Critical temperature suddenly vanished. He published articles about the
(T}" of that superconducting materials. phenomenon, initially referring to it as
"supraconductivity in 1913 he received the Nobei
Prize in Physics.
cm)
(Q
(P)
Resistivity
Morcury

Super conductor

-Critical temperature (T)

4.2 K Temperature (K)

T
FIG. 6.1 : RESISTIVITY VIS
TEMPERATURE FOR
 138 Electrical Engineering Materials

5.15 CLASSIFICATION OF SEMICONDUCTORS :

Semiconductors materials can be classified as follows.
1. Elemental: A - (l) Intrinsic
(2) Extrinsic
B - (1) Mono-crystals
(2) Poly-crystals
Examples are germanium, silicon etc.
2. Oxides - Examples are Cu, CdO etc.
3.
Compounds of same group. Examples are compounds of group IV elements like silicon carbide (SiC).
4.
Compounds of different groups-For example compounds of group II and group VI like ZnS, CdSc ctc.
And compounds of group II and group V like GaP, AISb etc.
5.11.3 Conduction of Current in N-type
Semiconductor :
ELECTRON CURRENT
In N-type semiconductor electrons are the majority charge
+ carriers and holes are the minority charge carriers.
When an N-type semiconductor isconnected to the battery,
electric current flows due to the movement of both the
electrons and the holes.

-HOLE Elecirons are attracted towards the positive terminal of the

BATTERY battery and holes are attracted towards the negative terminal.
Since the numbers of electrons are more than the holes,
FIG. 5.15: CONDUCTION OF CURRENT majority of the current is due to the movement of the
IN N-TYPE SEMICONDUCTOR electrons.
5.10 INTRINSIC AND EXTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTORS :
in 10 then that
Pure germanium or pure slicon in which the amount of impurity is less than 1 part
semiconductor is called the intrinsic semiconductor.
added in definite proportion
When in pure germanium, or pure silicon impurities of some other element is
the pure semiconductor
that semiconductor is called the extrinsic semiconductor. The impurity is added after
is obtained. This process of adding impurity is called doping.
 Hence cOcrcive force is the magnetizing force necessary to cancel the residual flux. In the above igure
is also the coercive force.
4,9 SOFT AND HARD
MAGNETIC MATERIALS :
Magnetic materials can also be classificd in to
1. Soft Magnctic Materials
2. Hard Magnetic Materials

4.9.1 Soft Magnetic Materiais :

Soft magnetic materials have stecply rising magnetization curve, high permcability, high
saturation value, small
area of he hysteresis loop ie. less energy loss per cycle and low
cocrcive force.
It is casy to oricnt the domains so thesc can be casily magnetized however these can
loosc their magnetism
casily to0.
Typical hysteresis loop of soft magnetic materials is shown in Fig. 4.5(b). Soft iron, silicon stecl etc. arc
the examnples of the soft magnctic materials.
4.9.2 Hard Magnetic Materials :
These materials have gradually rising magnetization curve and has large arca of the hystercsis loop. It is
difficult to orient the domains so these are difficult to magnetize.
These can store sufficient energy and retain for long time so these are used for making
permanent magnets.
The hysteresis loop of these materials is shown in Fig. 4.5(a). Carbon steel, tungsten steel, cobalt steel etc.
are the examples of the hard magnetic materials.

4.9.3 Comparison of Soft and Hard Magnetic Materials

Soft Magnetic Materials Hard Magnetic Materials

1. II is easy to orient the domains so these can easily I. It is difficult to orient the domains so these can not
be magnetized. be easily magnetized.
2. Magnetization curve is steeply rising. 2. Magnetization curve is gradually rising.
3. Area of the hysteresis loop is less i.e. less product 3. Area of the
hysteresis loop is more i.e. more product
of B and H. of B and H.
4. Coercivity is less. 4. Coercivity is more.
5. Retentivity is less. 5. Retentivity is more.
6. Soft iron and silicon steel are the examples of soft 6. Carbon steel, tungsten steel, chromium steel are the
magnetic materials. examples of hard magnetic materials.
7 These are used as the core of the clectrical machines7. These are used n
makng permanent magnets and
like motor, generator, transformer etc. magnetic tapes etc.
4.7HYSTERESIS LOSS AND EDDY CURRENT LOSS
When magnetic materials are used on A.C. or on D.C. with continuous reversal of magnetization two typcs
of losses occur in them. These are (1) hysteresis loss and (2) eddy current loss. Now we shall study about
these losses.

