! Eee 4021 - CH.2

School of Engineering
Electrical and Electronics Department

University of Zambia
EE 4021 ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELDS
Lecturer : Ir. Donat Ngendo Mubiligi
e-mail address: mngendo@unza.zm

Room Number : 123/2nd floor
(School of Eng./Old Building)
Semester I, 2009/10:June 29 – October 9

Ch.2: TRANSMISSION LINES
TOPICS OF INTEREST :
1. General Considerations 6. Input impedance of the

Lossless line Special
2. Lumped-Element Model Cases of Lossless line
3. Transmission-Line 7. Power Flow on a Lossless
Equations Line
4. Wave Propagation on 8. Smith Chart
aTransmission Line
9. Impedance Matching
5. Lossless Transmission
Line 10.Transient on
Transmission
Ir. D.M.Ngendo EE561/ April 2008 Dept. of Electrical and Electronics Engineering-Unza
1.3
2.1 GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS
 This topic will build a bridge between a circuit theory

and electromagnetics theory.
 By modeling the transimission line in the form of an
equivalent circuit, we can use KVL and KCL’laws to
develop wave equations.
•Their solutions provide a better understanding of
wave propagation, standing waves, and power
transfer.
 A transmission line may be considered as any
structure or media that serves to transfer energy or
information between two points; e.g.:
1.4
 A transmission line consists of a two-port network as

illustrated in Fig.2-1. One of the ports is the sending
and the other is the receiving point.
•The source connected
to the sending port may
be any circuit –
represented by a
Thévenin-equivalent
generator circuit with
an output voltage, such
Fig.2-1
as:
• a radar transmitter;
• a amplifier, or a computer terminal operating
in transmission mode.
1.5
 The generator voltage Vg in series with a generator

resistance Rg may consist of :
• digital pulses;
• modulated time
varying sinusoidal signal;
• any other signal wave-
form Fig.2-1
 In the case of a-c signal the generator circuit is

represented by a voltage phasor and impedance
respectively Vg and Rg.
 The circuit connected to the receiving end of the
line is called the load circuit or simply the load.
1.6
 This load may be :

• an antenna in the case of a radar;
• a computer terminal operating in the receiving
mode;
• input terminals of an amplifier;
• any output circuit whose input terminals can be
represented by an equivalent load resistance RL
or a load impedance ZL
1.7
2-1.1 The ROLE OF WAVELENGHT

 Effect of Transmission line as function
of frequency and speed of wave
 Let us consider the circuit shown in Fig.2-2.
• The generator is connected to a simple RC load
via pair of wires as transmission lines.
Fig.2-2
1.8
2-1.1 The ROLE OF WAVELENGHT

 Effect of Transmission line as function
of frequency and speed of wave
 When should we decide to include or not
transmission line effects in our calculations
transmission lines ?
 The following observations are facts:
• Transmission line effects occur when the time delay
down the transmission line(s) in your device is
‘significant’ and changes the way your device
operates.
Not need to consider transmission line effects, for
short (in meters) device compared to the electrical
wavelength (also in meters).
1.9
•This is because the frequencies you have

considere are relatively low (kHz and low MHz), and
the devices have been small enough to fit on a
circuit board.
• If you consider very large devices- such as
overland transmission lines - at these low
frequencies, you have to consider transmission line
effects, because the electrical delays on the lines
are significant.
 The following observations are facts:
• If you use higher frequencies, the wavelength
becomes smaller. (Remember: λ= c/f = speed of
light / frequency).
1.10
• When the wavelength is smaller, smaller devices

start to exhibit transmission line effects
 The role of of wavelenght in the circuit back in
Fig.2-2 and discussions:
• If the generator voltage is cosinusoidal in time,
then the voltage across the input terminals AA’ is
VAA'  Vg (t)  V0 cos t V  (2.1)
where ω = 2πf is the angular frequency
 Assume that the current flowing through the pair

of wires travels at the speed of fight c= 3X108 m/s
then:
1.11
• The voltage across the output terminal BB’ will

have to be delayed in time relative to that
across AA’ by the travel delay time l/c.
Thus assuming no signaficant ohmic losses in the
transimission lines,
VBB︵t︶
' = VAA︵
' t - l/c︶= V0 cos[ω︵t - l/c︶] V  (2.2)
• Compare now VBB’ to VAA’ at t = 0 for:

i. f = 1kHz ; l= 5 cm => VAA’= V0 and VBB’= 0.9999 V0
for all practical purposes VBB’ =VAA’.
ii. f = 1kHz; l = 20 km => VBB’ = cos(2πfl/c) = 0.91V0
1.12
 The determining factor is the magnitude of ωL/c:

• The velocity of propagation up of a travelling wave is
related to the oscillation frequency f and wave
lenght λ by up  f  (m / s) (2  3)
in this case up = c. Hence the phasor factor

l 2fl l l
  2 (i.e.,  ) radians (2  4)
c c  
• When l/λ is very small, transmission–line effects

may be ignored.
• But when l/λ >0.01, take also into account for the
presence of signals reflexions, power loss on line
and dispersive effects.
1.13
A dispersive transmission line is one on which

the velocity is not constant as a fonction of the
frequency f.
This means that the
shape of a
rectangular pulse ,
which through
Fourier analysis is
composed of many
Fig. 2-3
waves of different
frequencies, will be distorted as it travels down the the
line because of its different components will not
propagate at the same velocity (Fig 2-3). Preservation
of pulse shape is very important in high speed data
transmission.
1.14
3. PROPAGATION MODES
 A few common examples of common types of
transmissions lines: classified into two basic types.
1.Transverse electromagnetic (TEM) transmission
lines: are characterised by electric and magnetic
fields that are entirely transverse to the
direction of propagation.
This is called a TEM mode (Fig.2-4.a).
Fig.2-4.a,b&c:
1.15
• A good example is the

coaxial line shown in Fig.2-5
where the electric field
lines are in radial direction
between the inner and the
outer conductors, and the Fig.2-4.d&e
magnetic field form circles
around inner conductor.
Fig.2-5
1.16
• A common feature among TEM lines is that they

consist of two parallel conducting.
• TEM lines are more commonly used in practice.
2.Higher-order transmission lines: for this type,
waves propagating along lines have at least one
signaficant field component in the direction of
propagation (Fig 2-6).
Hollow conducting waveguides, dielectric rods, and
optical fibers belong to this class of lines.
Fig.2-4.d&e
Fig.2-6:
Fig.2-5
1.17
4. LUMPED-ELEMENT MODEL.
 A transmission line will be represented by a
parallel-wire configuration as shown in Fig 2-7 (a).
Fig.2-7:
 Our transmission line will be oriented along the z-

direction, subdivided into differential sections
whose each is of length Δz [Fig 2-7 (b)].
Fig.2-7:
1.18
 Then each section is represented by an equivalent

circuit, as illustarted in Fig 2-6 (c).
This representation which is called the lumped-
element circuit, consists of four elements, which
henceforth will be called transmission line
parameters Fig 2-7 (c).
Fig.2-7:
1.19
• And these are:

a. R’: Combined resistance of both
conductors/unit length, in Ω/m.
b. L’: Combined inductance of both
conductors/unit length in H/m.
c. G’: conductance of the insulation/unit length in
S/m (1/Ω-m).
d. C’: capacitance of both conductors/unit
length, in F/m.
The equivalent model represented by Fig.2-7(c) is
equally applicable to all transmission lines
characterized by TEM-Mode wave propagation.
1.20
• The prime superscript is used as a reminder that

the line parameters are differential quantities
whose units are per unit lenght.
Table2-1: expressions for these line parameters.
1.21
• Note: for each of these lines, the expressions

are functions of two sets of parameterns;
1. geometric parameters defining the cross-
sectional dimensions of the given line; and
2. electromagnetic constitutive parameters
characteristic of materials of which the
conductors and the insulating materials
between are made.
Table2-1
1.22
 For a physical explaination for the lump-element

model, let us consider a small section of coaxial line,
as shown in Fig.2-8, having inner conductor radius a
separeted from an outer conducting cylinder of radius
b by a material with permittivity ∊, permiability µ, and
conductivity σ. Then two metal conductors are made
of material with conductivity σc and permiability µc.
• When a voltage source is
connected across the two
conductors at the sending end
of the line, currents will flow
through the conductors
primarily along the outer
surface of the inner conductor
and the inner surface of the Fig.2-7:
outer conductor.
1.23
•The expression for R’ is (derived in a later chapiter)

is given as R 1 1 s  (2.5)
R'     ( / m )
2  a b 
Rs: surface resistance of the conductors, called the
intrinsic resistance and is given by
 f c (2.6)
Rs  ()
c
For a perfect conductor σc = ∞ or a high-conductivity

material such that (fµc / σc ) <<1, Rs approaches zero
and so does R’.
1.24
The expresion for L’ is as derived in a later chapiter

by application of Ampère’s law and is given as
 b (2.7)
L'  ln   ( H / m)
2  a 
 The expression for the shunt conductance G’ is

given by
2 (2.8)
G'  ( S / m)
ln  b a 
If the material separating the inner and outer

conductors is a perfect dielectric with σ=0, then
G’=0.
1.25
 The last parameter is the capacitance per unit

lenght C’.
When equal and opposite charges are placed on any
two noncontacting conductors, a voltage difference
will be induced between them.
Capacitance is defined as the ratio of charge to
voltage difference. For coaxial line, C’ is given by
2
C' ( F / m) (2.10)
ln  b a 
 All TEM transmission lines share the following

useful L ' C '  
G' 
(2.11)

