Published Report OA

final report

Project code: B.NBP.0545

Prepared by: Scott Norman1, David Swain2,

Michael Friend1, Belinda King1,
Tonya Collop1, Jaymie Loy1 and
Jenni Larsen1
1
Charles Sturt University
2
CQUniversity Australia

Date published: October 2011
ISBN: 9781741918878

PUBLISHED BY
Meat & Livestock Australia Limited
Locked Bag 991
NORTH SYDNEY NSW 2059

Remote calf alert – technology development

This publication is published by Meat & Livestock Australia Limited ABN 39 081 678 364 (MLA). Care is taken to
ensure the accuracy of the information contained in this publication. However MLA cannot accept responsibility for
the accuracy or completeness of the information or opinions contained in the publication. You should make your
own enquiries before making decisions concerning your interests. Reproduction in whole or in part of this
publication is prohibited without prior written consent of MLA.
Meat & Livestock Australia acknowledges
& the matching funds provided
( by the Australian Government
) C
to support the research and development detailed in this publication.

Remote detection of calving
Abstract
This project is the first phase of work required to develop a remote calving alert device. The purpose of a
calving alert device is to assist future research into perinatal calf loss in extensive beef producing herds in
northern Australia, where losses from maiden heifers in excess of 20% have been frequently recorded.
The first stage of this project was a literature review to investigate; physiological and behavioural
changes at parturition; pre-existing technology which may be adapted to the detection of calving; the
risks associated with long-term application of intravaginal devices; and patents or commercial birth-alert
systems currently available. The second stage of the project was to liaise with Taggle Pty Ltd, a company
developing wireless location detection technology to determine the potential for adaptation of the
current Taggle ear-tag technology for further development into a calf alert device based on findings from
Stage 1.
Four prototypes for devices which could be used to remotely detect parturition are described. An outline
is provided for further research along with an indicative budget which would be required to develop and
assess these prototypes. It is considered that in conjunction with behavioural algorithms, there will be a
very high likelihood of successful outcome for a calf alert device.
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Executive summary
The goals of this project were to firstly investigate potential parameters associated with pregnancy
and parturition in cattle which may be amenable to remote monitoring in extensive beef cattle
production systems. Then secondly, and assuming suitable parameters can be remotely monitored, to
develop recommendations for a calving alert prototype in conjunction with the industry partner,
Taggle Pty Ltd. To achieve these goals, the following aims were pursued:
1) Review the literature regarding the physical, physiological and behavioural changes which
occur during gestation and parturition in cattle. This review included minor evaluation of
devices currently utilised to detect oestrus that may have application for a calving alert device.
2) From review of the literature, identify possible physical, physiological or behavioural changes
which may be suitable for remote detection of calving in extensive situations.
3) Liaise with Taggle technicians and their industrial designer to develop a detailed technical
understanding of their wireless chip technology. In particular; to understand current
applications of the wireless Taggle ear-tag; to become familiar with how this technology may
integrate with other sensor technologies; to understand limitations of the technology and to
explore potential applications for the Taggle wireless technology with regard to a calving alert
device.
4) Review the literature regarding potential problems or risks associated with external or internal
calving alert design options. This includes functionality, practicality, cost, retention,
inflammatory response, infection, general health, abortion and animal welfare.
5) Review current patents for devices which have already been conceived as potential candidates
for the remote detection of calving.
6) Liaise with Taggle regarding the potential to develop a prototype device or devices utilising
their wireless technology which may be suitable for the remote detection of calving. Major
considerations for prototype development being animal welfare, efficacy and economic
viability.
The physical, physiological and behavioural changes which occur during gestation and parturition in
cattle are as follows:
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The duration of gestation is a mean of 283 days +/- 7 days and there is within and between breed
variation in this figure.
Myometrial activity increases towards the end of gestation as progesterone concentrations decrease.
The cervix is tightly closed during gestation under the influence of progesterone and is sealed by a
highly viscous mucus plug. This plug liquefies just prior to (usually within 12 hours of) parturition and is
evacuated through the vulva.
The original corpus luteum is present for the duration of gestation. It regresses within about 48 hours
of parturition and is the major source of progesterone for the duration of gestation. However,
significant progesterone is produced by the placenta.
Pelvic ligaments and tissues surrounding the birth canal relax in the last 7 to 10 days of gestation as a
result of falling progesterone concentrations and increasing oestrogens and relaxin.
There are three stages to parturition. Cows in Stage 1 are restless and exhibit behavioural changes.
The cervical plug liquefies during Stage 1 and usually signals that Stage 2 of parturition will occur
within 12 hours. Myometrial contractions are also increasing in frequency and amplitude at this stage.
The body temperature will drop 0.5 to 0.75 oC in association with the drop in blood progesterone
concentrations.
During Stage 2, cows will usually be in lateral recumbency if undisturbed. Myometrial contractions are
at maximum amplitude
Detecting oestrus (and breeding), coupled with a knowledge of an approximate duration of gestation,
can assist the detection of parturition (calving) as it creates a time-period of expected parturition for
which surveillance algorithms can be developed. A device suitable for the detection of oestrus may
possibly be adapted to the detection of parturition. In this regard, there are a number of devices which
have been developed to assist with the detection of oestrus.
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Possible physical, physiological or behavioural changes which may be suitable for the remote
detection of calving.
Parameter Perceived degree of difficulty
(1=low, 5 = high)
Cow activity 1
Cow body temperature 1
Cow location 1
XYZ orientation 1
Expulsion of the calf 2
Cow proximity to other animals 2
Vaginal electrical resistance 3
Infrared spectra monitoring 3
Vulval lips separation 3
Raised tail 3
Fetal fluid detection (real-time ultrasound monitoring) 3
Myometrial activity 4
Abdominal muscle activity 4
Blood progesterone concentrations (real-time) 5
The primary function of the Taggle wireless chip is to transmit identification and “count” data. The
chip is designed to communicate wirelessly through a network of radio receiver towers which
triangulates its location. Based on a 15 minute pulse frequency the battery life of the current Taggle
ear tag is approximately 3 years. An important functional idiosyncrasy of the Taggle wireless chip is
that the signal emitted from the transmitter undergoes extreme attenuation if travelling through
liquid. With regard to attenuation, fluid within animal tissues is relevant.
Page 5 of 113
The Taggle wireless chip has an inbuilt temperature sensor which can be upgraded. There is also the
ability to connect one, or possibly two additional sensors such as an accelerometer. A calving alert
device based on the Taggle wireless chip would be a minimum of 12 cm long by 3 cm in diameter.
Six patents relevant to the detection of parturition in cattle were detected. Only one of the patents
was considered to have merit for use in extensively grazed beef animals. This was an intravaginal
device. One of the commercial devices utilised for the detection of parturition in deer is a recent
release into the market in New Zealand but has not been trialled in cattle. This device was considered
worthy of further investigation as a calf alert device. The commercial device utilised in the mare is put
up for consideration for further development into a calf alert device as well. An intravaginal device
used as a temperature transmitter had remained within the vagina for over 100 days with minimal
adverse reaction and requires further consideration.
A detailed budget is included to cater for the requirements of prototype development and testing.
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Contents
Page
1 Background ..................................................................................... 12
1.2 Project overview ......................................................................................................... 12
2 Project objectives............................................................................ 13
2.1 The specific objectives of this project ........................................................................... 13
3 Methodology .................................................................................. 14
3.1 Parameters for the detection of oestrus in cattle amenable to remote monitoring ......... 16
3.1.1 Vaginal electrical resistance (VER) ....................................................................................... 16
3.1.2 Cow activity monitoring....................................................................................................... 17
3.1.3 Core body temperature monitoring .................................................................................... 18
3.1.4 Infra-Red Emissions ............................................................................................................. 18
3.2 The physiology of gestation in the cow ......................................................................... 18
3.2.1 Anatomical changes during gestation ................................................................................. 19
3.2.1.1 The uterus ............................................................................................................................ 19
3.2.1.2 The cervix ............................................................................................................................. 19
3.2.1.3 The ovaries........................................................................................................................... 19
3.2.1.4 The pelvic ligaments and pubic symphysis .......................................................................... 20
3.2.2 Hormonal physiology during gestation ............................................................................... 20
3.2.2.1 The role of progesterone ..................................................................................................... 20
3.2.2.2 The role of oestrogens ......................................................................................................... 21
3.2.2.3 The role of corticosteroids................................................................................................... 22
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3.2.2.4 The role of relaxin ................................................................................................................ 22
3.2.3 Placental development ........................................................................................................ 22
3.2.3.1 General ................................................................................................................................ 22
3.2.3.2 Placental development and structure ................................................................................. 23
3.2.3.2.1 Amnion ...................................................................................................................... 23
3.2.3.2.2 Allantois ..................................................................................................................... 23
3.2.3.2.3 Chorion ...................................................................................................................... 24
3.2.3.2.4 Chorioallantois .......................................................................................................... 24
3.2.3.2.5 Placental development.............................................................................................. 24
3.2.4 Fetal growth during gestation ............................................................................................. 25
3.3 Factors influencing the initiation and control of parturition in the cow ............................. 25
3.3.1 The initiation of parturition ................................................................................................. 25
3.3.2 Physical events of normal parturition ................................................................................. 29
3.3.2.1 Myometrial contractions ..................................................................................................... 29
3.3.2.2 Cervical dilation ................................................................................................................... 30
3.3.2.3 Abdominal muscle contraction ............................................................................................ 30
3.3.3 Hormonal variation and its relationship to dystocia ........................................................... 31
3.3.4 Body temperature and parturition ...................................................................................... 32
3.3.5 Behavioural changes in cows approaching parturition ....................................................... 33
3.4 Submucosal or subcutaneous devices: Potential longevity and influence on animal health35
3.5 Intravaginal devices: Potential longevity and influence on vaginal health ......................... 36
3.6 External fixation of devices: Potential longevity and influence on animal health ............. 39
3.7 Patents and commercial products relevant to a calf alert device ....................................... 40
3.7.1 Commercial Device - The Sirtrack Parturition Detector for Deer ........................................ 40
3.7.1.1 Advantages of this device are: ............................................................................................. 42

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3.7.1.2 Disadvantages include: ........................................................................................................ 42
3.7.2 Commercial device – Foalert for mares............................................................................... 42
3.7.2.1 Advantages of the Foalert device are .................................................................................. 43
3.7.2.2 Disadvantages of the Foalert include .................................................................................. 43
3.7.3 Patent 1 – Harvey Intravaginal Birth Detector .................................................................... 44
3.7.3.1 Advantages .......................................................................................................................... 45
3.7.3.2 Disadvantages ...................................................................................................................... 45
3.7.4 Patent 2 - The Lee Animal Birth Detector ............................................................................ 45
3.7.4.1 Advantages .......................................................................................................................... 45
3.7.4.2 Disadvantages ...................................................................................................................... 46
3.7.5 Patent 3 – Zartman Intravaginal parturition alarm ............................................................. 47
3.7.5.1 Advantages .......................................................................................................................... 49
3.7.5.2 Disadvantages ...................................................................................................................... 49
3.7.6 Patent 4 - The “thin wire” calf alert device ......................................................................... 49
3.7.6.1 Advantages .......................................................................................................................... 50
3.7.6.2 Disadvantages ...................................................................................................................... 50
3.7.7 Patent 5 - Magnetic vulval switch transmitter .................................................................... 50
3.7.8 Patent 6 - Behaviour monitoring – Raised tail ..................................................................... 52
3.7.9 Vaginal electrical resistance measurement ......................................................................... 54
3.7.10 Ultrasonographic detection of fetal fluids ........................................................................... 54
3.7.11 Parturition alert device summary ........................................................................................ 54
3.8 Taggle technology ................................................................................................................ 57
4 Results and discussion ..................................................................... 59

4.1 Parameters suitable for remote detection of parturition ................................................... 59
4.2 Design prototypes for a calf-alert device ............................................................................ 61
4.2.1 Option one - strengths and weaknesses ............................................................................. 63

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Weaknesses ................................................................................................................. 64
Strengths ...................................................................................................................... 65
4.2.2 Option two - strengths and weaknesses (low priority) ....................................................... 66
Weaknesses ................................................................................................................. 67
Strengths ...................................................................................................................... 67
4.2.3 Option three - strengths and weaknesses (low priority) ..................................................... 68
Weaknesses ................................................................................................................. 68
Strengths ...................................................................................................................... 68
4.3 Proposal for evaluation of a cost-effective calf alert prototype ......................................... 70
4.3.2 Phase one ............................................................................................................................ 71
4.3.3 Phase two ............................................................................................................................ 72
4.3.4 Phase three .......................................................................................................................... 73
4.3.5 Phase four ............................................................................................................................ 73
4.3.6 Overall Preliminary Budget (All budgets are recorded exclusive of GST)............................ 76
5 Success in achieving objectives ....................................................... 79

5.1 Consultation with Taggle systems ....................................................................................... 79
5.2 Review the literature then document patents and commercial products relating to the
design and functionality of calf alert systems ..................................................................... 80
5.3 Reviewed and evaluated potential issues and risks associated with external or internal
design options including functional performance, practicality, cost, retention,
inflammatory response, infection, general health and fetal loss. ....................................... 80
6 Impact on meat and livestock industry – Now and in five years time81
7 Conclusions and recommendations ................................................. 81
8 Appendices ..................................................................................... 83
8.1 Appendix 1 – Additional information on hormonal function and assessment during
gestation .............................................................................................................................. 83
The role of gonadotrophic hormones .......................................................................... 84
The role of placental lactogen and prolactin ............................................................... 84

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8.2 Appendix 2 – Placental development, hormone production and fetal growth during
gestation .............................................................................................................................. 86
Placental hormone production .................................................................................... 87
Fetal growth during gestation...................................................................................... 87
8.3 Appendix 3 – Some causes of dystocia ................................................................................ 90
8.3.1 Fetopelvic disproportion (= Fetomaternal disproportion) .................................................. 90
8.3.2 Posterior presentation......................................................................................................... 90
8.3.3 Ineffective labour................................................................................................................. 91
8.4 Appendix 4 ........................................................................................................................... 93
8.4.1 Environmental effects in relation to pregnancy, parturition and dystocia ......................... 93
Seasonal effects ........................................................................................................... 93
The effects of stress on parturition and calf survival................................................... 94
8.4.1.1 Stress and the heifer ............................................................................................................ 94
8.4.1.2 Stress and the calf................................................................................................................ 95
8.5 Appendix 5 – Physiological changes occurring in the newborn calf .................................... 96
Cardiovascular changes................................................................................................ 96
Lung maturation and the initiation of respiration ....................................................... 97
The immune status of the neonate ............................................................................. 97
Blood biochemistry ...................................................................................................... 98
The effects of dystocia on neonatal calf physiology .................................................... 99
8.6 Appendix 6 - The economic effects of dystocia on beef cattle production ....................... 101
9 Bibliography ..................................................................................... 103
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1 Background
1.1 Project overview
Collecting information on losses within the beef cattle population of northern Australia is difficult due
to the extensive management conditions. Anecdotal evidence along with results from recent and
current MLA projects indicates that losses between pregnancy diagnosis and branding in maiden
heifers exceed 20% in many extensive breeding herds in northern Australia. Projects looking at heifer
management in Western Australia and the Northern Territory, results from beef CRC experimental
herds and a number of MLA funded research are all suggesting significant calf wastage. An earlier MLA
funded project on Brunchilly (NT) (Brown, 2003) found losses of 20.8% (one third not diagnosed),
while other MLA funded projects such as at Alexandria and Lake Nash suggested that calf losses in the
order of 20% and 17.1% respectively are occurring. The current MLA “Cashcow” project which is
scheduled to be completed by 2012 will help to validate the extent of the losses across northern
Australia but may not provide much information on the actual causes. While there are multiple
factors associated with calf wastage, ranging from abortion to losses up to weaning, it would appear
from international and Australian findings that most of the losses are occurring during the
periparturient period. Results from research stations in Queensland associated with the beef CRC
projects revealed losses ranging from 9-22% (average 14.3%) for maiden heifers mated in 2002 and 5-
55% (23.3%) for heifers mated in 2003. The breeders on these research stations were vaccinated
against all the known causes of reproductive disease, were in small paddocks and were control mated.
Losses that occur on commercial properties where continuous mating is practiced and where spatial
distribution of water and mustering methods vary considerably would be expected to be higher than
controlled research herds.
To complement the emerging data from Northern Australia, evidence from a combination of other
geographic locations suggests that between 4% and 8% of calves die between parturition and
weaning, with up to 90% of these deaths occurring in the neonatal period of 1 week postpartum
(Kasari, 1989). In one long-term study in the U.S.A., more than 13,000 calvings over a 15-year period
were analysed (Patterson et al., 1987). These authors found that death of calves from primiparous 2-
and 3-year-old heifers accounted for 41% of the total calf loss between birth and weaning for all age
groups. Calf losses within groups were: primiparous 2-year-olds, 10.9%; primiparous 3-year-olds, 8.7%;
second parity 3-year-olds, 4.1%; second parity 4 year olds, 8.3%; pluriparous 4 year olds, 4.8%; dams
greater than 5 years old, 5.3%. They found that the majority of calf deaths (57.4%) occurred within the
first 24 hours postpartum, with 75% of the total deaths occurring between birth and 7 days
postpartum. This loss pattern was similar among all dam age and parity groups. Calf death due to
dystocia accounted for the single largest loss category during the first 96 hours postpartum, resulting
in 69.6, 39.6, 30.8 and 33.3% of the losses occurring on days 0, 1, 2 and 3 postpartum respectively.
More bull calves (57.6%) died than heifer calves. Figures from this study suggest a dystocia incidence
of 8.18% in the 2-year-old heifers. This figure is derived from approximately three-quarters of the
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10.9% deaths between birth and weaning in primiparous 2-year-old heifers occurring in the first 7 days
postpartum.
This is slightly lower than the figure reported for the years 1972 to 1984 in Hereford herds in Central
Queensland (Webber et al., 1986), where the incidence of dystocia for the duration of the
investigation period in 2- and 3-year-old heifers was calculated to be 13.9% and 4.6% respectively. In
another study performed in Southern Queensland, the incidence of dystocia in primiparous heifers
was found to range from 11% to 18% (Wythes et al., 1976). However they noted that 10% of individual
herds reported dystocia levels in excess of 30%, with the upper range reaching 95%.
From an economic viewpoint, a number of independent estimates on the loss dystocia causes to the
Australian national herd include $30 million, $48 million and $200 million annually (Freer, 1993;
Howard, 1993; Norman, 1993).
While dystocia is one possible cause of calf and breeder loss, there are potentially many other causes.
These include, but are not limited to, mis-mothering, poor nutrition, predation, timing of the muster
and infectious disease. One of the major impediments to monitoring and managing losses associated
with extensive grazing systems is the difficulty in gaining accurate statistics associated with the
periparturient period. For example, location of a deceased calf would greatly assist the understanding
of the cause of losses if the carcass can be located quickly after death to allow investigation utilising
fresh tissue samples. Without supporting evidence, scientifically based conclusions cannot be reached.
One method of gaining this information would be to have access to a device that could remotely
detect a parturition event and allow timely location of the cow and calf, resulting in accurate recording
and analysis of the outcome.
The goals of this project were to firstly investigate potential parameters associated with pregnancy
and parturition in cattle which may be amenable to remote monitoring in extensive beef cattle
production systems. Then secondly, and assuming suitable parameters can be remotely monitored, to
develop recommendations for a calving alert prototype in conjunction with the industry partner,
Taggle Pty Ltd.
2 Project objectives
2.1 The specific objectives of this project
To achieve the goal of developing calf alert prototypes the following aims were pursued:
Page 13 of 113
 Review the literature regarding the physical, physiological and behavioural changes which
occur during gestation and parturition in cattle. This review included minor evaluation of
devices currently utilised to detect oestrus that may have application for a calving alert device.
 From review of the literature, identify possible physical, physiological or behavioural changes
which may be suitable for remote detection of calving in extensive situations.
 Liaise with Taggle Pty Ltd technicians and their industrial designer to develop a detailed
technical understanding of their wireless chip technology. In particular; to understand current
applications of the wireless Taggle ear-tag; to become familiar with how this technology may
integrate with other sensor technologies; to understand limitations of the technology and to
explore potential applications for the Taggle wireless technology with regard to a calving alert
device.
 Review the literature regarding potential problems or risks associated with external or internal
calving alert design options. This includes functionality, practicality, cost, retention,
inflammatory response, infection, general health, abortion and animal welfare.
 Review current commercial devices, or patents for devices which have already been conceived
as potential candidates for the remote detection of calving.
 Liaise with Taggle regarding the potential to develop several prototype devices utilising their
wireless technology which may be suitable for the remote detection of calving. Major
considerations for prototype development being animal welfare, efficacy and economic
viability.
 Document in detail a short-list of several candidate prototype design options for further
development and testing. Options are ranked and supported by literature and review findings,
an evaluation of strengths and weakness and ability to meet performance criteria.
 Produce a detailed, itemised project plan and budget for phase 2 of the project.
3 Methodology
The project involved a number of steps to investigate parameters suitable for the remote detection of
calving, and prototype device design compatible with long-term application to cattle in extensive
grazing systems. Initially, the literature was reviewed to assess the current state of remote (telemetric)
detection technology. In addition to some parturition-specific data, this identified a body of
information surrounding the telemetric detection of oestrus in cattle which may have direct
application to a calf alert system. The physiology of gestation and the processes of parturition were
then reviewed in order to identify parameters which may be amenable to telemetric calving detection.
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A significant requirement of a calf alert system is an efficient mechanism of device application to large
numbers of animals that does not compromise health, welfare or human occupational health and
safety. With this in mind, an investigation proceeded into methods of application including
subcutaneous or submucosal implants, intravaginal implants and external fixation. This investigation
was informed by the scientific literature, commercial product literature and personal communication
with product developers.
A patent and commercial product search was then conducted to identify pre-existing calf alert
concepts. In addition to cattle devices, this search investigated parturition detection concepts
associated with other species such as sheep, horses and dogs.
In consultation with staff of Taggle Pty Ltd, there was an investigation into the function and field
infrastructure logistics of the Taggle technology and its suitability for incorporation into a calf alert
device.
Finally, in consultation with an industrial designer, prototype options were produced and a budget for
prototype production and assessment was developed.
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3.1 Parameters for the detection of oestrus in cattle amenable to remote monitoring
When considering the development of a remote calving detection device, it is useful to also consider
the remote detection of oestrus. This is because it is easier to detect an event (parturition) when its
occurrence can be predicted based on historical information (oestrus and possibly breeding). Such a
device would also be valuable in providing information on the influence of gestation length on
dystocia. In addition, it is noted in Section 3.3.1 that hormonal events similar to those occurring in the
lead-up to oestrus also occur pre-partum. This includes a drop in plasma progesterone concentration
and a rise in plasma oestrogen concentration. There has also been considerable research into the
development of oestrus detection devices, some of which may have relevance to the development of
a calf alert system.
Parameters which have been assessed for the remote detection of oestrus in cattle include:
 Vaginal electrical resistance monitoring (VER)