4.7.1 Hysteresis Loss

In the above Articie-4.6 we saw that the area of the hysteresis loop represents the energy loss per cyclc.
Hvsteresis loss depends upon the maximum value of the flux density and the frequency of the reversal of
magnetization. Hysteresis loss is represented by Wh and is given by the relation
W, = nBm fVc watt ...
(11)
 112 Elcctrical Engineering Materials
where, m is the Steinmetz constant the value of which depends upon the material of the core. S yaiue in
4.8
S02 J/m for good dynamo steel and 191 J/m for silicon steel.
Em is the maximum value of the flux density in the core in tesla or in Wb/m.
fis the frequency of the magnetic reversal in Hz.
Vc is the volume of the core in m.

For particular application the material and volume are fixed. In such case the hysteresis loss
W, « B1.6 f (12)
And if the material is operated at fixed flux density,
W, f ... (13)
Due to the hysteresis loss the core gets heated. In order to reduce the hysteresis loss, the following measurcs
are taken.
(1) The core material should be so chosen to have narrow hysteresis loop.
(2) The frequency with which the material works should be reduced in particular application. For cxample
in A.C. traction the frequency used is 25 Hz, 50/3 Hz or 12.5 Hz.
(3) The maximum value of the flux density can be reduced other parameters permit to do so.
4.7.2 Eddy Current Loss :
When a magnetic material is subjected to the alternating field, the changing flux induccs cmf in the core
just as it induces emf in the winding.
Now the core has many closed paths so currents are induced in the core. These currents arc known as thc
eddy currents. These eddy currents give rise to the loss of power known as the eddy current loss.
If I, is the value of the eddy current and R, is the resistance offered by the core then cddy current
loss is I R. Eddy current loss is represented by We and is given by
W, = K B2 f2 2 vc .. (14)
where, K= constant,

Bm = maximum value of the flux density in tesla,

f= frequency of the reversal of magnetization in Hz,
t= thickness of the lamination of the core in m,
Vc = volume of the core in m'.

Eddy current loss can be reduced by taking the following measures.

(1) Core with high resistivity should be used, so value of eddy current induced is reduced, so I R, loscs
are reduced.
(2) Core of the machine shoud me laminated instead of solid. Because with the laminated core, the rcsistance
offercd by the core is increased so the value of the eddy current induced is reduced. And as the loss depcnds
on the square of the current, the overall loss is reduced even if the resistance of the core is increased.
(3) Laminations used should be as thin as possible as the loss depends upon the squarc of the thickncss
of the lamination.

(4) Working frequency may be reduced if permissible.

(5) Maximum value of the flux density can be reduced if other parameters permit
4.5 MAGNETIZATION CURVE

Magnetization curve of amagnetic material is the graphical relation between the flux density B and the
magnetizing force H. Flux density is plotted on the Y-axis and the magnetizing forcc is plottcd on the
X-axis. This curve is also known as the BH curve.
R
From this curve one can find the magnetizing force necessary to produce
certain flux density in a particular magnetic material.
When the magnetizing force H is less,, initially up to the point p on the
curve, the flux density increases in direct proportion.
During this region the domain of the ferromagnetic material do not orient
parallel to the applied field and so the material is not magnetized.
The flux density is entirely due to the external field. The permeability
up to P is almost constant. It is called the initial permeability. H

