effect of Cc is considered in the next .

Aleo, the parallel combination of R section.

is assumed to be much larger than ~d _R 2 Ii.
is not, the actual voltage gain will fit be\
that predicted by the following, but 1~• than
is taken into account in the equations i;ffect
Table 15-1.
(a) ,-----..,.vcc
LOW- FREQUENCY
RESPONSE OF THE
TRANSISTOR AMPLIFIER
B

15.0 INTRODUCTION
tn the ora.101..s chapter, we developed equations for V
me cu ..rent and voltage gains for small-signal ampli- E 0

fie--s o~ati.ng at low to mid-range frequencies. We +

assu"1ed that the reactance of coupling and bypass C
ca.pactors was negligible at the frequency of opera- Ae e
tion. We now examine the factors affecting the low-
frequency response of a single stage common-emitter
amp1 ifier and the modifications necessary when con- (b) -
sioering a number of capacitor-coupled CE stages in B
h.
1e C
cascade. Finally. the transformer-coupled amplifier
,s anaiyzed for its low-frequency response, and the
problem of sag in square-wave amplifiers is considered.

15-1. EFFECT OF AN EMITTER

v .I
E
AL
lVo

BYPASS CAPACITOR ON LOW-

FREQUENCY RESPONSE
We saw in Chapter 12 how the addition of a
R.
~
I
Ce

resistor in the emitter lead of a CE amplifier
contributed to biasing and thermal stability in
the amplifier. We also indicated that this
resistor should be adequately bypassed to avoid
a degenerative effect due to negative feedback.
Let us now determine the effect of the bypass
capacitor, Ce, shown in Fig. 15-l(a), on the
low-frequency response.
Jt is required to find an expression for Av(LF)
= VO , assuming that Cc iasufficiently large so
I
as to not have any effect on the response. The
J
Fig. 15-1. (a) CE amplifier to be analyzed for the
effect of Ce on the low-frequency response.
(~) Approximate small-siplal hybrid equi"'!l~nt
circuit at low frequencies for the CE ampt,f1er.
With reference to Fig. 15-l(b), V0 =
- hrelbRL' But
V
I = •
b Ra+ Ri'
where, from Table 14-6 for a CE with an un·
bypassed Re• Ri •hie+ (1 + hre>Ze,
 LOW-FREQUENCY UESIJONBR 01•' 'I'lrn 'l'llANSlfnOR AMPLIFIER 249

'['his moon11 thnt f P >> fO, so that if we

whereZe=Re\\Ce=l+' CR·
JW e e cons1'd er A
'\(LI<') flt f 1:11
'
f we obtam
v(MF) p

f
(1 + hre)Re' 1 + -:::.2
. CR
Rs + h.,e + 1 + JW Av(LF) = Rs + hie X J fo
e e
Av(M F) (1 + hre)Re 1 + jl
Vo -hreRL . )?
and ~(LF) = vs
=
R +h +
(1 + hr )R
e e
R + h.
s 1e xJ f-
0
s ie · CR
1 + JW e ~ ~ (1 + h )R 1 + ·1 .
fe e J
(15-1) The magnitude of this ratio is
Note that when w is large (in the mid-
frequency range) the voltage gain, ~
~ s 1e X _f0
R + h.

Av(MF) = R + h.
-hfeRL
'
Av(MF) I ~ (l + hfe)Re '12 .
s 1e
f (1 + hr 0 )R 0
since the third term in the denominator of Eq. Butf ~ R + h. .
15-1 tends to zero. This substantitates the o s 1e

finding.5 in Chapter 14.

Av(LF) 1 .
The ratio of the gain at low frequencies to :. - - = - , which means the power
the gain at mid frequencies, Av(MF) '12
gain at this low frequency has dropped 3 dB
i\.cLF) , may be put in the following form: from the gain at the mid frequency.
Av(MF) Thus the lower 3-dB frequency is
. f (1 + hre )Re
1 +J-
1 fo f1 ~ fp = (R + h. )21TC R
i\,(LF) s 1e e e
X f , (15-2)
A_.,(MF) (l + hre )Re 1 +j-
1 + h fe
1 + R + h. fp =--___,;~- (15-3).
s Ie 2nCe(Rs + hie)
(1 + hfe)Re
when fP >> f O • If this condition is not met,
l + R + h.
1 s 1e *
f1 fP, and there may not be a 3-dB point.
where fo = 21T Ce R e , and f P = 21T C R
e e This will occur if