C' 
If the insulating material is air, the transmission line is

called an air line.
1.26
5. TRANSMISSION-LINE EQUATION.
 Using the lumped-element model, consider a
differential lenght ∆z as shown in Fig.2-8
Fig 2-8: Equivalent circuit

of a differential lenght ∆z
of a two-conductors
transmission line.
Application KVL accounts the voltage drop across the

series resistance R’∆z and inductance L’∆z :
i ( z, t ) (2.12)
v( z , t )  R ' z i ( z , t )  L ' z  v( z  z , t )  0
t
1.27
•Upon dividing all terms by ∆z and rearranging terms:

 v( z  z, t )  v( z, t )  i ( z , t ) (2.13)
   R ' i( z , t )  L '
 z  t
In the limit as ∆z→0, the

difference becomes a
differential:
v( z , t ) i ( z, t ) (2.14)
  R ' i( z, t )  L '
z t
• Similary, application of KCL at node N+1 leads to:

v( z  z , t ) (2.15)
i ( z , t )  G ' z v( z  z , t )  C ' z  i( z  z , t )  0
t
1.28
• Upon dividing all terms by ∆z and taking the limit as ∆z→0

: i ( z , t ) i ( z , t )
  G ' v( z, t )  C '
z t (2.16)
•The first-order differential eqns given by Eqs(2.14)

and (2.16) are time-domain form of the transmission
line eqns, otherwise called the telegrapher’s
equations.
 In sinusoidal steady-state form; make use of phasors
with the cosine reference notation:
v( z , t )  e V ( z )e jt  i( z , t )  e  I ( z )e jt  (2.17a)
   
where and may each be real or complex phasor quantity
equation.
1.29
I ( z )  I0 e  z  I0 e z ( A)
•In the phasor domain, we obtain the following

pair of telegrapher’s equations:
dV ( z , t ) (2.18a)
  ( R ' j L ') I ( z )
dz
dI ( z, t )
  (G ' jC ')V ( z ) (2.18b)
dz
• What is difference between this and “regular”

circuit equations ?
•They are a function of z distance down the
transmission line.
1.30
5. WAVE PROPAGATIONON A TRANSMISSION LINE

Take d/dz ofone equation, and substitute it into the
other equation: 2 
d I ( z, t ) dV ( z )
  (G ' j C ') (2.19)
dz 2 dz
d 2 I ( z, t )
dV ( z ) dz 2 (2.20a)
    ( R ' j L ') I ( z )
dz (G ' jC ')
d 2 I ( z , t )
 ( R ' j L ')(G ' jC ') I ( z )  0 (2.20b)
dz 2
or
d 2 I ( z , t ) (2.21)
  I ( z )  0
2
dz 2
where
(2.22)
 = ( R ' j L ')(G ' jC ')
1.31
Application of the same previous steps but in

reverse order, leads to: d 2V ( z , t )
2
  2V ( z )  0 (2.23)
dz
 Eqs.(2.21) and (2.23) are called wave equations for

V(z) and I(z) respectivelly, and ɣ is called the complex
propagation constant of the transmission line.
 As such, ɣ consists of a real part α, called the
attenuation constant of the line, and an imaginary part
β, called the phase constant of the line ( phase shift
term ). Thus     j (2.24)
with:   m( )  m( ( R ' j L ')(G ' jC ')) (rad / m) (2.25b)
  e( )  e( ( R ' j L ')(G ' jC ')) ( Np / m) (2.25a)
1.32
• For passive transmission lines, α is either zero or

positive.
• Most transmission lines are of the passive type
(exp (- α z) attenuation occurs).
• The active region of a laser is an example of an
active transmission line with a negative α
(exp (- α z) gain occurs).
 Forward and Backward Waves: the above wave eqs.
have traveling wave solutions of the following
forms:
V ( z )  V0 e z  V0 e z V  (2.26a)
(2.26b)
I ( z )  I0 e  z  I0 e z ( A)
1.33
• Later, we will see:

e-z represents forward(+) traveling wave
ez represents backward(-) traveling wave
 Characteristic Impedance: the traveling wave

solutions contain 4 unknowns, the waves amplitudes
(V+0, I+0) of the +z propagating wave and (V-0, I-0) of
the –z.
• Using Eq.(2.26a)in Eq.(2.18a) and then solving for
the current I︵z︶
 we get the following relationship
between the wave current amplitudes (I+0, I-0) and
the voltage wave amplitude(V+0,V-0):

I ( z )  V0 e  z  V0 e z  (2.27)
R ' j L '  
1.34
• Comparison of each term with the corresponding

term in Eq.(2.26b) leads to:
 
V0 V0 (2.28)
 Z 0 
I0 I0
where:
Z0 
R ' j L '

R ' j L '
( ) (2.29)
 G ' jC '
is defined as the characteristic impedance of the line.

Note that Z0 is equal to the ratio of the voltage
amplitude to the current amplitude for each of the
travelling waves individually, but it is not equal to the
ratio of the total voltage V(z)
 to the total current I(z)
unless one of the two waves is absent.
1.35
I ( z )  I0 e  z  I0 e z ( A)
• In terms of Z0, Eq.(2.27 can be rewritten in the

 
form: I ( z )  V0 e  z  V0 e z (2.30)
Z0 Z0
• Applying boundary conditions ( to see later) at the

load and at the sending end the remaining expressions
of wave amplitudes V+0 and V-0 are obtained as:
V0  V0 e j

(2.31a)
(2.31b)
V0  V0 e j 
• Upon converting back to the time-domaine, we get

expression for v(z,t), the instantaneous voltage on
line:
1.36
v( z , t )  e(V ( z )e jt )
 
 e  V0 e z  V0 e z e jt 
 
  
 e  V0 e j e jt e 
   j  z
 V0 e j  e jt e 
  j  z 

 V0 e z cos(t   z    )  V0 e z cos(t   z    )
(2.32)
First term: Traveling wave in +z direction

(coefficients of t and z have opposite signs)
Second term: Traveling wave in -z direction

(coefficients have same signs)
Both propagating with a phase velocity up:


up  f   (2.33)

1.37
Example 2-1 Air Line
1.38
2-5 THE LOSSLESS TRANSMISSION LINE.

 Transmission lines are characterized by: ɣ and Zo
which are a function of R’,L’,G’,C’.
 To minimize loss: use high conductivity materials

for conductors and non-conductive materials for
insulator →result: R’,G’ very small such that.
R '   L ' and G '  C ' Allows us to R’=G’=0 in equations
    j   j L ' C ' (2.34
 0  lossline  , (2.35
   L 'C '  lossline 
L'
Z0   lossline  (2.36) -> which is a real number
C'
1.39
• Using the expression for β, we get the relations

for λ and up is:

2

2
(2.37) and 
up  
1
(2.38)
  L 'C '  L 'C '
•For all TEM line : L ' C '  
    (rad / m) (2.39)
1
up  (m / s) (2.40)

In free space:    0 r ,   0 r
1 1 1 c
up   
 0 r  0  0 0 r r up c 1 0 (2.41)
  
 f f r r (2.42)
1
up   2,996e8 m / s for air !