The flux density after point P rises in greater proportion than with the FIG. 4.1: BIH CURVE
increase in H.
This is because duc to the cxternal field though small is strong enough to bring the large numbers of domains
to make their axis parallel to that of the external field. So the curve riscs stceply say up to the point Q.
This means that the permeability is not constant.
After point Qthe iucrcase in the flux density is lcss when the increase in the magnetizing forcc H. Because
the axis of the remaining domains arc diverted much away from the axis of the applicd field.
Therefore these domains need greater ficld to bring their axis parallel to the applied field. The magnctic
material is said to be in saturation. BH curves of some useful magnctic materials are shown in lig. 4.2.
 Difference between Ferroelectricity and
Piezoelectricity
Ferroelectricity Piezoelcctricity
1.Definition The property exhibited by certain 1. Definition : The
ability of a material to develop
dielectric materials of spontaneous polarisation is charge on its surface when it is mechanically stresscd
known as Ferroelectricity. is known as Piezoelectricity.
2. This property is duc to the presence of permanent 2. This property is due to
electric dipoles in polarization of dipoles
the materials. present when the material is stressed.
3. Spontancous polarization ceases to exist at critical |3. Piczoelectricity is not affected by temperature.
temperature which is called Ferro-electric Curie
temperature.
4. When varying elecric field is applied. Ferroclectric 4. When varying clectric field is applied Piezoelectric
materials exhibit hysteresis behaviour similar to material (e.g. quartz) crystals vibrate (alernately
those of ferromagnetic materials. expand and contract).
5. The non-linear properties of FerrOclectric materials5. The inverse Piezoelectric effect is used in transduccrs
are used in manufacturing of miniaturised capacitors. to produce high frequency sound waves as in ear
phones, hearing aids, micro-phones, ultrasonic flaw
detectors, underwater sonar transducers etc.
6. Some of the important Ferroelectric rnaterials are 6. Some of the important Piezoelectric materials are
barium titanate (BaTiO,). Potassium niobate quartz, barium titanate (BaTi0,), Lead Zirconatc
(KNbO,), Lead titan ate (PbTiO,) etc. (PbZrO,), etc.
2.7.2 Hygroscopicity
HYgroscopiCIty is the property of a material of absorbing moisture from the surroundings and let water to
pass through it.

This property of hygroscopicity is undesirable as moisture gets entered into the. material by various factors
lke absorbing water vapours from air, getting wet and in turn making the conductor inside it wet when thc
insulator directly comes in contact with water.
This will greatly affect the electrical properties of the material. Therefore, a good insulating material should
not possess this propety ie. it must be non-hygroscopic. Plastic and polythene etc. are non-hygroscopic
materials.
 48 Electrical Enginccring Materials

Table-2.2 : Permittivity or Dielectríc Constant for different insulating materials

Material Permittivity
Paper 2.0-2.6
Mica 2.5-6.6
Glass 5.4-9.9
Marble 8.3
Diamond 16.5
Oil 2.2-4.7
Paraffin 2.1 - 2.5
Porcelain 5.7-6.8
Rubber 2.0-3.5
Wood 2.5-7.7
Water 81.0

2.5 THERMAL PROPERTIES :

Thermal properties of an insulating material refer to its properties relating to temperature to which it is put
under use. Following arce the inportant thernal propertics of an insulating material :
1. Heat Resistance
2. Thermal Resistance

3. Melting Point
4. Frost Resistance

2.5.1 Heat Resistance :

Whenever an insulating material is subjected to work under high temperatures, it should have the property
of withstanding it and working satisfactorily for a short time or continuously.
In other words, a good insulating material should have constant insulating properties against temperature
variations.

Insulating materials generally used in industrial applications are classified on the basis of their working
temperature as given below :
1. Class-Y insulation. :
Class-Y insulation materials are generally organic fibre materials on cellulose base such as cotton. fabric.
paper, natural silk etc. when the materials are not Impregnated. Some thermoplastics having low working
temperature of about 90 °C such as P.V.C. also comes under this category.
2. Class-A insulation:
Class-A insulating materials are basically class-Y fibre matertals, impregnated with compounds or immerscd
in a dielectric liquid. Impregnated cotton, paper, silk, polyamide resins and varnished enamel wires etc. aro
few examples of this class. The normal operating temperature of class-A insulation material is about 100 r
3. Class-E insulation :

Enameled wire insulations on the basis of polyvinyl formal, moulding powder plastics, polyurethane and enoxV
resins etc. comes under this category. Class-E insulation material has norimal working temperaturc of abont 120 r
 Insulators
49
4
Class-B insulation :
Class-B insulation materials arc thosc, which arc formed whcn
various inorganic materials such as
asbestos and fibre glass ctc, are glued togcther or impregnated with varnishcs etc.
mica,
Heatresistance of thesc materials generally depends upon the drying oils and they have a normal working
temperature around 132 °C.
5.
Class-F insulation:
In class-F
insulation, various
inorganic
Yalusaes lIke epoxide or polvuret
materials like mica or fibre arc impregnated or glucd together with
hane These materials penerally have a normal working temperature of
150 °C. about
6.
Class-H insulation
ntos all composite materials like mica. fibre glasg ashestos. silicon rubber etc. impregnated with
ad wnch do not contain any oreanic fibrous materials like paper are
silicons
termed as class-H insulation materlals.
They have a normal working
7.
temperature of about 180 "C.
Class-C insulation:
Insulaion materials which are hcat resistant and are generally used in the temperature
ranges above 180 "C
are termed as class-C insulation materials. Glass. ceramic
materials, mica, mycalex, micanites,
polytetraluoroethylene etc. are the examples of class-C insulation.
2.5.2 Thermal Resistance and Thermal
Conductivity :
Another property of insulating material relates to its thermal resistance. For a body to be a perfect insulator,
its thermal resistance should be as minimum as possible. Thermal resistance of a body in
which heat is flowing
is given by the equation

