2/8/2011

Outline
• General dose calculation considerations,
Absorbed Dose in Radioactive absorbed fraction
Media • Radioactive disintegration processes and
associated dose deposition
– Alpha disintegration
Chapter 5 – Beta disintegration
– Electron-capture transitions
F.A. Attix, Introduction to Radiological – Internal conversion
Physics and Radiation Dosimetry • Summary

Introduction Radiation equilibrium

• We are interested in calculating the absorbed dose in a. The atomic composition
radioactive media, applicable to cases of of the medium is
– Dose within a radioactive organ homogeneous
– Dose in one organ due to radioactive source in another b. The density of the
organ medium is
homogeneous
• If conditions of CPE or RE are satisfied, dose
c. The radioactive source
calculation is straightforward is uniformly distributed
• Intermediate situation is more difficult but can be d. No external electric or
handled at least in approximations magnetic fields are
present

Charged-particle equilibrium Limiting cases

• Emitted radiation typically includes both
• Each charged particle of a given type and photons (longer range) and charged
energy leaving the volume is replaced by an particles (shorter range)
identical particle of the same energy entering • Assume the conditions for RE are satisfied
the volume
• Consider two
• Existence of RE is sufficient condition for CPE limited cases based
• Even if RE does not exist CPE may still exist on the size of the
(for a very large or a very small volume) radioactive object

1

Limiting cases: small object
• A radioactive object V having a mean radius not much
greater than the maximum charged-particle range d
• CPE is well approximated at any internal point P that is
at least a distance d from the boundary of V
• If d« l/m for the g-rays, the absorbed dose D at P
approximately equals to the energy per unit mass of
medium that is given to the charged particles in
radioactive decay (less their radiative losses)
• The photons escape from the object
and are assumed not to be scattered back by its
surroundings
Limiting cases: large object
• Deciding upon a maximum g-
ray “range” for this case
requires quantitative criterion
– For primary beam (m) only less
than 0.1% through 7 mean free
paths
– Taking into account scatter,
(broad beam geometry, m  ) will
increase the required object size
to satisfy the attenuation
objectives (e.g. 16 mean free
paths to achieve 0.1% penetration
Intermediate-size radioactive object
• Consider volume V filled by a
homogeneous medium and a
uniformly distributed g-source
• The volume may be surrounded by
Case 1: infinite homogeneous medium
identical to V, but non-radioactive
(an organ in the body)
Case 2: Infinite vacuum (object in air)
2/8/2011
Limiting cases: large object
• A radioactive object with mean radius » l/m for
the most penetrating g-rays
• RE is well approximated at any internal point P
that is far enough from the boundary of V so g-ray
penetration through that distance is negligible
• The dose at P will then equal the sum of the
energy per unit mass of medium that is given to
charged particles plus g-rays in radioactive decay
Absorbed fraction
• An intermediate-size radioactive object V
• Dose at P will then equal the sum of the
energy per unit mass of medium that is given
to charged particles plus dose from g-rays
• To estimate the dose from g-rays define
absorbed fraction:
g - ray radiant energy absorbed in target volume
AF 
g - ray radiant energy emitted by source
Case 1
• Reciprocity theorem: energy spent
in dv due to the source in dv’:
 dv,dv   dv,dv and  dv,V  V ,dv
• No source in dv’’
• Define ̅Rdv as the expectation value
of the g-ray radiant energy emitted
by the source in dv, and ̅dv,V the
part of that energy that is spent in
V, then the absorbed fraction with
respect to source dv and target V is
2
 2/8/2011

Case 1 continued Case 1 continued

• The absorbed fraction with respect • Reduction in the absorbed dose due to g-rays
to source dv and target V is : energy escaping from V
 dv,V V ,dv • Can estimate AF using mean effective attenuation
AFdv,V   coefficient m  for g-rays energy fluence through a
Rdv Rdv distance r in the medium
source, target

1  2
• Estimates reduction in absorbed
dose relative to RE condition
AFdv,V  
4  0  0

1  e  m r sin dd
• For very small radioactive objects
(V  dv) this absorbed fraction • For poly-energetic sources have to find an average
approaches zero; for an infinite value of the absorbed fraction
radioactive medium it equals unity

Case 1 example Case 2

Radioactive object V surrounded by vacuum

radius of
• More difficult to
sphere calculate
• The reciprocity
theorem is only
approximate due to
the lack of
backscattering
• Dose is lower than in
• Dose calculations published in MIRD reports Case 1
• The larger the radius, the lower the energy – the closer
to RE condition (AF=1)

