Biology The Essentials 1st Edition Hoefnagels Solutions Manual

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CHAPTER 6 – How Cells Release Energy

CHAPTER OUTLINE

6.1 Cells Use Energy in Food to Make ATP

6.2 Cellular Respiration Includes Three Main Processes
6.3 In Eukaryotic Cells, Mitochondria Produce Most ATP
6.4 Glycolysis Breaks Down Glucose to Pyruvate
6.5 Aerobic Respiration Yields Much More ATP than Glycolysis Alone
A. Pyruvate Is Oxidized to Acetyl CoA
B. The Krebs Cycle Produces ATP and Electron Carriers
C. The Electron Transport Chain Drives ATP Formation
6.6 How Many ATPs Can One Glucose Molecule Yield?
6.7 Other Food Molecules Enter the Energy-Extracting Pathways
6.8 Fermentation Generates ATP Only in Glycolysis
6.9 Investigating Life: Plants’ “Alternative” Lifestyles Yield Hot Sex

LEARNING OUTCOMES

06.01.01 Explain how cells use energy in food to produce ATP.

06.01.02 Draw and explain the net reaction in aerobic respiration.
06.02.01 Compare and contrast the events of glycolysis, the Krebs cycle, and the electron transport
chain.
06.03.01 Describe where in a eukaryotic cell each step in respiration occurs.
06.04.01 Draw and explain the net reaction in glycolysis.
06.05.01 Draw and explain the net reaction in the Krebs cycle.
06.05.02 Diagram and explain the flow of electrons in the electron transport chain.
06.05.03 Explain the role of O2 in respiration.
06.06.01 Calculate the net ATP produced in aerobic metabolism.
06.07.01 Compare and contrast where carbohydrates, fats, and proteins enter metabolism.
06.08.02 Compare and contrast aerobic respiration and fermentation.
06.09.01 Use natural selection to explain why beetles visit “hot” flowers.
WHERE DOES IT ALL FIT IN?

Chapter 6 integrates the information on cell structure in Chapter 3 and information about cellular
energy in Chapter 4. It provides an understanding of the cellular metabolism by using cellular
respiration as a model pathway of energy release from “food”. The basic principles of cell structure
and energy should be briefly reviewed before the concepts in this chapter are covered. It should be
reinforced that photosynthesis covered in Chapter 5 works in feedback with the cellular respiration
information covered in Chapter 6. The information in Chapter 6 is crucial for students to understand
other concepts that integrate cell function to homeostasis and organismic interactions in ecosystems.

SYNOPSIS

This chapter looks at the roles of the energy releasing reactions that produce cellular energy
molecules such as ATP. ATP is not a long-term energy storage molecule. Rather, it is made only
when needed and is an extremely valuable molecule because it is used to do much of the work of
a cell. The chapter highlights the two main processes, glycolysis and aerobic respiration, that
generate much of the ATP for a cell.

The chapter explains how glycolysis occurs in the cytoplasm of a cell and is catalyzed by
enzymes not associated with any membranes or organelles. It is important to stress that glucose
is converted to two 3-carbon molecules in a reaction that expends two ATP molecules. These 3-
carbon molecules are then converted to pyruvate and produces four ATP molecules using
substrate level phosphorylation which takes place with the need for oxygen. The net energy yield
of glycolysis is relatively small at two ATP molecules per molecule of glucose. Glycolysis
requires a regular supply glucose and NAD+. NAD+ is generated form NADH in the aerobic
respiration pathways.

Mitochondria carry out aerobic respiration pathways which begin with the conversion of
pyruvate to acetyl-CoA. Aerobic respiration involves two reactions: Krebs cycle which takes
place in the mitochondrial matrix, and electron transport chain, which occurs in the
mitochondrial inner membrane. Bacteria carry out these reactions in their cytoplasm and on the
cell membrane. The Krebs cycle is a complex set of reactions in which a four-carbon molecule is
added to the acetyl-CoA from pyruvate oxidation. During the cycle, two molecules of CO2 are
given off and three NADH, one FADH2, and one ATP are produced. Energy-rich electrons from
NADH and FADH2 fuel an electron transport chain, which pumps protons from the matrix into
the intermembrane compartment. As protons diffuse back into the matrix through channels in
ATP synthase, their potential energy drives the production of ATP. Plus, oxygen is essential to
keep the electron transport chain from “backing up”. It is important to stress to students that
these pathways are linked to other metabolic pathways and the generation of ATP is affected by
many factors.