where, A is the temperature difference between the hot and cold surface of the body and p is the heat passing
·through the body in unit time.
Thermal conductivity :
It is the reciprocal of thermal resistivity and a good insulator should be agood conductor of heat so that
heat developed in the conducting material surrounded by the insulator can be conducted by the insulator and
thus, dissipated to the atmosphere.
2.5.3 Melting Point
A good insulating material rust possess a high melting point. High melting point will help us to usc the
particular insulator at comparatively high temperatures without damage.
2.5.4 Frost Resistance :

Like high melting points when the insulator has to be used at high working tempcratures, sometimes it is
also desired that insulating malerials are required to work at comparatively low temperatures cvcn lower than
-50 °C in some particular cases.
This property will cortainly help the iusulating material to be used in some specific applications like in aircraft
equipments, in radio and telephone equipments at high altitudes.

Electrical bagineering Muierials / 2021 / 7

22 CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD INSULATING MATERIAL :
The good insulating materials should have posscsscd the following properties
1. High insulation
2. High di-clectric strength
3. High mechanical strength
4. High thermal conductivity
S. Low permittivity
6. Low dissipation factor
7. Least thermal expansion
8. Should be resistant to oils
9. Should not have deteriorating effect on the material in contact with it
10. Should be resistant to thermal and chemical deteriorating
11. Should be homogeneous
12. Should be free gaseous insulation to avoid discharges (for solids and gases)
The insulating materials may be classified as under
I. According to Substances and Materials
2. According to Temperature
1. According to Substances and Materials:
These can be :
(a) Solids (inorganic and organic) :
Mica, asbestos, ceramic, glass, cotton, teflon, bakelite, wood, porcelain, papcr, rubber ctc.
(b) Liquids (oils and varnishes) :
Mincral oils, linsced oils, spirit and synthetic varnishes etc.
(c) Gases :

Air, nitrogen, hydrogen, argon, carbon dioxide ctc.

 Silver is widely used in making the contact of relays, devices, It can
docu n making high rupturing devices such as HRC generator cut-outs, thermal overload
conducting bodies as well as component leads. fuses. It may he used for making radio frequeny
2.
Gold (Symbol - Au, Atomic
Number-79, Atomic Weight-197) :
Gold is at the second position in the list of
top good conducting materials. It
electrical and chemical properties. possesses the following Pnysical,
(1) It is highly ductile
and malleable.
(2) It has low
resistivity of the order of 2.2 x 10 Q-m.
(3) It is very soft and
having low mechanical strength and it is
order to improve its hardness and always alloyed with somc impurities in
(4) It offers high strength.
resistance to corrosion.
(5) Its atomic number is
79 and atomic weight is
(6) Its melting point is 197.
1063 °C.
(7) Its boiling point is
2970 °C.
(8) It is very light metal
having specific weight of 19.32 x 10
(9) Its temperature kg/m.
co-efficient is quíte low, about 35 x 10-j°C at 20 °C.
Applications :
It is used for making
its use is quite limited.
contact of highly sensitive devices and of integrated circuits. Due to its high cost,
3. Copper (Symbol - Cu, Atomic
Number-29, Atomic Weight-64) :
Copper is ametal with reddish colour. It is
and low cost. Although, the widely used conducting material
of copper is less than silver because has higher conductivity
it
conductivity
more preferred metal. The main ores of and gold, but due to its cost, it is
the following properties ; copper are Cuprite (CuO) and Copper pyrites
(CuFeS,). It possesses
(1) It is reddish in colour.
(2) It is ductile and
malleable in nature.
(3) It is non-maguetic i.e.,
non-ferrous.
(4) It has low contact
resistance.
(5) Is resistivity is about 1.7 x 10-8 2-m.
(6) Its melting point is 1083 °C.
(7) Its boiling point' is 2320 °C.
(8) Its density is about 8.9 gm/cc, as it
varies slightly with its physical state.
(9) Its tensile strength is 8.15 to 4.72 tonnes/cm2