Mass, Energy, and Freedom 

-  The Coins of
Thermodynamics
Gary L. Bertrand, University of Missouri-Rolla

Basics
The universe is made up of bits of matter, and the bits of matter have mass and
energy.  Neither mass nor energy may be created or destroyed, but in some
special cases interconversions between mass and energy may occur.  The things
that happen in nature occur because matter is trying to gather to itself as much
mass as it can (gravity) and to release as much of its energy as it can (the Sun,
for example).  This gathering of mass and loss of energy requires a price to be
paid - the price of freedom.  It seems that mass, energy, and freedom are the
coins of the universe.  Mass and energy must be conserved: if one part of the
universe gathers more "wealth" as mass or energy, those must come from
somewhere else in the universe, so there is always competition in the trading of
these commodities.  Freedom, on the other hand, is not conserved.  However,
there are some strange restraints on freedom.  The freedom of the universe can
take many forms, and appears to be able to increase without limit.  However,
the total freedom of the universe is not allowed to decrease.

The energy or the mass of a part of the universe may increase or decrease, but
only if there is a corresponding decrease or increase somewhere else in the
universe.  The freedom in that part of the universe may increase with no change
in the freedom of the rest of the universe.  There might be decreases in freedom
in the rest of the universe, but the sum of the increase and decrease must result
in a net increase.  There can be a decrease in the freedom in one part of the
universe, but ONLY if there is an equal or greater increase in the rest of the
universe.

Most of us have a general idea of what mass and energy are, and we may have
a fair understanding of how we can quantify them, or to say how much of them
we have.  Freedom is a more complicated concept.  The freedom within a part
of the universe may take two major forms: the freedom of the mass and the
freedom of the energy.  The amount of freedom is related to the number of
different ways the mass or the energy in that part of the universe may be
arranged while not gaining or losing any mass or energy.  We will concentrate
on a specific part of the universe, perhaps within a closed container.  If the
mass within the container is distributed into a lot of tiny little balls (atoms)
flying blindly about, running into each other and anything else (like walls) that
may be in their way, there is a huge number of different ways the atoms could
be arranged at any one time.  Each atom could at different times occupy any
place within the container that was not already occupied by another atom, but
on average the atoms will be uniformly distributed throughout the container.  If
we can mathematically estimate the number of different ways the atoms may be
arranged, we can quantify the freedom of the mass.  If somehow we increase
the size of the container, each atom can move around in a greater amount of
space, and the number of ways the mass may be arranged will increase.

Now let us turn to the freedom of the energy within the container.  If the mass
is in the form of atoms flying around, energy is only in the form of the kinetic
energy of these atoms, and the energy of the electrons in the atoms moving
around their nucleus (and sometimes we have to consider the neutrons, protons,
and other stuff moving around in the nucleus).  An atom's kinetic energy is
related to its mass and its velocity.  The energy in the container is the sum of
the kinetic energies of all of the atoms, but the velocity is not the same for each
atom, and the atoms are continually exchanging this energy through collisions
with each other and through collisions with the walls.  In the same way that the
mass may have freedom in the number of ways the atoms may be arranged in
space, the energy may have freedom in the number of ways that the velocities
and directions of the atoms may be arranged.  The velocities of the molecules
are closely related to the temperature.

The energy and freedom of gaseous atoms appear only in velocities and
directions, and is called translational energy and translational freedom.  In the
case of molecules (a molecule is a group of two or more atoms held together by
chemical bonds) there are additional freedoms and additional forms of energy. 
Bonds between atoms act as springs allowing the atoms to vibrate within the
molecule, so that the molecules may contain different levels of vibrational
energy and vibrational freedom.  Additionally, the entire molecule may rotate
on different axes, allowing different levels of rotational energy and rotational
freedom.

While the freedom of mass is related to the volume in which the mass is
distributed, the freedom of energy is related to the temperature.  An increase in
the temperature of a gas leads directly to an increase in energy, and this can
only occur if there is a decrease in energy somewhere else in the universe.  We
say that energy is transferred to the gas and the container (we will call that the
"system")) from somewhere in the remainder of the universe (we will call that
the "surroundings").  The increase in energy is accompanied by an increase in
the energetic freedom of the system.
The thermodynamic term for quantifying freedom is entropy, and it is given
the symbol S.  Like freedom, the entropy of a system increases with the
temperature and with volume.  The effect of volume is more easily seem in
terms of concentration, especially in the case of mixtures.  For a certain number
of atoms or molecules, an increase in volume results in a decrease in
concentration.  Therefore, the entropy of a system increases as the
concentrations of the components decrease.  The part of entropy which is
determined by energetic freedom is called thermal entropy, and the part that is
determined by concentration is called configurational entropy.