 Cow restlessness and activity (pedometers and XYZ accelerometers)
 Body temperature monitoring
 Detection of changes in infra-red emissions from the vulva during the oestrous cycle
3.1.1 Vaginal electrical resistance (VER)
VER has been shown to reduce during oestrus, with some studies finding that the lowest values
coincide with the luteinising hormone (LH) peak (Aboul-Ela et al., 1983; Azinbudas and Doviltis, 1962;
Canefield and Butler, 1989; Elving et al., 1983; Foote et al., 1979; Gartland et al., 1976; Heckman et al.,
1979; Lewis et al., 1989; Schams et al., 1977; Smith et al., 1989).
Variations in VER during the oestrous cycle are the result of hormonal effects on reproductive tissue
(Schams et al., 1977; Smith et al., 1989). During oestrus there are increased concentrations of
circulating oestrogens and decreased progesterone. This hormonal profile produces oedema of the
vaginal and vulval interstitium and a change in electrolyte concentrations of luminal fluid (Aboul-Ela et
al., 1983; Ezov et al., 1990). The result is a relative reduction in the electrical resistance within the
cow’s vagina during oestrus and an increase when the tissue oedema resolves during dioestrus (Lewis
et al., 1989; Smith et al., 1989).
A number of studies have found large within and between animal variations in absolute VER values at
the time of oestrus (Brehme et al., 2001; Elving et al., 1983; Gartland et al., 1976). Hence, serial
monitoring has been recommended in order to detect relative rather than absolute changes in VER at
the time of oestrus. Multiple recordings using a hand held vaginal probe is time consuming and usually
impractical when large numbers of cattle are involved. However, a continuous readout device may
Page 16 of 113
provide data suitable for the accurate diagnosis of oestrus. Lowest values (mean ± SEM, VER = 64.8 ±
1.2, n = 55) occurred approximately 18 hours before ovulation and were significantly lower than
measurements approximately 6 hours before ovulation (67.4 ± 1.0; n = 73; p = 0.003) (Hockey et al.,
2009). Similar results showing low VER during oestrus have been documented in mares (Larsen and
Norman, 2008).
With regard to the detection of calving, it is possible that in addition to the detection of oestrus,
monitoring of VER may be directly useful in the detection of parturition due to the similarity in
hormonal profiles (reduced progestesterone and increased oestrogen). The implantation of electrical
conductivity probes directly into the vaginal and vulval tissue has been described (Feldmann et al.,
1978; Lewis et al., 1989; Smith et al., 1989) and may be suitable for inclusion in a calf alert system.
Figure 1 shows the device used by Smith et al 1989.
Figure 1 - The bipolar electrical probe used by Smith et al 1989 for tissue conductivity
measurements.
3.1.2 Cow activity monitoring
Activity monitoring utilises devices similar to pedometers. These have most commonly been attached
to the cow using neck collars or ankle bands, but may also be incorporated into implanted devices. In
order for activity monitoring to reliably detect oestrus, 2 hourly recordings have been utilised in
association with comparing rolling 24-hour averages. The sensitivity of activity monitoring systems for
Page 17 of 113
detecting cow ovulatory periods ranged from 79.4% to 94.1%, specificity from 90.0% to 98.2% and
positive predictive value from 35.8% to 75.8% (Hockey et al 2009).
3.1.3 Core body temperature monitoring
Changes in body temperature at the time of oestrus or ovulation have been documented in a number
of species and have been related to the increased pulse amplitude and frequency of luteinising
hormone (LH) (Zartman et al., 1983). Within the anterior vagina, this temperature increase is
considered to be enhanced due to the increased blood flow associated with high blood oestrogen
concentrations just prior to ovulation (Abrams et al., 1975). In cattle, body temperature increases
when cows are in oestrus. With regard to parturition, body temperature reduces just prior to calving
(Section 3.3.4).
3.1.4 Infra-Red Emissions
Changes to infrared spectra emitted from the vulva, vestibule and skin (gluteal) surfaces of the cow
have been assessed for variation during the oestrous cycle (Hurnik et al., 1985; Kunzler et al., 1992).
Spectral differences were noted at 1695 to 1705, at 1790 to 1800 and at 1880 to 1900 nm. These three
ranges are associated with changes in carbohydrate, protein, and water content of the tissues
respectively (Kunzler et al., 1992). While this technology provides promise, there is a need to either
improve the techniques used or to combine this data in an algorithm with other parameters, as the
discriminant analysis equation used to predict the day of oestrus had an error rate of 26%.
3.2 The physiology of gestation in the cow
The length of gestation is the interval from the day of conception to the day of parturition. This length
is genetically determined, but it can be modified by maternal, fetal and environmental factors (Hafez,
1993).
Recent research has allowed a more thorough understanding of the reproductive physiology of both
the early and late pregnant cow. The following section includes a review of the literature on
anatomical changes during gestation, hormonal physiology in the pregnant cow, placental
development, the effects of nutrition during gestation, and the effects of environment and disease
during mid to late gestation. This is to provide an overall background in order to identify areas to focus
research, and to understand the manner by which factors such as nutrition, environment and
placental function may influence the process of parturition.
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3.2.1 Anatomical changes during gestation
3.2.1.1 The uterus
Through the period of gestation, the uterus gradually enlarges to accommodate the developing fetus,
placenta and associated fluids. Three phases in the enlargement of the uterus have been identified.
These are proliferation, growth and stretching (Hafez, 1993). Details of the mechanisms by which
these changes occur are unknown but are generally considered as mediated by hormonal activity.
Throughout the majority of gestation the myometrium has reduced excitability to ensure premature
expulsion of the fetus does not occur. This is considered to be mainly a function of progesterone
dominance and is discussed further in Sections 3.3.1 and 3.3.2.1.
3.2.1.2 The cervix
At all times during gestation, other than during the periparturient period, the cervix is a firm, rigid
structure. This characteristic is the result of high collagen content in the cervical wall. The cervix plays
a role in maintaining pregnancy by closing tightly under the influence of progesterone, and secreting a
highly viscid mucus that seals the cervical canal (Hafez, 1993). With impending parturition, this plug of
mucus liquefies and is discharged through the vulva. At this stage it is visible as mucus strings that may
be seen hanging from the ventral commisure of the vulva or attached to the tail. Under the influence
of prolonged oestrogen dominance, hydration of collagen and interstitial oedema occurs, leading to
softening of the cervix (Hafez, 1993). These events occur prior to, and during, Stage 1 of parturition.
Relaxin is a peptide hormone produced by the corpus luteum of pregnancy and is released upon its
lysis. A few days prior to parturition, relaxin functions in synergy with oestrogen, inducing relaxation of
the cervix and pelvic ligaments (Musah, 1986). Cervical relaxation is enhanced by oxytocin induced
production of PGE2 from the cervical mucosa (Fuchs et al., 2002).
3.2.1.3 The ovaries
The corpus luteum of pregnancy persists as a result of protein and hormonal activity associated with
the maternal recognition of pregnancy as described in Section 3.2.2.1. The corpus luteum persists in
both size and function for the full duration of gestation excluding the 48 hours prior to parturition.
Follicular waves are evident throughout gestation, but do not appear to have a role in the
maintenance of pregnancy.
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3.2.1.4 The pelvic ligaments and pubic symphysis
Relaxation of the pelvic ligaments and hydration of collagen in the pubic symphysis occurs gradually
during pregnancy as a result of oestrogen production from the feto-placental unit (Hafez, 1993).
Oestrogen production commences at approximately 2 months into gestation (Section 3.2.2.2). With
impending parturition, an increase in relaxin from the corpus luteum enhances this ligament relaxation
effect of oestrogen. Relaxation of the pelvic ligaments result in the characteristic ‘raised tail-head’
appearance of the periparturient cow (Hafez, 1993).
3.2.2 Hormonal physiology during gestation
The following section includes a review of the literature on the roles of progesterone, oestrogen,
corticosteroids, gonadotrophic hormones, prolactin, placental lactogen and relaxin during gestation.
An understanding of this hormonal physiology is necessary to identify possible parameters to monitor
for the assessment of impending parturition.
3.2.2.1 The role of progesterone
Following ovulation, serum progesterone concentrations rise rapidly as a result of progesterone

production from the corpus luteum. Providing conception has occurred, one of the important steps in
establishment of pregnancy is for the conceptus and maternal system to exchange biological signals.
This is necessary to allow the maternal system to recognise the presence of the conceptus and thus
maintain luteal support for the pregnancy (Thatcher et al., 1995). The critical period for extension of
the life span of the corpus luteum in the pregnant bovine is between 16 and 17 days post ovulation. A
major factor in preventing destruction of the corpus luteum seems to be the release of interferon-tau
from the trophoblast. This protein exerts an inhibitory effect on prostaglandin F2 synthesis from the
endometrium and so prevents regression of the corpus luteum (Thatcher et al., 1995).
During gestation, progesterone is necessary for endometrial gland growth and secretion, endometrial
development, placental attachment, relative uterine quiescence compared to parturition, and cervical
closure (Breazile et al., 1988; Lye, 1996). Progesterone concentrations gradually increase during the
first month of gestation and remain relatively high for the first trimester. Serum progesterone
concentrations reach a plateau of between 6 to 15 ng/ml, with a mean level of 9 ng/ml during this
period (Eissa and El-Belely, 1990). The high concentrations of serum progesterone during the first 3
months of gestation may be associated with the formation of accessory luteal tissue arising from
ovulations occurring in this early gestational stage. In addition, the early bovine conceptus may exert a
significant luteotrophic effect (Thatcher et al., 1995). It could be reasoned that the high serum
progesterone concentrations are associated with placental formation (Sections 3.2.3.2 and 8.2), with
larger placentas resulting from higher serum progesterone concentrations at this early stage. At
approximately the beginning of the fourth month of gestation, serum progesterone concentration falls
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to the vicinity of 6.5 ng/ml and remain fairly constant at this level until approximately 9 months of
gestation (Eissa and El-Belely, 1990). From approximately 150 days of gestation there is a significant
contribution of progesterone from the feto-placental unit and adrenal glands. However, maintenance
of pregnancy depends on progesterone from the corpus luteum for the duration of gestation.
Approximately 1 week prior to calving, progesterone concentrations increase for 24 to 48 hours, but
this is closely followed by a significant decrease commencing 48 to 72 hours prior to calving until
baseline concentrations are reached at the time of parturition. Further information on the role of
progesterone is available in Section 8.1 (Appendix 1).
3.2.2.2 The role of oestrogens
Oestrogens are necessary to enhance the effects of progesterone in the early stages of gestation and
later on, to produce udder development, relaxation of pelvic ligaments, cervical relaxation, and to
sensitise the uterus to oxytocin and prostaglandins (Roberts, 1986). Oestrone, oestradiol 17- and
oestradiol 17- are the major oestrogens synthesised by the fetoplacental unit. The combined plasma
concentration of these three oestrogens is referred to as total plasma oestrogen (Erb et al., 1982b).
Significant oestrone sulfate secretion from the feto-placental unit commences from about day 50 of
gestation. The secretion of total oestrogens increases steadily from 30 to 500 pg/ml between 60 and
100 days of gestation, then increases rapidly between 100 and 150 days to reach concentrations of
around 3000 pg/ml. From 150 to 240 days there is only a slight increase, followed by a further sharp
rise in the last week of gestation (Eissa and El-Belely, 1990). Concentrations of plasma total oestrogens
start to increase sharply from 1 week before calving until concentrations of over 4000 pg/ml are
reached on the day of parturition. Within 12 hours after parturition, and removal of the fetoplacental
unit, concentrations have returned to less than 200 pg/ml (Eissa and El-Belely, 1990).
The level of plasma total oestrogens during late gestation has been noted to vary with calf birth
weight, heifer nutrition, cotyledonary weight and the season of the year (Erb et al., 1982b; Rasby et
al., 1990). These studies have found oestrogen concentrations to be higher with increased calf birth
weight, twins and summer calvings. Heifers fed to maintain a thin body condition during mid-gestation
had higher plasma oestrogen concentrations when measured at 8.5 months of gestation compared to
heifers in good condition (Rasby et al., 1990). This was supported by another study where it was found
that the plasma concentrations of oestradiol in fat cows were significantly lower than that of normal-
conditioned cows during weeks 4 to 10 prior to calving (Zhang, 1989).
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In summary, increased plasma oestrogen concentrations during the last half of gestation tends to be
associated with higher calf birth weights, twins, lower body condition scores during gestation, higher
ambient temperatures and increased cotyledonary weights.
3.2.2.3 The role of corticosteroids
Plasma concentrations of corticosteroids peak approximately 6 days prior to calving and again on the
day of parturition (Eissa and El-Belely, 1990). These authors believe the abrupt increase in plasma
corticosteroids 6 days prior to parturition is significant in the mechanism of initiation of parturition.
The increase in corticosteroid concentrations is also significant in increasing the production of
placental oestrogens via its role in the induction of the enzyme 17-alpha hydroxylase within the
placenta. This enzyme is responsible for the conversion of progesterone to oestrogen. The peak in
plasma oestrogens (Section 3.2.2.2) approximately 1 week prior to parturition reflects this
corticosteroid peak.
3.2.2.4 The role of relaxin
Relaxin is produced by the corpus luteum of pregnancy and is a polypeptide hormone with an insulin-
like structure (Breazile et al., 1988). Its production is stimulated by gonadotrophins. The uterus and
placenta may also produce it (Breazile et al., 1988). Relaxin inhibits myometrial contractions during
pregnancy, in synergy with progesterone. A few days prior to parturition, relaxin induces relaxation of
the cervix and pelvic ligaments (Musah, 1986). Relaxin also appears to have a synergistic effect with
oestrogen resulting in an increased number of oxytocin receptors in the myometrium (Breazile et al.,
1988).
For completeness, information on other hormones which have a role during gestation and may be
amenable in the future to monitoring has been presented in Section 8.1 (Appendix 1).
3.2.3 Placental development
3.2.3.1 General
The placenta is derived from the trophoblast, the tissue of the conceptus that develops outside the
body of the embryo. Anatomically it separates the maternal and fetal circulatory systems. The
placenta supports the growth, nutrition, respiration and excretion of the embryo and fetus throughout
pregnancy (Dennis, 1990).
Development of the fetus is linked anatomically, genetically and metabolically with that of its placenta.
Placental tissue behaves like a graft transplanted into the uterus; gaining acceptance, growing and
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metabolising. It is a distinct metabolic entity with the ability to mimic a range of pulmonary, renal,
alimentary, hepatic and endocrine functions for and in collaboration with the fetus during the various
stages of its intrauterine development (Dennis, 1990).
The metabolic requirements for growth are many times greater in the placenta than in any other
organ because it must not only grow itself, but it must also provide all the functions necessary to
support the fetus. No organ, including the liver, synthesizes protein at a rate faster than the placenta,
and no other organ has such a high metabolic rate. The placenta also has the capability to regulate
many of the dams’ metabolic functions in addition to synthesising an entire range of control hormones
(Gluckman and Barry, 1988; Owens, 1991; Rasby et al., 1990; Thorburn, 1991).
3.2.3.2 Placental development and structure
There are two components to the placenta, the fetal membranes and the maternal endometrium.
Fetal membranes are derived from the three basic extra-embryonic germ layers that are the
ectoderm, mesoderm and endoderm. The structural elements of the mammalian placenta consist of
the amnion, yolk sac, chorion, allantois, and umbilical vessels (Schlafer, 1993). Only the structures of
direct significance to dystocia will be discussed here.
3.2.3.2.1 Amnion
The amnion develops from ectoderm and avascular mesoderm within 13 to 16 days after fertilization
in ruminants. It is a double-walled sac that completely surrounds the embryo except at the umbilical
ring. The amnion provides a fluid filled environment in which the embryo floats and develops in a state
of weightlessness.
3.2.3.2.2 Allantois
The allantois is derived from the endoderm and vascular mesoderm. It is essentially an outgrowth of
the embryonic hindgut. It is continuous with the urinary bladder. The outer allantoic layer becomes
richly supplied with blood vessels connected to the fetal heart by umbilical veins. This vascular layer
expands into the extra-embryonic coelom and fuses with the chorion to form the chorioallantois, the
main fetal membrane. The inner layer, which is mainly devoid of blood vessels, is adjacent to the
amnion. The allantoic cavity is filled with clear, watery, amber fluid that is urine from the fetal kidneys
entering via the urachus.
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3.2.3.2.3 Chorion
The chorion is formed by elongation of the trophoblast, which becomes invested with a layer of
endoderm followed by the lateral development of the mesoderm.
3.2.3.2.4 Chorioallantois
This is the main fetal membrane and is a highly vascular structure that is in intimate contact with the
endometrium. Fusion of the allantois to the chorion (and thus the formation of the chorioallantois) is
complete by approximately the 28th day of gestation (Hafez and Rajakoski, 1966). The chorioallantois is
designed for metabolic interchange of gases, nutrients and waste between the fetal and maternal
circulations.
3.2.3.2.5 Placental development

The bovine placenta forms from the combination and fusion of the allantois and chorion. This ensures
that the fetal vessels of the allantois come into close apposition with the umbilical arteries and veins
located in the connective tissue between the allantois and chorion (Hafez and Hafez, 2000). It also
provides a large surface area of contact between the maternal endometrium and the fetal placenta by
the formation of chorionic villi that interdigitate with vascular folds of the endometrial surface. The
bovine placenta is represented diagrammatically in Figure 2.
Figure 2 - A diagrammatic representation of the bovine placenta.

