Bernoulli Equation

p V2
  g Z  Const.
 2

Relates pressure changes to velocity and elevation changes along a streamline

Restriction to the use of Bernoulli’s equation

i) Steady flow
ii) No friction
iii) Flow along a streamline
iv) Incompressible flow

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 Cautions on the use of Bernoulli’s equation

1. Friction should have a negligible effect

2. No flow separation and B. L. on the walls
3. Diverging passage and sudden expansion cannot be modelled.
4. Reasonable model for well rounded entrance, gentle bends, short
overall lengths
5. Cannot be applied through a machine, e.g. a propeller, pump etc.
6. Compressibility (for gases) has to be considered. If Ma is about 0.3
and above, property variation may not be neglected.
7. However, temperature change (effect on density for gases) will cause
non-applicability of B. Eqn. e.g. for flow through a heating element
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Venturi meter

Orifice meter

3
 Modified form of Bernoulli’s Eqn – to account for head losses

 p1 V12   p2 V22 
  1  g Z1    2  g Z 2   h LT
 2    2 
   

Features

1. The velocities are average velocities

2. Significance of α, the kinetic energy coefficient
3. hLT – total head loss – major and minor losses, what are they?
4. Dimension of hLT – energy per unit mass
5. If the flow is frictionless, α1 = α2 and no head losses

This equation can be used to calculate the pressure difference between

any two points in a piping system, provided the head loss, hLT is known.
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Kinetic Energy Coefficient

2 2
V V mV 2
A 2  V dA   A 2  V dA   2
 dA
 3
V
 A
.
mV 2

For laminar flow in a pipe α = 2.0

For turbulent flow, large Reynold’s number, α ≈ 1.0

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Velocity Profiles
Laminar Flow Turbulent Flow

α = 2.0 α = 1.0
Calculation of head loss

h LT  h L  h LM
h L = Major loss due to frictional effects in fully developed flow

h LM = Minor losses due to fittings, entrance, area changes

h L Major loss

For FD flow in a horizontal pipe (from B eqn)

 p1 V12   p2 V22 
  1  g Z1    2  g Z 2   h LT
   
 2    2 

p1  p2 P
  hL
 
7
 h LT  h L  h LM
Laminar Flow
  D2 
128 LV  
128 L Q  4   32 L V
P  
 D4  D4 D D
P 64 L V 2 L V2
hL    f f ≡ Friction factor
 Re D 2 D 2

Turbulent Flow


 P   P D, L, e, V ,  ,  
2 f ≡ Friction factor,
LV
hL  f determined experimentally
D 2

Value of f is needed to calculate the pressure drop

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Velocity Profile in Turbulent Flow

Viscous sublayer, transition and turbulent core, 1/7 th Power Law

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 64
f
Re

Moody Diagram (Friction Factor - to calculate major losses)

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 h LT  h L  h LM
To evaluate ε/D
Steps to calculate head loss

1. Find Re

2. Find ε/D from figure

3. Find f from Moody’s diagram

(for turbulent flow)

4. For laminar flow f = 64/Re,

independent of roughness,
viscous layer is quite thick,
wall roughness has no effect

5. Find hL

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 h LT  h L  h LM
Minor Losses – Sudden Contraction/Expansion

V2
h LM K
2
Le V 2
h LM  f
D 2

K is the loss coefficient, to be determined experimentally

Le is the equivalent length of straight pipe

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 Le V 2
Minor Losses – Equivalent Lengths h LM  f
D 2

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Minor loss coefficients for pipe entrances

V2
Based on h LM K where V is the mean velocity in the pipe
2

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 Solution of Pipe Flow Problems

Relevant Equations
 p1 V12   p2 V22 
  1  g Z1    2  g Z 2   h LT ( A) All terms are
 2    2 
    energy per unit
L V2 mass
hL  f , major head loss, ( B)
D 2
f = 64/Re, for laminar flow
0.3164
f from Moody diagram or f  for smooth pipes for turbulent flow
Re0.25

V2
h LM  K (min or loss, fittings, bends, abrupt area change etc ) (C1)
2
K  Loss coefficient (exp erimentally det er min ed )
Le V 2
h LM  f mostly for valves fittings and bends (C 2)
D 2
Le Equivalent length of straight pipe
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 Solution of Pipe Flow Problems – contd.

Head at 1 + Pump Head = Head at 2 + Losses

   p V 2   p V 2 
W in  m  2
 2 2
 g Z 2   h LT    1
1 1
 g Z 1 

    
2   2 
All terms are energy per unit mass

W in  m 2 
Pump Head    in 2  , Power   Q  Pump Head , W 
m  s 

 P    L, Q, D, e,  Z , system config .,  ,  

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 Solution of Pipe Flow Problems – contd.