Case 2 Radioactive disintegration

processes
• To obtain a crude estimate of the dose at some • Radioactive nuclei tend to undergo transformations
point P within a uniformly g-active homogeneous to a more stable state through expulsion of energetic
object, it may suffice to obtain the average particles
distance ̅r from the point to the surface of the
object by
1  2
4  0  0
r r sin  d d
• The total mass, energy, momentum, and electric
• Then one may employ men = ̅m in the straight- charge are conserved
ahead approximation to obtain • Energy equivalent of the rest mass:
– 1 amu=1/12 of the mass of 126C nucleus=931.50 MeV
AFdv,V 1  emenr – 1 electron mass=0.51100 MeV

3
 2/8/2011

Alpha disintegration Alpha disintegration

• Occurs mainly in heavy nuclei

• Example: decay of radium to radon, presented by
the mass-energy balance equation

226
88 Ra  222
86 Rn  42 He  4.78 MeV
parent
1 / 2 1602 y daughter

• Each of the elemental terms represents the rest

• Two branches are available for disintegration
mass of a neutral atom of that element
• Kinetic + quantum energy released is 4.78MeV
• After the -particle slows down it captures two electrons from
its surroundings, becoming a neutral He atom

Absorbed dose from

Beta disintegration
- disintegration
• Nuclei having excess of neutrons typically emit an
• Take into account both branches through the average electron,  - particle; atomic number Z is increased by 1
branching ratios
• Nuclei having excess of protons typically emit positron,
• For radium average kinetic energy given to charged
particles per disintegration  + particle; atomic number Z is decreased by 1
• Nucleus is left in an exited state, emitting one or more
E  0.946  4.78MeV  0.054 4.6 MeV  4.77 MeV
g-rays
• For CPE condition in a small (1 cm) radium-activated • Example:
object: D=4.77 x n MeV/g, where n – mumber of
disintegration per gram of the matter 32
15 P  32
16 S   -  00  1.71 MeV
• For RE condition (large object): D=4.78 x n MeV/g,  1 / 2 14.3 d
includes g-ray energy

Beta disintegration Beta disintegration

• Average kinetic energy of the  - or  + particle is typically

0.3-0.4 Emax; 1/3 Emax is often used for purposes of roughly
• Kinetic energy 1.71 MeV is shared between  - and neutrino
estimating absorbed dose
• Charge balance is realized through initially ion of 3216S+
• Neutrino is not included in dose estimates due to almost zero
capturing an electron
rest mass energy and no charge

4
 2/8/2011

Beta disintegration Absorbed dose from

- disintegration
• Under CPE condition D=nEavg MeV/g for n
disintegration per gram of medium
• Any additional contributions to energy
deposition due to g-rays must be included
for RE condition
• Radiative losses by -rays, such as
• In  + disintegration valence electron is emitted bremsstrahlung and in-flight annihilation,
• Example: 15 O
8 -> 157N are ignored
15
8 O  15
7 N  e-     00  1.73 MeV
 1 / 2 122 s
positron annihilation yields 2m0c2=1.022 MeV

Example 5.1 Example 5.1

• Uniformly distributed  - and g-ray source • For -ray Emax=5 MeV corresponds to maximum particle
range (Appendix E) d ~2.6 cm << 1/m=14.3 cm
• The rest-mass loss is spent
• CPE exists at P, therefore dose due -rays:
– half in 1 -MeV g -ray production and
– half in  - -decay, for which Emax=5 MeV and Eavg=2 MeV 1
D  Eavg  102 J/kg  102 J/kg
• The point of interest P is located >5 cm inside 2
_ the
boundary of the object, at an average distance r = 20 1/m
• For g-ray 20cm is not >> 1/m=14.3 cm
cm from the boundary. d • RE does not exists at P, therefore have
• men=0.0306 cm-1 and m = 0.0699 cm -1 for the g -rays
L>5cm
r  20 cm P to use absorbed fraction:
• A total energy of 10-2 J converted from rest mass in AF  1  e  men r  0.46
each kg of the object
Dg  0.46  (1 / 2)  10 2 J/kg  2.3  103 J/kg
• Estimate the absorbed dose at P
Dtot  (2.3  10) 103 J/kg  1.23 10 2 J/kg

Example 5.2 Example 5.2

• What is the absorbed dose rate (Gy/h) at the • Emax=1.71 MeV corresponds to maximum
center of a sphere of water 1 cm in radius, particle range of ~0.8 cm < 1 cm
homogeneously radioactivated by 3215P, • CPE condition
with 6 X 105 disintegrations per second • Absorbed dose rate: D  N  Eavg
occurring per gram of water? (Assume time
dis MeV
constancy.) D  6  105  0.694
g sec dis
5 MeV s Gy
 4.164  10  3600  1.602  1010
g sec hr MeV/g
 2.4 Gy/h