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3.2.4 Fetal growth during gestation
The shape of the fetal growth curve is relatively well known and follows a genetically determined
exponential growth pattern (Thorburn et al., 1991). This growth pattern is displayed in Figure 3. The
weight of the fetus increases exponentially from approximately 100 days of gestation. Fetal growth
rate (measured in grams/day) reaches a maximum at around 230 days (approximately 8 months) of
gestation with the peak rate of growth at this stage reaching more than 200g/day (Eley et al., 1978).
The growth rate tends to slow down in the last few weeks of pregnancy with the fetus increasing in
size by approximately 100g/day by term (Eley et al., 1978). It is apparent that more than half the
increase in bovine fetal weight occurs during the last 2 months of gestation while relative growth is
greatest in early pregnancy.
Figure 3 - The bovine fetal growth curve.
Further information on fetal growth and placental development can be found in Appendix 2, Section
8.2.
3.3 Factors influencing the initiation and control of parturition in the cow
Understanding the process of events that surround normal parturition is crucial when investigating
causes of dystocia. Following is a description of the current knowledge in this area.
3.3.1 The initiation of parturition
Parturition has been defined as the physiologic process by which the pregnant uterus delivers the
fetus and placenta from the maternal organism (Hafez and Hafez, 2000). Most visible signs of
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impending parturition in the bovine relate to changes in the pelvic ligaments, enlargement and
oedema of the vulva, and mammary gland development.
It is generally accepted that the bovine fetus plays a major role in initiating its own delivery (Liggins et
al., 1977; Thorburn, 1991). Over approximately the last 30 years a large amount of detail has been
elucidated on the mechanisms of initiation of parturition. The concept has been developed partly
based on studies in sheep and goats and so frequent reference to these species will be made
(Meijering, 1984). In sheep, it was thought that a biological ‘clock’ resided in the suprachiasmatic
nucleus of the fetal hypothalamus. At an appointed time this clock activated the fetal pituitary-adrenal
axis, which in turn initiated the cascade of events leading to parturition (Liggins et al., 1973).
However, a more recent, modified theory has been postulated as follows (Thorburn, 1991).
The growth pattern of a normal bovine fetus follows the genetically determined exponential growth
pattern seen in all species. This is depicted graphically in Section 3.2.4. During the first two-thirds of
gestation there is a slow growth phase in which there is little increase in weight in relation to the
number of cell divisions occurring. During this phase the placenta is growing steadily and is not under
great metabolic demand since it is not required to transport much substrate for the growth of the
fetus. However in the last third of gestation the fetus enters a rapid growth phase in which the daily
weight gain increases markedly. In sheep, the placenta stops growing midway through the second
trimester (approximately 90 days) and stays at a steady weight from then on (Thorburn, 1991). This
static state of the placenta associated with the rapidly increasing nutritional demands of the fetus
places the placenta under progressively greater metabolic stress. In sheep it is claimed this increased
metabolic demand induces increased prostaglandin E2 (PGE2) to be produced by the placenta due to
increased availability of the substrate arachidonic acid, and increased activity of the cyclo-oxygenase
enzyme (Thorburn, 1991). He suggests that luteinising hormone from either the fetal pituitary or the
placenta may be responsible for the increased cyclo-oxygenase activity. The resulting increases in
PGE2 concentrations in the fetal circulation may allow continued production of ACTH from the fetal
pituitary regardless of the negative feedback effect of cortisol that is released from the adrenal glands
in response to increasing ACTH concentrations. This mechanism allows high concentrations of ACTH to
build up in the fetal blood. From here on, the theory follows the traditionally accepted pathways.
Increased output of ACTH and associated cortisol from the fetal adrenals lead to an increase in the
level of the enzyme 17 alpha-hydroxylase in the fetal placenta (Anderson et al., 1975). This in turn
reduces placental progesterone production by allowing pregnenolone to be metabolised through to
dehydroepiandrosterone. This results in decreased maternal serum progesterone concentrations
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because pregnenolone is diverted through to oestrogen production. Maternal plasma oestrogen

concentrations subsequently increase. The marked increase in oestrogens in the presence of lowered
progesterone concentrations induces the production of large amounts of prostaglandin F2 (PGF2)
from the endometrium in the last 24-48 hours prior to delivery (Liggins et al., 1973). High oestrogen
concentrations are also necessary for myometrial sensitivity to oxytocin (Liggins et al., 1973). Relaxin
concentrations in maternal plasma rise rapidly late in gestation from resting concentrations of 2.7ng,
to 42 to 257ng (Perezgrovas and Anderson, 1982). There is most likely a synergistic action between the
rise in PGF2, oestrogens, relaxin and oxytocin, and the rapid decline in progesterone, which initiates
uterine contractions and cervical dilation eventually leading to parturition (Roberts, 1986). The
rhythmic contractions of the uterus in association with cervical and vaginal dilation initiate afferent
input to the spinal cord. The resulting neural transmission to the hypothalamus stimulates further
oxytocin release associated with the Ferguson reflex (Breazile et al., 1988).
It is suggested that the commencement of the fetal rapid growth phase leads to the initiation of
parturition (Thorburn, 1991). Thus by linking the parturition trigger mechanism to the start of the
rapid growth phase, the fetus is prevented from outgrowing its uterine environment, ensuring that it
will be delivered at an appropriate time. Thus the model for the initiation of parturition can be
schematically represented as shown in Figure 4.
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 FETAL NUTRITIONAL PLACENTAL INSULTS PLACENTAL

(e.g. local hypoxaemia) INSUFFICIENCY
DEMANDS

PLACENTAL PGE2 SYNTHESIS

FETAL PLASMA PGE2 CONCENTRATION

FETAL CORTISOL SECRETION

MATERNAL PROGESTERONE,  OESTROGEN

PGF2 RELEASE

MYOMETRIAL ACTIVITY
Figure 4 - A model for the initiation of parturition1.
1
After Thorburn 1991
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3.3.2 Physical events of normal parturition
Normal parturition can be divided up into three distinct stages. Stage One is the preparatory phase
when the cervix is softening and dilating, and myometrial contractions are increasing in intensity and
frequency. The end of Stage One is defined as when the chorioallantois ruptures (Hafez and Hafez,
2000). Stage Two is when fetal expulsion occurs and commences when the chorioallantois ruptures or
when both abdominal and uterine contractions are first apparent (Hafez and Hafez, 2000). Stage Three
is the period from when the fetus is delivered to placental expulsion. In undisturbed circumstances, it
is normal for cows and heifers to deliver the calf while in lateral recumbency with all four limbs
extended.
It is apparent there are several important physical events that must occur in order for parturition to
proceed normally. These include; adequate, synchronised myometrial contractions (ecbolisis),
synchronised abdominal contractions and dilation of the cervix, vagina and vulva.
3.3.2.1 Myometrial contractions
The biochemical mechanisms controlling myometrial contraction are similar to those in smooth
muscle (Hafez and Hafez, 2000). Intracellular biochemical pathways initiate contractions by stimulating
the activity of myosin light chain kinase through mechanisms involving reduction of cyclic nucleotides
and increases in intracellular calcium (Lye, 1996). However, in contrast to other smooth muscle,
progesterone is the main regulator of these mechanisms in the myometrium. Progesterone
dominance results in contractions of low amplitude and frequency that occur during most of gestation.
The onset of labour is associated with a major transformation in the pattern of myometrial
contractility. During gestation, the myometrium is relatively unresponsive to stimulation by uterotonic
agonists (ecbolic agents) such as oxytocin, PGE, or PGF2 and contractions are poorly coordinated (Lye,
1996). Toward the end of gestation, activation of the fetal hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis results
in a release of PGF2 and stimulates conversion of feto-placental progesterone to oestrogen. Both of
these events lead to a fall in blood progesterone concentrations. Prostaglandin also has a direct
ecbolic effect on the myometrium (Lye, 1996). As progesterone concentrations fall there is a
concomitant rise in oestrogens (Sections 3.2.2 and 8.2), which lead to an increase in myometrial
activity. This activity is enhanced by the increase in uterine volume associated with a near term fetus.
With the onset of labour, the frequency and amplitude of contractions increase and the duration
decreases. Evidence from sheep indicates these events are in part due to endocrine stimulation (Lye,
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1996). As the fetus engages in the birth canal (maternal pelvis) during second stage labour, high
concentrations of oxytocin are released from the posterior pituitary gland (Roberts, 1986). At this
stage, the myometrium becomes highly responsive to uterotonic agents and smooth muscle cells
increase their electronic coupling (Lye, 1996). The increased coupling acts to increase the effectiveness
of uterotonic agents such as oxytocin. This allows the myometrium to generate high frequency, high
amplitude contractions necessary for delivery of the fetus to occur. Oxytocin stimulates the release of
large amounts of PGF2 from the endometrium, and in association with PGF2 induces peristaltic
uterine contractions. An increase in circulating oxytocin as Stage Two of parturition commences leads
to strong, synchronised contractions of the oestrogen-sensitised uterus (Section 3.3.1).
It is not certain whether a reduction in progesterone or an increase in oestrogen is the primary factor
responsible for the increased myometrial contractility at parturition. It is hypothesised that the ratio
between these two hormones may in fact be the most important factor (Lye, 1996). An increase in the
oestrogen:progesterone ratio may not only be responsible for increasing myometrial activity during
labour, but also increasing the synthesis and release of stimulatory uterotonins such as oxytocin and
prostaglandins. It is the uterotonins that act through receptor mediated pathways to increase
intracellular calcium and lead to activation of contractile elements (Lye, 1996).
The biochemical and endocrinological events leading to increased myometrial contractility at

parturition are influenced by molecular changes occurring within the myometrium. The onset of
parturition is associated with a transformation in myometrial phenotype, which switches the muscle
cells to a state of activation. It is suggested this state of myometrial activation results from a major
change in the expression and function of genes that “encode a cassette of contraction-associated
proteins”, such as gap junctions, ion channels and uterotonin receptors (Lye, 1996).
3.3.2.2 Cervical dilation
Events leading to the softening of the cervix have been described in Section 3.2.1.2. Once these
hormonally induced changes to the physical characteristics of the collagen have occurred, completion
of cervical dilation appears to require the mechanical processes of uterine and abdominal muscle
contraction to occur over a correctly presented fetus.
3.3.2.3 Abdominal muscle contraction
Distension of the cervix by the fetus initiates a neurohumoral reflex known as Ferguson’s reflex
(Noakes, 1986). This produces the strong abdominal contractions, known as abdominal straining,
associated with Stage Two of parturition. The Ferguson reflex also results in oxytocin release, which
increases the contractility of the uterine myometrium (Section 3.3.2.1).
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3.3.3 Hormonal variation and its relationship to dystocia
To assist in understanding the relationship of hormonal physiology to dystocia two classifications need
to be made:
1) Dystocia related to fetopelvic disproportion.
2) Dystocia not related to fetopelvic disproportion, described as “physiologic dystocia”

(Anthony et al., 1986a). These heifers displayed poor ecbolic activity.
Due to the hormonal involvement, this current discussion relates to the second category of
physiologic dystocia.
A review of the hormonal physiology in the late pregnant cow is presented in Section 3.2.2. Although
there are biological fluctuations in hormonal concentrations, significantly lower concentrations of
plasma oestradiol and higher concentrations of serum progesterone have been reported 12 to 20 days
precalving in heifers experiencing dystocia (O'Brien and Stott, 1977). Lower plasma concentrations of
oestradiol-17 at 2 and 5 days prepartum, and greater concentrations of progesterone beginning 1
day prepartum to 2 days postpartum in cows and heifers experiencing dystocia have been observed
(Erb et al., 1981). These authors considered the calving difficulty experienced by these animals was not
attributable to high calf birth weight and termed it “physiological dystocia”. Other authors have also
confirmed that mean oestradiol-17 concentrations are lower in heifers experiencing physiologic
dystocia (Anthony et al., 1986a). Placental preparations from cows experiencing weak labour and
requiring obstetrical assistance have produced lower conversion rates of androsteindione and
pregnenolone to oestrogen, in vitro, when compared with cows that calved unassisted (Larsson et al.,
1981). These findings lead to the conclusion that there is a deficit in oestradiol-17 production that is
related to “physiologic dystocia” and associated poor expulsive efforts. There may also be the
confounding effect of a periparturient increase in serum progesterone concentrations.
Oestradiol-17 concentrations in plasma are positively correlated with calf birth weight (Erb et al.,
1981). It has been suggested this is the reason heifers suffering dystocia due to a large calf often have
increased concentrations of plasma oestradiol-17 (Anthony et al., 1986a).
To summarise these findings, physiologic dystocia appears to be due to an endocrine imbalance

involving low plasma oestradiol concentrations, possibly in combination with high serum progesterone
concentrations. This may stem from inadequate placental function resulting in lower conversion rates
of androsteindione and pregnenolone to oestrogen in late gestation. It is also possible that low serum
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zinc levels may be involved at this level. To the contrary, heifers suffering dystocia due to fetal oversize
tend to have higher plasma oestrogen concentrations.
3.3.4 Body temperature and parturition
In a number of species, there has been documented a slight rise in body temperature in late gestation
followed by fall just prior to parturition. In the dog, plasma progesterone concentrations drop to less
than 6.4 nmol/L at 18 to 30 hours prior to parturition. Approximately 12 hours after progesterone
concentrations reach this level, the rectal temperature of the bitch falls below 37.8oC and often below
37.2oC (Feldman and Nelson,1988, p 431). This decline in rectal temperature usually precedes
parturition by 10 to 24 hours (Concannon, 2000), with the fall in blood progesterone concentrations
being suggested as the cause.
Figure 5 shows the drop in rectal temperature for sheep in the prepartum period as described by
(Ewbank, 1969). For the 54 hours before lambing, there is a consistent temperature drop away from
the values recorded over the previous 9 days. A significant (p <0.01) linear regression line equation, y =
39-160—0-009x, can be drawn through the five terminal means.
Figure 5 - The prepartum temperature drop in ewes as documented by Ewbank (1969)
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In sows, a similar pattern of temperature drop occurs prepartum (King et al., 1972). These data
indicate that 95% confidence limits of rectal temperatures during the 2 days before and after
parturition were near 37.2 to 39.3°C and 37.8 to 40.6°C, respectively. Thus, prior to parturition, there
would be little or no chance of the normal rectal temperature exceeding the conventional 39.7 oC
upper limit of normality.
The normal rectal temperature of a healthy cow falls between the range of 38.5 and 39.5oC (Radostits
et al., 2005). Periparturient rectal temperature in cattle has been documented (Ewbank, 1963) with
findings that the temperature dropped a mean of 0.6oC at a mean of 54 hours prior to parturition.
Unfortunately the individual and diurnal variation in rectal temperatures of cattle made this a difficult
parameter to interpret using manual temperature recording procedures. However the author
suggested that even when exhibiting external signs of imminent parturition, such as mammary
enlargement, relaxation of the sacrosciatic ligaments and vulval enlargement, a healthy cow is unlikely
to calve within the succeeding 12 hours if its rectal temperature is above 38.8oC. The conclusion is that
with constant, telemetric monitoring, body temperature would be a valuable parameter to include in
an algorithm for the detection of impending parturition.
3.3.5 Behavioural changes in cows approaching parturition
As a cow approaches Stage 1 of parturition it will start to change its behavioural routines. These
behavioural changes are driven by a desire to identify a safe place to calve and a direct response to the
physiological and physical changes that start to occur with the onset of parturition (von Keyserlingk
and Weary, 2007; Wehrend et al., 2006). A few days before parturition the cow starts to show signs of
agitation with increased standing and walking and reduced amount of time spent feeding (Huzzey et
al., 2005). Cows that are in groups of cattle that include young calves have been observed to show
greater interest in the offspring of other cows as parturition approaches.
Studies have reported that 12 hours prior to calving, cows spend a greater amount of time resting in a
semi-lateral recumbency position and the time spent standing and ruminating decreases (Houwing et
al., 2009). In some cases the first signs of calving only occur as late as 2 hours prior to parturition.
Previous studies have identified cows showing signs of agitation and restlessness in the period prior to
parturition; the exact behaviours that are indicative of a more agitated state can vary between
individual animals (Lidfors et al., 1994). However, previous authors have included terms such
increased walking, increased mobility, separation from the herd, vocalising, lifting and waving the tail,
looking and turning around, licking bedding material, more frequent interruption of activities e.g.
changing from standing to lying and grazing in short episodes. Increased vocalisation is also common
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during Stage 2 of parturition. This is commonly associated with contractions and may range from mild
grunting to overt bellowing.
All of the behavioural characteristics that appear to define parturition are expressed relative to
‘normal’ behaviour. Lidfors et al. (1994) completed a detailed study of the behaviour and choice of
location for parturition of cows kept in different environments at calving. Whilst there was a general
trend for the cows to separate from the herd with decreased social interactions and for them to show
increased signs of agitation these behaviours were not consistent between individual cows.
When expressed as a percentage of the total time allocated to specific activities, cows that are about
to calve increase the time they spend in semi-lateral recumbency by 20% during the final 3 hours prior
to parturition. There is very little increase in the time spent in full lateral recumbency as a cow
approaches parturition. In the same period the cows decrease the amount of time they spend standing
by 20%. There is a sharp reversal of these behavioural preferences in the 3 hours post-partum
(Houwing et al., 2009).
The frequency of close social interactions decrease and the distance between individuals increase as
cows approach parturition. Pregnant cows spend four times as much time within a 15 metre radius of
other cows compared to those cows that are about to calve. The social interactions of cows that are
approaching calving significantly decreases in the last 24 hours of gestation as the cows that are about
to calve move away from the rest of the herd (Lidfors et al., 1994). Not only do the cows isolate
themselves from the rest of the herd they also identify previously unused areas of the paddock that
can offer shelter as the cow delivers its calf (Lidfors et al., 1994).
The literature indicates that there may be a number of behavioural characteristics that could be
measured to identify the onset of parturition. Measuring standing and lying might identify cows that
are entering the final stages of gestation based on an increase in the amount of time spent in the
semi-lateral recumbency position. Whilst the literature has shown cows that are about to calve spend
more time laid on their sides there is no detailed data that shows the patterns of standing and lying
and the relationship between duration and frequency of lying events that are associated with calving.
Isolation and reduced social behaviours have also been shown to precede the onset of parturition. The
movement away from the herd is also coupled with cows using areas of the paddock that are not
normally used by herd members that are not about to calve. There have been very few studies that
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have considered social and spatial behavioural preferences of cows at calving and the reliability of
these measures for more widespread prediction of a calving event are not clear.
The literature also indicates that there is a large amount of variability in the individual behaviour of
cows at parturition and the timing of specific behavioural changes e.g. the shift between standing and
semi-lateral recumbency. However, whilst there may be variability in absolute behavioural
characteristics, there is a greater consistency in the relative behavioural changes for individual animals
that are pregnant and then as they enter the final stages of parturition.
3.4 Submucosal or subcutaneous devices: Potential longevity and influence on animal health
There is a large body of information within the scientific literature surrounding the use of submucosal
or subcutaneous implants in animals (Destron Fearing, 2007; Marasugi et al., 2003). Some well tried
technologies utilising this method of device application include hormonal growth promotant
administration, microchip application and oestrus synchrony products. The safety record for use of
microchips in dogs and cats is extraordinary. Millions of implantations have been performed in pets
throughout the world over the past 15 years (Destron Fearing, 2007), meaning that any major
underlying health issue associated with the use of subcutaneous microchips in dogs and cats should
have become evident. In addition, longitudinal studies monitoring implant efficacy and tissue reactions
for up to 6 years post implantation have been conducted to characterise the tissue response to
microchip implants. At 12 months, a firm capsule of connective tissue was formed 10 to 50 μ thick
around the microchip. This thickness was unchanged when animals were examined at three and 6
years after implantation (Destron Fearing, 2007).
Similar high-volume use of hormonal growth promotants and oestrus synchrony products in cattle
provides very strong circumstantial evidence that subcutaneous or submucosal implantation of plastic
or silicone-based devices is an effective method of application. Yet it will be expected that as with any
minor surgical procedure, there would be cases of excessive inflammation or infection. In a large study
involving over 4,000 mice, there were less than 0.8% of adverse connective tissue reactions to the
implants (Tillmann et al., 1977).
Information which does not seem readily available within the literature is the effect of the dimensions
of the implant on tissue function and health. However, from basic surgical principles, the assertion can
be made that if clean technique is used for the device application, the size of the device should not be
limiting provided it does not physically impede the anatomical or physiological function of any
structures. The main limiting factor with larger devices will be developing a technique for efficient
implantation.
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In summary, it can be stated that subcutaneous or submucosal implantation is a very safe procedure
after which the device could be expected to be retained intact for 6 years or more. With regard to
device dimensions, it is suggested that a subcutaneous or submucosal implant would become difficult
(or inefficient) to administer within, or around the perineal region of the cow if it was greater than 9
cm long and 1 cm wide. These dimensions are suggested taking into consideration the size of the
vulval lips, the vestibule, and the need to develop an efficient application technique.
3.5 Intravaginal devices: Potential longevity and influence on vaginal health
Most of the work investigating the use of intravaginal devices in cattle has focused on the
development of controlled internal drug release (CIDR), progesterone releasing intravaginal devices
(PRID), and the Cue-Mate progesterone releasing device (Macmillan and Peterson, 1993; Walsh et al.,
2008). There are also reports of these devices being used in horses (Norman et al., 2006) and sheep.
These reports focus on the intravaginal device being placed for 7 to 10 days duration for the specific
purpose of manipulating the oestrous cycle.
One of the concerns associated with the long-term application of an intravaginal device is the tissue
response to foreign bodies and pressure. In particular, the application of pressure to tissues is capable
of interfering with blood supply and tissue oxygenation. Published literature on the effect of
prolonged intra-vaginal device placement in cattle is not available. However, in a general sense, it is
known that vascular perfusion disturbances causing tissue hypoxia, decreasing lymphatic drainage and
cellular defamation lead to ischemic injury (Nguyen, 2008; Ceelen, 2003). Unfortunately, the
correlation between perfusion disturbances and imposed surface pressure leading to ulcer formation
has had little investigation. The ambiguity of a relationship between tissue damage and the amount
and duration of pressure, is associated with the normal perfusion variation in skin over time
(vasomotion), respiratory and systolic/diastolic oscillations (Herrman, 1999; Lutz, 2008).
Human studies have determined that critical capillary closing pressure is approximately 32 mmHg
(arteriolar portion of the capillary) and pressures greater than that for prolonged periods will lead to
ischemia (Lutz, 2008). The evaluation of rodents with induced ischemia concluded that a level of 58
mmHg resulted in zero tissue perfusion (Herrman, 1999). Pressures greater than 9 kPa (67 mmHg)
maintained for greater than 2 hours in rodents lead to muscle cell death (Linder-Gganz, 2006). A
common manifestation of this condition is decubital ulcers (bed sores). The extent of any resultant
damage will be a function of both the amount and duration of the pressure. For an intravaginal device
to remain in position for 7 or more months as would be required for a calf-alert device, there would be
a requirement for it to place minimal pressure on the vaginal mucosa. Based on figures from the
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literature relating to humans and other species, the estimate is that this pressure should not exceed
32 mmHg for periods longer than 2 hours.
During the development of the CIDR device, trials were set up to mimic the effects of the device being
accidentally left in the vagina for prolonged periods (Macmillan, 2011). It was found that as long as the
insert was releasing significant amounts of progesterone, it minimises the frequency of vaginal
contractions and therefore reduces traumatic damage along with the leucocytic response associated
with irritation reactions. However, from about 3 weeks onwards, as progesterone release from the
device drops to insignificant levels, there is a return of significant vaginal contractions and associated
irritation. While Macmillan (2011) was unsure how this finding may translate to prolonged CIDR
application in pregnant animals where natural progesterone concentrations are high, he found that in
heifers, vaginal perforations occurred from 4 weeks and were present in most animals by 6 weeks
post-insertion. The sequel to these perforations were degrees of peritonitis associated with
abscessation in the pelvic area sufficient to lead to condemnation of the carcass (Macmillan, 2011).
With regard to vaginal infection, it was found that the placement of a PRID in the vagina of cattle for 7
days resulted in 5% to 20% of animals having copious vaginal discharge by completion of the
treatment, with culture revealing commensal bacterial growth (Walsh et al 2008). However, there was
no evidence of systemic illness or damage to the vaginal mucosa. In the FDA trials associated with the
application for CIDR use within the USA, CIDR's were inserted 14 days after insemination to
resynchronise return heats (Anonymous, 2003). It was found that the administration of a CIDR to cows
inseminated at the oestrus immediately prior to treatment resulted in a loss of pregnancy in an
estimated 11% [100(36.7-32.7)/36.7] of pregnant animals. No studies were identified where there was
investigation into pregnancy loss after CIDR insertion at the transition between the first and second
trimester of gestation.
Based on CIDR and Cue-Mate product data, the retention rates of these devices over the seven to 10
day periods they are designed to be used for, is between 98.5% and 100%, with the CIDR design
considered to have slightly better retention (Bioniche technical note 2000). It appears that most losses
occur in older pluriparous cows which may have a larger vaginal vault.
In the mare, the effects of insertion of CIDR-B over a 10-day period have been described (Norman et
al., 2006). The CIDR device is approximately 20 cm long and 2 cm wide. Immediately after insertion of
the device, all mares raised the tail, with most squatting and urinating. After this initial response, the
only indication of the presence of the device was a slight, intermittent elevation of the tail. All mares
grazed normally for the duration of the 10-day treatment. No clinical signs of systemic disease were
noted during or at the completion of the trial. At the time of removal of the device, a small amount of
purulent material on the device and at the vulval lips was observed in three of the 22 mares. This
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resolved spontaneously within 2 days of CIDR-B® removal. No mares expelled the device during the
10-day treatment, however in one of the mares with vaginitis, the device moved caudally so that the
end of the device was visible at the vulval lips, breaking both the vestibulovaginal and vulval seals.
One of the longest applications of an intravaginal device was with the use of intravaginal temperature
transmitters investigated utilising 18 non-pregnant Holstein heifers (Zartman et al., 1983). The devices,
as shown in Figure 6 were inserted in the anterior vagina for 107 days.
Figure 6 - The intravaginal temperature transmitter in its multifingered plastic casing as