(2.43)
Ir. D.M.Ngendo EE411/ April 2008

1.40
 Dispersion: most signals that are sent down

transmission lines are not actually sine waves.
Usually they are pulses, groups of pulses, etc.
These pulses are made up of many different
frequencies of sine waves added together.
So, in conclusion:
• If all of the frequencies travel at the same
velocity, then the pulse ‘stays together’ and keeps
its shape.
• If the frequencies do not travel at the same
velocity, the pulse starts to broaden (pulse length
increases as a function of distance in the medium,
-
thereby imposing a limitation on the maximum data
rate) and separate, and is said to “disperse”.
1.41
This is generally not a good thing, because it corrupts the

shape of the pulse.
Dispersion happens when the phase velocity up is a
function of frequency.
• For a general line up = ω/β, where β is a function of
frequency, R’,L’, G’, C’ (and hence ε, σ and µ). If the line
is lossless, then it is only a function of ε and µ.
• If ε and µ are constant (do not depend on frequency),
then so is up.
• BUT (very big BUT), as you will see, for water-based
materials like human tissues, ε does depend on frequency
(strongly). This means that up depends on frequency, and
the lines are NOT dispersionless. The pulses will
definitely experience dispersion.
1.42
• α, β, ɣ, up do not depend on shape of transmission

line ! (for lossless TEM lines). But Zo does .
• Zo is strictly real (no phase change).
• So, once started I , V propagate the same way.
• Zo controls relative magnitudes of V , I .
• The table 2-2 provides a list of the expressions for
ɣ, Z0, up.
1.43
V I
1.44
 Reflected Wave for lossless line:

V ( z )  V0 e  j  z  V0 e j  z (2.44a)
 
V V (2.44b)
I ( z )  0
e  j  z
 0
e j z
Z0 Z0
Observe that the loss term e-αz is left out of the

equation.
•To find the complete solution, find the voltages of
the +z and –z traveling waves ( +z traveling wave comes
from the generator and -z traveling wave is reflected
from the load ).
For convenience, the reference of the spatial
coordinate z is chosen such that z= 0 corresponds to
the location of the load.
1.45
•At the load, z = 0 → plug into equations above, we

get:    
V ( z  0)  VL  V0  V0 (2.45)
 
V V
I ( z  0)  IL  0
 0
(2.46)
Z0 Z 0
Then load impedance ZL is given in this case by:
VL V ( z  0)  V0  V0 

ZL    *Z (2.47)
I I ( z  0)  V   V   0
L  0 0 
and hence Vo- as a function Vo+ is :
 Z L  Z0  +
V0-   * V0 (2.48)
Z
 L  Z 0
1.46
 Voltage Reflection Coefficient: the ratio of the

amplitude of the reflected voltage wave to the
amplitude of the incident voltage wave at the load is
known as the voltage reflection coefficient Γ
( proportion of wave reflected).
• From the definition Eq.(2.48), this definition gives
the result ZL
1
V0 Z L  Z0 Z0
=    ratio  dimensionless  (2.49a)
V0 Z L  Z0 Z L 1
Z0
and the ration of the current amplitudes is:

I0 V0
   (2.49b)
I0 V0
1.47
• Note that Γ is governed by a single parameter, the

load impedance ZL, normalized to the characteristic
impedance of the line, Z0 (a real number).
• However, ZL is in general a complex quantity.
Hence, Γ in general may be complex also:
   e jθ r (2.50)
Note that  1
• A load is said to be matched to the line if ZL= Z0

because then there will be no reflection by the
load (Γ= 0 and V-0= 0).
1.48
• A load is said to be matched to the line if ZL= Z0

because then there will be no reflection by the load
(Γ= 0 and V-0= 0).
On the other hand, when the load is an open circuit
(ZL = ∞ ) => Γ= 1 and V0 - = V0 +, and when it is a short
circuit (ZL = 0 ), => Γ=-1 and V0 -= -V0 +.
 Standing wave: using the relation V-0 in Eqs.(2.44a)

and (2.44b) results in:
V ( z )  V0 (e j  z  e j  z ) (2.51a)

V
I ( z )  0 (e j  z  e j z ) (2.51b)
Z0
• Examine the physical meaning represented by these.
1.49
1
    2
V ( z )   V0 (e j  z   e j r e j  z )  . 
    
V0 (e j  z   e j r e j  z )  

2 1
 V0 1     (e j (2  z  r )  e  j (2  z  r ) )  2
 
2 1
 V0 1    2  cos(2  z   r )  2
  (2.52)
(use : e jx  e  jx  2 cos x ) (2.53)
• A similar expression can be derived for the

magnitude of the current. The variations of V ( z) and I( z)
as a function of z, their position on line relative to the
load at z=0, are illustrated in Fig.(2-11) for a line with
0

V  1V ,   0.3,   30 and Z  50  .The sinusoidal pattern is
r 0
called a standing wave. Its maximum value corresponds

to the position on line at which the incident and reflected
waves are in phase  2 z   r  2n  in Eq.(2.52) and therefore
add constructively to give a value equal to V 1     1.3V . 0

1.50
Fig.2-11 Fig.2-12
1.51
•The minimum value of V ( z) corresponds to destructive

interference, which occurs the two waves are in phase
opposition 2 z      2n  1  . In this case V0 1     0.7V .
r
•Whereas the repetition period is  for the incident

and reflected waves individually, the repetition period
for the standing-wave pattern is  / 2 .
•The standing-wave pattern describes the spacial
variations of the magnitude of V ( z ) as a function of z.
•The time oscillation of v(z,t) at any location z will have
an amplitude equal to V ( z ) at that z.
•Close inspection of the voltage and the current standing
wave patterns shown in Fig.(2-12) reveals that the two
patterns are in opposition.
1.52
Fig.2-11 Fig.2-12
1.53
• This is a consequence of the fact the second term in

Eq.(2.51a) is preceded by a sign plus, whereas the
second term in Eq.(2.51b) is preceded by a negative
sign.
•The standing-wave patterns shown in Fig.(2-11) are
for a typical situation with   0.3e . Their peak-to-peak
j300
value depends on  , which can vary between 0 and 1.

• For special case of a matched line with ZL =Z0, we
have   0 and V ( z)  V for all values of z as shown
0

Fig.(2-12a).
With no reflected wave present, there will be no
interference and no standing wave.
1.54
•The other end of  scale, at   1 , corresponds to

when the load is short circuit    1 or an open-circuit   1
•The patterns of the 2 cases are shown in Figs.(2-12b)
and (2-12c), both of which have maximal equal to 2 V0
and minima equal to zero, but the two patterns are
shifted in z relative to each other by a distance of  / 4 .
• Now let us examine the maximum and minimum values
of the voltage magnitude.
From Eq. (2.52), V(z)
 is a maximum when the argument
of the cosine function is equal to zero or multiples of
2π.
• Noting that the location on the line always corresponds to
negative values of z (since the load is at z=0),
1.55
if we denote lmax= -z as the distance from the load at

which V(z)
 is a maximum, then
(2.54)
(2.55)
with n =0 or a positive integer.

• Solving Eq. (2.55) for lmax, we have
(2.56)
where we have used the relation

( recall that: β = 2π/λ; θr is bounded between -π and π )
1.56
• If θr ≥ 0, the first voltage maximum occurs at

lmax=θrλ/4π, corresponding to n = 0, but if θr<0, the first
physically meaningful maximum occurs at
1max = (θrλ/4π) + λ/2, corresponding to n = 1.
Negative values of lmax correspond to locations

“beyond” the load at the end of the line and therefore
have no physical significance.
• As was mentioned earlier, the locations on the line
corresponding to voltage maxima also correspond to
current minima, and vice versa.
1.57
• Similarly, the minimum values of V ( z ) occur at the

distances lmin = -z corresponding to when the argument
of cosine function in Eq.(2.52) is equal to –(2n +1)π,
which gives the result
V  V0 1   
min (2.57)
when  r 2  lmin  (2n  1)
with    r   .
The first minimum corresponds to n = 0.