 P    L, Q, D, e,  Z , system config.,  ,  

Once the pipeline layout and the fluid properties are fixed

 P    L, Q , D 
Possible cases
Case i ) L, Q , D known P unknown

Case ii ) P, Q, D known L unknown

Case iii ) P, L, D known Q unknown

Case iv) P, L, Q known D unknown 17

 Case i ) L, Q, D known P unknown

 p1 V12   p2 V22 
• Calculate Re     g Z 1      g Z 2   h LT ( A)
   
  
1 2
 2 2 
• Obtain f L V2
hL  f , major head loss, ( B)
D 2
• Calculate h L Eq. (B)
f  64  Lamninar OR Moody diagram  Turbulent
• Calculate h LM Eq. (C1/C2) Re
V2 Le V 2
h LM  K (C1) h LM  f (C 2)
• Calculate ΔP from Eq. A 2 D 2
K  Loss coefficient Le Equiv. length of straight pipe

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 Example of Case (i)
L, Q, D known, P unknown

Z V2
Pressurized
p1 200 m Q = 0.14 m3/s
150 m
100 m 0.2 m pipe dia.

α=1
500 m
Le / D = 12
Kentry = 0.5

Water flows from a reservoir at 0.14 m3/s through a 0.2m id pipe.

Properties: μ = 1.3 x 10 – 3Ns/m2, ε/D = 0.0013. Find the gage pressure p1

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 p1 V12   p2 V22 
  1  g Z1    2  g Z 2   h LT ( A)
   
 2    2 
L V2
hL  f , major head loss, ( B)
D 2
V2 Le V 2
h LM  K (C1) h LM  f (C 2)
2 D 2
K  Loss coefficient Le Equiv. length of straight pipe

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 Moody Diagram
(to calculate major losses) 21
22
 Case ii ) P, Q, D known L unknown

 p1 V12   p2 V22 
  1  g Z1    2  g Z 2   h LT ( A)
   
• Calculate h LT from (A)  2    2 
L V2
hL  f , major head loss, ( B)
• Calculate Re, Obtain f D 2

• Solve for L using Eq. (B) f  64  Lamninar OR Moody diagram  Turbulent

Re
and/or C1,, C2 V2 Le V 2
h LM  K (C1) h LM  f (C 2)
2 D 2
K  Loss coefficient Le Equiv. length of straight pipe

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 Example of Case (ii)
P, Q, D known, L unknown

p1 = 90 kPa(g)
p2 = 0, Vent
Z
ρ = 0.82x103 Kg/m3 2
Reactor ν = 1.05x10-6 m2/s
5m
1
Storage Tank
Flow

ε/D = 0.0003, Kentry = 0.5, Kexit = 1.0, Le/D = 12, pipe dia. = 0.15m

Find the total length of the straight pipe in the system

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 p1 V12   p2 V22 
  1  g Z1    2  g Z 2   h LT ( A)
   
 2    2 
L V2
hL  f , major head loss, ( B)
D 2

f  64  Lamninar OR Moody diagram  Turbulent

Re
V2 Le V 2
h LM  K (C1) h LM  f (C 2)
2 D 2
K  Loss coefficient Le Equiv. length of straight pipe

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Moody Diagram (to calculate major losses)
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 Case iii ) P, L, D known Q unknown

• Combine Eq. (A) with (B

and/or C)  p1 V12   p2 V22 
  1  g Z1    2  g Z 2   h LT ( A)
 2    2 
• Results in an expression of V    
L V2
(or Q) in terms of f hL  f , major head loss, ( B)
D 2
• Assume f, based on flow
f  64  Lamninar OR Moody diagram  Turbulent
entirely in the rough region Re
V2 Le V 2
• CalculateV , recalculate f h LM  K (C1) h LM  f (C 2)
2 D 2
• As f is a weak function of Re, K  Loss coefficient Le Equiv. length of straight pipe

two iterations are sufficient

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The adjoining figure shows
two large reservoirs containing
water connected by a constant
area, galvanized iron pipe (ε/D
= 0.002) that has one right
angle bend. The flow can be
assumed to be in the fully
rough region of the Moody
diagram.
The surface pressure at the upper reservoir (1 in figure) is atmospheric
whereas the pressure (absolute) at the lower reservoir (2 in the figure)
surface is 171.3 KPa. The pipe diameter is 75 mm. Assume that the only
significant losses occur in the pipe and the bend (Le/D for the bend is
equal to 12). Determine the direction and magnitude of the volume flow
rate of water (ρ = 999 kg/m3, kinematic viscosity, ν = 1.1 x 10 – 6 m2/s ).

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 p1 V12   p2 V22 
  1  g Z1    2  g Z 2   h LT ( A)
   
 2    2 
L V2
hL  f , major head loss, ( B)
D 2

f  64  Lamninar OR Moody diagram  Turbulent

Re
V2 Le V 2
h LM  K (C1) h LM  f (C 2)
2 D 2
K  Loss coefficient Le Equiv. length of straight pipe

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Moody Diagram (to calculate major losses)
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