described by Zartman (1983)
Sixteen of the 18 heifers maintained normal reproductive activity throughout the 107 day treatment.
Oestrous cycles were of normal length and the duration of standing heat was consistently about 12
hours and the intensity of standing heat was considered normal (Zartman et al., 1983). Interestingly,
these heifers were artificially inseminated (AI) while the transmitters were in place and AI was
conducted without incident, except for on two occasions.
To summarise the influence of intravaginal devices on vaginal health, the following points can be
made:
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 Any device placed within the vagina for more than several days will lead to some
degree of vaginitis. This vaginitis will generally resolve once the foreign object is
removed.
 Intravaginal devices should not fill the complete vaginal cavity, otherwise drainage will
be compromised.
 Any intravaginal device should not place significant, constant pressure to the vaginal
mucosa. Otherwise, pressure necrosis may occur.
 Dorsal placement of an intravaginal device is preferable to ventral placement as the
latter may impair vaginal drainage. Dorsal placement will also reduce any potential
adverse effects the device may have on the urethral opening, reducing the chance of
urethritis or cystitis.
 The device should be placed within the vagina and not the vestibule. This will increase
the probability that the vestibulovaginal sphincter will remain closed, reducing the
potential for ascending vaginitis.
 Prototype devices will need in vivo evaluation to determine if ischemic damage
develops.
There are no reports in the literature of devices implanted into the uterus that are compatible with
pregnancy. Intrauterine devices (IUD’s) were specifically designed to prevent pregnancy and are
effective in doing so. They would not be compatible with the goals of a calf alert device.
3.6 External fixation of devices: Potential longevity and influence on animal health
The external fixation of devices to animals can be achieved either by suture, tissue adhesive, or by
some form of specialised method such as a toggle pin or staple. As a general comment, any device
placed on the perineum of the cow will be at risk of being dislodged by movement of the tail, and
being covered by urine or faeces. While these problems may be overcome by careful design, they do
add to the degree of difficulty in maintaining device integrity for prolonged periods.
While suturing can be an effective method of fixation, it is time consuming and generally requires a
degree of surgical skill. In most instances, local anaesthesia will also be required to place a suture,
meaning that the procedure will either have to be performed, or directly supervised by, a veterinarian.
Tissue adhesives are useful for short-term fixation of devices to dry skin. They do not tend to work
effectively if the tissue surface is wet (Bruns, 2000). The main reason they would not be suitable for
the attachment of a proposed calf alert device is that they slough associated with the turnover of cells
on the surface to which they are attached. In most cases, the adhesive will be detached within 7 to 10
days (Coloplast, 2007).
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3.7 Patents and commercial products relevant to a calf alert device
Device designs suggested for cattle and other species have in general focussed on detecting physical
or physiological conditions associated with parturition. Examples include: devices for detecting raised
tails and temperature changes in cattle; lateral recumbency in horses; increased heart rate in horses;
increased myometrial activity in dogs; and expulsion of the chorioallantoic fluid in sheep. Some of
these devices have requirements which would make them impractical for use in extensive beef
production contexts. For example, the detection of myometrial activity in the bitch is dependent on
straps holding sensors onto the abdomen for the duration of parturition. Thus, in the interests of
practicality some patents have not been fully described in this section. However, within the report, all
ideas encountered in the literature are noted and are summarised in Table 2.
Six patents were identified that had direct relevance to a calf-alert device. In addition, one device was
identified that was recently (April 2011) made commercially available for the detection of parturition
in deer. Another device utilised primarily to detect parturition in mares is also described. There are
many patents describing the use of technology to detect various physical, physiological or behavioural
parameters of the cow which are not directly related to parturition. One such patent describing the
use of a device to monitor vaginal electrical resistance is described in order to provide an example of
the technology.
3.7.1 Commercial Device - The Sirtrack Parturition Detector for Deer
The Sirtrack V2V range of intravaginal transmitters (Figure 7) is designed to indicate when
parturition has occurred in species such as deer, bison, elk and antelope. The device has only
recently (April 2011) been made commercially available and has not been utilised in cattle.
The transmitter is inserted into the vaginal tract during gestation and is expelled when
parturition occurs. The wings of the device shown in Figure 7 are silicon. The manufacturers
do not state the composition of the body of the device, but it appears to be made of a resin.
There is no published data on the long-term effects of this device on vaginal health. An
important aspect is the bright orange colour to assist with device recovery after calving.
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Figure 7 - The Sirtrack intravaginal device for deer. Model V2V 149A is 72 mm long and
has a battery life of 212 days.
The transmitter measures temperature regularly and is commonly used in conjunction with a VHF
neck-collar to allow continual tracking of the dam. The data is collected via a mobile VHF antenna
which can be hand-held or vehicle mounted. While inserted and at body temperature, the transmitter
pulse rate is 40 pulses per minute. Once ejected, the temperature of the transmitter is expected to
cool below the normal body temperature range. The built-in microcontroller tracks the temperature
for a minimum of 4 hours to ensure the transmitter has definitely been expelled before changing the
transmitter pulse rate to 80 pulses per minute. This utilises the concept of the temperature differential
switch described in Section 3.7.3.
The model containing a battery with a 530 day lifespan is 91 mm long (not including the antenna) and
150 mm wide when the “wings” are expanded. A 72 mm long version is available with a 212 day
battery life. The devices are designed for single use and are not rechargeable.
Discussions with the manufacturer revealed that although the devices are rated for use for up to
either 530 (V2V-161A) or 212 days (V2V-149A), this duration is based on battery life, and is not related
to efficacy based on intravaginal field trials.
The operating temperature range for the device is -30°C to +50°C with an accuracy of +/- 0.5˚C. The
VHF frequency range is from 148 to 174 MHz
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3.7.1.1 Advantages of this device are:
 It is already commercially available

 It provides an exemplar of a device that may be effective for the detection of parturition
in deer
3.7.1.2 Disadvantages include:
 The device is based on the CIDR device. Direct communication with the developer of
the CIDR device suggests that it may not be suitable for intravaginal insertion for
periods longer than 4 weeks.
 The device depends on temperature differentials (environmental temperature < animal
temperature) to trigger the signaling mechanism. This may not be effective in northern
Australia, where environmental temperatures may be equal to, or greater than cow
body temperature.
 The device utilises VHF signaling, requiring detection with a mobile aerial.
 The device costs $200 and is designed as a single use item.
3.7.2 Commercial device – Foalert for mares
The foalert (Figure 8) consists of four components. These are a transmitter, a receiver, an autodialer
and an alarm. The image from the manufacturer website (below) describes how the components
interact. From a practical point-of-view, the transmitters need to be sutured to the vulva of the mare
within 2 weeks of expected foaling. The device is triggered by the separation of the vulval lips,
activating a magnetic switch.
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Figure 8 - The components of the foalert device designed for the detection of parturition
in the mare
There are other foaling alert devices commercially available which depend on a halter-attached device
detecting when the mare is in lateral recumbency. These devices are not described here due to their
design requirements not being suitable for extensive conditions, and the fact that they are more prone
to false positives and negatives when used alone.
3.7.2.1 Advantages of the Foalert device are
 It is already commercially available and the transmitter design may be adaptable to the
Taggle technology.
 It provides an exemplar of a device that is useful for the detection of parturition in
mares based on magnetic switching.
 It may be possible to develop a method of fixing this device to the vulva, or inside the
vestibule, which may allow attachment of the device 6 to 7 months prior to parturition in
the cow.
3.7.2.2 Disadvantages of the Foalert include
 It is recommended that the Foalert transmitter be sutured to the vulva within 2 weeks of
parturition. This is not compatible with the requirements of the Calf Alert device.
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 Fixing the device with tissue glues does not currently seem possible for the durations
necessary for calf alert requirements. Therefore, a minor surgical procedure would be
necessary, requiring the placement of sutures.
 The device is relatively expensive.
3.7.3 Patent 1 – Harvey Intravaginal Birth Detector
US patent number 3583389 was first filed in 1968 and granted patent in 1971. This patent describes a
device for detecting parturition in livestock comprising a capsule containing an electromagnetic wave
transmitter which is positioned within the vagina of the animal. A temperature sensing device is used
as a switch to operate the transmitter, which is activated at a predetermined temperature judged to
coincide with the expulsion of the device at parturition. The Sirtrack device described previously
appears to have utilised Harvey’s idea. A receiver tuned to the output frequency of the transmitter in
the capsule is positioned remotely from the transmitter and provides a visual or audible alarm when
the capsule is expelled just prior to birth. The egg-shape device is shown in Figure 9. Harvey was
general in his recommendations for materials to be utilised for the outer casing, stating that it “be
composed of a synthetic resinous material of low coefficient of friction such as polyethylene or the
like”.
Figure 9 - The Harvey Intravaginal Birth Detector
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3.7.3.1 Advantages
The electronic technology is perhaps more plausible now than when the patent was lodged 40 years
ago. This is an early attempt at developing a telemetric calf-alert device. It has provided ideas for
subsequent designs including temperature differential switching, intravaginal implantation and
remote sensing.
3.7.3.2 Disadvantages
The ability of the device to be retained within the vagina for prolonged periods is unproven and
unlikely in its current form.
Its casing design is not considered at a stage for development into a working prototype. It is
conceivable that with suitable weighting of the device, it may be made to stay within the vaginal vault.
However, there would be extensive trialling of different weights and shapes required to investigate
this possibility.
3.7.4 Patent 2 - The Lee Animal Birth Detector
US patent number 4319583 was first filed in 1979 and granted patent in 1982. This patent describes
the use of a transmitter attached to one side of the vulval lips utilising a reed-switch relay to sense the
proximity of a magnet placed on the opposing vulval lip. The relevant transmitter circuitry is shown in
Figure 10. During Stage two of parturition, the separation of the vulval lips moves the magnet out of
the sensing field of the reed-switch, turning on the transmitter and allowing communication with a
remote receiver. It is suggested by the inventor that a separation of the vulval lips approaching 3
inches (~7cm) is a suitable distance to trigger the device. The transmitter and magnet are described as
being held in place by adhesive or by sutures. An alternate switching mechanism utilising a telephone
jack is also described (Figure 11).
3.7.4.1 Advantages
This patent has merit based on the premise of detecting separation of the vulval lips utilising a
magnetic reed switch. If attachment methods could be successfully devised, the mechanism of
detection would be robust.
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The aspects in question with this patent include the method of attaching the device to the vulva, the
robustness of the electrical engineering and the distance of vulval separation required to trigger the
device. Utilising colostomy glue as described in the patent, the inventor suggests the device will
remain in place for up to 2 months, however this is unproven and other methods of attachment or
implantation would need to be investigated. There is substantial evidence indicating that tissue
adhesives, including colostomy glue, will be sloughed within 10 days (Bruns and Worthington, 2000).
To avoid false positives, the distance of vulval separation for triggering the device should be consistent
with the width of the head of the neonate. Based on review of the scientific literature this is
approximately 11 cm.
There is also no indication as to the range of the transmitter. This is quite important as the range will
dictate the practicality of the device for use in remote areas.
Figure 10 - The schematic of the circuitry for the transmitter of patent 4319583 utilising
a magnet and reed-switch.
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Figure 11 - The schematic of the circuitry for the transmitter of patent 4319583 utilising
a telephone jack switch to replace the magnet and reed-switch depicted in Figure 4.
3.7.5 PATENT 3 – Zartman Intravaginal parturition alarm
the use of a transmitter retained within the anterior vagina. The claim is that with the expulsion of the
device the temperature differential between the anterior vagina and environmental temperature is
detected, triggering transmission. While such a device may not be suitable in tropical Australia due to
the similarity between body and environmental temperatures, this patent also has a claim for
switching the device based on the physiological drop in body temperature prior to parturition allowing
a thermostat-switch to trigger transmission which can be detected upon expulsion of the device at
parturition. A graphical representation of the device is shown in Figure 12.
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Figure 12 - Graphical depiction of the device within the anterior vaginal vault. The
device (20) is held in place by constant pressure within the anterior vaginal vault (56
and 58) provided by the expanded fenestrations (62). The fenestrations expand to fill
the majority of the vaginal vault.
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Figure 13 – A view of the Zartman patent prior to insertion into the vagina. The capsule
(10) could be designed to accommodate the Taggle transmitter technology.
3.7.5.1 Advantages
This device has a design that may reduce the severity of vaginitis and pressure sores. This is because
there is the possibility that the expanded fenestrations will regularly change position within the
vagina, reducing the occurrence of constant pressure on any given site. The designer of this patent
also designed the device shown in Figure 6, which is the only device documented in the scientific
literature to last within the vagina for up to 107 days without significant adverse effects.
The device design is unproven. The designer did not state the type of material to be used for device
development.
3.7.6 Patent 4 - The “thin wire” calf alert device
the use of a thin wire inserted through the vulval labia, thus traversing the vulval opening. The wire is
designed to break and trigger a switch when the vulval lips separate at the commencement of
parturition. The device, its harness and associated electronics are depicted in Figure 14. The thin wire
passing through the vulval lips is marked as item 9 in the diagram. Items 14 and 15 represent buttons
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which hold the wire in place on either side of the vulval lips, forcing it to break at the time of
parturition.
Figure 14 - Harnessing for the “thin wire” calf alert device
3.7.6.1 Advantages
There are few advantages to be seen in this design other than it is an attempt at a novel approach to a
calf alert system. The idea of switching being based on the rupture of a thin wire is interesting. With
modification of the method of attachment, it may be possible to use this switching technique to
trigger activation of a Taggle ear-tag device.
The need for extensive harnessing to secure this device is clumsy and not considered appropriate for
the requirements of this project. It may be more suited to cattle on smaller holdings.
3.7.7 Patent 5 - Magnetic vulval switch transmitter
the use of a device containing a transmitter attached to one side of the vulval labia. On the other side
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of the vulva is a magnet which can trigger a reed relay switch on the device to allow detection of the
vulval lips separating at parturition. This patent describes a device surprisingly similar to US patent
number 4319583 described under Section 3.7.4.
The main difference between this device and patent number 4319583 appears to be modernisation
and miniaturisation of the circuitry, with the addition of a few extra parameters for detection such as a
direction finding antenna.
Figure 15 - Version 2 of a magnetic vulval calving detector. Item 16 represents the

vulval lips. Items 48 and 50 represent the patches with associated circuitry. The line
marked 2, indicates the cross-section of the device viewed (marked as Fig. 2) in Figure
11 below.
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Figure 16 - Circuits associated with the transmitter portion of the calving detector.
3.7.8 Patent 6 - Behaviour monitoring – Raised tail
the use of a device to sense the sustained raising of the animals tail. The device includes a tail position
sensor and a radiofrequency transmitter. The sensor consists of a bearing plate, straps and an arm
hinged to the bearing plate so that its position is dependent on that of the animals tail. A view of the
overall design is shown in Figure 17.
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Figure 17 - A patent for a device to detect the presence of a raised tail in the cow at the
time of parturition.
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3.7.9 Vaginal electrical resistance measurement
US patent number 4224949 was filed in 1977 and granted patent in 1980. This patent describes the
invention of a bovine vaginal probe capable of measuring vaginal electrical resistance to accuracy
suitable for detecting changes that would allow the detection of oestrus. This device is a large probe
which needs to be manually inserted into the vaginal vault of the cow. In its current form it does not
enable remote detection of vaginal electrical resistance.
The bovine vaginal probe of the invention comprises a non-conductive, generally cylindrical support
means having at least two electrodes essentially parallel to each other and generally oriented to the
longitudinal axis. On the surface of the probe near one end of the support means adapted for insertion
into a bovine vagina, the electrodes are electrically connected to an ohm-meter which supplies an AC
voltage to the electrodes. In operation, the probe is inserted into the vaginal tract of a bovine, e.g. a
dairy cow, and the electrical resistance of the vaginal mucus is measured by the AC ohm-meter. As the
resistance of the bovine vaginal mucus fluctuates during the oestrous cycle, the cycle can be followed
by repeated measurement. This provides a quick and easy method for determining the time of
oestrus, but in reality depends on the development of a device capable of real-time measurement and
analysis.
3.7.10 Ultrasonographic detection of fetal fluids
There are remote monitoring devices used in other industries that utilise ultrasound technology to
detect the presence of a fluid filled viscus. An example of this technology is in the remote monitoring
of water tank levels. There is potential that remote ultrasonographic detection of fetal fluids could be
useful in monitoring cow’s in late gestation and the commencement of Stage two of parturition.
3.7.11 Parturition alert device summary
Table 1 summarises the devices currently patented or available as parturition alert devices.
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Table 1 - Devices currently patented or available as parturition alert devices.
Device Status Application Detection Cost/ Published Advantage Disadvantage