The spacing between a maximum lmax and the adjacent
lmin is λ/4. Hence the first minimum occurs at
 lmax   , if lmax  
 4 4
lmin 
 lmax   4 , if lmax   (2.58)
4
1.58
•The ratio V max to V min is called the voltage standing-

wave ratio S, which from Eqs(2.54) and (2.57) is given
V 1 
max
S   dimensionless 
V 1  (2.59)
min
This quantity is often referred to by its acronym,

VSWR (or SWR), provides a measure of mismatch
between the load and the transmission line; for a
matched load with   0 , we get S = 1, and for a line
with   1 , S =∞.
1.59
 Example 2-2 Reflection Coefficient of Series RC Load
Fig.2-10
1.60
Example 2-3 IΓI for Purely Reactive Load.
1.61
 Example 2-4 Standing Wave-Ratio.
1.62
 Example 2-5 Measuring ZL.
Fig.2-13
line, it is possible to measure IVImax and IVImin and

the distances from the load at which they occur.
Use of Eq. (2.59) then provides the voltage
standing-wave ratio S. Measurements with a 50Ω
slotted line connected to an unknown load
impedance determined that S = 3. The distance
between successive voltage minima was found to
be 30 cm, and the first voltage minimum was
located at 12 cm from the load. Determine the
load impedance ZL .
1.63
2-6 INPUT IMPEDANCE OF LOSSLESS

TRANSMISSION LINE.
 Standing Wave Zin: using Eqs(2.51a) and (2.51b), the
input impedance Zin is given by
   j z
V ( z ) V0  e   e j z  j 2 z 
 Z  Z 1   e (2.60)
Z in   0 0 j 2 z 

I ( z ) V0  e  j  z   e j  z  1   e 
 
Fig.2-14
• Of particular interest in many transmission-line
problems is the input impedance at the input of the
line at z =-l, which is given by
1.64
V0  e j  l   e j l  1   e  j 2  l 
Z in (l )    Z  Z0  (2.61)
  j l  j l  0  j 2 l 
V0 e   e 1   e
 
 
Replace  and use the following relations:
e j  l  cos  l  j sin  l , and e  j  l  cos  l  j sin  l , (2.62)
Eq.(2.61) can be rewritten in terms of ZL as:
 Z cos  l  jZ 0 sin  l   Z L  jZ 0 tan  l 

Z in (l )  Z 0  L   Z 0  (2.63)
 Z 0 cos  l  jZ L sin  l   Z 0  jZ L tan  l 
• From the stand point of the generator circuit, the

transmission line can be replaced with an impedance Zin
, as shown in Fig.2-14.
• The phasor voltage across Zin is given by

VgZ
 
Vi  I i Zin  in
Zg  Zin (2.64)
1.65
•But from the standpoint of the transmission line,

the voltage across it at the input of the line is given
by Eq.(2.51a) with z =-l
Vi  V (l )  V0  e j  l   e j  l  (2.65)
 
• Eqs.(2.64) and (2.65) and solving for V+0 leads to

the result:

 VgZ  1 
V0  in

  j l  j l
 (2.66)
 Zg  Z in  e   e 
1.66
Example 2-6 Complete Solution for v(z,t) and i(z,t).
1.67
1.68
2-7 SPECIAL CASES OF THE LOSSLES LINE

 We often encounter situations involving lossless
transmission lines with particular terminations or lines
whose lengths exhibit particularly usefull properties.
 Short-Circuited line: in Fig.2-15(a) ZL = 0 =>  = -1 and
S= ∞ ; the voltage and the current on a short-circuit
lossless line are given by:
Vsc ( z )  V0 e  j  z  e j  z   2 jV0 sin  z, (2.67a)
 
 
I ( z )  V0 e  j  z  e j  z   2V0 cos  z. (2.67b)
sc
Fig.2-15: Z0   Z
0
•The voltage Vsc ( z) is zero at the load (z=0), as it should

be for a short-circuit, and its amplitude varies as sin z ,
whereas the current Isc ( z) is maximum at the load and it
varies as cos  z.
Ir. D.M.Ngendo EE411/ April 2008 Isc ( z )
Dept. of Electrical and Electronics Engineering-Unza
1.69
•The input impedance of the line at z =-l is (denoting

as the input impedance for a short-circuit line) is :
Vsc (l )
Zinsc   jZ 0 tan  l (2.68)
I (l )
sc
Fig.2-15.
(d) : a plot of Zscin/jZ0 vs negative z.

Ir. D.M.Ngendo EE411/ April 2008 Isc ( z )
Dept. of Electrical and Electronics Engineering-Unza
1.70
 In general, the input impedance Zin may be

represented as: Zin  Rin  jX in (2.69)
• In case of the short-circuited lossless line, the

input is purely reactive (input resistance Rin=0 ).
• If tan  l  0, the line appears inductive, acting like an
equivalent inductor Leq whose impedance is equal to Zinsc
;thus
j Leq  jZ 0 tan  l , if tan  l  0, (2.70a)
or
Z 0 tan  l (2.70b)
Leq  (H )

(2.71a)
• The minimum line length that would result in an input

impedance Z insc equivalent to that of an inductor of
inductance Leq is:
1.71
1   Leq  (2.70 c)
l tan 1   (m)
  Z0 
•Similarly, if tan  l  0 the input impedance is

capacitive and the line acts as an equiv.capacitor
Ceq such that 1
 jZ 0 tan  l , if tan  l  0, (2.71a)
jCeq
or
1
Ceq   (F ) (2.70b)
Z 0 tan  l
Since l is a positive number, the shortest length l

for which tan  l  0 corresponds to the range  2   l  
Hence, the minimum line length l that would result
in an input impedance Zinsc equiv. to the capacitor of
capacitance Ceq is :
1.72
1  1
 1 
l   tan 



( m) (2.71c)
    C Z
eq 0  

 These results mean that, through proper choice of

the length of a short-circuit line, we can make
substitutes for capacitors and inductors with any
desired reactance.
 Such practice is common in the design of microwave
circuits and high-speed integrated circuits, because
making an actual capacitor or inductor is often more
difficult than making a shorted transmission line.
1.73
 Example 2-7 Equivalent Reactive Elements.
Fig.2-16
Fig.2-10
1.74
 Open-Circuit Line
•With ZL = ∞, as illustrated in Fig. 2-17(a),
we have Г= 1, S = ∞, and the voltage, current, and input
impedance are given by

V
Voc ( z )  0  e j  z  e j  z   2V0 cos  z.
Z0  
(2.72a)
 
I ( z )  V0  e j  z  e j z   2 jV0 sin z.
oc
Z0   Z0
(2.72b)
Voc ( l )
Z inoc    jZ 0 cot  l
I ( l ) (2.73)
oc
Fig. 2-17(a) _Transmission line

terminated in a open-circuit:
schematic represenation.
1.75
•Plots of these quantities are displayed in Fig. 2-17

as a function of negative z.
Fig. 2-17_ Transmission line

terminated in a open-circuit:
(b) normalize voltage on the line;
(c) normalize current on the line;
(d) normalize input impedance.
1.76
 Applications
of Short-Circuit and Open-Circuit
Measurements
• When a network analyser is used to measure Zinoc ; Zinsc
, the combination of the two measurements can be
used to determine the characteristic impedance of
the line Zo and its phase constant β.
• The product of Eqs.(2.68) and (2.73) gives the
results:
Z o   Zinsc Zinoc (2.74)
and the ratio of the same equations leads to

 Zinsc
tan  l  (2.75)
Zinoc
1.77
• Because of the π phase ambiguity associated with

the tangent function, the length l should be less than or
equal to λ/2 to provide an unambiguous result.
 Z  jZ 0 tan  l 
 Lines of Length l = nλ/2 Zin (l )  Z0  L 
 Z 0  jZ L tan  l 
• If l  n 2 , where n is an integer, tanβl = tan  2π λ nλ 2  = tan nπ = 0

• Consequently, Eq. (2.63) reduces to
(2.76)
which means that a half-wavelength line (or any integer

multiple of λ/2) does not modify the load impedance.
•Thus, a generator connected to a load through a half-wavelength
lossless line would induce the same voltage across the load and
current through it as when the line is not there.
1.78
 Quarter-Wave transformer.  Z  jZ 0 tan  l 

Zin ( l )  Z0  L 
 Z0  jZ L tan  l 
• Another case of interest is when the length of the line is

a quarter-wavelength ( or λ/4 + nλ/2,
where n = 0 or a positive integer), corresponding to
βl= (2π/λ)(λ/4) =π/2.
• From Eq. (2.63), the input impedance becomes
(2.77)
 Matched Transmission Line

• For a matched lossless transmission line with ZL = Z0,
1. the input impedance Zin= Z0 for all locations z on the line,
2. Γ= 0, and all incident power is delivered to the load,
regardless of the line length.
1.79
1.80
 Example 2-8 Measuring Z0 and β.
1.81
 Example 2-9 Quarter-Wave Transformer.
or
Fig.2-18
1.82
2-8 POWER FLOW ON A LOSSLESS TRANSLISSION LINE
 Let’us now examine the flow of power carried by the

incident and reflected waves.
 Reintroduce the general expressions for the voltage
and current phasors on a lossless transmission line:
(2-78a)
(2-78b)
 At the load (z = 0), the incident and reflected voltages

and currents are:
(2-79)
(2-80)
1.83
2-8.1 Instantaneous Power.