The units of entropy are the same as those of heat capacity and of the gas law
constant.  The product of entropy (or a change in entropy) and the absolute
temperature has the same units as energy (or a change in energy).

The First Law of Thermodynamics states that the energy of the universe is
constant.
The Second Law of Thermodynamics states that the entropy of the
universe cannot decrease.

If the temperature of a gas is increased while the volume remains constant,

the energy of the gas is increased and there is an increase in energetic freedom
or thermal entropy.  There is no change in concentration, and no change in
configurational entropy.
 

Increase in Temperature

Increase in Energy

Increase in Thermal Entropy

-->
No Change in Volume or Concentration

No Change in Configurational Entropy

 
If the volume of the gas is increased while the temperature remains constant,
the energy of the gas does not change and there is no change in thermal
entropy.  The increase in volume lowers the concentration and there is an
increase in configurational entropy.
No Change in
Temperature

No Change in
Energy

No Change in
Thermal
Entropy

-->
Increase in
Volume

Decrease in
Concentration

Increase in
Configuration
al Entropy

The opening paragraph stated that matter tends to draw more matter to itself
and tries to reduce its energy.  There is also the tendency to increase its
freedom and thus its entropy.  There is a natural conflict between these
tendencies to lower energy and increase entropy, since a reduction in energy is
usually accompanied by a reduction in freedom and entropy.  These are
combined into a net tendency for a system to change, in which the symbol U is
used for energy and T is the absolute temperature.

U - TS
in which U and S represent the changes in energy and entropy that would be
measured for the change IF it occurred.  If this net quantity is positive, the
change cannot occur without some additional help.  If this quantity is negative,
the change might occur but there is no guarantee that it will occur.  However,
when the quantity is negative, the reverse change cannot occur without
additional help.  Changes that actually occur when this quantity is less than
zero are said to be spontaneous or irreversible.

If the quantity is equal to zero, the change will not occur, but it could be
pushed either forward or backward with very little additional help.  This
condition is described as equilibrium, and the change is said to be reversible.

Physical States
Crystal:  A crystalline solid has very little movement and it is in a very low
energy state.  Movement of the atoms or molecules is limited to vibrations
around a fixed point, so there is very little thermal entropy.  The
atoms/molecules are very close together (high concentration) and they are
arranged in a very specific configuration (the crystal structure) which is
repeated over and over within the crystal.  There is very little freedom in the
ways that the mass can be arranged, so the crystalline state has very little
configurational entropy.

Liquid:  When a solid melts, the atoms/molecules begin to move around, and
perhaps also rotating and vibrating.  The liquid has considerably more energy
than the solid and thus has more thermal entropy.  The volume does not change
appreciably when a solid melts.  Normally there is a small increase in volume
on melting (the solid sinks in the liquid), but a few materials (water is one of
them) show a decrease in volume on melting (the solid floats in the liquid). 
Normally there is a small increase in configurational entropy, but for materials
like water there is a small decrease.  Overall, there is an increase in both energy
and entropy when a solid melts.
Gas:  When a liquid vaporizes, the atoms/molecules receive a huge increase in
energy - so large that it seems like they are no longer subject to gravity.  There
is a large increase in volume and the concentration becomes very small.  There
is a correspondingly large increase in freedom, so that both the thermal entropy
and the configurational entropy are greatly increased.

 
 
 

Transitions
Melting (fusion): Both energy and entropy increase on melting, so U and S
are positive for fusion.  At low temperatures (below the melting point) the
positive U contributes more than TS so the quantity

U - TS
is positive, and melting cannot occur.  As the temperature is raised however,
both U and S increase but TS increases much more rapidly than U.  The
quantity above will eventually become equal to zero at some temperature (the
melting point) and the solid will spontaneously melt at any higher temperature.
The opposite of melting is freezing.