(1 + hre>Re
R + h. < 0.414. (15-4)
s 1e

(1 + hce>Re Note that the expressi.1n for f 1 does not

If R + h. >> 1, then f P ::::, include R,, so that the choice of a bypass
s 1e
 AN I roH AMPI IFII-R
Of- lll TR
l ' R

rt1duc-Uon m th" !ow-freuu11n<.'y 3-dB Pain

.. ~ dB fr,: Q'l n " I r o-; ehown m f.Jrnmple 15-2 . l,
l u nd th( I
- pie 15 2. Using the nmph fter anu co
Exo,.. • 1 15 1 nt11
t n~ slated an bxamp ,. . , ' 'alculate th .
th ~ r of twr~ u,p:1
,o<l frequency gain if RL = 2 K ohrns u.. ,..e
\nw frequ nty .J tlB mt d 't' . •>uer
l-hc fo ll owing con l wns.
n. t Kohm, hrr,
lt GOO ohm (n) Usi ng n 50-µ F cap~ tor with no teries
I
rcs1stance. .
( h) Using a 50-µ ~ capacitor which ha. a
.. h 15-ohm series resistance .

di•tcH 1 Also determine the new value of f 1 with the

capacitor as in (b).
1+50 F = 50µF.
0
-(GOO + 1000)100 Solution - hr RL
• u[y the use of Eq. 15-3, determine f0 (a) With Re = O, Av(MF) = R •: h.
S le
... .1 ~-
-50 X 2,000 _
1 l =3.2Hz. = 600 + 1,000 - -6 3 ·
------- =
2rr50 X 10- 6 X 1 X 103
(b) With Re = 15 ohms,
( 1 + hre )Re (1 + 50)1000
l + R6 + hie l + 600 + 1000
-hre-RL
' C: = Av(MF) =Rs+ hie+ (1 + hfe )Rc
-i> 2nCeRe 21r50 X lo-6 X 1000
= 105 Hz.
-50 X 2,000
- 600 + 1000 + (1 + 50)15
a~ arly, ~ >> f 0 , and so f 1 :::::: fp, as given by
Eq. l5-3. -100,000
It s.'lo uld be noted t hat the use oi electro- = 1600 + 765 = -4 2 .
lyt c capacitors to provide the high capacitance
reauned fo: C may cause a reduction in the
With Re= 0, Av(MF) = -63, f 1 = 100 Hz.
O

lo~·er 3-dB frequency below 100 Hz. This is With Re= 15 ohms, Av (M F) = -42, f 1 =?
due to lihe series electrolyte loss resistance of
the capacitor, which may be anywhere from fl -42 42
10 to 20 ohm~ This resistance also reduces lOO = _63 :. f 1 = 100 X GS = 67 Hz.
the mid-frequency gain, so that if Re repre-
Although the reduction in value of f 1 from
sents the series resistance of Ce, Av(MI<') is
100 Hz to 67 Hz is not disagreeable, the si_g•
given by
nif~ca~t drop in Av(MF )• from -63 to -42 _1s
obJectionable. Accordingly, there are avail-
+ h.1e + (1 +'hr e )Re .
(1 5- 5)
~ ( MF ):::::: R able special transistot bypass capacitors of
s
high capacitance, low working voltage, and 8
The percent reduction in gain d ue to Re ·
· resistance
low senes of approxima telY 1 ohm,
is approximately equal to the percent which may be used for Ce.
 U.:H 251
R OJ,' 'l'lrn 'f'HJ\NfHH'l'OH AMl'LW
I ow ..~,u;QURNCV HJ.~SrONR

d abov~ for
th, t•fft•ct of the bu mn g rt'SiNt
ms, H. 1 nnd No w: Th(' ('qu11t1onR dPvr.Jop,~
f were for
1
~,I!' ,·,lidmit'd. th(' mi(l-freqrn.•m·y
n
voltng<' gui mid -fr<iqucncy volta1,w f{atn and 1
V V
V: . Th e equ ati ons for V~ ma y be
_H
~ !in•n hy 1
\ (~H ') obt ain ed