 The instantaneous power carried by the incident
wave, as it arrives at the load, is equal to the
product of the instantaneous voltage vi(t) and the
instantaneous current ii (t),
V 
 0 
Pi (t )  vi (t ).i i (t )   V i e jt  .  I i e jt     V0 e j e jt  .  e j e jt 
       Z 0 
  2-81)
2
V0 V0
 V0 cos( t    ). cos( t    )  cos 2 ( t    ) (W )
Z0 Z0
where V0+ is expressed in terms of its magnitude |V0+|

and phase angle Φ+.
1.84
 Similarly, upon replacing Г by|Г|e jθr and then

following the same steps, we obtain the following
expression for the instantaneous power reflected
by the load:
(2-82)
The negative sign in Eq. (2.82) signifies the fact that

the reflected power flows in the negative z -direction.
1.85
2-8.2 Time-Average Power.

 From a practical standpoint, we usually are more
interested in the time-average power flow along the
transmission line, Pav , than in the instantaneous power
P(t).
To compute Pav, we can use a time-domain approach or
a computationally simpler phasor-domain approach.
 Time-Average Power Using Time Domain Approach.
 The time-average power flow is equal to the
instantaneous power averaged over one time period
T=1/f =2π/ω.
 For the incident wave, the time-average power is
1.86
i 1 T i  2 /  (2.83)
P av  0 P (t )dt  0 Pi (t )dt V0
2
T 2 P i (t ) 
Z0
cos 2 (t    )
 Upon inserting the incident power P i(t) expression

into Eq. (2.83) and performing the integration, we obtain
the result : 2
V0 (2.84)
i
P av  (W )
2Z 0
The factor of 1/2 is a consequence of the integration of

over one period.
 A similar treatment for the reflected wave gives
2
V0
P r av   
2 2
   Pi av (W ) (2.85)
2Z0
1.87
 Thus, the magnitude of the average reflected power

is equal to the average incident power, reduced by a
multiplicative factor of |Г|2.
 The net average power delivered to the load shown in
Fig.2-19 is
Pav  Pi av  P r av
2 (2.86)
V0
 1   2  (W )
2Z0  
Fig.2-19: Time-
average power
reflected by a load
connected to lossless
T.L. is equql to the
incident power
multiplied by |Г|2
1.88
 Time–Average Power Using Phasor-Domain Approach.
 For any propagating wave with voltage and current

phasors V and I, a useful formula for computing the
time-average power is 1   Pav   V .I  (2.87)
2  
 Application of this formula to Eqs. (2.79) and (2.80)

gives
(2.88)
r 1  
  V0 
P av     V0 .   
2   Z0
  
2
2
V0 (2.89)

2Z 0
That are, respectively, identical to the expressions given

.by Eqs. (2.84)&(2.85).
1.89
2-9 THE CHART SMITH.
 The Smith chart, which was developed by P. H. Smith

in 1939, has been and continues to be the most widely
used graphical technique for analyzing and designing
transmission-line circuits.
 Originally intented to provide a useful graphical
tool for performing calculations involving complex
impedances, the Smith chart has become a principal
presentation medium in computer-aided design (CAD)
software for displaying the performance of microwave
circuits.
1.90
2-9.1 Parametric Equations.

 In general, the reflection coefficient Г is a
complex quantity and can then be represented by
   e j r   r  i (2.90)
where
 r   cos  r (2.91a)
i   sin  r (2.91b)
The Smith chart lies in the complex plane of Г.

 The unit cercle shown in Fig. 2-20 corresponds to |Γ|=1.
Because |Γ|≤ 1 for a transmission line, only that part of the
Γr-Γi plane that lies within the unit circle has physical
meaning.
1.91
2-9.1 Parametric Equations.

 In general, the reflection coefficient Г is a
complex quantity and can then be represented by
   e j r   r  i (2.90)
where
 r   cos  r (2.91a)
i   sin  r (2.91b)
 Note that: when both Γr and Γi are negative

numbers θr is in the third quadrant in the Γr - Γi
plane. Thus, when using θ = tan-1 (Γr / Γi ) to
compute θr it may be necessary to add or subtract
180° to obtain the correct value of θr .
1.92
 In Fig. 2-20, point A

represents a  A  0.3  j 0.4
reflection coefficient
or equivalently
2 2
A  0.3  0.4  0.5
and
 r  tan 1 (0.4 / 0.3)  53
(2.80)
1.93
 Impedances on Smith Chart are represented by

normalized values, with Z0, the characteristic impedance
of the line, serving as the normalization constant.
• Normalized impedances are denoted by lowercase
letters, as in z = Z/Zo. (2.92)
•The normalized load impedance is then given by

zL = ZL /Z0 (dim ensionless ), (2.93)
• and the reflection coefficient Γ, defined by Eq.

(2.49a), can be written as ,
Z L / Z0  1 zL  1 (2.94)
 
Z L / Z0  1 zL  1
1.94
•The inverse relation of Eq. (2.93) is

1  (2.94)
zL 
1 
•The normalized load impedance zL is, in general, a

complex quantity composed of a normalized load
resistance rL and a normalized load reactance xL:
z L = rL + jx L (2.95)
•Using Eqs. (2.90) and (2.95) in Eq. (2.94), we have

1+ Γ r  + jΓ i
rL + jx L = (2.96)
1- Γ r  - jΓ i
which can be solved to obtain explicit expressions for rL
and xL in terms of Γr and Γi as
1.95
1   2 r   2i
rL  (2.97a)
2 2
1  r   i
2 2 i
xL  (2.97b)
2 2
1   r   i
• These expressions state that for a given set of

values for Γr and Γi there corresponds a unique set of
values for rL and xL.
• However, if we fix the value of rL, many possible
combinations of values can be assigned to Γr and Γi ,
each of which can give the same value of rL.
• Eq. (2.97a) can be rearranged to give the following
parametric equation for the circle in the Γr-Γi plane
corresponding to a given value of rL:
1.96
2 2
 rL  2  1 
 Γr -  +Γ i =   (2.98)
 1+ rL   1+ rL 
which looks like the standard circle equations.

The rL circle is centered at Γr = rL/(1 + rL) and Γi = 0,
and its radius is 1/(1 + rL).
• The largest circle shown in Fig. 2-21 corresponds to
rL=0, which is also the unit circle corresponding to
IΓI=1. This is to be expected, because when rL= 0,
|Γ|=1 regardless of the magnitude of xL.
• A similar examination of the expression for xL given
by Eq. (2.97b) also leads to an equation for a circle
given by ,
1.97
2 2
2  1   1 
 r   i
Γ - 1 + Γ -  =   (2.99)
 x L  x
 L
but the xL circles in the Γr- Γi plane exhibit a different

character from that for rL.
• To start with, the normalized reactance xL may assume
both positive and negative values, whereas the normalized
resistance cannot be negative (negative resistances are
physically meaningless).
• Hence, Eq. (2.99) can generate two families of circles,
one family corresponding to positive values of xL and
another corresponding to negative values of xL.
•Furthermore, as shown in Fig. 2-21, only part of a
given circle falls within the bounds of the unit circle.
1.98
Fig. 2-21: Families of rL and xL circles within the domain lΓl ≤ 1
1.99
•The families of
circles of the two
parametric
equations given by
Eqs. (2.98) and
(2.99) plotted for Fig. 2-22
selected values
of rL and xL
constitute the
Smith chart
shown in Fig. 2-22
• A given point on the Smith chart, such as point P in Fig.
2-22, represents a normalized load impedance zL=2 with a
corresponding voltage reflection coefficient
Γ= 0.45 exp(-j26.6°).
1.100
•The magnitude |Γ|= 0.45

is obtained by dividing
the length of the line
between the center of
the Smith chart and the
point P by the length of
the line between the
center of the Smith chart
and the edge of the unit
circle (the radius of the
unit circle corresponds to
|Γ|=1).
Fig.2-22
•The perimeter of the Smith chart contains three

concentric scales.
1.101
•The innermost scale is

labeled angle of
reflection coefficient in
degrees.
This is the scale for θr
• As indicated in Fig. 2-
22, θr= -26.6° for point
P.
• The meanings and
uses of the other two
 Fig.2-22
scales are discussed
next.
The perimeter of the Smith chart contains three

concentricEE411/
Ir. D.M.Ngendo scales.
April 2008 Dept. of Electrical and Electronics Engineering-Unza
1.102
2-9.2 Input Impedances.