Proteins and fats are also metabolized using cellular respiration. Proteins and lipids are converted
to Krebs cycle components that are then fed into the electron transport chain. A lack of oxygen
prevents the functioning of the aerobic pathways. Therefore an organism must rely on running
glycolysis as a sole source of energy. This leads to a buildup of NADH during glycolysis which
is returned to NAD+ through various anaerobic fermentation pathways. A carbohydrate serves as
the final electron acceptor in most types of fermentation. Common fermentation products include
ethyl alcohol and lactic acid.

Students should be reminded that photosynthesis is the global provider of the glucose and
oxygen that runs cellular respiration. Reinforce how the input and products of each pathway
balance each other.
CONCEPT MAP

Concept mapping is a structured graphical presentation of the concepts covered in a particular

topic. The following concept map represents the links between the information covered in this
chapter. It is important to tell students to develop their own concept maps after covering the
particular information covered in class.
COMMON STUDENT MISCONCEPTIONS

There is ample evidence in the educational literature that student misconceptions of information
will inhibit the learning of concepts related to the misinformation. The following concepts
covered in Chapter 6 are commonly the subject of student misconceptions. This information on
“bioliteracy” was collected from faculty and the science education literature.

 Students believe respiration is the same as breathing.

 Students believe energy flow is one-way, rather than cyclical or two-way in a system.
 Students believe food is anything that goes into the organism including minerals, water,
and carbon dioxide.
 Students believe that glucose is converted into ATP.
 Carbon dioxide is formed from oxygen during cellular respiration.
 Water is not a product of cellular respiration.
 Oxygen burns the food molecules during cellular respiration.
 Glycolysis is the same as fermentation.
 Cellular respiration always breaks down glucose completely and always makes 36 ATP
per molecule.
 All of the energy produced by mitochondria is converted to ATP.
 The Krebs cycle takes place in the cytoplasm.
 Each glucose molecule undergoes one Krebs Cycle and ETC event.
 ATP can be consumed in the diet for cell use.
 ATP gives energy to a cell.
 ATP is produced in the body and not in the cell.
 Only carbohydrates are involved in ATP production.
 Glucose is the only molecule that fuels ATP production.
 ATP production always increases with calories taken in the diet.
 Lipids are the only stored molecule used by the body during weight loss.

The following articles provide strategies for increasing bioliteracy in the college classroom:

Baldwin JD, Ebert-May D, Burns, D. 1999. The development of a college biology self-efficacy
instrument for non-majors. Science Education 83(4): 397-408.

Ebert-May D. 2001. Research-based change: how one college professor approached the
challenge of changing teaching. In: Implementing the Science Standards in Higher Education,
eds. W. J. McIntosh and E. Siebert, pp. 36-39. Arlington, VA: National Science Teachers
Association.

Khodor J, Halme DG, Walker GC. 2004. A Hierarchical Biology Concept Framework: A Tool
for Course Design. Cell Biology Education, 3(2): 111-121.

Klymkowsky MW, Garvin-Doxas K, Zeilik M. 2003. Bioliteracy and teaching efficacy: what
biologists can learn from physicists. Cell Biol Educ, 2(3):155-61.
INSTRUCTIONAL STRATEGY PRESENTATION ASSISTANCE

The locations where cellular respiration takes place in the cell is not always evident even after a
lecture on the topic. It is important to demonstrate that glycolysis and fermentation take place in
the cytoplasm while the aerobic pathways are in mitochondria. Use animated pathway sequences
to show the activity of anaerobic pathways in the cytoplasm. Then reinforce that the aerobic
pathways take place in the mitochondria of eukaryotes. Models of the cell are also very useful
for doing this.