-hri'!HL II H.2. g R, - 0 and

~ _ h, R • where R a R, fro m these equations by set tin
res pon din g
(16 -6) are list ed ir Tab le 15-1. Th e cor
s
Rb> + h•,e + l<'R Vo
equ ati ons for f1 where V. dro ps by 3 dB
on the mid -
'11W combint-d eff ect of Re and R
I

respon ding ma y also be

lr\'QUtmcy gain, along with the cor fro m the mid -fre que ncy value
the equ ati ons
rqustfons for f 1 un der these con
ditions, is obt ain ed by set tin g R8 = 0 in
indicntro in Ta ble 15- 1. for f in Table 15-1.
1

-FREQUENCY VOLTAGE
IMATE EQUATIONS FOR MID
TABLE 15-1 SUMMARY OF THE APPROX CIRCUIT CONDITIONS
QUENCY, t 1, FOR VARIOUS
GAIN AND LOWER 3-dB FRE

Vo Vo
V
0 t 1, Hz, for V
V Av( MF) = V. s
CONDITION Av( MF) = I
s

1 + hfe
R1 IJR 2 >> A; 2nC e(A S + R.I 1)
Ac =O

1 + hfe

1 + hfe
2nC (A S + R.I 3 )
e

- hfeRL 1 + hfe

~ ______
_
______
___._ _ _ _ _ _--1.._ _ _ _
..__ _ _ _ _ _______

ce designations.)
(See the following page for resistan
 l O\\ f Rt:Qt l NC:-'\ RI- SPONSE 01 'T'HE 'I RANSIS'I OR AMPLIFJE ll

h f' (a)
hu, .. '1 .. hr(' ,nc Al
cc
R 8
- ➔~ -+

h R )R
R .. (l ➔· ''r('
If' f :i.
h,,,. -t- R C E
1 2 V
I
" 0

R2
R'- nC>- r<?SJ"-l.o.ncc of the electrolyt ic
ac tor. C\. Equnltons for f 1 o.re valid R
e
-1._C
e
( l ➔ hr<> lR ...
pro,1ded R + h >> 1.
Ii IC -
15-2. EFFECT OF A COUPLIN G (b)
cc lb
CAPACIT OR ON LOW-FRE QUENCY B C
RESPONS E +
1
V
0

\\e noV!i assume that Ce in Fig. 15-2(a) is large v .I II R2 R.

~ 1

1
R, I hte b
enough U> cause no reduction in low-frequ ency
gwn.. so that the effect of the coupling capac-
•tor, Cc, may be examined . A low-frequ ency E
model for the CE amplifier is shown in Fig.
15-2(b ).
V
Fig.15-2. (a) CE amplifier to be analyzed for tht
The mid-frequ ency gain, Av(MF) =V~ , is effect of Cc on the low-freque ncy response.
I
(b) Low frequency model for a CE amplifier
gl\ en by the approxim ate equations of Table showing the coupling capacitor, Cc-
15-1 since the reactance of Cc is negligible .
At low frequenci es, however, the voltage drop
:iCToss Cc will rec!uce Vi, with a correspon ding ohms, hie= 1 Kohm, hre = 50, R 1 = 5.2 K
drop in V O • The frequency at which the gain ohms, R 2 = 1.24 K ohms. A~ume:
drops by a factor of v2,~ the lower 3-dB (a) An ideal bypass capacitor , Re = O.
15
(b) A practical bypass capacitor, Re ==
frE:-quenc y, f 1 , is given by
ohms .
1 (15-7)
fl =?
.,.ff
(R S + R' JC C Solution

where R.i' = R 1 II R 2 11 Ri, and Ri::::: hie for an (a) From Eq. 15-7,
ideal capacitor C=,""
or R 1.::::: h .1e + (1 + hr e )R C
if the capacitor 's series resistance is taken C = 1
c 2nfl(Rs +R/r
into account.