Method Method Unit Data?
Sirtrack Commercial Intravaginal Temperature $200 None in Pre-existing Untested for the
with drop at refereed device tried in duration
applicator expulsion journals. deer in NZ. required in
Based on CIDR cattle. Concern
Some relevant design over trigger
CIDR data method, vaginitis
and cost
Harvey Untried Intravaginal. Temperature None Interesting but Untried design

Intravaginal Patent No applicator drop after untried design.
Device described expulsion Simple
insertion.
Trigger method
was adopted by
Sirtrack
Animal Birth Untried External to Magnetic None Robust Unknown

Detector Patent vulval lips - switch parturition method for
glue triggered by detection attachment to
vulval lips concept vulval lips for
parting at 200 days
birth
Intravginal Untried Intravaginal Temperature One related Simple May result in

Parturition Patent device drop before paper on the insertion. vaginitis and
Alarm and after Zartman Possible varied pressure sores
calving temperature vaginal contact with 200 day
transmitter may reduce application
(Figure 6) irritation
Thin Wire Untried External Wire breaks None Robust Complex

Calf Alert Patent harness and at parturition parturition (impractical)
wire triggering detection harnessing
insertion switch concept requirement
Magnetic Untried External to Magnetic None Robust Method of

Vulval Patent vulval lips - switch parturition attachment to
Switch glue triggered by detection vulval lips
vulval lips concept
parting at
birth
Raised Tail Untried External Bearing plate None
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Monitor Patent harness and switch

bearing plate triggered by
raised tail
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3.8 Taggle technology
The Taggle livestock device is designed to provide animal location information utilising radio-tracking
technology. The Taggle location system consists of 3 main parts. The first component is a transmitter
that outputs a low power radio signal. This radio signal has very similar properties to the signal sent
from a GPS satellite. Taggle transmits in the unlicensed radio band from 915MHz to 928Mhz. The
Taggle "ping" is detected by a very sensitive receiver, which is the second major component, and the
time of arrival of this signal is determined by comparing it to an accurate clock at the receiver. When
the Taggle ping is detected by three or more receivers the time difference of arrival (TDOA) of these
signals can be used to calculate the location of the transmitter. The third component of the system is a
method of transmitting the time of arrival at each receiver to a central location server, and then
performing the location calculation. The location server sends the location data to the customer via
the internet. Taggle's location system is like GPS in reverse: where GPS uses one receiver and the
TDOA from several satellites to calculate a location, Taggle uses one transmitter and the TDOA to
several receivers. Turning around the GPS system allows the Taggle location tag to consume less than
1% of the power of a GPS location tag. A GPS receiver must perform billions of power-consuming
calculations to calculate a location. To be useful this information must then be transmitted back to a
central site. Taggle performs all the calculations in a receiver that has access to a permanent power
supply and the same ping that is used for location also transmits the identity code of the transmitting
tag. A summary of the Taggle location detection system is shown Figure 18.
Taggle cattle tags can send pings every hour for more than 3 years using a 1/2 AA lithium
battery. This allows the location device to be packaged inside a cattle ear tag that weighs
about 20g. Because Taggle uses terrestrial receivers, the radio range will vary greatly
depending on the topology, foliage and mast height of the receiving antenna. Using medium
antenna heights of 10m allows tag ranges of 6km in most beef cattle rangelands. In open
grazing areas, using 20m antennas, in flat country, a tag can transmit up to 20km.
The time difference of arrival method for location calculation depends on very accurate timing
of the signal arriving at the receiver. Taggle's timing accuracy is +/- 50ns. This provides a
basic accuracy of +/- 15m for the location. The location accuracy can be improved by
increasing the number of receivers, and/or increasing the ping rate and filtering the location
data. However, the more frequently the taggle transmits, the quicker the batteries will run
down. An important functional idiosyncrasy of this technology is that the signal strength
emitted from the transmitter tag undergoes extreme attenuation through liquid. This means it
will not be effectively transmitted through fluid or animal tissue.
Taggle designed a custom integrated circuit for their transmitter chip, since there were no
commercially available radios with the required performance. In designing the chip, Taggle
allowed the capability for other sensor data to be attached to the transmitted ping. The Taggle
ping can also be triggered by external switch events. There is also an on-chip counter that can
accumulate event counts that will be sent at regular intervals. These capabilities allow the chip
to be used in remote sensing applications that have low data and power requirements. The
Taggle has an onboard temperature sensor and can be connected to other external sensors
such as accelerometers. While here is opportunity to upgrade, the current temperature sensor
isn’t considered precise enough for veterinary applications.
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One of the current applications for taggle technology is to monitor and transmit water meter
information. Taggle have developed prototype devices for remote temperature sensors,
tamper alerts, soil moisture sensors and water meter counters. While the electrical design of
these devices is relatively simple, considerable design resources can be required to package
the electronics in devices for particular purposes. The Taggle chip can be used to reduce
sensor power requirements by only supplying power when a measurement is about to be sent.
However, it has very limited ability to perform data logging applications where on-board
calculations must be done on continuous sensor measurements as it does not have the ability
to store data. The power requirements for these applications are not compatible with Taggle's
aim of delivering ultra-low power telemetry and location data.
Figure 18 - A graphical representation of the Taggle location detection system. A

network of radio receiver towers triangulates the location of a Taggle transmitter
device, sending data to a base station for analysis.
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4 Results and discussion

4.1 Parameters suitable for remote detection of parturition
Review of the literature identified many physical, physiological and behavioural parameters that are
indicative of either Stage one or Stage two of parturition. Parameters suggestive of dystocia were also
identified. Based on existing patents and the current status of electrical and chemical engineering
technology, it is possible to make a judgement on the practicalities of incorporating selected
parameters into a remote sensing device. In Table 2 below, parameters which are considered suitable
for inclusion into a remote calf alert device are listed, along with an interpretation of the anticipated
degree of difficulty of including them in such a device. The degree of difficulty rating is based on
whether there are already practical precedents to the use of the technology (rating 1); whether there
is proven science, but no practical device yet developed (rating 3); or whether it is a theoretical idea
(rating 5).
Table 2 - Physical, physiological or behavioural parameters which have been identified

as suitable for inclusion into a calf-alet device. The perceived degree of technological
difficulty for their incorporation into the device is listed in the adjacent column.
Parameter Perceived degree of difficulty
(1=low, 5 = high)
Cow activity 1
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Cow body temperature 1
Cow location 1
XYZ orientation 1
Expulsion of the calf 2
Cow proximity to other animals 2
Vaginal electrical resistance (real-time) 3
Infrared spectra monitoring 3
Vulval lips separation 3
Raised tail 3
Fetal fluid detection (real-time 3

ultrasound monitoring)
Myometrial activity 4
Abdominal muscle activity 4
Blood progesterone concentrations (real- 5

time)
In addition to selecting suitable parameters for monitoring, an important consideration is whether

there is a constant read-out or whether there is a need for a method for switching the device on. In
the latter case, options include:
 Triggering an intravaginal device based on its expulsion from the vagina
 Triggering the device based on a switching mechanism associated with a mechanical event
involved with parturition. A possible candidate for this type of switching mechanism could be
a magnetic switch associated with opening of the vulval lips, or alternatively the braking or
stretching of the wire.
 Having enough battery life for the device to be constantly activated, and utilising the fact that
the signal from the device will not penetrate animal tissue. This would mean that the device
would only be detected once expelled from the vagina at parturition
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4.2 Design prototypes for a calf-alert device
When designing a calf alert device prototype it is necessary to consider both essential and desirable
requirements. Essential requirements of this device include:
 That the device works over areas of approximately 50 km² and can provide notification
of the occurrence of a calving event within 10 to 15 min of birth. Positional accuracy
should be within ± 20 m.
 The device should be able to be applied to, or implanted within a pregnant animal from
7 months prior to calving.
 That the device has a high specificity for the detection of parturition (approximately
greater than or equal to 95%)
 That the device has medium to high sensitivity for the detection of parturition
(approximately greater than or equal to 80%)
 That the device does not compromise farmworker OH & S, the welfare of the cow, or
the pregnancy.
Desirable requirements include:

 Relatively low-cost. For example approximately $10 per device (based on the cost of
approximately $10 per head to muster cattle).
 Relative ease of application. As a guide this should be no more than what would be
considered a minor veterinary procedure.
 Ideally the device will incorporate current Taggle chip technology to reduce costs and
increase the efficiency of development. Utilising this technology four of the parameters
listed in Table 2 will already be included in the device. Based on review of the literature
the inclusion of an XYZ accelerometer would provide essential data and improve both
the sensitivity and specificity of the device.
The down-side to restricting the device to Taggle technology is the size constraint associated with the
current integrated circuit board. At approximately 90 mm long and 20 mm wide, the size precludes the
efficient development of an implantable device, particularly when the requirement for a battery and
casing is also considered. These latter two items may increase the length of the device to over 12 cm.
As discussed in Section 3.4, implantable devices could be a good option provided they are relatively
small and can be implanted without significant surgical intervention or the need to utilise local
anaesthetic. In addition, an important consideration regarding the use of the Taggle technology is that
transmission of a signal will not be possible through biological tissue. The significance of this
requirement is that a calf alert device implanted into either a body cavity or under skin or mucosa may
require some form of antenna, or alternatively an additional datalogger attached to the animal if real-
time information is to be gathered.
The alternative to the requirement for an antenna is to have a device which is triggered upon
expulsion during parturition. The requirement for an antenna is not compatible with a subcutaneous
implant. External devices have advantages in that they can be utilised with antennas and there are
varied methods of switching the device. However, as described in Section 3.6, the current methods of
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external fixation (tissue adhesives, sutures, or other customised techniques such as staples) are not
yet considered practical or functional for a 200 day placement. Problems with device displacement
resulting from tail movement, and contamination with faeces and urine also are challenges to this type
of external attachment. While the Foalert described in Section 3.7.2 has merit from a technological
point-of-view, it is only designed to be in place for 2 to 3 weeks and also needs to be placed by a
veterinarian with the aid of sutures and local anaesthetic. These constraints preclude it for use in the
Calf Alert context. Thus, the focus of prototype development is with an intravaginal device.
The main requirements of an intravaginal device are discussed in Section 3.5, with perhaps the most
important consideration being that the vaginal mucosa is not subjected to prolonged pressure. From a
signalling and switching point-of-view, it appears that there are four possible options for a calf alert
device that require minimal modification of the existing Taggle technology.
1. An intravaginal device without an external antenna incorporating the Taggle

technology. This version of the device would have a battery installed with specifications
which would allow the device to be constantly active. This device would depend on
animal tissue attenuating the signal while it is in place, with detection occurring upon
device expulsion at parturition. The device would be used in conjunction with a Taggle
ear tag to allow constant monitoring of location to allow behavioural assessment to be
incorporated into the parturition detection algorithm. This device would be designed to
be attached to the dorsal wall of the vagina by rings or toggles as depicted in Figure
19.
2. And intravaginal device based on the current Sirtrack device utilised in deer, but
incorporating the Taggle technology. Such a device would be dislodged from the
vagina by the physical events of parturition and then signal the cows location. This
device would also be used in association with a Taggle ear tag to allow constant
monitoring of location to allow behavioural assessment to be incorporated into the
parturition detection algorithm.
3. An intravaginal device based on the design shown in Figure 6 incorporating the Taggle
technology. As with the other prototypes, this version of the device would have a
battery installed with specifications which would allow the device to be constantly
active. This device would depend on animal tissue attenuating the signal while it is in
place, with detection occurring upon device expulsion at parturition. The device would
be used in conjunction with a Taggle ear tag to allow constant monitoring of location to
allow behavioural assessment to be incorporated into the parturition detection
algorithm.
4. An intravaginal device based on the design shown in Figure 12 incorporating the
Taggle technology. As with the other prototypes, this version of the device would have
a battery installed with specifications which would allow the device to be constantly
active. This device would depend on animal tissue attenuating the signal while it is in
place, with detection occurring upon device expulsion at parturition. The device would
be used in conjunction with a Taggle ear tag to allow constant monitoring of location to
allow behavioural assessment to be incorporated into the parturition detection
algorithm.
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In the case of all options, there would be a need to develop algorithms for accurate interpretation of
behavioural data. All options would benefit from behavioural algorithms being developed based on
ear-tag location and proximity data, but would have expulsion of the device at parturition as the
primary indicator of a calving event.
Investigation of existing patents and commercial products identified two devices that may be able to
be modified to meet the design and switching requirements, and also be compatible with utilising
Taggle chip technology for a calf-alert device. These are described in Sections 3.7.1 and 3.7.5. In
addition to these two devices, the device shown in Figure 6 has merit from a design aspect as it may
allow variation in the contact of the anchor points with the vagina, reducing the risk of pressure
necrosis. Finally, a novel prototype design was developed in an effort to address the issues identified
in Section 3.5. The strength and weaknesses of these four device prototypes are described.
4.2.1 Option one – MLA Device One
This option is a novel design that attempts to address the problems identified in Section 3.5. It is
designed to be suspended from the dorsal vaginal wall as shown in Figure 19 and
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Figure 20.
Figure 19 - Prototype one for a calf-alert device. The device will be anchored by two ring clips at
either end attached to the device by magnetic joiner's. The ring-clips are for example only. Part of
the development process will include assessing other attachment options such as toggles or staples.
Apart from the area required for battery storage, the device will have a flattened, rather than
cylindrical, profile to reduce its presence within the vaginal cavity. The battery end will be facing
cranially in order to present a larger surface area to the calf at parturition.
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Figure 20 - An expanded view of the calf alert prototype shown in figure 15.
Dislodgement of the device at parturition will be due to the magnets being dislodged
from the socket as the calf passes through the birth canal.
This design has potential to be a relatively simple and inexpensive device based directly on the current
Taggle chip technology. It takes advantage of the fact that the signal cannot be transmitted through
animal tissue, thus signalling the timing and location of the calving event as the device is expelled
during Stage two of parturition. Additional behavioural data from the Taggle ear-tag would assist with
identification of a calving event. The device is attached to the dorsal vaginal wall by small piercings, to
which are attached nylon cords. The cords have cylindrical magnets attached to them which fit into
cylindrical sockets within the device casing.
Weaknesses
The main weakness anticipated with this device design is ensuring the device remains in place for the
required duration, and that it reliably detaches at the time of parturition. There is also the
requirement for producing a design and attachment method that does not induce excessive vaginitis,
cervicitis, or abortion. It is noted that with this device option there are a number of instances of
dystocia where the device may not be dislodged, for example some instances of posterior
presentation. It has been noted in the literature that there are documented herds where posterior
presentations have occurred in up to 20% of calvings.
The logistics of attaching the device to the vaginal mucosa may also be a possible weakness. This will
initially need to be done manually as a minor surgical procedure. However, this process is something
that industrial design can address provided the device proves suitable for the purpose.
In order to reduce the possibility of vaginitis, cervicitis, or abortion over a 7 month deployment period,
it will be necessary to keep this device as small as possible and to have minimal contact with the
vaginal mucosa. In utilising the current Taggle technology the dimensions of such a device will be in
the vicinity of 12 cm long by 3 cm wide. With a 200 day deployment time frame in mind it is
considered that the device should have a small site of attachment, and ideally be suspended from the
dorsal vaginal wall in order to reduce obstruction to vaginal discharge.
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In its simplest form, this device will continually transmit for the duration of its application (up to 7
months), utilising the fact that signals will be attenuated by animal tissue and not reach the receiver
while the device remains within the vagina. Thus, a specific switching mechanism will not be required,
as recognition of the calving event will depend upon the device being pushed outside of the vagina at
parturition. The downside to this design is that it will require an AA battery which will make the device
approximately 25 mm longer than the current Taggle ear-tag. Only after the initial trials will the impact
this has on cow comfort and hygiene be known.
Strengths
The major strength of this device is that it will require minimal design modification from the current
Taggle ear-tag. The dimensions and function of the integrated circuit board will not need to be
changed, with the only modification being room for a larger AA battery and modifications to the casing
to incorporate a mechanism to attach the device to the dorsal vaginal wall. The device (in association
with a Taggle ear-tag) will allow monitoring of four of the first five parameters listed in Table 2. This
will provide a multi-faceted approach to detecting a calving event resulting in a high probability of
efficient detection provided the device can be made to function as planned.
Utilising magnets attached to cords for securing the device to the dorsal vaginal wall provides a
number of advantages. Firstly, the cords will allow a degree of flexibility when placing the piercing
rings in the dorsal vaginal wall. This will mean that the device can still be fixed in place even if the
dimensions between the two rings are not exactly the same as the distance between the two magnetic
receptacles within the device casing.
Secondly, this version of the device depends on attenuation of the Taggle signal unit it is expelled at
parturition. This means that the device is continuously active. If it becomes apparent that the power
requirement is too large, or that the device size is too large due to the need for an AA battery, then it
would be possible to reduce the battery size and trigger the device to only become active at
parturition by incorporating a magnetic, or reed switch into the device.
Thirdly, the strength of the magnetic connection can be easily and accurately modified by selecting
magnets of known strength. If, during prototype testing, it becomes apparent that the strength of the
magnetic attachment needs to be either increased or decreased, then this can be modified relatively
easily.
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Finally, as this device is suspended from the dorsal vaginal wall, there is greater likelihood that it will
fall above, or away from, the fetus and membranes at the time of parturition. This is in contrast to a
device lying free within the vagina (mainly on the vaginal floor), which is at risk of falling underneath
the fetus or membranes at parturition. In this latter case, there is significant risk that the signal may be
attenuated and not registered on the receiver network.
4.2.2 Option two – MLA Device Two
This option is shown in Figure 21 and of similar design to that described in Section 3.7.5. The device
will be placed into the anterior vagina via a tube-shaped applicator.
Figure 21 - MLA Device Two based on the Zartman intravaginal parturition alarm. The
lower image is the non-expanded form prior to insertion. The upper image is with the
anchor system expanded as it would be within the vagina.
Weaknesses
Designs such as this requiring circumferential pressure to the vaginal vault in order to maintain
position may result in pressure necrosis after long-term deployment. Such designs may also block
vaginal secretions from exiting the vaginal vault, resulting in inflammation and further discharge.
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Strengths
This design has potential to be a relatively simple and inexpensive device based directly on the current
Taggle chip technology. It takes advantage of the fact that the signal cannot be transmitted through
animal tissue, thus signalling the timing and location of the calving event as the device is expelled
during Stage two of parturition. Additional behavioural data from the Taggle ear-tag will assist with
identification of a calving event. The device should be relatively easy to insert into the vagina, making
it amenable to non-veterinary application. With regard to the influence on vaginal health, it is possible
that the circumferential anchoring system of this device may allow for slight rotation, or oscillation
movements within the vagina in association with vaginal muscular activity. This may reduce the
duration of pressure on any one site. It may be possible, with slight modification to the anchor wings
to have them turned at a slight angle to mimic a propeller. This may encourage the device to rotate
and thus overcome the adverse effects of constant pressure and allow the flow of vaginal discharges.
4.2.3 Option three – MLA Device Three
Option three is a device shown in Figure 22 with an anchoring method based on that used for the
temperature transmitter shown in Figure 6.
Figure 22 - MLA Device Three based on the Zartman intravaginal temperature monitor.
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Weaknesses
The development of the anchor device may provide challenges in selection of a suitably flexible
material to ensure a compromise between too much pressure resulting in damage to the vaginal
mucosa, and too little pressure resulting in device loss.
Strengths
After direct discussions with the developer of the device in Figure 6, there is confidence that this
prototype may have potential to meet the needs of a calf-alert device. Importantly, the anchoring
system has been trialled in an intravaginal temperature transmitter and found to be successful for up
to 100 days deployment, with minimal vaginitis and no noted ulceration. The design of the anchoring
device allows for the flow of vaginal secretions between the projections and also for subtle changes to
the points of contact of the device with the vaginal mucosa. This latter characteristic should result in
reducing the potential for pressure necrosis.
4.2.2 Option four – MLA Device Four
Option four is a commercially available device shown in Figure 23 with an anchoring method based on
that used for the cattle CIDR deviced utilised for synchronising oestrus.
Figure 23 - Device four is a commercial device currently utilised for parturition