 From Eq. (2.61), the input impedance looking toward
the generator at a distance Ɩ from the load is given by
1  e j 2  l 
Zin  Z0  j 2l 
( ) (2.101)
1  e 
• To use the Smith chart, we always normalize

impedances the characteristic impedance Z0.
Hence, the normalized input impedance is ,
Zin 1+ Γe j2βl
z in = = (2.102)
Z0 1- Γe j2βl
The quantity Γ= lΓl.e jθr is the voltage reflection

coefficient at the load.
 j2 L j r  j 2  l j (r 2  l )
Ir. D.M.Ngendo EE411/ April 2008 Dept.
l   e   e e   e
of Electrical and Electronics Engineering-Unza
1.103
•Let us define l  e  j 2  L   e j r e  j 2  l   e j (r 2  l ) (2.103)
as the phase-shifted voltage reflection coefficient,

meaning that ΓƖ has the same magnitude as Γ, but the
phase of ΓƖ is shifted by 2βƖ relative to that of Γ.
In terms of ΓƖ , Eq. (2.102) can be rewritten as :
1  l
zin  (2.104)
1  l
• The Form Eq. (2.104) is identical with that for zL

given by Eq. (2.94):
1  (2.105)
zL 
1 
1.104
• The similarity in form suggests that, if Γ is

transformed into ΓƖ , zL gets transformed into zin.
• On the Smith chart, transforming Γ into ΓƖ maintaining
|Γ| constant and decreasing the phase θr by 2βƖ, which
corresponds to rotation in a clockwise direction on the
Smith chart.
• Noting that a complete rotation around the Smith
chart is equal to a phase change of 2π, the length Ɩ
corresponding to such a change is obtained from
2 (2.106)
2 l  2 l  2

or Ɩ= λ/2.
1.105
• The outermost scale around the perimeter of the

Smith chart (Fig. 2-22), called the wavelengths
toward generator (WTG) scale, has been constructed
to denote movement on the transmission line toward
the generator, in units of the wavelength λ.
• That is, Ɩ is measured in wavelengths, and one

complete rotation corresponds to Ɩ= λ/2.
•In some transmission-line problems, it may be
necessary to move from some point on the
transmission line toward another point closer to the
load, in which case the phase is increased, which
corresponds to rotation in a counterclockwise
direction.
1.106
• For convenience, the Smith chart contains a third

scale around its perimeter (in between the θr scale
and the WTG scale) for accommodating such a need.
• It is called the the wavelenghts toward load
(WTL) scale.
To illustrate how the Smith chart is used to find Zin,
• let us consider a 50Ω lossless transmission line
terminated in a load impedance ZL=(100-j50)Ω
- The objective is to find Z1, at a distance Ɩ= 0.1λ
from the load.
- The normalized load impedance is zL= ZL/ZO = 2-j1,
and it is denoted by point A on the Smith chart
shown in Fig. 2-23.
1.107
- On the WTG scale, the location of point A is

at 0.287λ.
- Using a compass, a circle is drawn through point A,
with the center of the circle being at the center of
the Smith chart.
-Since the center of the Smith char is the intersection
point of the Γr and Γi axes, all points on the drawn circle
have the same value of |Γ|.
- This is called the constant|Γ| circle, or more
commonly the SWR circle.
- The reason for this second name is that the voltage
standing–wave(SWR) ratio is related to |Γ| by Eq. (2.59)
as S
1  (2.107)
1 
1.108
Fig.2-23: Point A represents a normalized Load ZL = 2 - j 1 at 0.287λ on

the WTG scale. Point B represents the line input at 0.1λ from the load.
At B, zin = 0.6 - j0.66.
1.109
2-9.3 SWR, Voltage Maxima and Minima.

 Consider a load with zL = 2+j1. Figure 2-24 shows a Smith
chart with a SWR circle drawn through zL (point A).
• The SWR circle intersects the real axis (Γr) at two
points, designated Pmax and Pmin.
Thus, at both points Γi= 0 and Γ= Γr.
Also, on the real axis, the imaginary part of the load
impedance xL= 0. zL  1
  (2.108)
From the definition of Γ,
zL  1
points Pmax and Pmin correspond to the special case
: rL  1
  r  ( for i  0) (2.109)
rL  1
with Pmin corresponding to the condition when rL < 1 and
Pmax corresponding to the condition whenS r1L > 1.
r  S 1
Ir. D.M.Ngendo EE411/ April 2008  
(2.110)
Dept. of Electrical and S  1 (2.111)
Electronics Engineering-Unza
S 1
1.110
2-9.3 SWR, Voltage Maxima and Minima.

 Consider a load with zL = 2+j1. Figure 2-24 shows a Smith
chart with a SWR circle drawn through zL (point A).
• The SWR circle intersects the real axis (Γr) at two
points, designated Pmax and Pmin.
Thus, at both points Γi= 0 and Γ= Γr.
Also, on the real axis, the imaginary part of the load
impedance xL= 0.
From the definition of Γ, zL  1
 (2.108)
zL  1
points Pmax and Pmin correspond to the special case

rL  1
  r  ( for i  0) (2.109)
rL  1
with Pmin corresponding to the condition when rL < 1 and Pmax
S  1 Eq. (2.107) for
corresponding to the condition when rL > 1. Rewriting S  1lΓl
 r  
Ir. D.M.Ngendo
in terms ofEE411/
S, weApril
have 2008 (2.110)
Dept. of Electrical and S  1 (2.111)
Electronics Engineering-Unza
S 1
1.111
• Rewriting Eq. (2.107) for lΓl in terms of S, we have

S 1
  (2.110)
S 1
• For points Pmax and Pmin, lΓl = Γr: hence

S 1 (2.111)
r 
S 1
• The similarity in form of Eqs. (2.109) and (2.111)
suggests that S = rL.
• However, since by definition S ≥1, only point Pmax (for
which rL>1) satisfies the similarity condition.
• In Fig. 2-24, rL= 2.6 at Pmax; hence S = 2.6.
• In other words, S is numerically equal to the value of r L
at Pmax, the point at which the SWR circle intersects the
real Γ axis on the right-hand side of the chart’s center.
1.112
Fig. 2-24: Point A represents a normalized

load with zL = 2 + j1.
•The standing wave

ratio is S = 2.6 (at
Pmax), the distance
between the load and
the first voltage
maximum is Ɩmax = (0.25 -
0.213)λ = 0.037λ, and
the distance between
the load and the first
voltage minimum is Ɩmin =
(2.11)
(0.037 + 0.25) λ = 0.287
λ.
1.113
• The points Pmin and Pmax also represent the distances

from the Load at which the magnitude of the voltage on the
line, V , is a minimum and a maximum, respectively.
•This statement is easily demonstrated by considering the
definition of ΓƖ given by Eq. (2.103).
At point Pmax, the total phase of ΓƖ, that is, (θr-2 β Ɩ), is
equal to zero (if θr > 0) or (if θr< 0), which is the condition
corresponding to V max , as indicated by Eq. (2.55).
• Similarly, at Pmin the total phase of ΓƖ is equal to π, which
is the condition for V .
min
• Thus, for the transmission line represented by the SWR

circle shown in Fig. 2-24, the distance between the load and
the nearest voltage maximum is lmax = 0.037λ, obtained by
moving clockwise from the load at point A to point Pmax,
1.114
and the distance to the nearest voltage minimum is

Ɩmin= 0.287λ, corresponding to the clockwise rotation from
A to Pmin.
 Since the location of V is olso the location of I min and the

max
location of V min is also the location of I max , the Smith chart

provides a convenient way to determine the distances to all
maxima and minima on the line (the standing-wave pattern
has a repetition period of λ/2.
1.115
2-9.3 Impedance to Admittance Transformation.