Example 15-3. Calculate the size of coupling

R/ = Rill R2II Ri = Rill R2II hie
capacitor Cc in Fig. 15-2(a) to provide a low-
frequency 3-dB point at 100 Hz if R 6 = 600 = 5.2 Klll.24 Kill K = 500 ohms,
 LOW FR l~Q UE NC Y RE 25 3
SP ON AE OF nm Tn AN Sl, fH
" OR AM PL IFI ER

, on -c ol lec to r
:. Cc = ~n 10 0( 61 0 + 5 00 Pur po se s. 11 or ex am ple ' a co rn mma Y be
)F = lA o µF . wi th its low ou tp u t ·im pe da nc e us e d
. dr ive lo w
(b) R ,' = R 1 \\R 2 \\ (h ,e + (1 + hr ~) Rc as the las t sta ge , so th at
it ma y on -c ol lec to r
)
res ist an ce loa ds . A~ d th
= 5.2 K Ii 1 .24 Ki i 1.7 e co ~m ay als o be a
7K wi th its hig h in pu t i~ pe
da nc e ml n an y ev en t,
= 64 0 oh ms . goo d cir cu it fo r th e ftrS t stag e.
the ov era ll vo l~a ge ga m . f n am ph.f1. er Wl·th
1 ma ny sta ge s wi ll be th e
o a ct of th e sta ge
Cc = 2« 10 0\ 60 0 + 64 0) pr
F = 1. 26 µF . ga ins . If th e sta ge ga ins od u d . de ci-
are co mp ut e m
If th e rf! qu ire d va lue fo be ls the ov era ll ga in is
r f 1 is 10 Hz ins tea d ' , an th e su m of th e starr-eth
of 10 0 Hz , th e ab ov e ca ga ins d th e to tal ph as e s h 1· ft th su m o
pa cit or s wo uld be e e
14 . 5 an d 12 . 8 µ r', res pe ph ase sh ift s in tro du ce d
cti ve ly. Th es e rel a- by ea ch sta ge .
tiv ely lar ge va lue s are a Co ns ide r ob tai nin g ex pr
re su lt of th e tra ns is- es sio ns fo r th e
tor 's low in pu t res ist an mi d- fre qu en cy vo lta ge
ce (an d bia sin g res ist ors an d cu rre nt gair:1s of
an d are mu ch lar ge r th ) the thr ee sta ge s sh ow n
an th e co up lin g ca pa c- in Fig . 15 -3 , us mg th e
ito rs req uir ed fo r tu be ap pr ox im ate eq ua tio ns
or FE T am pli fie rs. A fo r a CE fro m Ta bl e
me th od of inc rea sin g th 14 -6. As su me Ce an d Cc
e in pu t res ist an ce wi ll ha v~ ne gli gib le
be co ve red in Ch ap ter rea cta nc e an d res ist an ce
1 7. .
If th e ca lcu lat ion of f Sin ce the in pu t res ist an
du e to Cc is dif fer en t ce of th e th ird sta ge
fro m th e va lue of f du 1 de ter mi ne s th e vo lta ge
ga in of th e se co nd we
e to Ce by a fac tor of
5 or mo re, th en th e1 ov mu st sta rt at the las t sta
era ll va lue fo r f is ge an d wo rk ba ck -
ap pr ox im ate ly th e hig he 1 wa rds fro m V to V .
r of th e tw o. Th e O 1
ov era ll va lue of f wh en
1 th ey are eq ua l wi ll
be co ve red in a lat er se cti on . Th ird St ag e
lt sh ou ld be ev ide nt fro
m th e pr ev iou s tw o 1
se cti on s th at lar ge va lue
req uir ed in tra ns ist or am
s of ca pa cit or s are A.
13
= - c3 = -h = -5 0
pli fie rs fo r co up lin g IhS fe •
an d by pa ss pu rp os es fo
r go od low fre qu en cy
res po ns e. Si nc e the se ca Ri 3 = hie =1 K oh m.
pa cit or s are bu lky ,
au dio am pli fie rs uti liz ing
int eg rat ed cir cu its V
of ten ha ve lar ge ca pa cit A =- .£ = A i3 R L3 _ -5 0 X 2 X 10 3
or s co nn ec ted ex ter -
na lly to th e IC its elf to ·v s V3 Ri 3
pr ov ide th e req uis ite - 1 X 10 3 = -1 00 .
low -fr eq ue nc y res po ns e.
Se co nd St ag e
15 -3. CA SC AD IN G OF
CE ST AG ES , 1
MI D- FR EQ UE NC Y GA A. = -Ibc2 = -h = -5 0
IN S 12 fe ·
To bu ild up a sig na l's in 2
pu t vo lta ge an d cu r-
re nt to a us ab le lev el, it Ri 2 = hie
ca sca de sta ge s. Th at is,
is of ten ne ce ssa ry to =1 K oh m .
us e on e am pli fie r to