Use simplified molecular molecules or beads to show how glucose is degraded to yield carbon
dioxide. Also, use models to demonstrate how oxygen picks up hydrogen and electrons from the
electron transport chain to form water. Use drawings or animations to reiterate the flow of
molecular conversions taking place during cellular respiration. Students need visual or tangible
models to help them remember the steps of cellular respiration.

It is encouraged to use some lecture or recitation time to discuss the “What’s the Point?,” “Why
We Care,” “Burning Questions” boxes, and the end-of-chapter reading titled “Investigating Life:
Plants’ “Alternative” Lifestyles Yield Hot Sex.” The information in these resources encourages
students to use the chapter information in critical thinking situations.

When assigning the chapter as a reading, encourage the students to stop and complete the
“Mastering Concepts” features as a way of assessing their knowledge of what they read. In
addition, the “Pull It Together” provides students with a visual summary of the important
concepts in the chapter.
HIGHER LEVEL ASSESSMENT

Higher level assessment measures a student’s ability to use terms and concepts learned from the
lecture and the textbook. A complete understanding of biology content provides students with the
tools to synthesize new hypotheses and knowledge using the facts they have learned. The
following table provides examples of assessing a student’s ability to apply, analyze, synthesize,
and evaluate information from Chapter 6.

Application  Have students explain why a person does not need carbohydrates as a
source of ATP.
 Have students describe a possible explanation for the observation that
sparkling wines and champagnes have bubbles.
 Ask students to explain what happens to glucose that enters a cell and is
not used for ATP production.

Analysis  Ask students to explain the activity of glycolysis and the Krebs cycle in
organisms that obtain energy from diets consisting solely of lipids and
proteins.
 Ask students to explain the activities of a eukaryotic cell if the electron
transport chain is blocked by poison cyanide.
 Ask students to hypothesize why it is normal for high levels of ATP to
inhibit the Krebs cycle.

Synthesis  Ask students to predict the commercial applications of a technique that

causes mitochondria to transport electrons to a solution of ions instead of
to oxygen.
 Have students explain the impacts of a pollutant that disrupts the
conversion of NADH to NAD+.
 Ask students to explain the changes in how cellular respiration operates
in diabetics who are not able to transport glucose rapidly into cells.

Evaluation  Ask students to evaluate the claim that consuming sports drinks
containing phosphorus increases the body’s ability to produce ATP.
 Have the students evaluate the claim that diets high in fructose are just as
effective at providing energy for the body as high glucose diets.
 Ask students to evaluate the purported benefits of eating lots of
carbohydrates a day before a high performance athletic event.
BIOETHICAL CONSIDERATION

Biological knowledge contributes to the betterment of human society in many ways. However,
there also various ethical concerns that are raised by the applications of this knowledge.
Metabolic engineering is a technique that uses genetic engineering to modify various metabolic
pathways in agricultural animals. An ethical consideration called “Animal Welfare Issues: Farm
Animals” presents students with one view about the ethical considerations of metabolically
engineered farm animals. Ask students to discuss the rationale for the arguments against
metabolically engineered animals. They should be asked to focus on the validity of any scientific
evidence used in the article that argues the safety of metabolic engineering to the animals and to
humans. The issue can be found at:
http://www.worldanimal.net/documents/4_Farm_Animals.pdf.

FUN FACTS

Trivial facts about biology are a fun way to spice up a lecture. They can be read in class or
placed at appropriate points into a lecture using the board or a projected presentation. The trivia
can be used as a jumping point for students to further investigate the fact.