5
 2/8/2011

Electron-capture transitions Electron-capture transitions

• Parent nucleus captures its own atomic • Example: 2211Na -> 2210Ne with half-life for both
electron from K-shell (~90% probability) or branches of 2.60 years
L-shell (~10% probability) and emits –  + branch
monoenergetic neutrino
• Resulting shell vacancy is filled with
22
11 Na  22
10 Ne  e-     00  0.546 MeV (k.e.)
 1 / 2  2.60 y
2m0=1.022 MeV
electron from a higher orbit, leading to
emission of a fluorescence x-ray – EC branch
• Process competing with  + disintegrations 22
11 Na  22
10 Ne  00  E b  1.275 MeV (Eg )
 1 / 2  2.60 y
1.568 MeV

Electron-capture transitions
Absorbed dose for EC process

• Most of the energy is carried away by

neutrino
• The only available energy for dose
deposition comes from electron binding
term Eb, which is very small compare to that
• Binding energy for K-shell Eb~ 1 keV of neutrino
• For electron capture to occur the minimum atomic mass
decrease of 2m0 between the parent and daughter nuclei is
required to supply  + with kinetic energy

Internal conversion Internal conversion

• An excited nucleus can impart its energy

directly to its own atomic electron, which
then escapes with the net kinetic energy of
hv-Eb (hv is the excitation energy)
• No photon is emitted in this case
• Process competing with g-ray emission
• Internal conversion coefficient is the ratio
of Ne/Ng • Example: 137
55Cs -> 13756Ba

6
 2/8/2011

Absorbed dose for internal Absorbed dose for internal

conversion
• If IC occurs in competition with g-ray emission, it
results in increase in absorbed dose in small objects
(CPE condition) due to release of electron locally
depositing the energy
EIC  hv  Eb
• In addition electron binding energy is contributed
to the dose unless it escapes as a fluorescence x-ray
conversion
• If the fraction p = 1 – AF of these fluorescence x-
rays escape, then the energy contributed to dose per
IC event under CPE condition
f IC  hv  pK YK hvK  pLYL hvL
 m en r
• Using straight-ahead approximation p  e
• Values of fluorescence yield YK,L and the mean
emitted x-ray energies hvK,L are tabulated

Fluorescence data
Example 5.5
• A sphere of water 10 cm in diameter contains a
uniform source of 137Cs undergoing 103
disintegration per g s. What is the absorbed dose at
the center, in grays, for a 10-day period, due only to
the decay of 137m56Ba? Use the mean-radius straight-
ahead approximation.

For g-ray of 0.662 MeV

in water men=0.0327 cm-1
Electron binding energies and
Fluorescence yield for K
mean fluorescence x-ray
and L shells
energies, K and L shells

Example 5.5 Example 5.5

• For the K-shell conversion process we need
• First check RE condition: 1/m=30.6 cm >> r=5
YK=0.90, hvK = 0.032 MeV, and men=0.13 cm-1 for
• Find absorbed fraction AF  1  e0.03275  0.151 0.032 MeV. Then pK  e  m r  e 0.135  0.52 and the
en

• Dose in 10 days=8.64x105 s is dose contribution is

dis g  rays MeV dis
D ICK  103  0.078
IC ( K )
 ( hv  p K YK hvK )
MeV
Dg  103  0.85  0.662
gs dis g  ray gs dis IC ( K )
Gy
Gy  1.602  1010  8.64  105 s
1.602 1010  8.64 105 s  AF MeV / g
MeV / g
 1.080(0.662  0.52  0.90  0.032)  10 2 Gy
 1.17 10 2 Gy  6.99  10-3 Gy

7
 2/8/2011

Example 5.5 Summary

• Similarly, for the L+M+…-shell conversion process • General approach to dose calculation within
we need YK=0.90, hvL  Eb = 6 keV, and men=24 cm-1
L
and outside of distributed radioactive source
245
for 6 keV. Then pL  e  0 and the corresponding
• Radioactive disintegration processes and
dose contribution
dis IC ( L) MeV
calculation of absorbed dose
D ICL  103  0.078  ( hv  p LYL hvL )
gs dis IC ( L) – Alpha disintegration
 1.602  1010
Gy
 8.64  105 s – Beta disintegration
MeV / g
– Electron-capture transitions
 1.65  10-3 Gy
– Internal conversion
• The total absorbed dose is Dtot  Dg  DICK  DICL  2.03102 Gy