- fee d an ot he r an d so on
. Sin ce the CE ha s th e
hig he st po we r ga in, it is
ca sca din g, bu t a mi xtu re
typ es ma y be us ed to ad
th e mo st po pu lar fo r
of th e thr ee co m~ on
Th e eff ec tiv e loa d for Q2
bin ati on of Ri . , R \\R
3
2
2
1
Ri . Th at is, RL ' is giv 2 (re
en by
is the pa ral l~l co m-
fer red to as R) a d
' n
va nta ge fo r ma tch ing RL'.!' = RL2IIR\\Ri3 = 2 K\
\1 K\11 K = 40 0 oh ms .
 hJF IER
eCDn'"'!l:lE OF THE THA N81 STO R AMP
l ,()\\ l7RE Q\J L"iC " Re= "'"

R,

--
lb2

IR,;
"2

= RL 2 = RL 3 = 2 K ohm s, hfe = 50,

h;e = 1 Ko h~ R1 = 5.2 K
F,g. 1 ~ Thrt t CE casc aded st.ages. RLl = Cc3 = 1 µF, eel= 5011,F.
Koh m, R 5 = 600 ohm s, eel = 2 µF, ec2
or-.r.4- R 2 • l.24 Koh rm. R - R 1 11 R 2 ~ 1
Cc2 - Ce 3 • 25 .,.F.
gain in
Not e: The abo ve exp ress ion for volt age
\. s Ai2 RL2 , -50 X 400 = _ 20 . dB assu mes equ al inp ut and out put resistance s,
= V~ = Ri2 100 0 ,
~2 whi ch is not true in this case . How ever
20 log Av the dB
of com mon usag e is to call
Sot e the dam agin g effe ct on volt age gain r
the nex t stag e and volt age gain even if it is not a true dB powe
the low inpu :. imp edan ce of V
gain = 10 log ~-
its bias ing resi stor s. 0
If we requ ire Avs = V , we mus t take into
s
Fi~ Stag e
acco unt Rs• R, and Ril. Thu s,
1c1
A 11 =I = -hre = -50 , and Ril =hi e= 1 Koh m. Rllh ie 5
bl -V =V X - - - - -
s Rs + Rllh ie
vsx 1r
1
P"L l' = RL 2 ' = 400 ohm s.

-50 X 400 = _ 20 V 1 = -40 000 X _2.. =-18 ,200 .

100 0 . A = A X - 11
VS v V •
s

Ove rall Gai ns

Alth oug h the ove rall volt age gain wa~ ob-
~
=V o= Vo X V3 y V2 tain ed from the pro duc t of the stag e gain
A
v v1 Va v2. v1 the over all curr ent gain is not obta inab le
:~or-
for
= -40, 000 . the sam e way . This is beca use the outp ~
= -10 0 X (-20 ) Y (-20 ) the inpu t curr en
rent of one stag e is not
":ot
Vol tage gain in dB= 20 log 100 + 20 log
20 + the nex t. The re is a divi sion _of c_urren~
92 dB, or, 20 log show n by the part ial circ uit m Fig. l 5-
20 log 20 - 40 + 26 + 26-
40,0 00 = 20 X 4.6 ,_ 92 dB. the seco nd stag e.
 LOW-FREQUENCY RESPONSE OF THE TRANSISTOR AMPLIFIER 255

3
== -10.000 X 2 X 10 = -18,200.
600 + 500
02
Thus, a general expression for overall volt-
age gain from input to output is the pro?uct of
the current gain and the output load rest~tance,
divided by the input resistance at the point
where the current gain was computed.
The above figures for A and Ai will be
Fig. J5-4. Sh_owi~g how the current divides in within 10 percent of the a~tual values if hoeRL
the output circuit of a CE stage.
~ 0.1, as required by Table 14-6.
1
· ba _ RL2\\ R 2
From Fig. 15-4, Ic2 - RL2 \\R + R;a = 5. 15-4. LQW.fREOUENCY
RESPONSE OF CASCADED STAGES
:. A.'= lc3 = lc3 X lb3 X lc2 X lb2 X lcl To determine the overall lower 3-dB frequency
lbl lb3 1c2 lb2 1c1 lbl for V 0 /V 5 , we obtain f 1 for the coupling and
bypass cap~citors separately and then combine
= Ai3 X ~ X Ai2 X ! X ~il
the results.