 Physical activity is responsible for approximately 35% of the total energy expenditure of
a person.
 The metabolic energy needed to run cells at body rest can consume almost 70% of a
person’s calories.
 Whales have the slowest metabolism of all mammals.
 Microorganisms in the human digestive system produce about 4 to 5 liters of metabolic
gas in a day.
 A typical person has to burn 3,500 calories to lose one pound of body weight.
 A hummingbird can consume 50% of its weight in sugar each day to stay alive.
 Dehydration can slow cellular metabolism by up to 3%.
 Mitochondria are the only structure inside the body that “burns” fat.
 Mitochondrial diseases or mitochondriopathies can reduce ATP production by 50% in all
body cells.
 The heart and the liver contain the highest concentration of mitochondria per cell in the
human body.
IN-CLASS CONCEPTUAL DEMONSTRATION

Heavy Breathing Activity

This demonstration has the instructor leading students through an inquiry session about
measuring metabolic activity using carbon dioxide from the breath.

Materials

 Bottle of universal indicator solution (Bogen's) available from biological supply

companies
 Universal indicator color chart; a color chart can be obtained online at:
http://homepages.ius.edu/DSPURLOC/c121/images/uni.gif
 Three 500 ml Erlenmeyer flasks filled to the 300 ml mark with pH 7 unbuffered water
 Three long soda straws
 Healthy student volunteer or graduate assistant

Procedure and Inquiry

1. Ask the class to think about the different ways that the rate of cellular respiration can be
measured in a person.
2. Continue the query and stop at a point to emphasize that carbon dioxide production by the
breath is an acceptable method used in animal and human studies.
3. Call up a student volunteer who says that they are healthy enough to take part in a short
burst of strenuous activity.
4. Show the students one of the Erlenmeyer flasks with water. Tell them that you will be
collecting the subject’s breath in the water.
5. Add enough drops of universal indicator solution so the green color of the pH 7 is evident
to the class.
6. Ask why you will be using pH to indicate the presence of carbon dioxide in the breath.
Hopefully, a student will answer that carbon dioxide in water forms a weak acid (carbonic
acid). So, carbon dioxide in the breath of the student will lower the pH of the water.
7. Tell the subject to blow for 10 seconds into the flask using the soda straw. Tell the class to
calculate the pH if a chart is shown or announce the pH to the class.
8. Ask the subject to do 1 minute of strenuous, but safe, activity.
9. Tell the subject to blow for 10 seconds into another flask using the soda straw. Tell the
class to calculate the pH if a chart is shown or announce the pH to the class.
10. Ask the subject to do strenuous, but safe, activity until they are breathing deep and heavy.
11. Tell the student to blow for 10 seconds into another flask using the soda straw. Tell the
class to calculate the pH if a chart is shown or announce the pH to the class.
12. Again, tell the subject to blow for 10 seconds into another flask using the soda straw. Tell
the class to calculate the pH if a chart is shown or announce the pH to the class.
13. Ask the class to explain the results.
14. Query the class about the metabolic origins of the carbon dioxide and why it is a measure
of aerobic cellular respiration in humans.
USEFUL INTERNET RESOURCES

1. Case studies are excellent for reinforcing scientific concepts. The University of Buffalo
produced a study using anemia as a way of understanding the signs of a metabolic disease
that affects cellular respiration. This case study can be done in class or be given as a take-
home. The case study can be found at
http://sciencecases.lib.buffalo.edu/cs/files/cellular_respiration.pdf.

2. Cell energy and cellular respiration are topics that are often obscure to many students.
The teaching of cellular respiration can be made more interesting with an entertaining
case study called Energy Up, Weight Down? Finding Nutrition Information. This case
study shows the interrelationship between nutrition and cellular respiration. It can be
found at http://sciencecases.lib.buffalo.edu/cs/files/nutrition_info.pdf.

3. A good foundation in chemistry is essential for applying the principles covered in

Chapter 6. A website called Chemistry Biologists produced by the Royal Society of
Chemistry provides valuable teaching resources relevant to Chapter 6. The website can
be found at http://www.rsc.org/Education/Teachers/Resources/cfb/.