detection in deer. It is based on the cattle CIDR device design.
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Weaknesses
The device design was to cater for short-term deployment in cattle of up to 18 days. In deer, it is
marketed to be in place for no longer than 8 weeks, however the suitability of this duration still seems
to be unproven. There is a risk that the device “wings” may apply too much pressure to the vaginal
mucosa, resulting in pressure sores. This concern is backed up by observations from the CIDR
developer that serious damage occurred to the vaginal mucosa of heifers within 4 weeks of extended
application (Section 3.5).
Strengths
This device is already available commercially as a parturition detector for deer. While the signalling
method and technology as described in Section 3.7.1 is not suitable for the calf-alert device, the design
is still worthy of trialling in cattle. If it turned out to be suitable for long-term intravaginal application,
there would be very little development cost to install the Taggle technology into the device.
4.3 Proposal for evaluation of a cost-effective calf alert prototype
4.3.1 Introduction
Based on the literature review and discussions within the project team, including Taggle, the next
stage will be to evaluate calving alert device prototypes, select what is considered to be the most
suitable prototype and evaluate it in a larger field trial. The evaluation phase applies Ockham's razor,
which is to focus on the simplest (and most cost-effective) solution. Of the proposed solutions the
ones described in Sections 4.2.2 and 4.2.3, which incorporate the development of an intravaginal
device plus behavioural measures using a standard Taggle location monitoring ear-tag, are the most
suitable for initial development and testing. The reason for this is that the application of these devices
may be simpler than the requirement to develop a method of quickly piercing the dorsal vaginal wall
as for the device described in Section 4.2.1. However, due to the perceived advantages of reduced
vaginal pressure, reduced obstruction of vaginal secretions and increased possibility of being expelled
free of the fetus and membranes, this latter device should also have a prototype developed and initial
vaginal compatibility and Stage two expulsion trials performed as a contingency should the previous
two device designs prove unsuitable.
The proposed plan follows a series of four phases to evaluate the Taggle platform, with a number of
stop/go points along the way (Figure 24). The development and evaluation of the Taggle chip as a
calving alert device will take approximately 18 months, culminating in the deployment and validation
of an intravaginal device and real time behavioural monitoring using existing Taggle ear tag
technology.
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Figure 24 - Project workflow for developing and evaluating a Taggle calving alert
device.
4.3.2 Phase one
The first phase of the project will be to assess each prototype as to whether a Taggle device that is
inside a cow will be shielded sufficiently to prevent the radio beacon being picked up by the base
stations. This is critical to these prototypes as they will be permanently active and the “switch”
mechanism for the detection of calving will depend on attenuation of the signal until the device is
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expelled at parturition. Reproductive tracts obtained from an abattoir will be used to not only test the
effect of the body cavity on absorbing radio waves but also to explore dimension options for fitting the
intravaginal prototypes.
The first stage of the project will be completed within 2 months of the start of the project.
4.3.3 Phase two
The second phase of the project includes the development, manufacturing and testing of the
intravaginal devices. Based on the Taggle-chip dimensions, up to ten intravaginal devices will be
produced for the three non-commercial prototypes. The design of the prototypes has already
progressed through consultation and meetings between the project team, Taggle and Cube industrial
design specialists (Graeme McDonald). During this stage, “dummy” prototypes will be developed
which contain flashing LED’s to assist detection if they are prematurely expelled. These dummies will
be initially inserted into abattoir specimens, followed by short-term insertion into a small number of
(approximately 5) non-pregnant cows to assess methods of application and biological stability,
reactivity and safety. It is anticipated that there will be some high frequency iterations throughout the
device design during this stage of Phase 2.
Once final designs have been determined, an investigation into the response to a 7 day treatment
protocol for each prototype on vaginal mucosal integrity will be conducted. The commercial device
(option four, Section 4.2.2) will also be included in this assessment. This trial will be evaluated by
vaginoscopy, as measured by a vaginitis score (Walsh et al., 2008), and on the systemic immune
response as measured by the response in both the circulating leukocyte counts and serum haptoglobin
concentration (Skinner et al., 1991: Skinner and Roberts, 1994).
The final stage of Phase two will be to test the prototypes on approximately 20 pregnant cows in order
to gain preliminary estimates of specificity and sensitivity and to determine functionality. Functionality
will be assessed based on calving detection associated with the physical expulsion of the device. Based
on these findings, prototypes may be discarded or modified prior to progressing. Specificity and
sensitivity data will be used in association with predefined confidence intervals to generate estimates
of population sizes necessary to adequately test the device.
The development and testing of the prototypes will occur over a 12 to 16 month period.
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4.3.4 4.3.4 Phase three
Phase three will involve liaising with Taggle technicians regarding the siting and establishment of a
field test site in preparation for Phase 4. This will also involve setting data sampling rates, and
submitting animal care and ethics applications for the trial. Duration is expected to be approximately 6
months.
4.3.5 4.3.5 Phase four
The final phase of the project will evaluate the combination of behavioural and intravaginal device
data, including testing in the target area of northern Australia. The devices will be tested on cattle
numbers suggested by data generated in Phase two of the project. Table 3 provides an example of the
statistical relationship between the variance and ability to reliably validate the device. For example, if
the device is very effective, providing a high proportion (eg 0.975) of true positives, then a sample size
of 50 cows per prototype will provide a result with the 95% confidence interval between 0.906 and
1.0, a range of 0.094. If the prototype is less effective, eg a proportion of 0.75, then 350 animals per
prototype would be needed to provide a confidence interval between 0.703 and 0.794, and a similar
range of 0.091. Therefore, the cost of assessing the prototype will depend on the number of
prototypes progressing through to the final testing phase, and the specificity and sensitivity estimates
provided during Phase two. It is expected this Phase will take between 4 to 8 months depending on
cattle availability and stage of gestation.
In addition to specifically assessing the effectiveness of the prototype, opportunity will also be taken
to assess capability for the current Taggle ear-tag device to monitor behavioural changes at calving.
The behavioural data may also include the ability of the Taggle ear-tag to detect oestrus in addition to
parturition, with the benefit of this outlined in Section 3.1.2. The initial phase of the behavioural
assessment process will be to collect data from cows that are approaching and actually calving,
confirmed by direct observations and automated monitoring. Pre calving behavioural data will be
classified according to movement patterns (speed and timing of movement events), social interactions
(distance and frequency of interactions between individual animals) and use of the paddock (gridded
preferences). These data will be collected from four groups of cattle that are in stable mobs and are
familiar with their calving paddocks. The size of the calving paddocks will be determined by available
resources, however, it is anticipated that paddocks between 50 and 100 ha’s will initially be used.
Further scoping will be required to finalise the location of paddocks and cattle.
The location data will be analysed and used to determine the behavioural patterns pre-calving and
associated changes at calving. The data will then be systematically down sampled both temporally
(increasing sample interval) and spatially (decreasing location resolution) to determine the critical
threshold that is required to successfully identify a calving event. Based on the findings using down
sampled data we will be able to determine whether the current Taggle ear-tag livestock device has the
potential to determine parturition and what the sample interval needs to be. If necessary, work will
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also be scheduled in partnership with Taggle to ensure there is sufficient data to determine the spatial
errors associated with base station configurations. These data will be derived from the Taggle
deployment on the cattle during the calving experiment. If the Taggle ear-tag device doesn’t have the
capability to measure behavioural activity in sufficient detail no further work will be completed.
If the findings indicate potential to use the Taggle ear-tag device as a behavioural calf alert device, this
information will be reported and can be followed up with future research to determine if this
information can be used to validate how successful the behavioural algorithm is at predicting
parturition.
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Table 3 - Effect of n (sample size) and p (proportion) on 95% confidence intervals for
estimates of p.
Sample Proportion (p)

size (n)
0.75 0.80 0.85 0.90 0.95 0.975
50 (0.618,0.862) (0.689,0.911) (0.738,0.942) (0.817,0.983) (0.874,1.006) (0.906,1.000)
100 (0.665,0.835) (0.722,0.878) (0.780,0.920) (0.841,0.959) (0.907,0.993) (0.937,1.000)
150 (0.677,0.816) (0.736,0.864) (0.789,0.904) (0.852,0.948) (0.911,0.983) (0.948,0.999)
200 (0.690,0.810) (0.745,0.855) (0.801,0.899) (0.858,0.942) (0.920,0.980) (0.953,0.997)
250 (0.694,0.802) (0.750,0.850) (0.803,0.893) (0.863,0.937) (0.920,0.976) (0.952,0.992)
300 (0.701,0.799) (0.755,0.845) (0.810,0.890) (0.866,0.934) (0.925,0.975) (0.955,0.992)
350 (0.703,0.794) (0.758,0.842) (0.811,0.886) (0.869,0.931) (0.925,0.972) (0.958,0.991)
400 (0.708,0.792) (0.761,0.839) (0.815,0.885) (0.871,0.929) (0.929,0.971) (0.960,0.990)
450 (0.709,0.789) (0.763,0.837) (0.816,0.882) (0.872,0.928) (0.929,0.969) (0.958,0.988)
500 (0.712,0.788) (0.765,0.835) (0.819,0.881) (0.874,0.926) (0.931,0.969) (0.960,0.988)
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4.3.6 Overall Budget (All budgets are recorded exclusive of GST)
Estimated
Yr Phase Item Description Cost Outcome Milestone
duration
Specifications for the

devices will be produced
Fine-tune drawings for the final with industrial design
prototypes and produce up to 5 diagrams. Different
devices. Purchase 5 Sirtrack options for attaching
Final devices. Investigate signal prototypes within the
prototype strength attenuation within vagina will be provided.
Design $25,000.00 2 months
design and abattior specimens and in the These may initially be
production live animal. This will include a “dummy” devices which
Taggle technician coming to CSU have the morphology of
with signal strength monitoring the final device, but not
equipment. necessarily containing
the complete
electronics.
Costs for Phase 1:
Obtain 4 reproductive tracts from

Investigate $470.00
abattoir Short report (600 words)
attachment
to MLA identifying
location and
1 Consultation with industrial 2 months location of attachment
method in
designer (including travel and $4,800.00 and possible attachment
reproductive
accommodation) options
tracts
Produce 5 of each modified
$5,000.00
1 prototype
"Dummy" prototypes inserted

into five non-pregnant cows for 7
days to assess methods of
insertion and biological
compatibility. Device
modification is likely to be
required
A report (600 words) on
Each prototype inserted into 20 the outcome of
pregnant cows to determine attaching the device in a
Trial location functionality and gain preliminary live animal and its Milestone
and estimates of specificity and apparent longevity. report 1
2 3 months
attachment in sensitivity Reactions of the cow to (physiological
live animals the procedure will be component)
Costs for Phase 2: noted. Opinion on the
viability of the device
Prepare ACEC application $300.00 will be provided.
Purchase 20 cull dairy cows $20,000.00
Muster and handle cows (6

$1,000.00
handlings/week)
Equipment (incl. three-blade $2,500.00

speculum, cervical forceps, staple
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applicator, rings)
Prototype design modification

$12,000.00
and production
Discuss with Taggle the

equipment requirements and
accuracy and determine a
suitable sample rate.
Submit animal ethics application
Install Taggle equipment on

Establish research property (Belmont or
Status update
Taggle Brian Pastures)
3 6 months (behavioural
equipment at
component)
field test site Costs for Phase 3:
Taggle equipment, including 4

$50,000.00
base stations
Taggle tags (x100) $2,000.00
Travel (field work, consultation

$6,500.00
with Taggle)
General Vaccinations $150.00
Research assistant CSU (Level 6,

Salaries 9 months $28,230.00
Step 4)
Postdoc Research Fellow CQU

3 months $7,231.13
(0.30 FTE)
Research Assistant CQU (0.15

3 months $3,150.00
FTE)
Two selected prototypes left in

place for up to 7 months. Cattle
will be assessed every second
day for three assessments then
reduced to weekly assessments
for the next 3 weeks. Provided
these assessments indicate
Provided the results of
compatibility of the device to the
this stage of the
Trial device vaginal environment, Milestone
protocol are supportive
longevity in assessments will continue at report 2
2 2b 9 months of compatibility of the
non-pregnant weekly intervals for the (physiological
device, progression will
animals remaining 5 months. Assessment component)
be made to the next
will include visual assessment of
phase.
the vulval lips, in particular the
ventral commissure for the
presence of discharge. Speculum
examination using a tri-blade
speculum will be performed to
assess the device and tissues
surrounding its attachment
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Costs for Phase 2b:
Mustering/handling costs:
Week 1 $600.00
Week 2-4 $600.00
Month 2-7 $5,500.00
Cattle agistment $2,000.00
Test and validate combined

intravaginal device with ear
Taggle locating device on
research property
Perform visual observations

A final report will be
Costs for Phase 4: submitted to MLA on
Trial device in
the success of the device
4 pregnant 6 months Final report
Include haptoglobin assessment in combination with
animals $20,000.00
costs Taggle ear tags to
predict a calving event
Cattle handling/mustering $25,000.00
Produce 100 of the selected

$20,000.00
prototype
Travel (field work) $6,500.00
Research assistant CSU (Level 6,

Salaries 9 months $28,200.00
Step 4)
Postdoc Research Fellow CQU

9 months $21,693.38
(0.30 FTE)
Research Assistant CQU (0.15

9 months $9,450.00
FTE)
TOTAL $307,874.50
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5 Success in achieving objectives

The success in achieving the project objectives is addressed using each objective as a heading.
5.1 Consultation with Taggle systems
Two members of the research team (Norman, Swain) communicated with Taggle personnel both via e-
mail and on three occasions, in person. Outcomes from these discussions included:
Taggle providing in-principle support for the collaborative development of a calf alert device.
The research team becoming familiar with the current Taggle technology, its capabilities and
limitations. In particular, it is noted that the Taggle device will not produce a signal through body
tissues and that there are size requirements for incorporating the Taggle technology into a calf-alert
device.
Noting that any significant deviation from current Taggle technology may add significant cost and time
to the development of a calf alert device.
Noting that the first three parameters presented in Table 2 of Section 4.1, and the cow proximity
monitoring, could be readily adapted from current Taggle technology. Additionally, the inclusion of an
XYZ accelerometer should be possible and would greatly enhance the efficacy of the device.
The engagement of an industrial design engineer to help develop the concept diagrams and models for
the prototypes described in this report.
The Taggle personnel gaining a deep understanding of the processes associated with parturition in
cattle, the parameters that may be amenable to remote detection, factors which need to be
considered in order to address animal safety and the requirements for efficient application of the
device.
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5.2 Review the literature then document patents and commercial products relating to the design
and functionality of calf alert systems
The literature was reviewed in relation to the anatomy, physiology and behaviour of parturition and
dystocia. To provide economic context for the development of a calf alert device, the economic impact
of dystocia on the beef cattle industry was also reviewed and placed in an Appendix (Section 8.6).
Factors relevant to a calf-alert device which may influence animal health or welfare were reviewed
(Sections 3.4 to 3.6). Patent searches revealed 6 patents relating to a calving alert device. These were
documented in Section 3.7. One of these devices was considered as readily adaptable to a calf-alert
device based on the Taggle technology.
5.3 Reviewed and evaluated potential issues and risks associated with external or internal design
options including functional performance, practicality, cost, retention, inflammatory
response, infection, general health and fetal loss.
The report has documented a number of internal and external calf-alert devices in Section 3.7, with
the advantages and disadvantages of various methods of attachment considered in Sections 3.4 to 3.6.
In summary, a device based on Taggle technology would be too large to be readily attached externally
to the perineal region of the cow. Such a device would be at risk of being dislodged by the tail of the
cow or other object. However, the current external ear tag Taggle could be extremely useful if it
proves capable of monitoring behavioural data to a level necessary for the detection of parturition.
With regard to intravaginal devices, there appears to be very little information in the literature
regarding their long-term effects on vaginal, uterine and cow health. Opinion based on personal
experience, comment from the developer of the cow CIDR device, anecdote and documented findings
associated with the use of other intravaginal devices used in the synchronisation of oestrus suggest
that any intravaginal device will induce some degree of inflammatory response. However, based on
information reported in Section 3.5 there is some indication that general cow health may be affected
by the long-term application of an intravaginal device if they are not designed to reduce the risk of
pressure necrosis. While further work will be necessary to quantify this response, it is suggested that
the best option for a calf alert system incorporating Taggle technology is for the development of an
intravaginal device which will include:
 Keeping the size as small as possible

 Reducing positive pressure placed on the vaginal mucosa
 Avoiding devices which occlude the vaginal cavity
 Avoiding devices which are retained on the floor of the vaginal cavity
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With regard to the development cost of a calf alert device, it is recommended that at least in the first
instance the device design should deviate minimally from the current Taggle ear tag device with
regard to the technological requirements.
6 Impact on meat and livestock industry – Now and in five years

time
In the immediate future it is anticipated there will be minimal impact of this current work on the meat
and livestock industry other than to generate interest in the project and the need to investigate
production losses in more detail. However, a successful outcome in the development of a calf alert
device has potential for significant impact in 5 years time. Based on figures presented in Section 8.6
which are now approximately 18 years old, it could be envisaged that modifications to beef cattle
management resulting from information supplied by a functional calf alert device could save the
industry hundreds of millions of dollars per year.
7 Conclusions and recommendations