Coupling Capacitors
= (-50) X ~ X (-50) X : X (-50)
Let us now determine the low-frequency
= -20,000. respoi:ise, f 1 '. for each stage due to the coupling
capac_1tors with values as shown in Fig. __
1 15 3
ca Ibl R Using Eq. 15-7 from Section 15-2, we have:
Ai = 11 = A{X- 11 = A/X First Stage
R + Ril

= -20,000 X ~ = -10,000. f 1 = -:::--:-::::--1--:---_

2n(R + R.')C
s 1 cl

'\, = Av X Ai= (-40,000) X (-10,000)

= 2n(600 + 5~0)2 X 10~ = 72 Hz.
= 4 X 108 •
The power decibel gain= 10 log 4 X 10 8
Second Stage. The effective source resistance
~~OX 8.6 = 86 dB. Note that the voltage
gain may also be obtained from R 5 for the input to the second stage is the
output resistance R 'of the first stage wh· h
fr . O
om t h e approximate equations of Table 14•6
, IC ,
A = A{RL3= -20.000 X 2 X 103 _ equals RL 1 = 2 K ohms. ,
v R - - 40 ,000,
il 1 X 103
. f - 1
and . . 1 - 2n ( R ' + R.' )C
0 I C2

- 1
- -t = 64 Hz
2n(2000 + 500)1 X 10-6 .
'._'-,H l OW HU.Qlll• Nt'\' Hh~l'ONSt OF TIit TH ANHIHTOll i\MPLI FIFrt

l + 50
Thud Steoo. The l ff, ,·t of Cea w1\\ \w t lw sum<' f :: 74
1 2rr50Y 10 6 x 2.21-103..: Hz.
Cl.'\ \hnt fol c(.' • f!\\lllg on { fnr tlw third stage
2 1
\,f b:l lh Second and Third Stages

Ove1a\l Re~onie. \l mny bl' shown that t h P over· _ 1 K I2K

Rs + R.I ,)~ - 2 K + 1 K + - -1 ~
K . -- u:;. K onrn c;_
rul kw,•f~qUl'lll'Y f\">S\)01\~l' for l\ l"hCaded
~lag{''- each hn,·mg thl' ~!\m1• \a\ul' for f 1 1s 1 + 50
(!I\Pn b~J thn f~qut>1 l \ £1 ,n) wlwn' the overall
65
= 2rr25 X 10- 6 X 5 X 10 3 = H z.
,o!lnAe \min falb to 1 '\ 2 t3 dH) o f its mi<l-
frequi=ncy ,n\ur. That ,~. Overall Response

Assuming f 1 = 64 Hz for each stage, we

( 15-8) obtain an overall valu~ of f 1 = 125 Hz, the
same as for the couplmg capacitors alone.