 In solving certain types of transmission line problems, it is
often more convenient to work with admittances than with
impedances.
 Any impedance Z is in general a complex quantity consisting
of a resistance R and a reactance X:
Z  R  jX () (2.112)
 The admittance Y corresponding to Z is the reciprocal of Z

1 1 R  jX
Y    2 (S )
Z R  jX R  X2 (2.113)
The real part of Y is called the conductance G, and the

imaginary part of Y is called the susceptance B.
That is Y  G  jB (S ) (2.114)
1.116
• Comparison of Eq. (2.114) with Eq. (2.113) leads to

R
G (S )
R X2
2 (2.115a)
X
B (S )
R2  X 2 (2.115b)
• The normalized admittance y is
Y 1 G B
y    j  g  jb (dimensionless) (2.116)
Y0 z Y0 Y0
where Y0 =1/Z0 is the characteristic admittance of the line

and : g 
G
 GZ 0 (dim ensionless )
(2.117a)
Y0
B
b  BZ 0 (dim ensionless )
Y0 (2.117b)
The lowercase quantities g and b represent the normalized
conductance and normalized susceptance of y, respectively.
1.117
• Accordingly, using Eq. (2.105), the normalized load

admittance YL is given by
1 1  (2.118)
yL   (dim ensionless )
zL 1  
• Now consider the normalized input impedance zin at a

distance l = λ/4 from the load.
• Using Eq. (2.102) with 2β1 = 4πl/ λ = 4 π λ /4 λ = π gives
1   e  j 1 
zin (l   / 4)    yL (2.119)
1   e  j 1 
 Thus, rotation by λ/4 on the Smith chart transforms

zL into yL.
1.118
• In Fig.2-25, the points representing ZL and YL are

diametrically opposite to each other on the SWR circle.
• As an impedance chart, the
Smith chart consists of rL and
xL circles, representing the
normalized resistance and
reactance of a normalized load
impedance zL.
• When used as an
admittance chart, the rL
circles become gL circles
and the xL circles become
bL circles, where gL and bL
are also.normalized
conductance and
susceptance of YL resp.
1.119
• Fig.2-25: point A
represents a
normalized load
zL = 0.6 + j1.4.
Its corresponding
normalized admittance
is y = 0.25-j0.6, and
it is at point B.
1.120
A 50Ω lossless transmission line is terminated

in a load impedance ZL = (25 + j50) Ω. Use the
Smith chart to find (a) the voltage reflection
coefficient, (b) the voltage standing-wave ratio,
(c) the distances of the first voltage maximum Fig.2-13
and first voltage minimum from the load, (d)
the input impedance of the line, given that the
(2.118) line is 3.3λ long, and (e) the input
admittance of the line.
Solution: (a) The normalized load
impedance is
which is marked as point A on the

Smith chart in Fig. 2-26. Using a
ruler, a radial line is drawn from the
center of the chart at point 0
through point A, outward to the
outer perimeter of the chart. The line
crosses the scale labeled “angle of
reflection coefficient in degrees” at
0r = 83°. Next, a ruler is used to
Ir. D.M.Ngendo EE411/ April 2008
measure the length dA Dept. of Electrical and Electronics Engineering-Unza
1.121
 Example 2-10 Smith Chart Calculation.

A 50Ω lossless transmission line is terminated
in a load impedance ZL = (25 + j50) Ω. Use the The line crosses the scale
Smith chart to find (a) the voltage reflection labeled “angle of reflection
coefficient, (b) the voltage standing-wave ratio,
(c) the distances of the first voltage maximum
coefficient in degrees” at
and first voltage minimum from the load, (d) θr = 83°. Next, a ruler is used
the input impedance of the line, given that the to measure the length dA of
(2.118) line is 3.3λ long, and (e) the input the line between points 0 and
admittance of the line.
Solution: (a) The normalized load A and the length do’ of the line
impedance is between points o and o’,
where o’ is an arbitrary point
which is marked as point A on the on the rL= 0 circle.
Smith chart in Fig. 2-26. Using a The length d0’ is equal to the
ruler, a radial line is drawn from the radius of the IГI = 1circle.
center of the chart at point 0
through point A, outward to the The magnitude of T is then
outer perimeter of the chart. obtained from IГI=dA/do’=
0.62. Hence
1.122
Fig.2-26
1.123
 Example 2-11 Determining ZL Using Smith Chart.
Fig.2-27
1.124
2-10 IMPEDANCE MATCHING

2-10.1 Single –Stub Matching Network:
Since the primary uses of transmission lines are to
transfer power and to transmit coded signals (such as
digital data), a matched load (meaning ZL= Z0 ) ensures
that the power delivered to the load is a maximum.
 So we need to place an impedance-matching network
between the load and the transmission line as in Fig. 2-
28.
Fig. 2-28
1.125
The purpose of the matching network is to eliminate

reflections at the juncture MM’ between the transmission
line and the network.
 This is achieved by designing the matching network to
exhibit an impedance equal to Z0 at MM’ when looking into
the network from the transmission line side .
Matching networks may consist of lumped elements (and in
order to avoid ohmic losses only capacitors and inductors are
used) or of sections of transmission lines with
appropriate lengths and terminations .
The matching network is
intended to match a load
impedance ZL = RL + jX to a
lossless transmission line with
characteristic impedance Z0 Fig. 2-28
1.126
This means that the network has to transform the real

part of the load impedance from RL at the load to Zo at MM’
in Fig. 2-28 and to transform the reactive part from XL at
the load to zero at MM’.
To achieve these two transformations, the matching
network has to have at least two degrees of freedom; that
is, at least two adjustable parameters.
 The single-stub matching network shown in Fig. 2-29
consists of two transmission line sections, one of length d
connecting the load to the feedline at MM’ and another of
length I connected in parallel with the other two lines at
MM’.
This second line is called a stub (added in “parallel” to the
line=> called a shunt stub), and it is usually terminated in
either a short circuit or open circuit.
1.127
The stub shown in Fig. 2-29 has a short-circuit

termination.
 Because at MM’ the stub is a shunt-stub, it is easier
to work with admittances than with impedances.
Fig.2-29: Shorted-stub matching network
The matching procedure consists of two basic steps. In the

first step, the distance d is selected so as to transform the
load admittance YL = 1/ZL into an admittance of the form
YL = Yo + jB, when looking toward the load at MM’.
1.128
Then, in the second step, the length l of the stub line

is selected so that its input admittance Y at MM’ is
equal to -j B.
The parallel sum of the two admittances at MM’
yields Y0, the characteristic admittance of the line
Fig.2-29: Shorted-stub matching network

1.129
 Example 2-12 Single-Stub Matching.
1.130
Fig.2-13
1.131
1.132
Example 2-12 Single-Stub Matching.
1.133
2-11 TRANSIENTS ON TRANSMISSION LINES
 Thus far, our treatment of wave propagation on

transmission lines has focused on the analysis of
single-frequency, time-harmonic signals under
steady-state conditions.
The tools we developed-including the impedance-
matching techniques and the use of the Smith
chart-are useful for a wide range of applications, but
they are inappropriate for dealing with digital or
wideband signals on telephone lines or in a computer
network.
 For such signals, we need to examine their
transient behavior as a function of time.
1.134
 The transient response of a voltage pulse on a

transmission line is a time record of its back and forth
travel between the sending and receiving ends of the line,
taking into account all the multiple reflections (echoes) at
both ends.
 Considering the simple case of a single rectangular pulse
of amplitude V0 and duration τ, a shown in Fig. 2-32(a). The
amplitude of the pulse is zero prior to t = 0, V0 over the
duration 0 ≤ t ≤τ and again zero afterward.
(a) (b)
.
Fig. 2-32
1.135
 The pulse can be described mathematically as the sum of

two unit step functions:
V (t )  V1 (t )  V2 (t )  V0U (t )  V0U (t   ) (2.122)
where the unit step function U(t) is defined in terms

of its argument t as 1 for t  0 (2.123)
U (t )  
0 for t0
(b)
v2 = -
(a) Pulse of duration τ (b) V(t) = V1(t) + V2(t)

Fig. 2-32: A rectangular pulse V0 of duration  can be represented as the
sum of two step functions of opposite polarities displaced by  relative to
each other.
1.136
 The first component, V1(t) =V0 U(t), represents a d-c voltage of

amplitude V0 that gets switched on at t = 0 and remains that way
indefinitely, and the second component, V2= -V0U(t-τ), represents a
d-c voltage of amplitude -V0 that gets switched on at t=  and
then remains that way indefinitely.
 As can be seen from Fig. 2-32(b), the sum of the two
components is equal to V0 for 0 ≤ t ≤ and equal to zero for t > .
 This representation of a pulse in terms of two step functions
allows us to analyze the transient behavior of the pulse on a
transmission line as the superposition of two d-c signals.
Fig. 2-32
v2 = -
(a) (b)
1.137
2-11.1 Transient Response

 In figure 2-33, the switch between the generator circuit and
transmission line is switched on at t = 0.
At the instant the switch is closed, the transmission line appears to
the generator circuit as a load with impedance Zo, the characteristic
impedance of the line. This is because, in the absence of a signal on
the line, the input impedance of the line is unaffected by the load
impedance ZL .
Fig.2-33: at t = 0+, immediately after closing the switch in the circuit

in (a), the circuit can be represented by the equivalent circuit in (b)
1.138
 Fig.2-33b: the initial current I1+ and corresponding

initial voltage V1+ at the input end of the transmission line
Vg
are given by I 1  (2.124a)
Rg  Z 0
Vg Z 0 (2.124b)
V1  I 1 Z 0 
Rg  Z0
The combination of V1+ and I1+ constitutes a wave that

starts to travel along the line with a velocity up = 1/√με,
immediately after the instant at which the switch is
closed.
1.139
 The transient response of the wave is shown in

