ffoYsl (Vectors)

1
1.1 wosY (Scalars)

hï rdYshl úYd,;ajh muKla bÈßm;a lsÍfuka

tu rdYsh iïmQ¾Kfhka úia;r l, yels kï
tu rdYsh wÈYhla kï fõ'
ialkaOh" ld,h" WIaK;ajh" >k;ajh wdÈh
óg WodyrKhs'

1.2 ffoYsl (Vectors)

úYd,;ajhla tallhla fukau ÈYdjla o we;s fN!;sl rdYs ffoYslhs'

ffoYsl zz fftlHh ms<sn`o ;%sfldak m%fïhhZZ ms<sm§'
úia:dmkh" m%fõ.h" ;ajrKh" .uH;djh" n,h" lafIa;% ;Sj%;dj"
i%dj >k;ajh wdÈh ffoYsl j,g WodyrKhs'

ffoYsl yd wÈY hk foj¾.hgu fjkia .;s .=K we;s

fN!;sl rdYso we;'

mSvkh ffoYsl rdYshla f,i yefÕkakg bv ;sfí'

tfy;a th ksjerÈ j yeoEÍfï § th wÈYhla nj Tng
jegfykq we;'
 1.3 ffoYsl m%ia:dßl ksrEmKh
(Graphical representation of a vector) :

§ we;s ffoYslhla tys ÈYdjg fhduqù we;s" tys úYd,;ajhg

iudkqmd;sl úYd,;ajhla we;s f¾Ld LKavhlska m%ia:dßlj
ksrEmKh l, yel' f¾Ldj u; B;, ysilska tys wNsÈYdj
tkï fhduqù we;s ÈYdjg ,l=Kq l, hq;=h' ffoYsl wOHkfha §
fuu m%ia:dßl ksrEmKh fnfyúka m%fhdackj;a fõ'

WodyrK :-

kef.kysr ÈYdjg 40 km úia:dmkh cHdñ;slj ksrEmKh lrkak'

W

A B n ke

40
o
1.4 ffoYsl folla iudk ùug wjYH;dj
(Conditions for two vectors to be equal) :

B Q
A P
AB = PQ ùu msKsi
1. tajd iucd;Sh úh hq;=h'
2. AB = PQ úh hq;=h'
3. AB // PQ úh hq;=h'
4. wNs ÈYd (B;, j, ÈYd)
iudk úh hq;=h'

iudka;rdi%hl m%;suqL mdo j,ska iudk

ffoYsl cHdñ;slj ksrEmKh l< yelsh'

1.5 ffoYsl RK ,l=Klska .=K lsÍu

(Multiplication by negative sign) :

B C ffoYslhla RK ,l=Klska .=K lsÍu hkq

tys wNs ÈYdj udre lsÍuhs'
P
P
WodyrK jYfhka :-

A D
AB = CD o AB // CD o kï rEmfha oelafjk
mßÈ CD j,ska P iDK ,l=Klska .=K l<
úg ,efnk ffoYslh CD uÕska ksrEmKh fõ'
 1.6 ffoYslhla wÈYhlska .=K lsÍu
(Multiplication by a scalar) :

ffoYslhla wÈYhlska .=K l< úg wksjd¾hfhka u ffoYslhla u

,efí' m%;sM,h f,i ,efnk ffoYslfha úYd,;ajh" .=Ks;hg
iyNd.S jQ ffoYslfha;a" wÈYfha;a úYd,;aj j, .=Ks;hhs'

wÈYh Ok kï m%;sM,h f,i ,efnk ffoYslfha ÈYdj" .=Ks;hg

iyNd.S jQ ffoYslfha ÈYdju fõ' wÈYh RK kï m%;sM,h f,i
,efnk ffoYslfha ÈYdj" .=Ks;hg iyNd.S jQ ffoYslfha ÈYdjg
m%;súreoaO ÈYdj fõ'

WodyrK :-

-1 -1
4N x [- 3] 12N
2ms x [+2] 4ms

1.7 ffoYslhla ffoYslhlska .=K lsÍu

(Multiplication of two vectors) :

fuys§" wkq.ukh lrk l%u folls' tu l%uh wkqj

m%;sM,h ffoYslhla fyda wÈYhla fõ'
(a) l;sr .=Ks;fhka ,efnk m%;sM,h ffoYslhls'

A x B = C
(b) ;s;a .=Ks;fhka ,efnk m%;sM,h wÈYhla fõ'

A . B = C
 fldaKhla hkq l=ula o@
What is an angle?