Combined Effect of Coupling and

a~~ume that f 1 = 64 Hz for all
LPt U!-
Emitter-Bypass Capacitors
thr~ ::tages ~n our example. Then the overall
3-dB fr~quency 1s The combined
. d .effects of C c and C e ma'-';,e
b
o b tame by usmg Eq. 15-8 with f 1 = 125 Hz
and n = 2.
64 64
·,====== = 125 125
vL26 - 1 f1 = ~ = 0 _64 = 194 Hz.
J2~ -1
64 64 Alternatively, the combined effects of Cc and
=- ,/0.26 = 0.51 = 125 Hz.
Ce on each stage provide an f 1 = 100 Hz for
each stage, and then the use of Eq. 15-8 witn
Emitter Bypass Capacitors fl = 100 Hz and n = 3 gives f 1 overall= 19-t Hz.
Tht: value off 1 d ue to the emitter bypass
•?pat 1tors may be obtained using the equation 15-5. AMPLIFIER LOW-FREQUENCY
1or f 1 rrom T able 15-1. RESPONSE TO A SQUARE WAVE
That 1s,
The s,gnificance of the lower 3-dB frequent'}',
f -= l +hf,, fl, may be seen by considering the applicati~n
1 :2 ~c e (R s + R.13 ) of a low-frequency square wave to the circuit
~f Fig. 15-5(a). This is a representation ~fa
where smgle CE amplifier stage at low frequencies
h R and should be compared with Fig. 15-2. 1t
n... = h + ,e s has a lower 3-dB frequency given by
13 ·~ Rl IIR2.
First Stage
f = 1 (15-9)
l 2r. R l C 1 ,
R +R = 0.6 K + 1 K + l.!5~_0.6 K ,
1K - "" 2.2 Kohms .
which 1s of the same form as Eq. 15· 7·
i. 13
 15--11

V - V.
From whioo 1f>.l~
b V = a - c.·1
.
Si7'r,o.
u._..,._..._ L-~ r,. 2z • .,.,.,.;. ::.7"c:::. i
= ..!... = -=- i\!l' 'LJ,, --._.,_ -
Li ~~ ~~-u51
....,......,~
.. Y
•

~ l 1
V of the 5CU2.!'e: wa.~e, md ~- C. = -::-=-:- irom
. - - - -rl
V
0
--
vl
} l" 1h or

-
=-ao

- --
2q. l5-9, we obi(..::i_r~
lr,1£::r~ ,,., ~ V -Y --
a1 t = R C
1 1 Sag= V ~ ~ - '( 100---;;.
0
~2 T----- 1
t,..-_
F&R.15-,5. (a) Simplr{ted low-frequency model
of CJ CE ~mpltfrer for tilt calculationo. (b) R ns
j ~ '~ ..!
of thP. circuit to a ,tep-voltage input. espo e \.1.u-- -
...

This indicates that., if~ am?!:.:fier !S :o ret1ro-

When a step voltage of amplitude V is
applied for vi, the charging of c will cause
1
the output, v 0 , to decrease from V to V
after half the period of the square wave
elapi;ed, given by t = ~.
1
The difference in voltage, V - V , is the
bag or tilt and is expressed as a per~entage of·
the step input V as follows:
V-V 1
Sagz V / 100%.
The l!XpresMon for v 0 is
of time hy
·t
V Vf!Rl(;l
" = 1600 µF.
so that at t • t P vo - V1 •
However, recall that the initial rate of
decrease of v0 1s at a rate that would reduce
v0 to zero in one time constant, R C . So,
1 1
for small values of t 1 compared with R 1 Ci,
v0 decreru:es approximately linearly for the
half period t 1 . Thus, by similar triangles,
duce a low-frequency &qu.a.."'e•- :~ave W!~.::. iow
degree of sag {hlgh-quali-cy reprocu~:1o~ . .i
vezy low value off: ;, required_. For c:.X..tr.:.1p.e.
to reproduce a 100 Hz s.qt1are wa,e wi-:h net
has more than 10% sag :requires a low-er S-<iB
frequency, i1, of 100 ::- ~ 0.1 = S.~ H:...
To get some idea of the si=e of ~.l'"'" ,,.,......,.
need t d to provide this low value 01- !-"''-•~Vh,"
•
th t C has 1 l assu ~1~
a c been chosen large enouii::~ ~ . . --~.i '•e
f 1 dependent upon C onlv~ In R-.-:::~~ ··1· -·"'
-0- • e • •'-""UI.}' .~ ~• 1 •
a o µF capacitor was required ta t'ro, ~de n
(15-10) f 1 = 100 Hz. l:sing Eq. 15-3. the ~e . .~s.."1~: n
value of Ce for f 1 = 3.2 H::. usmg th~ ~n\~
given as a fimction values for h.1e , h.te• and R s is
This is an impractically large valut.'. Th~
only recourse is to leave the emitter unhy-
passed and suffer a loss in gain if low-frt-quenl')
square waves are to be reproduced with httlt~
sag. If the loss of gam cannot be tl>lernted,
the emitter resistor would ha,e to be omittt~ct,