Fig. 2-34 at each of three instances in time for a
circuit with Rg = 4Z0 and ZL = 2Z0.
Fig.2-34
1.140
 The first response is at time t1= T/2, where T = Ɩ/up is the

time it takes the wave to travel the full length of the line.
By time t1, the wave has traveled halfway down the line;
consequently, the voltage on the first half of the line is equal
to V1 and the voltage on the second half is still zero [Fig. 2-
34(a)].
At t = T, the wave reaches the load at z=Ɩ, and because ZL the
mismatch generates a reflected wave with amplitude
Z L  Z0
︶
V1   LV1 (125) where  L  is the reflection
1
2
6
Z L  Z0
coefficient of the load.
For this case, ZL=2Z0
=> ΓL = 1/3.
Fig.2-34(a)
1.141
 After this first reflection, the voltage on the line

consists of the sum of two waves, the initial wave V1+ and
the reflected wave V1-.
The voltage on the transmission line at t2 = 3T/2 is shown in
Fig. 2-34(b); V(z, 3T/2) is equal to V1+ on the first half of
the line ( 0 ≤ z < l/2), and is equal to
(V1+ + V1- ) on the second half ( l /2 ≤ z < l). Fig.2-34(b)
At t = 2T, the reflected wave V1- arrives at
the sending end of the line. If Rg ≠ Zo, the
mismatch at the sending end generates a
reflection at z = 0 in the form of a wave
with voltage amplitude V1+ given by
Rg  Z 0
︵
︶
V2   g V1   g  LV1 (127) where g 
1
2
8
Rg  Z 0
is the reflection coefficient of the generator resistance Rg.

For Rg = 4Z0, => Γg = 0.6.
1.142
 As time progresses after t = 2T, the wave V travels down

the line toward the load and, as it does that, it adds to the
previous voltage condition on the line.
Hence, at t = 5T/2, the total voltage on the first half of the
line is
(2.129a)
and on the second half of the line the voltage is
(2.129b) Fig.2-34(c)
•The voltage distribution is shown in

Fig. 2-34(c) .
1.143
 The associated transient response of the current I(z, t)

is shown in Figs. 2-34(d)->(f).
The process is similar to that we described for the voltage
V(z, t), except for one important difference.
Whereas at either end of the line the reflected voltage is
related to the incident voltage by the reflection coefficient
at that end, the reflected current is related to the incident
current by the negative of the reflection coefficient. This
property of wave reflection is expressed by Eq. (2.49b).
Accordingly (2.130a)
(2.130b)
and so on.
Fig.2-34(d->f)
1.144
 The multiple-reflection process continues indefinitely, and

the ultimate value that V (z, t) reaches as t approaches ∞ is
the same at all locations on the transmission line and is given
by
(2.131)
where x = ΓLΓg. The series inside the square bracket is

the binomial series of the function
(2.132)
Hence, Eq. (2.131) can be rewritten in the compact form
(2.133)
1.145
 Upon replacing V1+, ΓL, and Γg with the expressions given

by Eqs. (2.124b), (2.126), and (2.128), respectively, and
then simplifying the resulting expression, we obtain
(2.134)
The voltage V∞ is called the steady-state voltage on the

line, and its expression is exactly what we should expect on
the basis of d-c analysis of the circuit in Fig. 2-33(a) if we
were to treat the transmission line as simply a connecting
wire between the generator circuit and the load.
The corresponding steady-state current is
(2.135)
1.146
2-11.2 Bounce Diagrams

 The bounce diagram is a graphical presentation that allows
us to accomplish the same goal, but with relative ease.
Fig.2-35:
In (c), the
voltage variation
with time at
z=l/4 for a
circuit with
Γg = 3/5 and
ΓL= 1/3 is
deduced from
the vertical
dashed line at
l/4 in (a).
1.147
 The horizontal axis in Figs. 2-35(a) and (b) represents

position along the transmission line, and the vertical
axis denotes time. Figure 2-35(a) pertains to V(z, t)
and part (b) pertains to I(z, t). The bounce diagram in
Fig. 2-35(a) consists of a zigzag line indicating the
progress of the voltage wave on the line. The
incident wave V1+ starts at z = l = 0 and travels in the
+z-direction until it reaches the load at z = l at time
t=T. At the very top of the bounce diagram, the
reflection coefficients are indicated by Γ= Γg at the
generator end and by Γ= ΓL at the load end. At the end
of the first straight-line segment of the zigzag line, a
second line is drawn to represent the reflected
voltage wave V1-= ΓLV1+.
1.148
The amplitude of each new straight-line segment is equal

to the product of the amplitude of the preceding
straight-line segment and the reflection coefficient at
that end of the line. The bounce diagram for the current
I(z, t) in Fig. 2-35(b) follows the same procedure as for the
voltage except for the reversal of the signs of ΓL and Γg at
the top of the bounce diagram.
 Using the bounce diagram, the total voltage (or current)
at any point z1 and time t1 can be determined by drawing a
vertical line through the point z1 ,then adding the voltages
(or currents) of all the zigzag segments intersected by
that line between t = 0 and t= t1.
 To find the voltage at z = l/4 and T = 4T, for example, we
draw a dashed vertical line in Fig. 2-35(a) through z = 1/4
and we extend it from t = 0 to t = 4T.
1.149
 The dashed line intersects four line segments.

The total voltage at z = l/4 and t = 4T is therefore given by
The time variation of V at a specific location z can be

obtained by plotting the values of V along the (dashed)
vertical line passing through z.
Figure 2-35(c) shows the variation of V as a function of
time at z = l/4 for a circuit with Γg = 3/5 and ΓL = 1/3 .
1.150
 Example 2-13 Time-Domain Reflectometer.
1.151
 Example 2-13 Time-Domain Reflectometer.
1.152
Fig.2-13: Time-domain
reflectometer
1.153
HW# 3: 2.12; 2.23; 2.26 and 2.55
Note: show all the steps leading to the solutions.

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School of Engineering

Electrical and Electronics Department

EE 4021 ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELDS

Lecturer : Ir. Donat Ngendo Mubiligi

e-mail address: mngendo@unza.zm

Semester I, 2009/10:June 29 – October 9

1. General Considerations 6. Input impedance of the

2.1 GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS

 This topic will build a bridge between a circuit theory

 A transmission line consists of a two-port network as

 The generator voltage Vg in series with a generator

 In the case of a-c signal the generator circuit is

 This load may be :

2-1.1 The ROLE OF WAVELENGHT

2-1.1 The ROLE OF WAVELENGHT

•This is because the frequencies you have

• When the wavelength is smaller, smaller devices

where ω = 2πf is the angular frequency

 Assume that the current flowing through the pair

• The voltage across the output terminal BB’ will

• Compare now VBB’ to VAA’ at t = 0 for:

 The determining factor is the magnitude of ωL/c:

in this case up = c. Hence the phasor factor

• When l/λ is very small, transmission–line effects

A dispersive transmission line is one on which

• A good example is the

• A common feature among TEM lines is that they

 Our transmission line will be oriented along the z-

 Then each section is represented by an equivalent

• And these are:

• The prime superscript is used as a reminder that

Table2-1: expressions for these line parameters.

• Note: for each of these lines, the expressions

 For a physical explaination for the lump-element

•The expression for R’ is (derived in a later chapiter)

For a perfect conductor σc = ∞ or a high-conductivity

The expresion for L’ is as derived in a later chapiter

 The expression for the shunt conductance G’ is

If the material separating the inner and outer

 The last parameter is the capacitance per unit

 All TEM transmission lines share the following

If the insulating material is air, the transmission line is

Fig 2-8: Equivalent circuit

Application KVL accounts the voltage drop across the

•Upon dividing all terms by ∆z and rearranging terms:

In the limit as ∆z→0, the

• Similary, application of KCL at node N+1 leads to:

• Upon dividing all terms by ∆z and taking the limit as ∆z→0

•The first-order differential eqns given by Eqs(2.14)

•In the phasor domain, we obtain the following

• What is difference between this and “regular”

5. WAVE PROPAGATIONON A TRANSMISSION LINE

Application of the same previous steps but in

 Eqs.(2.21) and (2.23) are called wave equations for

  e( )  e( ( R ' j L ')(G ' jC ')) ( Np / m) (2.25a)

• For passive transmission lines, α is either zero or

• Later, we will see:

 Characteristic Impedance: the traveling wave

• Comparison of each term with the corresponding

is defined as the characteristic impedance of the line.

• In terms of Z0, Eq.(2.27 can be rewritten in the

• Applying boundary conditions ( to see later) at the

• Upon converting back to the time-domaine, we get