Boiling (vaporization): Both U and S are large and positive for

vaporization.  The configurational entropy of the gas is related to the
concentration of the gas molecules, so S is greater for smaller concentrations
of molecules in the vapor.  This allows a balance between U and TS at low
temperatures, providing the concentration of gas molecules (and the vapor
pressure) is sufficiently low.  As the temperature is raised, this balance is
maintained by an increase in the concentration of the gas molecules (and an
increase in vapor pressure).
This results in a wide range of temperatures for a liquid and its vapor to be in
equilibrium, with the vapor pressure increasing as the temperature is raised. 
The temperature at which the vapor pressure is exactly 1 atmosphere is
defined as the normal boiling point of the liquid.

The opposite of vaporization is condensation.

Sublimation:
In the same way that U and TS can balance for a liquid with its vapor at
very low temperature, a similar balance can occur for a solid and its vapor
below the melting point.  For most solids, the vapor pressure is so low that we
aren't concerned about it.  However, we can see the effect in snow disappearing
from a rooftop on a cold day without ever melting.  This process is called
sublimation.  For a few solids (carbon dioxide or "dry ice" is one) the vapor
pressure reaches 1 atmosphere at a temperature below the melting point, so that
we never see the liquid at atmospheric pressure.  The liquid state can be
observed, however, at higher pressures and pressurized cylinders of carbon
dioxide usually contain a mixture of the liquid and the gas.

The opposite of sublimation is deposition.

Solutions
    When pure materials in some physical state are mixed to form a solution in
the same physical state at the same temperature and pressure, the process is
called mixing.  The energy change on mixing may be either positive or
negative, but the entropy change is always positive.  The entropy change is due
mainly to the decrease in the concentrations of the individual components in the
change from a limited volume in the pure state to a much larger volume in the
mixed state.

No Change in Temperature

Small Change in Energy

Small Change in Thermal Entropy

 -->
Small Change in Volume

Decrease in Concentration of Red

Molecules

Decrease in Concentration of Blue

Molecules

Increase in Configurational Entropy

When the mixed components are roughly equal in concentration, they are
usually just called components (component A and component B, or
components 1 & 2).  For these solutions, concentrations are usually expressed
in mole fractions, and occasionally in mass fractions or volume fractions.

When the concentration of one component in a liquid solution is much greater

than the others, it is usually called the solvent, and the less-concentrated
components are called solutes.  For these solutions, the concentration of the
solute may be expressed as mole fraction, molality (moles of solute per
kilogram of solvent), or molarity (moles of solute per liter of solution).  If
needed, the concentration of solvent is usually expressed as mole fraction.

Solubility of Solutes:  Before mixing, the pure solute may have been a gas, a
liquid, or a solid.  The first bit of solute that dissolves will have an extremely
low concentration, so the change in configurational entropy for that
dissolution will be very large if the pure solute is a liquid or a solid.  If the pure
solute is a gas, the change in configurational entropy will depend on the
concentration of the gas.  In all cases, the change in thermal entropy may be
positive or negative, but the configurational entropy usually dominates at very
low concentrations.

We can get a "feel" for the energy change as something dissolves.  If the
solution becomes colder as the solute dissolves, the energy change is positive
since energy will have to be transferred to the solution in order to bring it back
to the original temperature.  If the solution becomes hotter as the solute
dissolves, the energy change is negative since energy will have to be removed
from the solution in order to return to the initial temperature.
If the energy change is positive and unfavorable the positive entropy change
may allow a small amount of the solute to dissolve.  However, as more of the
solute dissolves the concentration increases and the entropy change decreases
until the energy change is exactly balanced by TS and no more of the solute
will dissolve.  The concentration at this point determines the solubility of the
solute in the solvent at this temperature.  When there is a positive energy
change for dissolution, an increase in temperature increases the effect of the
positive entropy change and the solubility of the solute increases.

In the case of gases dissolving in liquids, the solubility of the gas depends on
the concentration of the gas molecules.  As the concentration in the gas phase
increases, the concentration in the liquid phase increases.  At low
concentrations there is a direct proportionality between the concentrations in
the two phases.  This relationship is generally known as Henry's Law.  Its
most common form is for the concentration in the vapor phase to be
represented by the partial pressure of the solute and for the concentration in the
liquid phase to be represented by the mole fraction of the solute.

Henry's Law is normally associated with the solute in dilute solutions, but it
also applies to the solvent in these dilute solutions.  The application to the
solvent is a special case of Henry's Law, called Raoult's Law.  Raoult's Law
states that the vapor pressure (or partial pressure) of the solvent becomes equal
to the mole fraction of the solvent multiplied by the vapor pressure of the pure
solvent when the solutes become very dilute.