fldaKhla hkq N%uKhls' fldaKhla uekSu

N%uKhla uekSuls' N%uKh jdudjD; fyda
oCIsKdjD; úh yels h'
oCIsKdjD; hkq Trf,daiqfõ lgq lerlefjk ÈYdj tkï
myiqfjka ol=Kq w; my<g lrleúh yels ÈYdjhs'
Bg úreoaO ÈYdj jdudjD; fõ'

iq¿ fldaKh (Acute angle)

P1

a x
O
OP f¾Ldj OX u;ska werö rEmfha ±lafjk
OP1 ia:dkh olajd N%uKh jQfha hehs is;uq'
fuys§ a fldaKh tkï N%uKh 90 jg jvd
0

wvq neúka th iq¿ fldaKhla f,i kï flf¾

iDcq fldaKh (Right angle)
P2

900
O x
0
OP f¾Ldj OX u;ska werö OP2 ia:dkh olajd 90 lska
0
N%uKh jQ úg tlS N%uKh 90 l N%uKhla f,i o xop2
iDcq fldaKhla f,io ye`Èkafõ'

uyd fldaKh (Obtuse angle)

p3

a
o x
N%uKh 900 g jvd jeä o 1800 g jvd wvqo kï
tu N%uKh tkï xop3 uyd fldaKhla f,i ye`oskafõ'

mrdj¾; fldaKh (Reflex angle)

a x
o

p4
N%uKh 1800 lg hvd jeä jQ úg xop4
mrdj¾; fldaKhla f,i ye`Èkafõ

;%sfldaKhl mdo folla w;r fldaKh

hkafkys w¾:h
Meaning of angle between two sides of a triangle

a b
A B
ABC ;%sfldaKh i,lkak AB yd AC mdo w;r fldaKh a hkq
AB yd AC w;r wdk;sh tkï AB mdoh AC u;g iïmd; ùug
th N%uKh l< hq;= fldaKh a njhs' fuys§ by; ±lajQ N%uKh
isÿ úh hq;af;a jdudj¾;j nj meyeÈ,sh'
 3600 l fldaKh ( Angle of 3600 )

3600 x
o p5

op f¾Ldj ox u;ska werö jdudj¾;j N%uKh ù kej;

op5 ia:dkhg meñK ox u; iïmd; jQúg tys N%uKh
jdudj¾;j 3600 la fõ'

0
3600 jeä fldaK ( Angles larger than 360 )

p6

a
o x

op f¾Ldj ox u;ska werö jdudj¾;j iïmQ¾K rjqï folla

yd ;j;a a fldaKhlska N%uKh ù op6 ia:dkhg meñfKa hehs
is;uq' túg N%uKh jQ uq¿ fldaKh
3600 + 3600 + a = 7200 + a fõ'

WodyrK :-

úkdä 10 l§ Trf,daiqjl ;;amr lgqj N%uKh jk fldaKh fidhkak'

;;amr lgqj úkdählg tl rjqula tkï 3600 la oCIsKd j¾;j

N%uKh fõ' fï wkqj úkdä 10 l§ ;;amr lgqj N%uKh jk fldaKh
3600 x 10 = 36000 la fõ'
 ffoYsl folla w;r fldaKh
( Angle between two vectors )

a
p

P yd Q ffoYsl foflka tlla wNsosYd tkï B;,

ysfia ÈYd iïmd; jk mßÈ wfkl u;g N%uKh l<
hq;= fldaKh ffoYsl w;r fldaKh fyj;a tajd wdk;sh
kï fõ'ta wkqj rEmfha ±lafjk ffoYsl w;r fldaKh
a nj meyeÈ,sh'

a
p

rEmfha ±lafjk ffoYsl w;r" fldaKh tkï wdk;sh l=ula o@

th a o@

fuys§ tla ffoYslhla ; WodyrK f,i Q ffoYslh a fldaKhla

P u;g N%uKh lf<a hehs is;kak' túg ffoYsl j, we;s ÈYd
m%;súreoaO fõ'
tneúka fï ffoYsl fol w;r fldaKh" tkï wdk;sh a fkdfõ'

a 180 - a

p
fuys§ P ffoYslfha ÈYdj Èla lr n,kak'
±ka Q ffoYslh 1800 - a fldaKhla kï N%uKh l< úg
wNs ÈYd tl`.j P ys ÈYdj iu`. Q ys ÈYdj iïmd; fõ'
fï wkqj ffoYsl w;r ksjerÈ wdk;sh fyj;a fldaKh
1800 - a fõ'

1.8 ffoYsl fftlHh (Addition of Vectors) :

iucd;Sh ffoYsl folla tlg t;l= l, yelsh' tajdfha tl;=jg

iïm%hqla;h (R) hk ku fhdokq ,efí' hï ffoYsl foll iïm%hqla;h
hkq tu ffoYsl foflka we;sjk fN!;sl m%;sM, ta wdldrfhkau
we;sjk mßÈ tu ffoYsl fol fjkqjg fhÈh yels ;ks ffoYslhhs'

(Triangle method of vector addion) :

ffoYsl ftlHh ms<sn| ;s%fldaKl m%fïhh :

tl;= l, hq;= ffoYsl fol ;s%fldaKhl wkq ms<sfj<ska .;a

mdo follska m%ia:dßlj ksrEmKh lrkak' ;s%fldaKfha ;=kajeks
mdofhka ffoYsl j, iïm%hqla;h m%ia:dßlj ksrEmKh fõ'

tkï ;=kajk mdofhys úYd,;ajh iïm%hqla;fhys úYd,;ajhhs'

tys ÈYdj iïm%hqla;fhys ÈYdjhs'

C
R
Q
Q
a P
q a
A B
P

ffoYsl ;s%fldaKh ks¾udKh lsÍfï § P ffoYslh we|

th wjika jk fl<jfrka Q ffoYslh mgka .ekSu
(tkï ffoYsl wkq ms<sfj<ska we|Su) b;d jeo.;a fõ'
R hkq iïm%hqla; ffoYslhhs' iEu úgu iïm%hqla;fha
ÈYdj tl;= l, ffoYslj, B;, wkqms<sfj,g m%;súreoaO
ÈYdj fõ'
ffoYsl fftlHh ms<sn| iudka;rdi% m%fïhh :
(Parallelogram method of vector addion) :
D C

a a q a
A B
P yd Q ffoYsl hq.,h tl;= lsÍu msKsi
tajd ABCD iudka;rdi%hl AB yd AD noaO
mdo follska m%ia:dßlj ksrEmKh lrkq ,efí'
±ka ABCD iudka;rdi%h iïmQ¾K fldg AC
úl¾K w|skq ,efí' AC j,ska iïm%hqla;fhys
úYd,;ajh yd ÈYdj m%ia:dßlj ksrEmKh fõ'

iudka;rdi% m%fïhh ;=< ;%sfldaK m%fïhh we;s nj

f;areï .kak' uQ,sl jkafka ;%sfldaK m%fïhhs'

m%ia:dßl l%uhlska ffoYsl 3 la tl;= lsÍu :

(Graphical method of addtion of three vectors ) :
D =P+Q+S
S
P+Q+S=
R = AB + BC + CD
S Q b
C = AC + CD
P+Q Q
= AD = R
P q a
b a
A B
P
tl;= l, hq;= P, Q, yd S ffoYsl ;=k p;=ri%hl wkq ms<sfj<ska
.;a mdo ;=klska m%ia:dßlj ksrEmKh lrkak' p;=ri%fha i;r
jk mdoh iïmQ¾K lsÍfuka iïm%hqla;h m%ia:dßlj ksrEmKh
fõ' (iïm%hqla;h fhduqjk ÈYdj b;sß ffoYsl j, ÈYd fh§
we;s wkq ms<sfj,g úreoaO ÈYdj fõ')

ffoYsl y;rla tl;= lsÍu

( Addtion of four vectors ) :
T g D
E
S

Q R b
C
S
g b a Q
q a
A P B A
T P B

tl;= l, hq;= P, Q yd S, T ffoYsl y;r mxpdi%hl P+Q+S+T

wkq ms<sfj,ska .;a mdo y;rlska m%ia:dßlj ksrEmKh = AB + BC + CD + DE
lrkak' mxpdi%fha miajk mdoh uÕska iïm%hqla;h = AC + CD + DE
cHdñ;slj ksrEmKh lrhs' = AD + DE
= AE = R
ffoYsl n ixLHdjla m%ia:dßlj tl;= lsÍu
i|yd nyq wi% m%fïhh : ( Vector polygon ) :

tl;= l, hq;= ffoYsl n ixLHdj mdo (n + 1) la we;s

nyq wi%hl wkqms<sfj,ska .;a mdo n ixLHdjlska m%ia:dßlj
olajkak' (n + 1) jk mdoh iïmQ¾K lsÍfuka iïm%hqla;h
,efí'
ffoYsl n ixLHdj ks¾udKh lsÍfï oS tajdhska mdo n we;s
nyq wi%h ksjerÈ j iïmQ¾K jqjfyd;a meyeÈ,s jkafka
(n + 1) jk mdoh tkï iïm%hqla;h Y=kH jk njhs'
tys§ R = O (wNsY=kH ffoYslh) f,i i,lkq ,efí'

wod, ;s%fldaKñ;sh ( Relevant trigonometry ) :