While review of the literature has identified a number of possible design options for a calf-alert device,
the requirement to use Taggle technology places specific constraints on prototype design and
application. While in some ways this may be seen as restrictive with regards to other technologies and
designs that may be utilised, it also has some positive benefits, which include:
 The utilisation of pre-existing technology that can be made suitable to the current application
significantly reducing research and development expenses
 The components of the pre-existing technology significantly influence device dimensions and
shape. While restrictive, this factor reduces design options making development decisions
easier.
Taking the need to use Taggle technology into account, there will be a need for the device to be at
least 12 cm in length and 2.5 cm in width. In the context of the requirements of this report, a device of
these dimensions is not considered suitable for development as a subcutaneous or submucosal
implant due to the anticipated extensive research and development that would be required to ensure
its safe and effective application.
If considering a device that could be fixed externally to the animal, for example in the perineal region
or on the vulval lips, a device of this size would also be considered a liability. This is because the 12 cm
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long object would be at risk of being damaged by constant contact with a flicking tail, or by the animal
rubbing on solid objects. Additionally, it would be at risk of faecal material building up on the device
and possibly impairing function; for example, interfering with wireless signal transmission.
Without making major changes to the existing technology, intravaginal application currently seems to
be the only viable option when considering developmental time constraints, costs and the likelihood
of success. As a result, the main design requirements to investigate are the shape of the device and
the method of anchoring within the vagina.
The device prototypes described in Section 4.2 are considered to provide good options for further
development of a functional calf-alert device and in conjunction with an external Taggle ear-tag,
should provide a good opportunity for success.
A development plan following a series of four phases to evaluate the Taggle platform, with a number
of stop/go points along the way (Figure 24) has been proposed, The development and evaluation of
the Taggle chip as a calving alert device will take approximately 18 months, culminating in the
deployment and validation of an intravaginal device and real time behavioural monitoring using
existing Taggle ear tag technology. A detailed, itemised and fully costed project plan (with budget) for
phase 2 of the project has been developed exploring the ‘best bet’ options outlined. It is envisage the
project would take a little over 2 years and cost $307,874.50.
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8 Appendices
8.1 Appendix 1 – Additional information on hormonal function and assessment during gestation
Progesterone is a fat soluble hormone, and a number of authors have reported progesterone being
sequestered in body fat (Clemens and Estergreen, 1982; Hoffmann, 1979; Lin et al., 1978; McCracken,
1964; Purdy et al., 1980). Others have found that progesterone concentration in milk is positively
correlated with milk fat percentage (Pennington et al., 1981). In one study, progesterone
concentrations in subcutaneous fat averaged 18.1 ng/g after the parenteral administration of
physiological concentrations of progesterone to steers (Lin et al., 1978).
There is evidence to suggest that serum progesterone concentrations may vary depending on body fat
percentage, body condition score and the plane of nutrition. However, there is an apparent conflict as
to the nature of this variation. In one study, plasma concentrations of progesterone were found to be
significantly higher in fat cows than in normal-conditioned cows during weeks 1 to 7 prior to calving
(Zhang, 1989). In another study, the authors demonstrated that serum progesterone concentrations
were highest when heifers were in moderate body condition and on a rising plane of nutrition. This is
in contrast to lower serum progesterone concentrations in heifers in moderate condition on a falling
plane of nutrition, and in fat heifers regardless of the plane of nutrition (Villa-Godoy et al., 1990).
Other research has associated variations in blood progesterone concentrations during late gestation
with photoperiod and ambient temperature (Erb et al., 1982a).
A large range of progestins has been identified in subcutaneous fat. These include progesterone, 3
alpha-hydroxy-5 beta-pregnan-20-one, 20 beta-hydroxy-4-pregnen-3- one, and 20 alpha-hydroxy-4-
pregnen-3-one (Clemens and Estergreen, 1982). Research has demonstrated that adipose tissue, liver
and muscle play an active role in metabolising progesterone (Clemens and Estergreen, 1982; Lin et al.,
1978).
Progesterone may influence dystocia due to its role in modifying myometrial contractions (Section
3.3.2.1) or cervical dilatation (Section 3.2.1.2).
The use of radioimmunoassay to quantify the concentrations of steroid hormones in bovine muscle
and fat tissue has been reported (Hoffmann, 1978). Provided steps are taken to validate the assay,
useful and repeatable measurements are possible from these tissues.
Page 83 of 113
The role of gonadotrophic hormones

Gonadotrophic hormones from the anterior pituitary are necessary for the persistence of the corpus
luteum during pregnancy. During gestation, significant changes in secretory patterns of LH are not
evident (Hafez and Hafez, 2000). However in the 10 days prior to calving, plasma FSH and LH
concentrations are low compared to periods of normal cyclicity (Peters and Lamming, 1986).
The role of placental lactogen and prolactin

The structure and biology of placental lactogen has been studied in the cow, sheep and goat, however
the precise biological function of placental lactogen in ruminants still requires definition (Byatt et al.,
1992). Ruminant placental lactogens are members of the somatotrophin-prolactin gene family. They
are synthesized by trophectodermal binucleate cells and secreted into both the fetal and maternal
circulations. Information on the synthesis and secretion of placental lactogen is limited, but evidence
suggests that nutrition and/or body condition can influence synthesis or secretion (Gluckman and Barry,
1988; Rasby et al., 1990).
The plasma concentration of placental lactogen in the fetus peaks at approximately 25 ng/ml in mid-
gestation then declines to low concentrations of approximately 5 ng/ml 1 to 2 weeks prior to
parturition. In the maternal circulation placental lactogen is detectable from the fourth month of
gestation, but in cattle the concentrations remain low (compared to sheep and goats) at around one
ng/ml for the duration of pregnancy (Rasby et al., 1990).
Ruminant placental lactogens have greater structural identity to prolactin than to somatotrophin
(growth hormone), although they bind to both lactogenic and somatogenic receptors. The precise
factors that modulate secretion of placental lactogen in the bovine are unknown, although placental
mass and nutrition seem to play a role (Gluckman and Barry, 1988). In sheep, placental lactogen is
related to placental mass, with maternal plasma concentrations higher in multiparous pregnancies
compared to single fetus pregnancies. It has been shown that the maternal plasma concentration of
placental lactogen may be increased two to three fold by nutritional restriction of pregnant beef cattle
in the last 2 months of gestation (Rasby et al., 1990).
There is also growing evidence to suggest that placental lactogen is involved with the regulation of
fetal growth (Byatt et al., 1992). Another role that has been suggested for placental lactogen is a
metabolic partitioning agent in the dam to regulate nutrient supply for fetal growth (Byatt et al.,
1992). In this regard, placental lactogen is thought to be the primary regulator of maternal IGF (insulin-
like growth factor) secretion during pregnancy (Gluckman and Barry, 1988). The maternal plasma
concentration of placental lactogen has been shown to fall when a protein source (casein) was introduced
to the diet in late pregnancy (Gluckman and Barry, 1988). In addition, a high correlation between IGF-1 in
Page 84 of 113
the fetal blood and calf birth weight has been reported, but no correlations between maternal IGF
concentrations and birth weight were noted (Gluckman and Barry, 1988).
As noted above, placental lactogen can bind to fetal somatotrophin (growth hormone) receptors and
has been shown to stimulate glycogen synthesis and IGF production in fetal rat tissue. It is also
possible that it may stimulate fetal growth by redirecting maternal metabolism in favour of
transplacental glucose transport to the fetus. Concentrations of placental lactogen in maternal plasma
have been found to be greater in thin cows compared to moderate body condition cows (Rasby et al.,
1990). However, the effect of nutritional influence at specific times during gestation is still unknown.
In summary, increased concentrations of maternal placental lactogen tend to be associated with

higher calf birth weights, lower body condition scores during gestation, twins, and higher placental
weights.
Prolactin is secreted by the anterior pituitary and is required for the initiation and maintenance of
lactation (Carruthers, 1986). It is also the hormone responsible for maternal behaviour (Hafez and
Hafez, 2000) and in this role, prolactin concentrations may affect the heifers attitude towards caring
for the calf and its subsequent survival.
Prolactin concentrations start to increase slowly from basal concentrations of approximately 80 ng/ml
at approximately 250 days of gestation. Two weeks prior to parturition there is a rapid increase in
plasma prolactin concentration to reach concentrations of approximately 400 ng/ml at calving
(Knickerbocker et al., 1986).
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8.2 Appendix 2 – Placental development, hormone production and fetal growth during gestation
Considerable development of the ruminant embryo occurs before attachment, such that the amnion is
completely formed and the allantois is well developed prior to attachment. The heart, eye, brain and
neural tube are also well advanced by this stage. Attachment is a gradual process in the bovine,
occurring between days 20 and 28 (Wathes and Wooding, 1980). Definite adhesions between the fetal
trophectoderm and endometrium are present by day 20. By day 24, microvilli are forming between the
chorioallantois and endometrial caruncles, with many giant cells being present in the endometrium
(Hafez and Rajakoski, 1966). At day 28, complete interdigitation between the trophectoderm and
maternal microvilli occurs and by day 35 the attachment is firm enough for the embryo to receive part
of its nourishment through the cotyledons (Hafez and Rajakoski, 1966). However at this stage the
relationship between the chorioallantois and endometrium is described as a diffuse epitheliochorial
placenta. Firm interlocking between the chorioallantois and maternal caruncles to form a cotyledonary
placenta does not occur until the 40th to 50th day of gestation (Hafez and Rajakoski, 1966). This
interlocking of the chorionic villi with the endometrial crypts serves to increase the surface area for
maximum physiologic exchange to occur (Hafez and Hafez, 2000).
The relative increase in weight of placental membranes is much slower in the third month of gestation
compared to the second month. Normally the chorioallantois extends into the non-gravid horn, but it
is not usual for the non-gravid horn to play a role in placentation. The placenta reaches physiological
maturity between 90 and 120 days of gestation (Hammond, 1927) and near maximal size is reached by
mid gestation.
Further increases in physiologic function of the placenta are achieved by enhanced interdigitating of
the microvilli within the placentome. However there is limited information on subsequent villus
growth and development in the bovine placentome. The placenta undergoes physical changes as
pregnancy progresses, resulting in increased permeability of the membranes for greater nutrient
transfer in the latter stages. The increase in fetal fluids and size may account for the stretching of the
placenta and therefore thinning of the epithelial cytoplasm separating the fetal and maternal blood,
indicating how the increase in permeability may occur (Prytkov, 1999).
There is evidence to suggest that many factors prior to and during gestation can influence the ultimate
size and function of the placenta (Robinson et al., 1995). These include genetic influences, maternal
nutrition prior to and after conception, the dam body size, ambient temperature and season.
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Placental hormone production

Hormone production from the placenta needs to be considered in association with fetal physiology.
Both the placenta and fetus lack some of the enzyme pathways required to produce steroid hormones
autonomously. However, in combination, they possess all the pathways necessary to produce most of
the hormonally active steroids (Hafez and Hafez, 2000). The bovine placenta produces high
concentrations of both progesterone and oestrogens. During the latter stages of gestation, the
placenta relies on fetal cortisol production to induce placental enzyme activity allowing the production
of oestrogen from progesterone (Hafez and Hafez, 2000).
The placenta also produces trophic hormones such as placental lactogen (chorionic
somatomammotrophin) and prolactin. These are described in Section 8.1.
Fetal growth during gestation

Day 12 to day 45 of gestation is known as the period of organogenesis. During this period the major
tissues, organs and systems of the body are formed (Noakes, 1986). Considerable development of the
ruminant embryo occurs before placental attachment. Starting at day 14 in the cow, the trophoblast
elongates rapidly. The amnion commences development by day 13 and is completely formed and
closed by day 20 of gestation. The allantois commences development by day 14 and is well developed
by day 25 (Noakes, 1986). By day 22 the heart is crudely formed and beating. By day 25 the neural
tube is closed, 25 somites are present, anterior limb buds are formed, and eye and brain development
is well advanced.
Organogenesis is largely complete by day 45, and the period from day 45 post-fertilization to term is
known as the period of fetal growth. Growth of the conceptus during organogenesis occurs initially via
cell hyperplasia rather than hypertrophy. In fetal sheep, hyperplasia is still capable of occurring until
about 90 days of gestation (approximately 60% of the duration of gestation). Thereafter, weight
increases at a much greater rate than that attributable to cell hyperplasia, indicating that hypertrophy
is the main influence on fetal weight gain. Hence the limits are apparently set for maximum size of the
fetus by the time only 60% of gestation is complete, with breed differences being due to the number
of cells rather than cell size (Hammond, 1969).
It has been found that the central nervous system and brain develop earlier than other organs,
whereas lung tissue has its most rapid growth period in late gestation (Harding and Johnston, 1995).
Hence it is possible that nutritional deprivation at different stages of gestation may affect different
tissues.
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By the end of the first half of gestation, placental growth, but not development, is largely complete
(Section 3.2.3.2). Fetal growth occurs slowly through the first two trimesters of gestation and then
enters a rapid growth phase that continues until term. During this phase the placenta continues to
develop, undergoing structural and biochemical changes that enable it to meet the increased
metabolic demands placed on it by the rapidly growing fetus.
While the rate of early embryonic cell division is mainly determined by the genetics of the developing
embryo (Widdowson and Lister, 1991), the maternal plane of nutrition can influence the growth rate
of the conceptus from as early as the first few days after fertilization. This has been demonstrated in
the bovine where embryos cultured in-vitro for a short period in different media show altered growth
rates and gestation lengths (Robinson et al., 1995). Other studies have demonstrated that the bovine
conceptus secretes substances capable of modifying endometrial gland secretion as early as 17 days
after conception (Gross et al., 1988; Kessler et al., 1991). This has the ability to control the supply of
substrates from the dam to the conceptus.
The innate genetic make-up of the fetus is a major regulator of fetal growth rate. It has been reported
that differential growth rates of fetuses due to sex or genotype occur before 200 days of gestation and
possibly as early as 100 days (Anthony et al., 1986b). Similar results were found by (Eley et al., 1978). A
possible explanation is that as mentioned earlier, the fetus is enlarging due to cell hyperplasia during
the earlier stages of gestation, with hyperplasia possibly under tighter genetic control compared to cell
hypertrophy. This indicates that during the early stages of gestation, factors that affect the genetic
expression of fetal growth may have a substantial effect on fetal birth weight. In addition, it has been
postulated that it is rare for the fetus to completely express its genetically determined potential for
growth (Ferrell, 1991). This is because it is constrained to various degrees by factors in the fetal
environment that are mainly functions of maternal influence and are independent of maternal
genotype.
As noted earlier, placental growth occurs predominantly in the first half of gestation, whereas fetal
growth accelerates in mid-gestation and proceeds rapidly until term. However, during the latter stages
of gestation the placenta still continues to develop so that placental function can continue to support
the fetal growth. To this end, placental characteristics such as surface area for blood exchange, blood
flow rates, permeability to urea, and glucose transfer capacity all continually increase. Thus, fetal
growth depends on the placentas ability to transfer, utilise, and modify substrates made available to it
from the maternal circulation. In addition, the placenta must then be able to integrate its metabolism
with that of the fetus through a number of substrate exchanges (Owens, 1991). There appears to be a
lot of evidence indicating a major role for insulin-like growth factors (somatomedins) in the mediation
of substrate supply to the fetus (Owens, 1991).
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8.3 Appendix 3 – Some causes of dystocia
For the development of an effective calf alert device, it is necessary to understand some causes of
abnormal parturition. Importantly, it is these abnormalities which need to be detected.
The three most important causes of dystocia in cattle are reported to be fetopelvic disproportion,
posterior presentation of the calf and ineffective labour. These causes account for 30 to 70%, 20 to
45% and 10 to 20% of dystocia in heifers respectively (Dufty and Sloss, 1984).
8.3.1 Fetopelvic disproportion (= Fetomaternal disproportion)
Fetopelvic disproportion has been defined as a disparity in the size of the fetus relative to that of the
maternal pelvis (Dufty and Sloss, 1984). The maternal component may be associated with a change in
size of the pelvic area or an alteration in its form. The fetal component may be due to an increase in
size of the fetus or a change in its conformation. Birthweight is regarded as being one of the most
important factors affecting this cause of dystocia. The correlation coefficient between birthweight
and calving difficulty is high with ranges reported in the literature from 0.30 to 0.66 (Dufty and Sloss,
1984; Naazie et al., 1991).
8.3.2 Posterior presentation
A mean of five percent of all bovine fetuses are delivered in posterior presentation, and 20 to 45% of
all dystocias are associated with fetuses in posterior presentation (Dufty and Sloss, 1984). Male calves
are more commonly presented posteriorly with the sex ratio being 64.2% male and 35.8% female
(Patterson et al., 1987). The exact cause of posterior presentation is not known. However, it is known
that this condition arises in the last trimester of gestation and that the fetus has to take an active role
in assuming a normal presentation, position and posture (Hafez and Hafez, 2000). It has been asserted
that the presentation observed at birth is determined no later than the seventh month of gestation
(Rice and Wiltbank, 1972).
Marked differences in the incidence of posterior presentation between sires or sire lines have been
reported (Dufty and Sloss, 1984), with these authors concluding there is a distinct genetic effect on the
incidence of dystocia due to posterior presentation. Identifying and culling offending sires could
reduce dystocia due to posterior presentation to very low levels.
Page 90 of 113
Anecdotal reports suggest that stressors such as inclement weather, or transportation during the last
trimester of gestation may increase the incidence of posterior presentation. Possible causes of this
are discussed in Section 3.3.2.1. As the calf plays an active role in attaining the correct presentation,
position and posture prior to delivery (Hafez and Hafez, 2000; Noakes, 1986), it is possible that
diseases resulting in a weak or dead fetus during the last trimester of gestation may also be involved.
8.3.3 Ineffective labour
This condition is characterised by weak uterine contractions associated with poor uterine tone. It
accounts for 10 to 20% of all dystocia and has been commonly observed in emaciated or debilitated
animals that have suffered from starvation, specific nutritional deficiency, or infectious disease (Dufty
and Sloss, 1984). Abnormal distension of the uterus due to twinning, hydrops allantois, or an
abnormally large fetus may also result in weak contractions. Recently, this condition has been
reported to be increasing in incidence in the Irish Republic (Rogers, 1996).
Importantly the condition is also associated with obesity (Corah, 1987). There is no firm evidence why
this occurs, but there are many anecdotal observations. Due to the potential influence of the sire on
fetal membrane hormone production, there is the possibility of a sire induced cause of ineffective
labour.
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Page 92 of 113
8.4 Appendix 4
8.4.1 Environmental effects in relation to pregnancy, parturition and dystocia
Seasonal effects
Although there appears to be general agreement in the literature that a seasonal influence on dystocia
in beef heifers exists, the mechanisms remain unclear (Morris, 1980). There is also conflicting
information reported as to the seasonal attributes that result in a higher dystocia rate. In a survey of
Colorado beef producers it was found there were increases in calf mortality (associated with dystocia)
in breeders calving earlier in the year (Wittum et al., 1990). Translating this to seasonal conditions, it
indicates that calf mortality associated with dystocia was higher in heifers calving in mid to late winter
compared to heifers calving in late winter to early spring. Research in Australia has also shown the
incidence of dystocia within a herd varies at different stages of the calving season (Young, 1970).
However in contrast to the American study, calf birth weight, and the dystocia level of the herd,
increased as the calving season progressed. From a seasonal point of view, this means that the
dystocia incidence in Australian herds was higher in heifers calving in late winter to early spring
compared to those calving in mid to late winter. The apparent conflict in results between the
Australian and American studies could be due to different manifestations of the seasonal effect. For
example the more severe American winters could result in temperature being a major determinant of
dystocia. In contrast, the availability of pasture could be the more important factor under Australian
conditions.
In the field there have been several incidents of severe dystocia problems following good drought
breaking rains occurring in late pregnancy (Cummins, 1984). In these situations heifers have been
undernourished throughout most of pregnancy except for good nutrition in the last month or so. This
Page 93 of 113
has resulted in some researchers suggesting that the increase in dystocia incidence is in part a result of
the protein status of the available feed during late gestation, and recommendations have been made
to ensure calving occurs “before the season breaks” in areas of predictable rainfall (Freer, 1989). These
reports have also stimulated a lot of research into the effects of nutrition in the last trimester of
pregnancy on dystocia incidence and calf birth weights (Meijering, 1984).
Although there is still uncertainty regarding the mechanism by which seasonal effects alter the
incidence of dystocia, certain lines of investigation are being pursued. In addition to research on the
effects of nutrition noted above, the effect of ambient temperatures and the effect of day length are
also being investigated (Drost and Thatcher, 1987; Patterson et al., 1992).
Research on the effects of ambient temperature during late gestation on calf birthweight has
produced conclusive results. Holstein calves born during the hot summer months in Florida have lower
birth weights compared to calves born in the cool winter months (Drost and Thatcher, 1987). The
authors suggested this could be due to decreased uterine blood flow during hot weather leading to
lower placental weights and less nutrient support for the fetus. The decrease in calf birth weight is
associated with lower concentrations of oestrone sulfate, which is produced by the fetal cotyledon,
indicating reduced conceptus function (Drost and Thatcher, 1987). Heifers calving during winter in
North America are reported to experience increased dystocia compared to heifers calving during the
warmer months (Roberts, 1986; Wittum et al., 1990). Recent research involving British Breed beef
heifers in Nebraska supports the suggestion that cooler temperatures during the last trimester of
gestation result in calves with higher birth weights (Colburn et al., 1997). These authors reported
mean calf birth weights being 4.6 kg lighter with a 6.1 oC increase in mean air temperature during the
last trimester of gestation compared to heifers calving after a cooler last trimester.
The effects of stress on parturition and calf survival
8.4.1.1 Stress and the heifer
Adult cattle can become stressed for a variety of reasons. Common examples include transportation,
holding in yards for long periods, unfamiliar environments and parturition (Lee, 1993). Compounding
factors might include associated physical exhaustion, muscle bruising, and lack of feed or water.
With respect to dystocia, it is suggested that parturition in first calf heifers is a stressful occurrence
(Noakes, 1986). Thus, a consideration of stress related responses are considered necessary to
understand possible metabolic changes that may occur during the periparturient period. Any major
change in hormonal or mineral physiology resulting from stress may have a subsequent effect on the
parturition process.
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In response to stress, corticotrophin releasing factor from the hypothalamus stimulates the pituitary
gland to release adrenocorticotrophic hormone (ACTH). This circulates in the blood stream and
stimulates the adrenal cortex to release glucocorticoid, cortisol, and aldosterone (Nockels, 1990).
Aldosterone secretion is also regulated by rennin from the kidney via angiotensin ll, by a direct rise in
plasma potassium concentration, or by a fall in plasma sodium concentration. During periods of stress
the adrenal medulla is capable of releasing the catecholamines, adrenaline and noradrenaline.
Changing blood glucose concentrations can rapidly alter blood hormone concentrations. During
periods of fasting, the release of cortisol and pancreatic glucagon is enhanced while insulin secretion
falls. These hormonal changes are instrumental in initiating the metabolic changes that result in
altered mineral balance as a result of stress (Nockels, 1990).
With respect to parturition, it appears that one of the most important aspects of stress is its ability to
cause acidosis. Acidosis will occur when free fatty acids do not exit the liver, but instead are converted
to ketone bodies that are released back into the circulation. This process has a profound effect on
mineral metabolism in ruminants (Nockels, 1990). Acidosis and stress can result in a blood calcium
deficit due to increased calcium excretion via the urine, decreased calcium absorption and altered
bone mobilisation. This is partly due to the impairment of renal 1 hydroxylase activity, which is
necessary for the synthesis of 1:25 dihydroxycholecalciferol (Nockels, 1990). This hormone is
important for calcium absorption, bone mobilisation, and renal reabsorption. The importance of
calcium during parturition is discussed in Section 3.3.2.1.
Acidosis and stress both lead to increased phosphorus excretion in the urine. Dietary uptake is also
impaired due to the decreased synthesis of 1:25 dihydroxycholecalciferol. An acidosis-induced
decrease in production of 1:25 dihydroxycholecalciferol also results in reduced magnesium absorption
associated with evidence of increased excretion (Nockels, 1990). Research suggests that acidosis
possibly increases the excretory losses of copper and zinc and also results in tissue redistribution of
these minerals (Nockels, 1990).
8.4.1.2 Stress and the calf
During parturition the calf undergoes a dramatic physiological transition (Garry, 1995). In
uncomplicated parturition, stress reactions are in response to the normal endocrine, physical and
neural mechanisms that are needed to complete the transition to extrauterine life. Stress in the case
of dystocia can be life threatening, not only due to possible trauma, but also due to the possibility of
metabolic and respiratory acidosis described in Section 8.5.
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8.5 Appendix 5 – Physiological changes occurring in the newborn calf
The physiological changes occurring in the newborn calf are explored to provide context for
parameters which may be suitable for measuring to determine calf viability. While this is not a direct
goal of this project, it may have future relevance for determining calf loss in extensive regions.
The neonatal period of the calf extends from the moment of birth until 28 days postpartum (Kasari,
1989). Deaths during this period, particularly the first 3 days of life, are associated with dystocia by
most authors and have accounted for up to 90% of all calf losses from birth until weaning (Bellows et
al., 1987; Laster and Gregory, 1973).
Birth has been described as the most dramatic physiological transition that a mammal makes (Garry,
1995). In a very short period of time, the neonate must adapt from having all of its requirements met
by the placenta and dam, to being self-supporting in a relatively hostile environment. To achieve this
goal, it must modify its blood circulation, commence respiration, generate heat and thermoregulate,
remove its own waste products, become mobile and seek food. These functions are not autonomous
and so there is a need for each process to progress normally so that all the adaptive requirements can
be completed (Garry, 1995). This must all be accomplished while dealing with the trauma, stress and
transient period of anoxia associated with parturition (Section 8.4).
The normal calf should breathe spontaneously after delivery and show strong activity immediately
after birth. Normal newborn calves can be expected to have a strong sucking reflex and stand within 1
hour of birth. It is expected that the calf will have found and sucked the dams’ teats within 2 hours of
birth (Garry, 1995).
Calves normally experience a mixed metabolic/respiratory acidosis at birth due to the brief period of
anoxia inducing a need for anaerobic metabolism (Szenci et al., 1981). Calves experiencing normal
parturition are able to correct this acid-base imbalance rapidly once postnatal respiratory and
cardiovascular functions are established (Adams et al., 1995).
Cardiovascular changes
During fetal life the cardiovascular system bypasses the non-functional lungs. This is achieved by the
foramen ovale allowing blood to pass from the right to left atrium and the ductus arteriosis shunting
blood from the pulmonary artery to the aorta (Hafez and Hafez, 2000).
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Once the umbilical circulation is halted and the lungs expand, blood flow in the ductus arteriosis is
reversed and ceases. The rapid decline in blood pressure in the right atrium and increasing pressure in
the left atrium induces closure of the foramen ovale. Thus, the normal sequence of events required to
modify the blood circulation from fetal to neonatal function in the bovine involves the ductus
arteriosis closing within five minutes of birth, the foramen ovale closing between five and 20 minutes
of birth and the ductus venosus closing between 30 minutes and 2 hours of birth (Hafez, 1993). These
events are all essential to ensure proper blood circulation to the lungs and perfusion of vital organs.
Lung maturation and the initiation of respiration