Colligative Properties (Solvent):  Colligative properties of solutions are

properties which depend only on the concentration of the solvent, and are
independent of what the solute might be.  Raoult's Law is the most basic
example of a colligative property, because the vapor pressure (or partial
pressure) of the solvent is determined only by the mole fraction of the solvent
in a sufficiently dilute solution.  This is usually stated as vapor pressure
lowering by a non-volatile solute: The difference between the vapor pressure
of the solution and that of the pure solvent is proportional to the mole fraction
of solute.

All colligative properties are based on the fact that the concentration of the
solvent is greatest when the solvent is pure, and the concentration of the solvent
decreases as solute is added.  When applied to freezing and melting, the
entropy change is greater for the frozen pure solvent to melt when a solute is
present than when the liquid phase is pure, and the solvent can melt at a lower
temperature.  This freezing point depression depends only on the
concentration of the solvent and not on the nature of the solute, and is therefore
a colligative property.

In a similar fashion, when a solution containing a solvent and a non-volatile

solute is heated to near its boiling point at 1 atmosphere pressure, the entropy
of the solvent in the solution is greater than in the pure liquid.  This makes the
entropy change for vaporization from the solution less than from the pure
liquid, and the solvent will not boil until the temperature is higher than the
normal boiling point.  This boiling point elevation is also a colligative
property.

In some cases, a solvent may be separated from a solution containing a solute

by a semi-permeable membrane.  The solvent can move through the pores in
this membrane, but the solute is unable to move through the pores because of
its size or perhaps its charge or polarity.  This movement of the solvent is
called osmosis.  Since the concentration of the solvent is lower in the solution
than in the pure liquid, the solvent molecules have greater entropy in the
solution, and there is a tendency for the molecules to move through the
membrane.  As the solvent molecules move, the liquid level of the solution
becomes higher than that of the pure liquid, and eventually the pressure
becomes sufficient to prevent any more solvent molecules from crossing the
membrane.  This pressure difference between the solution and the pure solvent
is called the osmotic pressure.  Osmotic pressure is a colligative property.
 
 

 
 

ORDER and DISORDER

This discussion has carefully avoided associating entropy with order and
disorder.  Instead, the focus has been on different types of freedom.  Many
textbooks use the order/disorder interpretation, and refer to examples such as
the entropy of a shuffled deck of cards, or the entropy of a messy desk (or
room) in comparison to a neat one.  While these are strong images, the concept
is basically incorrect.
The example with a deck of cards assumes that there is some order of the cards
which represents perfect order.  This simply happens to be the order given to a
sealed deck by the manufacturer, namely each suit increasing from the Ace
sequentially to the King, with alternating colors of the suits.  That is no more
orderly than starting with the 2 and increasing through the King to the Ace,  or
the reverse order.  The deck could be arranged with all four Aces in some order
of suits, followed by the four 2's in the same order of suits, etc. - that is also
ordered.  A new manufacturer may decide to package the decks in some order
that has significance only to that manufacturer.  Does that arrangement then
become the perfect order for his product?  Perhaps we should also be
concerned with whether the cards are all facing the same direction.

The point is that there are many possible arrangements of the cards in a deck. 
When the cards are randomly and thoroughly shuffled, each of these
arrangements has equal probability of occurring.  When an arrangement is
established, there is no freedom for the deck to acquire any other arrangement
unless someone shuffles it or rearranges it in some manner.  Since there is no
freedom for that arrangement, there is no entropy associated with a single
arrangement.

On the other hand, if a very large number of decks of cards are thoroughly
and randomly shuffled, there are many possibilities for the arrangements of the
cards within the different decks.  When this idea of different arrangements of
the cards is applied to atoms and molecules in solids and liquids,  the number
of possible arrangements create freedom of arrangement, a type of
configurational entropy - not for any specific deck, but for the group of
decks - or the ensemble (technically, the ensemble is the huge imaginary
group of all of these decks arranged in all of the possible arrangements) of
decks.  The number of possible arrangements of the 52 cards in a deck is 52!
(fifty-two factorial) which is equal to 52 x 51 x 50 x 49 x...x 3 x 2 x 1 , an
astronomical number.  If these cards were atoms or molecules, the entropy due
to this incredible amount of freedom would be related to the number of
randomized decks multiplied by the natural logarithm of 52!.  We can calculate
the entropy per deck by dividing the entropy of the group of decks by the
number of decks, but it is important to differentiate between the entropy per
deck (which is a property of the group) and the entropy of a single deck
(which really has no meaning in chemical systems).
 