4. Cellular metabolism can be an overwhelming topic for students. Many students perceive
that the processes of cell respiration alone are very complex processes. However, cell
respiration is only one small component of all the metabolic pathways taking place in a
cell. Main Metabolic Pathways for Internet displays a flowchart of the major metabolic
pathways in eukaryotic animal cells. The chart can be found at
http://home.wxs.nl/~pvsanten/mmp/mmp.html.
QUICK LABORATORY IDEA

Effect of Nutrients on Cellular Respiration

Have students perform a simple experiment in which students investigate the effects of different
nutrients on the rate of cellular respiration. Tell the class that they will be using yeast as a model
investigating the usability of various nutrients for cellular respiration. Students should be able to
make a setup that evaluates carbon dioxide as an indicator of cellular respiration. They can come
up with a way to detect carbon dioxide by looking at bubbles forming in solution or by
measuring the drop of pH in the solution due to the buildup of carbonic acid produced by carbon
dioxide wastes in the solution.

Materials

 Fast-rising baker’s yeast

 Hot plate or water bath set to 37°C
 0.5% glucose solution
 0.5% sucrose solution
 0.5% saccharine solution
 0.5% amino acid solution
 Materials available for student input on nutrients
 Test tube rack
 Test tubes
 pH paper

Procedure and Inquiry

1. Instruct the students to design an experiment to test the relationship between nutrient type
and cellular respiration.
2. Tell them that they must first determine what would be appropriate controls to set up.
3. Ask the students to investigate research about how diet affects cellular respiration in
humans and if it is consistent with their findings.
LEARNING THROUGH SERVICE

Service learning is a strategy of teaching, learning, and reflective assessment that merges the
academic curriculum with meaningful community service. As a teaching methodology, it falls
under the category of experiential education. It is a way students can carry out volunteer projects
in the community for public agencies, nonprofit agencies, civic groups, charitable organizations,
and governmental organizations. It encourages critical thinking and reinforces many of the
concepts learned in a course.

Students who have successfully mastered the content of Chapter 6 can apply their knowledge for
service learning activities in the following ways:

1. Have students talk to youth sports groups about the risks of high-protein diets.

2. Have students design and prepare an electronic presentation for school teachers about the
pathways of cellular respiration.

3. Have students tutor middle school or high school biology students studying cell
metabolism.

4. Have students give demonstrations to boy scouts or girl scouts using yeast as a model for
understanding commercial applications of cellular respiration.
CROSSWORD PUZZLE

Use copies and a projected image of the crossword puzzle as an entertaining way to review the
concepts in this chapter. Hand out the copies to the class and project an image of the crossword
using an overhead or LCD projector. Then use student input to complete the crossword puzzle
while quizzing them on other concepts and terms covered in the chapter.

How Cells Release Energy

Across

1. Needed to keep the electron transport chain going

4. A process that makes alcohol or lactic acid
5. A Krebs waste product
6. The "unit" of energy for the cell
8. How cells release energy from food
10. Loves to "eat" glucose
12. Produced after glycolysis to "feed" the Krebs cycle (2 words)
13. Respiration that requires oxygen
14. Chemical reactions of electron transport (2 words)

Down

2. Makes the most ATP during aerobic respiration (3 words)

3. A fermentation product of muscle (2 words)
7. Krebs cycle and ETC found here
9. Carries hydrogen ions during glycolysis and Krebs cycle
11. Produced when oxygen "cleans" up electron transport
Answers

Across

1. OXYGEN—Needed to keep the electron transport chain going

4. FERMENTATION—A process that makes alcohol or lactic acid
5. CO2—A Krebs waste product
6. ATP—The "unit" of energy for the cell
8. RESPIRATION—How cells release energy from food
10. GLYCOLYSIS—Loves to "eat" glucose
12. ACETYLCOA—Produced after glycolysis to "feed" the Krebs cycle (2 words)
13. AEROBIC—Respiration that requires oxygen
14. OXIDATIONREDUCTION—Chemical reactions of electron transport (2 words)

Down

2. ELECTRONTRANSPORTCHAIN—Makes the most ATP during aerobic respiration (3

words)
3. LACTICACID—A fermentation product of muscle (2 words)
7. MITOCHONDRIA—Krebs cycle and ETC found here
9. NADH—Carries hydrogen ions during glycolysis and Krebs cycle
11. WATER—Produced when oxygen "cleans" up electron transport