Prior to birth, the partial pressure of oxygen in fetal blood is lower than that required by adult animals.
This lower oxygen tension causes a constriction of pulmonary vasculature, resulting in increased
vascular resistance preventing blood flow through the non-ventilated lungs (Brunson and Ludders,
1986). At parturition, the oxygen tension in the fetal blood temporarily decreases and the carbon
dioxide tension increases. Central and peripheral chemoreceptors become activated due to changes in
gas tension and blood pH resulting in secondary stimulation of the respiratory centre in the brain
(Brunson and Ludders, 1986). Once there is air in the lungs, the pulmonary vascular resistance rapidly
decreases as vessels dilate in response to increased oxygen and decreased carbon dioxide. This leads
to increased pulmonary blood flow and allows normal neonatal blood gas levels to be achieved.
The initiation of respiration is expected to occur within 30 seconds of birth in the normal calf.
However, calves born by caesarian section tend to take longer to initiate respiration compared to
calves born by vaginal delivery, due to the lower partial pressure of carbon dioxide resulting from a
less physically demanding delivery (Schuijt, 1988). At first, respiration is irregular and may be a series
of gasps rather than a smooth respiratory motion. However, the effects of a change in ambient
temperature and tactile stimulation by the dam ensure it should soon become regular, with a
respiratory rate of 45 to 60 breaths per minute. During the next few hours the respiratory rate is
expected to slow down a little. The frequency of respiration is strongly dependent on the activity of
the calf such as attempts at standing (Schuijt, 1988).
Additional respiratory sounds in the upper airways occur frequently in healthy calves and are not
considered pathological at this early stage (Schuijt, 1988).
The immune status of the neonate

At birth, the calf is agammaglobulinaemic and has limited innate resistance to disease (O'Kelly, 1991).
Passive immunity is transferred from the dam to the calf by ingestion of immune lactoglobulin
contained in the dams’ colostrum. These colostral immunoglobulins are absorbed through the
Page 97 of 113
intestinal epithelium by a process of pinocytosis, however there is only a very short period of 24 to 48
hours after birth when whole proteins can be absorbed. After this time, macromolecule absorption
can no longer occur (LeBlanc, 1986).
Failure, or partial failure, of passive transfer of immunoglobulins is considered common in cattle. Large
variations in serum immunoglobulin concentrations in neonatal calves have been documented with
some studies indicating that over 25% of calves in some herds are hypogammaglobulinaemic (O'Kelly,
1991).
There are many reasons for failure, or partial failure, of passive transfer. These have been described as
prepartum stresses on the dam and high environmental temperatures around the periparturient
period (Stott, 1980). Prepartum stressors have the ability to reduce colostrum production by the dam,
while high environmental temperatures can reduce the vigour of the calf, decreasing its desire to suck.
Additionally, dystocia is commonly reported to result in reduced plasma immunoglobulin
concentrations by the fetus due to reduced colostral intake (Garry, 1995). This is due to calf weakness,
temporary abnormality (such as a swollen tongue) reducing its ability to suck or reduced
gastrointestinal activity.
The main consequence of reduced immunoglobulin absorption in the calf is increased susceptibility to
infectious disease (Garry, 1995). This can manifest as an acute, fulminating condition resulting in rapid
death or more chronic conditions such as joint ill, which can occur weeks or months after calving
(Carlson, 1996). These latter conditions are important considerations when considering the full impact
of dystocia on beef cattle production.
Blood biochemistry
The blood pH for normal calves is greater than 7.2 (Szenci et al., 1988). In a small survey of 58 calves it
was found that approximately 75% had normal blood pH, approximately 24% were slightly acidotic
and only 1% were severely acidotic (Szenci et al., 1988). These authors found calves that were severely
acidotic at birth had required significantly longer traction to complete delivery compared to calves
with normal blood pH. Of seven calves that died within 48 hours of birth, five were acidotic prior to
completion of delivery.
Normal ranges for a number of blood parameters in calves at specified times postpartum are
presented in Table 4.
Page 98 of 113
Table 4 - pH and venous blood gas values for newborn beef calves at specific times
postpartum (Adams et al., 1995)
Parameter 1 Hour 4 Hours 12 Hours 24 Hours 48 Hours
pH 7.2-7.4 7.28-7.4 7.32-7.44 7.34-7.46 7.38-7.46
pO2 (mmHg) 35.2-81.7 43.8-80.8 48.6-85.9 47.6-93.5 42.2-85.5
pCO2 (mmHg) 39.9-60.9 39.9-55.9 37.4-53.3 37.1-50.9 37.9-52.6

-
HCO3 (mEq/L) 18-29.1 19.8-29.2 21-30.5 22.7-30.2 24.2-31.8
The effects of dystocia on neonatal calf physiology

Neonatal asphyxia is defined as inadequate delivery of oxygen to the body tissues. This condition
occurs when the duration and/or degree of periparturient anoxia is severe enough to affect tissue
metabolism (Adams et al., 1995). This commonly occurs with moderate to severe dystocia. With the
subsequent activation of anaerobic metabolism, one or more organ systems will be progressively
damaged due to reduced oxygen availability and the associated build up of anaerobic byproducts such
as lactate, oxygen radicals and inorganic anions. The resultant organ damage may be transient or
permanent (Adams et al., 1995).
There is a range of physiologic and metabolic disturbances that can affect calves depending on the
degree of dystocia experienced. Severe dystocia usually results in metabolic acidosis, increased
circulating lactate concentrations, extremes in blood glucose concentrations, hypothermia and
possibly death (Adams et al., 1995). With regard to plasma glucose concentrations at 10 minutes after
birth, calves requiring assistance at birth had lower concentrations (59.94  23.49 mg/dl) than those
not requiring assistance (77.67  23.41 mg/dl) (Adams et al., 1995; Szenci, 1983).
There are reports in the literature that respiratory acidosis in the neonate reduces the absorption of
immunoglobulins (Besser et al., 1990). It is suggested this may be due to a reduction in intestinal
immunoglobulin transport capability.
Assuming death does not occur, problems arising from these initial imbalances can include
abnormalities of thermoregulation, long term abnormalities of blood glucose regulation, reduced
Page 99 of 113
immune system function, cerebral pathology and cerebrovascular accidents. These problems in part
explain the common signs of apparent weakness, abnormal behaviour and the increased susceptibility
to disease often observed in calves resulting from a dystocic calving (Adams et al., 1995; Garry, 1995).
Page 100 of 113

8.6 Appendix 6 - The economic effects of dystocia on beef cattle production
Economic losses have been divided into three categories (Morris, 1969). These are; direct losses
suffered by the stock owners such as calf or heifer death; losses suffered by the community through
the consequences of dystocia such as loss of exports; and costs of control and prevention such as
increased labour for calving assistance and supervision.
Within these categories, specific areas where dystocia can cause economic loss have been identified.
These include death of the cow and/or calf, increased intercalving interval of the heifer, lighter calves
at weaning, decreased fertility of the heifer, increased labour costs for supervision and assistance,
neglect of other farm enterprises during calving and loss of export potential (Dufty and Sloss, 1984;
Morris, 1969). However, there seems to be a lack of information in the literature on the dollar value of
these losses sustained by the producer. This type of information is essential if cost effective decisions
are to be made when recommending dystocia management techniques.
Studies have found that neonatal calf losses are approximately five times greater in calves
experiencing dystocia than in those resulting from normal parturition (Azzam et al 1993). In addition, a
Colorado study has estimated each calf that dies results in a loss of $A 277 to the beef cattle producer
(Rogers, 1996). Other investigations have estimated that veterinary costs related to dystocia average
$A 0.60/cow/year (New, 1991). In a review on the lifetime productivity of heifers, it was suggested
that calving difficulty in a herd could be expected to rise by approximately 1.8% per kilogram increase
in calf birth weight (Morris, 1980). This effect was most serious in heifers joined to calve as 2-year-
olds. Additional losses are associated with the findings that calf deaths increase by approximately 0.2%
for each kilogram increase in calf birth weight, with ongoing production losses occurring in the
following season due to reductions in conception rates in breeders suffering dystocia.
In a 1995 study surveying beef producers in south-east Queensland, a benefit-cost analysis

incorporating a gross margin analysis and net present value calculations showed there was a $0.13
increase in the gross margin per hectare for each percentage decrease in the dystocia rate,
representing an increase in the annual total gross margin of approximately $272 for each percent
decrease in heifer dystocia for an average property size for the survey of 2090 hectares (Norman,
2002). Net present value calculations revealed that over a 10 year period, a property with five-percent
dystocia in the heifers would have $34.81 per hectare extra income than a property with 40% dystocia.
This equated to $72,440 extra income for the average sized property in the survey at the end of 10
years.
Page 101 of 113

By developing models, based on information such as this from the literature, estimates have been
made of the loss dystocia causes to the Australian beef cattle industry as a whole. These have ranged
from 30 to 200 million dollars annually (Freer, 1993; Howard, 1993). There is a large range in these
figures due to the different methods used to assess dystocia losses. However even the more
conservative of the two figures represents a substantial loss to the industry.
Page 102 of 113

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Project code: B.NBP.0545

Parameter Perceived degree of difficulty

Cow body temperature 1

Expulsion of the calf 2

Cow proximity to other animals 2

Vaginal electrical resistance 3

Infrared spectra monitoring 3

Vulval lips separation 3

Fetal fluid detection (real-time ultrasound monitoring) 3

Abdominal muscle activity 4

Blood progesterone concentrations (real-time) 5

3.1.1 Vaginal electrical resistance (VER) ....................................................................................... 16

3.1.2 Cow activity monitoring....................................................................................................... 17

3.1.3 Core body temperature monitoring .................................................................................... 18

3.1.4 Infra-Red Emissions ............................................................................................................. 18

3.2 The physiology of gestation in the cow ......................................................................... 18

3.2.1 Anatomical changes during gestation ................................................................................. 19

3.2.1.1 The uterus ............................................................................................................................ 19

3.2.1.2 The cervix ............................................................................................................................. 19

3.2.1.3 The ovaries........................................................................................................................... 19

3.2.1.4 The pelvic ligaments and pubic symphysis .......................................................................... 20

3.2.2 Hormonal physiology during gestation ............................................................................... 20

3.2.2.1 The role of progesterone ..................................................................................................... 20

3.2.2.2 The role of oestrogens ......................................................................................................... 21

3.2.2.3 The role of corticosteroids................................................................................................... 22

3.2.2.4 The role of relaxin ................................................................................................................ 22

3.2.3 Placental development ........................................................................................................ 22

3.2.3.1 General ................................................................................................................................ 22

3.2.3.2 Placental development and structure ................................................................................. 23

3.2.3.2.1 Amnion ...................................................................................................................... 23

3.2.3.2.2 Allantois ..................................................................................................................... 23

3.2.3.2.3 Chorion ...................................................................................................................... 24

3.2.3.2.4 Chorioallantois .......................................................................................................... 24

3.2.3.2.5 Placental development.............................................................................................. 24

3.2.4 Fetal growth during gestation ............................................................................................. 25

3.3.1 The initiation of parturition ................................................................................................. 25

3.3.2 Physical events of normal parturition ................................................................................. 29

3.3.2.1 Myometrial contractions ..................................................................................................... 29

3.3.2.2 Cervical dilation ................................................................................................................... 30

3.3.2.3 Abdominal muscle contraction ............................................................................................ 30

3.3.3 Hormonal variation and its relationship to dystocia ........................................................... 31

3.3.4 Body temperature and parturition ...................................................................................... 32

3.3.5 Behavioural changes in cows approaching parturition ....................................................... 33

3.7.1.1 Advantages of this device are: ............................................................................................. 42

3.7.1.2 Disadvantages include: ........................................................................................................ 42

3.7.2 Commercial device – Foalert for mares............................................................................... 42

3.7.2.1 Advantages of the Foalert device are .................................................................................. 43

3.7.2.2 Disadvantages of the Foalert include .................................................................................. 43

3.7.3 Patent 1 – Harvey Intravaginal Birth Detector .................................................................... 44

3.7.3.1 Advantages .......................................................................................................................... 45

3.7.3.2 Disadvantages ...................................................................................................................... 45

3.7.4 Patent 2 - The Lee Animal Birth Detector ............................................................................ 45

3.7.4.1 Advantages .......................................................................................................................... 45

3.7.4.2 Disadvantages ...................................................................................................................... 46

3.7.5 Patent 3 – Zartman Intravaginal parturition alarm ............................................................. 47

3.7.5.1 Advantages .......................................................................................................................... 49

3.7.5.2 Disadvantages ...................................................................................................................... 49

3.7.6 Patent 4 - The “thin wire” calf alert device ......................................................................... 49

3.7.6.1 Advantages .......................................................................................................................... 50

3.7.6.2 Disadvantages ...................................................................................................................... 50

3.7.7 Patent 5 - Magnetic vulval switch transmitter .................................................................... 50

3.7.8 Patent 6 - Behaviour monitoring – Raised tail ..................................................................... 52

3.7.9 Vaginal electrical resistance measurement ......................................................................... 54