Scribd
Upload a Document
 Search Documents
Explore

Documents

 Books - Fiction
 Books - Non-fiction
 Health & Medicine
 Brochures/Catalogs
 Government Docs
 How-To Guides/Manuals
 Magazines/Newspapers
 Recipes/Menus
 School Work
 + all categories

 Featured
 Recent

People

 Authors
 Students
 Researchers
 Publishers
 Government & Nonprofits
 Businesses
 Musicians
 Artists & Designers
 Teachers
 + all categories

 Most Followed
 Popular

 Sign Up
 |
 Log In

  /  284
Download this Document for Free
Basic Thermodynamics
Syllabus
K. Srinivasan/IISc, Bangalore
V1/17-5-04/1
BASIC THERMODYNAMICS
Module 1: Fundamental Concepts & Definitions (5)
Thermodynamics: Terminology; definition and scope, microscopic and macroscopic approaches.
Engineering Thermodynamics: Definition, some practical applications of engineering
thermodynamics. System (closed system) and Control Volume (open system); Characteristics of
system boundary and control surface; surroundings; fixed, moving and imaginary boundaries,
examples. Thermodynamic state, state point, identification of a state through properties; definition
and units, intensive and extensive various property diagrams, path and process, quasi-static
process, cyclic and non-cyclic processes; Restrained and unrestrained processes;
Thermodynamic equilibrium; definition, mechanical equilibrium; diathermic wall, thermal
equilibrium, chemical equilibrium. Zeroth law of thermodynamics. Temperature as an important
property.
Module 2: Work and Heat (5)
Mechanics definition of work and its limitations. Thermodynamic definition of work and heat,
examples, sign convention. Displacement works at part of a system boundary and at whole of a
system boundary, expressions for displacement works in various processes through p-v
diagrams. Shaft work and Electrical work. Other types of work. Examples and practical
applications.
Module 3: First Law of Thermodynamics (5)
Statement of the First law of thermodynamics for a cycle, derivation of the First law of processes,
energy, internal energy as a property, components of energy, thermodynamic distinction between
energy and work; concept of enthalpy, definitions of specific heats at constant volume and at
constant pressure. Extension of the First law to control volume; steady state-steady flow energy
equation, important applications such as flow in a nozzle, throttling, adiabatic mixing etc., analysis
of unsteady processes, case studies.
Module 4: Pure Substances & Steam Tables and Ideal & Real Gases (5)
Ideal and perfect gases: Differences between perfect, ideal and real gases, equation of state,
evaluation of properties of perfect and ideal gases. Real Gases: Introduction. Van der Waal’s
Equation of state, Van der Waal’s constants in terms of critical properties, law of corresponding
states, compressibility factor; compressibility chart, and other equations of state (cubic and higher
orders). Pure Substances: Definition of a pure substance, phase of a substance, triple point and
critical points, sub-cooled liquid, saturated liquid, vapor pressure, two-phase mixture of liquid and
vapor, saturated vapor and superheated vapor states of a pure substance with water as example.
Representation of pure substance properties on p-T and p-V diagrams, detailed treatment of
properties of steam for industrial and scientific use (IAPWS-97, 95)
Module 5: Basics of Energy conversion cycles (3)
Devices converting heat to work and vice versa in a thermodynamic cycle Thermal reservoirs.
Heat engine and a heat pump; schematic representation and efficiency and coefficient of
performance. Carnot cycle.
Basic Thermodynamics
Syllabus
K. Srinivasan/IISc, Bangalore
V1/17-5-04/2
Module 6: Second Law of Thermodynamics (5)
Identifications of directions of occurrences of natural processes, Offshoot of II law from the I.
Kelvin-Planck statement of the Second law of Thermodynamic; Clasius's statement of Second
law of Thermodynamic; Equivalence of the two statements; Definition of Reversibility, examples
of reversible and irreversible processes; factors that make a process irreversible, reversible heat
engines; Evolution of Thermodynamic temperature scale.
Module 7: Entropy (5)
Clasius inequality; statement, proof, application to a reversible cycle. ∮ (δQR/T) as independent of
the path. Entropy; definition, a property, principle of increase of entropy, entropy as a quantitative
test for irreversibility, calculation of entropy, role of T-s diagrams, representation of heat, Tds
relations, Available and unavailable energy.
Module 8: Availability and Irreversibility (2)
Maximum work, maximum useful work for a system and a control volume, availability of
a system and a steadily flowing stream, irreversibility. Second law efficiency.
Basic Thermodynamics
 Syllabus
K. Srinivasan/IISc, Bangalore
V1/17-5-04/3
Lecture Plan
Module
Learning Units
Hours
per
topic
Total
Hours
1. Thermodynamics; Terminology; definition and scope,
Microscopic and Macroscopic approaches.
Engineering Thermodynamics; Definition, some
practical applications of engineering thermodynamics.
1
2. System (closed system) and Control Volume (open
system); Characteristics of system boundary and
control surface; surroundings; fixed, moving and
imaginary boundaries, examples.
1
3. Thermodynamic state, state point, identification of a
state through properties; definition and units, intensive
and extensive various property diagrams,
1
4. Path and process, quasi-static process, cyclic and non-
cyclic processes; Restrained and unrestrained
processes;
1
1. Fundamental
Concepts &
Definitions
5. Thermodynamic equilibrium; definition, mechanical
equilibrium; diathermic wall, thermal equilibrium,
chemical equilibrium. Zeroth law of thermodynamics,
Temperature as an important property.
1
5
6. Mechanics definition of work and its limitations.
Thermodynamic definition of work and heat;
examples, sign convention.
1
7. Displacement work; at part of a system boundary, at
whole of a system boundary,
2
8. Expressions for displacement work in various
processes through p-v diagrams.
1
2. Work and Heat
9. Shaft work; Electrical work. Other types of work,
 examples of practical applications
1
5
10. Statement of the First law of thermodynamics for a
cycle, derivation of the First law of processes,
1
11. Energy, internal energy as a property, components of
energy, thermodynamic distinction between energy
and work; concept of enthalpy, definitions of specific
heats at constant volume and at constant pressure.
1
12. Extension of the First law to control volume; steady
state-steady flow energy equation,
1
3. First Law of
Thermo-
dynamics
13. Important applications such as flow in a nozzle, throttling, and adiabatic mixing etc. analysis of unsteady
processes, case studies.
2
5
4. Pure
Substances &
14. Differences between perfect, ideal and real gases.
Equation of state. Evaluation of properties of perfect
and ideal gases
1