ñka miqj úia;r lrk lreKq i|yd my; ±lafjk

;s%fldaKñ;sl iïnkaO;d m<uqj yodrkak'
(1) ABC Rcq fldaKS ;s%fldaKfha l¾Kh Q yd
a fldaKh o §we;s úg AB = Q Cosa o BC = Q Sina o fõ'
C BC = Sin a
\
Q
Q BC = Q Sin a
Q Sin a
AB
= Cos a
a Q
A B
Q Cos a AB = Q Cos a

(2) ´kEu ;s%fldaKhl ihska jákdlfï j¾.fha;a

fldaihska jákdlfï j¾.fha;a tl;=j 1 la fõ'
C
2
BC 2 BC
2 AB2
Sina = Sin a = Cos a = +
AC AC2 AC2
AB BC2 + AB2
Cosa = =
a AC AC2
A B 2 2 2
mhs;e.ria m%fïhh wkqj BC + AB = AC fõ'
2
2 2
\ Sin a = Cos a = AC =1
AC2
 ffoYsl folla .Ks;uhj tl;= lsÍu
Algebraic sum of two vectors

tlsfklg a fldaKhla wdk;j mj;sk úYd,;aj P yd Q

ffoYsl foll iïm%hqla;h .Kkj lsÍu u.ska fidhuq'

;%sfldaK m%fïhh wkqj iïm%hqla;fha

a úYd,;ajh AC ys úYd,;ajh fõ'
P
BM = Q Cosa
C MC = Q Sina
AC2 = AM2 + MC2 (ffm;e.ria m%fïhh)
R \ R2 = (P + Q Cosa )2 + (Q Sina )2
Q Q Sin a
R2 = P2 + 2PQ Cosa + Q2 Cos2a + Q2 Sin2a
R = P2 + 2PQ Cosa + Q2 (Cos2a + Sin2a )
2
q a
A M 2 2
fuys Cos a + Sin a = 1 fh§fuka
P B Q Cos a

R2 = P + 2PQ Cosa + Q
2 2

;s%fldaK m%fïhh wkqj P yd Q" ABC ;s%fldaKfha

AB yd BC j,ska olajd we;' iïm%hqla;h R fjhs'
2 2
\ R = P + Q + 2PQ Cos a
fuys M hkq Èlal, AD j,g C isg w`Èk ,ïnlfha
m;=<hs'
iïm%hqla;fh ys ÈYdj fiùu'
iïm%hqla;h P ffoYslh iuÕ idok fldaKh q kï"
MC
Tan q = AM \ Tan q = Q Sin a
P + Q Cos a
\ q = Tan-1
( Q Sin a
P + Q Cos a )
,ïnl ffoYsl foll iïm%hqla;h fiùu
Addition of two perpendicular vectors
úYd,;ajh X yd Y jk tlsfklg ,ïnl ffoYsl
foll iïm%hqla;h fidhuq'
C AC2 = AB2 + BC2
Y 2 2 2
\R =X +Y (ffm;e.ria m%fïhh)
R \ iïm%hqla;fh ys úYd,;ajh
Y
R = X2 + Y 2
q
X A B \ iïm%hqla;fh ys ÈYdj
X
y
Tan q = x
y
\q ()
= Tan-1 x
 m%Odk fldaKj, ;s%fldaKñ;sl wkqmd;
Trigonometric values of few important angles

00 300 450 600 900

Sin 0 1/2 1/ 2 3/2 1
Cos 1 3/2 1/ 2 1/2 0
Tan 0 1/ 3 1 3 ¥

uyd fldaKhl ;s%fldaKñ;sl jákdlï ,nd.ekSu

Trigonometric values of an obtuse angle.

ffoYsl folla .Kkh lsÍfuka tl;= lsÍfï §

uyd fldaKj, ;s%fldaKñ;sl jákdlï wjYHh
úh yelsh' fN!;sl úoHdfõ wjia:d lsysmhl§ u
(180° – q) q fï ms<sn| ±kqu wjYHh fõ'

rEmfha olajd we;s q uyd fldaKfha ;s%fldaKñ;sl

0
w.hka ,nd.ekSug (180 – q ) iq¿ fldaKfha
;s%fldaKñ;sl w.hhka Ndú;d l, yelsh'

0
(1) uyd fldaKfha ihskh; (180 – q ) fldaKfhys ihskhgu
iudk fõ'

tkï" Sin (1800 - q) = Sin q

WodyrK :- 0
Sin 120 = Sin 60 =
0 3
2

(2) uyd fldaKfha fldaihskh; (1800 – q ) fldaKfha

fldaihskfhys RK jákdluhs'

tkï" Cos (1800 - q) = - Cos q

WodyrK :- 0
Cos150 = -Cos 30 =
0
- 23

(3) uyd fldaKfha gexckh (1800 – q ) fldaKfha

gexckfhys RK jákdluhs'

tkï" Tan (1800 - q) = - Tan q

WodyrK :- Tan 1350 = - Tan 450 = -1

 1.9 ffoYslhlska ;j;a ffoYslhla wvq lsÍu
(Subtraction of Vectors) :

fuys§ wvq l, hq;= ffoYslfha wNs ÈYdjg udre fldg

th wfklg tl;= lrkak'

WodyrK
WodyrK :-:-

(-) Q (+) -Q
P P

C
P-Q -Q

A P B

wod, ;s%fldaKñ;sh
BC
Sin q =
C AC BC
Cos (90 – q ) =
AC
\ Sin q = Cos (90 – q )
90°- q
AB
Cos q =
AC
q AB
Sin (90 – q ) =
A AC
B \ Cos q = Sin (90 – q )

1.10 ffoYslhla úfNaokh lsÍu

(Resolving a Vectors) :
P Sin q = P Cos a
B

P
P Sin q P
a
A q C q
P Cos q
P Cos q = P Sin a

§ we;s ffoYsl folla ;ks ffoYslhlg tl;= l, yelsjdla fukau § we;s we;s ;ks ffoYslhla
fjk;a ffoYsl follg fjka lr .; yelsh' fuh ffoYsl úfNaokh kï fõ'
§ we;s P ´kEu ffoYslhla ;j;a ffoYsl follg fyda jeä ixLHdjlg fjka lr .; yelsh'
fndfyda úg myiqj i|yd ffoYslhla úfNaokh lrkq ,nkafka tlsfklg ,ïnl ÈYd follgh'
tys§ ,efnk úfNaok fldgia ixrpl f,i y÷kajkq ,efí'
P ffoYslhl ; thg q fldaKhla wdk; ÈYdjg ixrplh P Cos q o" tu ixrplhg ,ïnl
ÈYdjg ixrplh P Sin q o fõ' úfNaokfha § Ndú;d l, yels l%u 2 by; ±lafõ' fuu l%u
folu ksjerÈ h'
 ffoYslhl ixrplfhys fN!;sl w¾:h

lsishï ffoYslhlg Bg wdk; ÈYd Tiafia o n,mEï we;sl,

yelsh' ffoYslhl" Bg wdk; ÈYdjla Tiafia ixrplh hkq tu
ÈYdj Tiafia tys ffoYslfha n,mEuhs'

my; ±lafjk WodyrK i,ld n,kak'

(1) n,mEu fyj;a ixrplhhs'

N

W E tfukau jia;=j W;=rg o úia:dmkh

(ud;f,a) ù we;' W;=re ÈYdjg we;s fldg ;sfnk
S
S M,odhS úia:dmkh S Sin a fõ' fï wkqj
S Sin a
kef.kysrg yd W;=rg jia;=fõ úia:dmkh
a
C A jkqfha uq¿ úia:dmkfha ta ta ÈYd Tiafia
(fld<U) S Cos a
ixrplhhs'
 WodyrK:- :-
(2) WodyrKh
<ore lr;a;h ;,a¨ lrk uj fhdokafka
F keue;s ;srig wdk; n,hls' tu n,fha
fldgila kï F Cos q keue;s ixrplh
;sria ÈYdjg ls%hd lrhs' lr;a;h ìu ;,a¨
ù hkafka fuu F Cos q ;sria ixrplh
ksidh' F n,fha isria ixrplh F Sin q
lr;a;fha frdao ;=<ska fmdf<djg
iïfm%aIKh fõ'

(3) WodyrK
WodyrKh :-
:-

W Cos 90° = 0
l÷ nEjqul; tkaýu k;r l, jdykhla jqj o
· · my<g .uka lr úh yelsh' jdykh nEjqu my<g
meñfKkafka tys nr ksid hkak b;d meyeÈ,s
úia;r lsÍula fkdfõ' ;sria ud¾.hla u; we;s
W jdykh u; o nr ls%hd lrhs' ;sria ud¾.fha we;s
jdykh ks±,af,a p,kh fkdjkafka uka o?

·
·
q
W Sin q
q
0

we;af;kau p,kh ùug ud¾.h Èf.a (ud¾.hg iudka;rj) ls%hd lrk

n,hla wjYHh' wdk; ud¾.fha we;s jdykfha nfrys W Sin q keue;s
ixrplh ud¾.h Èf.a my<g ls%hd lrhs' jdykh p,kh jkafka fï
n,fhks'
;sria ud¾.fha we;s jdykfha nr ;snqK o tu n,fha ud¾.h Èf.a
ixrplh W Cos 90 = 0 fõ' fï wkqj ud¾.h Èf.a nfrys n,mEula
ke;' tneúka ;sria ud¾.fha we;s jdykh nr fya;=fjka p,kh fkdfõ'

ffoYslhla Bg ,ïnl ÈYdjlg úfNaokh l, úg

,efnk ixrplh Y=kH fõ'

Q = P Cos 90 = P 0
P
Q = P Cos 90 = 0 fõ'

fï wkqj ´kEu ffoYslhl Bg ,ïnl

ÈYdjg n,mEu Y=kH fõ'
Q
 fmdf;a ;,fha we;s P ffoYslhla tu ;,fha f;dard .;a
x iy y ,ïnl ÈYd follg úfNaokh lsÍu'

(a) (b)
+ P Sin 0 + P Sin 0
P
P

q
q

- P Cos q
+ P Cos q

(d)
(c)

- P Sin 0
+ P Sin 0

+ P Cos q
q q
- P Cos q

fï rEm j,ska fmkakqï lrkafka x iy y f.a Ok ÈYd folla f;dard.;a miq

fmdf;a ;,fha úúO ÈYdj,g fhduq ù we;s ffoYsl tlS x iy y ÈYd j,g
úfNaokh lrk wdldrhhs' fuys§ ffoYslfha n,mEu x f.a fyda y f.a RK
ÈYdjg fhduq ù we;akï tu ixrplhg RK (–) ,l=K fhdod .; hq;=h'
WodyrK jYfhka C rEmfha P f.a n,mEï folu tkï ixrpl folu x
iy y f.a RK ÈYdj,g fhduq ù we;' fï wkqj tu ixrpl RK f,i
ie,lsh hq;= fõ' my; olajd we;s rEmfhka fuh f;areï .kak'

Sin q

q
Cos q
 tal ;, ffoYsl moaO;shla .Ks;uhj tl;= lsÍu' (úfNaokh uÕska)

P3 P2
Y

X q q
P1

P1 P1

P1

(a) ffoYsl mj;sk ;,fha x yd y tlsfklg ,ïnl

ÈYd folla f;dard .kak'
(b) § we;s ffoYsl ish,a,u x yd y ÈYd j,g úfNaokh lr .kak'

(c) x ÈYdjg we;s úfYaok fldgia j, ùc fftlHh x o y ÈYdjg

we;s úfYaok fldgia j, ùc fftlHh y o fjk fjku fidhd
.kak'
(d) ±ka ffoYsl moaO;sh x yd y keue;s tlsfklg ,ïnl ffoYsl
follg iq¿ ù we;' tajdfha iïm%hqla;h myiqfjka fidhd .;
yels fõ' fuh ffoYsl moaO;sfha iïm%hqla;hhs'

1.11 iudk úYd,;aj we;s ffoYsl foll iïm%hqla;h fiùfï flá l%uh

Sin
iudk úYd,;aj we;s ffoYsl foll iïm%hqla;h tajd w;r
fldaKh q iuÉfþokh lrk ÈYdjg msysghs'
tla tla P ffoYsl iuÉfþok ÈYdjg;a Bg ,ïnl ÈYdjg;a
úfNaokh lrkak' iuÉfþok ÈYdjg ,ïnl ÈYdjg
R = 2P Cos úfNaok fldgia iudk yd m%;súreoaO neúka WodiSk ù hhs'
fï wkqj iïm%hqla;h f,i b;sß jkafka iuÉfþol ÈYdj
Tiafia we;s ixrpl fofla tl;=j jk

hk ffoYslhhs'
Sin