Basic Thermodynamics
Download this Document for FreePrintMobileCollectionsReport Document
This is a private document.

Info and Rating

Science-Engineering
Follow

ikneo

Share & Embed

Related Documents
PreviousNext
1.

p.

p.

p.

2.

p.
 p.

p.

3.

p.

p.

p.
4.

p.

p.

p.

5.

p.
 p.

p.

6.

p.

p.

p.
7.

p.

p.

p.

8.

p.
 p.

p.

9.

p.

p.

p.
10.

p.

p.

p.

11.

p.
 p.

p.

12.

p.

p.

p.
13.

p.

p.

p.

14.

p.
 p.

p.

15.

p.

p.

p.
 More from this user

PreviousNext
1.

284 p.

Recent Readcasters

Add a Comment

Submit
Characters: ...
jigishasalvileft a comment

Its really an admirable work. Keep it up. Will u pl. send me this on my email id as this
will be helpful for my students. Thanks. S.B.Salvi
02 / 18 / 2011
Reply

nis123bochareleft a comment

it is very good
06 / 22 / 2010
Reply

Jack Stoneleft a comment

Worst work ever!!!

04 / 30 / 2010
Reply

kishore.pd3dleft a comment

NICE WORK .....

06 / 24 / 2009
Reply

Send me the Scribd Newsletter, and occasional account related communications.

Why Sign up?

Discover and connect with people of similar interests.

Publish your documents quickly and easily.

Share your reading interests on Scribd and social sites.

Email address:
Submit
Upload a Document
Search Documents
 Follow Us!
 scribd.com/scribd
 twitter.com/scribd
 facebook.com/scribd

 About
 Press
 Blog
 Partners
 Scribd 101
 Web Stuff
 Scribd Store
 Support
 FAQ
 Developers / API
 Jobs
 Terms
 Copyright
 Privacy

Copyright © 2011 Scribd Inc.

Language: