Na#onal Strategies

Barriers to Learning: Pupil

misconcep#ons
How Science Works
Pupils o)en think that:
• science is a body of facts and that scien6fic proof is absolute – it is important to help pupils recognise
the uncertainty of science
• a fair test is about ‘keeping everything the same' and they fail to iden6fy the independent variable
• taking repeat readings makes it a fair test because they see in each case that they are ‘keeping
everything the same'
• all graph scales have to begin at zero and all graph lines have to pass through the origin.
Pupils are o)en confused:
• when planning an inves6ga6on, and pick random quan66es for the variables without any real
understanding as to whether these are sensible amounts or not – they need to have the opportunity
to carry out trial runs
• by which variables to change or measure that will actually answer the ques6on – e.g. for 'Does the
type of stomach powder affect how quickly the acid is neutralised?', pupils change the type of
stomach powder but measure how much acid is needed to dissolve it
• by safety and don't take it seriously as they think that science teachers wouldn't use anything that
was really dangerous! (if in doubt consult CLEAPSS over which prac6cal ac6vi6es are actually banned)
• by reliability, accuracy and validity which are misunderstood and used interchangeably
• between the scien6fic and everyday use of the word ‘models'; also, they may not have the correct
language to talk about and explore their thinking in rela6on to models
• by models that teachers and books use which can lead to misconcep6ons, e.g. orbit of the Earth
showing the seasons – if the weaknesses of the model are not made explicit, some misconcep6ons
may persist despite best efforts to challenge them.
Chemical and material behaviour: Chemical reac9ons/Par9cle models/Pa<erns in chemical
reac9ons
Pupils o)en think that:
• substances contain par6cles rather than consist of par6cles, e.g. pupils think water has par6cles in it,
with water or air between the par6cles, pupils think that air has oxygen par6cles in it and there is air
between the par6cles
• par6cles are comparable in size to cells, dust specks, etc., and they can be seen with an op6cal
microscope
• par6cles of the same substance have different proper6es in solid, liquid or gas state, e.g. some pupils
think solid ice par6cles are cold and hard, liquid water par6cles have expanded and so they are larger
and so)er, while water vapour par6cles expand even more and are very large and squashy
• all liquids contain water
• air is good (breathing) and gas is bad (flammable or poisonous)
• gases have no weight, or even have nega6ve weight, and that is why things filled with gas float
• when water evaporates it splits up into atoms of hydrogen and oxygen
• the bubbles in a boiling liquid are bubbles of air
• mel6ng and dissolving are the same
• boiling points are not fixed and the temperature will con6nue to go up as more energy is transferred
• condensa6on forms as a result of the ‘cold' causing oxygen and hydrogen in the air to make water
• atoms are a small bit of the parent material with all the same proper6es as that material
• the propor6ons of combining elements in a compound are not fixed
 • metallic proper6es are due to proper6es of the atom rather than the atomic arrangement
• non-metals are substances such as sugar or wood rather than non-metallic elements
• chemical change is what is observed during the reac6on, e.g. fizzing, not the produc6on of a new
substance.
Pupils are o)en confused or uncertain about:
• the func6on of the air, although they know that air is needed for burning
• the use of scien6fic words, such as material, maSer, substance and pure lead, where there is also a
different everyday meaning, e.g. 'pure' means it doesn't contain anything harmful
• conserva6on of mass if they s6ll think gases are weightless or substances disappear, e.g. by
evapora6on or burning.
Energy, electricity and forces: Energy transfer and electricity

Energy transfer by hea.ng

Pupils o)en think that:
• hea6ng boiling water more vigorously will make its temperature rise above 100°C
• boiling point is the maximum temperature a substance can reach
• the bubbles in boiling water contain air/oxygen or nothing
• all liquids boil at 100°C and freeze at 0°C
• heat is a substance which can flow from place to place
• heat rises (as opposed to hot substances rising)
• some objects are naturally warmer than others
• heat and cold are different en66es rather than being opposite ends of a con6nuum
• thermal conductors and insulators are seen as opposites, not part of a con6nuum
• hot objects can cool down without something else around them geYng hot (energy is just ‘lost')
• energy is only transferred upwards by hea6ng
• all solids expand at the same rate
• when solids expand, the par6cles themselves get bigger.
Pupils are o)en confused about:
• the difference between heat and temperature.
Energy transfer by sound
Pupils o)en think that:
• sounds can be produced without using any material objects
• hiYng an object harder changes the pitch of the sound produced
• human voice sounds are produced by a large number of vocal cords that all produce different sounds
• loudness and pitch of sounds are the same thing
• sound travels instantaneously – hence you can see and hear a dis6nct event at the same moment
• sound can transfer energy through empty space (a vacuum) and cannot travel through liquids and
solids
• in wind instruments, the sound is caused only by vibra6on of the instrument (not the internal air
column)
• sound waves are transverse waves (like radio and light waves)
 • when waves interact with a solid surface, the waves and hence the energy they are transferring are/is
destroyed
• in telephones and microphones, sounds (rather than electrical impulses) are carried through the
wires
• sound is carried by individual molecules travelling from place to place through a medium or as
flowing air
• ultrasounds are extremely loud sounds
• megaphones create sounds
• noise pollu6on is annoying, but it is essen6ally harmless.
Energy transfer by light
Pupils o)en think that:
• light transfers energy from one place to another instantaneously
• an object is seen whenever light shines on it, with no recogni6on that light must move between the
object and the observer's eye
• when objects are seen light (or ‘rays') comes out of the eye and travels to the object
• lines drawn outward from a light bulb in a sketch represent the ‘glow' surrounding the bulb; light
from a bulb only extends outward a certain distance and then stops; how far it extends depends on
the brightness of the bulb
• light is reflected by shiny surfaces, but light is not reflected at all from other surfaces
• light always passes straight through transparent material (without changing direc6on)
• blocking part of the lens surface would block the corresponding part of the image
• the purpose of the screen is to capture the image so that it can be seen; without a screen, there is
not an image
• an image is formed at the focal point of a lens
• the size of an image depends on the size (diameter) of the lens used to form the image
• gamma rays, X-rays, ultraviolet light, visible light, infrared light, microwaves and radio waves are all
very different things
• when waves or pulses interfere (as in a spring, rope, water wave or light wave) they bounce off each
other and go back in the opposite direc6on from which they came
• when a wave moves, par6cles move along with the wave from the point of transmission to the point
of recep6on
• when light passes through a prism or a filter, colour is added to the light
• the rules for mixing coloured lights are the same as the rules for mixing coloured paints.
Energy transfer by electric current
Pupils o)en think that:
• objects become posi6vely charged because they have gained protons, or electrons have been
destroyed
• all atoms have a charge
• current flows from a baSery (or other source of electricity) to a light bulb, but not from the light bulb
to the baSery
• current flows out of both terminals of a baSery or power-pack (the ‘clashing' current model)
• current is used up in a circuit
 • all the electrons in an electrical circuit are ini6ally contained in the baSery or other source of the
electricity
• electrons change into light when a lamp is turned on
• wires are hollow like a water hose and electrons move inside the hollow space
• as a baSery is a store of energy, a larger baSery will always make a motor run faster or a bulb glow
brighter
• voltage is the same as current
• pure water is a good conductor of electricity
• all wires are insulated
• birds can perch on bare wires without being hurt because birds have insulated feet
• the electrosta6c force between two charged objects is not affected by the distance between them.
Energy transfer in biosystems
Pupils o)en think that:
• energy is fuel
• energy is a substance (although this view may form part of a ‘good enough' model for pupils at early
stages in the journey)
• energy and force are interchangeable terms
• energy gets used up
• energy is truly lost in many energy transfers.
Pupils are o)en confused about:
• energy transfer and energy resources – hence, if energy is conserved, why are we ‘running out of
energy?'
Energy, electricity and forces: Forces

Iden.fying, measuring and represen.ng forces

Pupils o)en think that:
• only animate objects can exert a force – thus, if an object is at rest on a table, there are no forces
ac6ng on it
• a rigid solid cannot be compressed or stretched
• all forces need objects to be in contact to have an effect
• fric6on only occurs between solid objects
• things fall naturally – no forces are involved; barriers stop things falling
• gravity stops ac6ng when the object hits the ground
• there is 'more gravity the higher up you go' because things dropped from higher up suffer greater
damage when they hit the floor
• mass and weight mean the same thing and they are equal at all 6mes
• mass and volume mean the same thing
• gravity only affects heavy things
• gravity only works one way – the Earth aSracts the Moon but the Moon does not aSract the Earth
• Earth's magne6sm and/or spin create gravity
• astronauts are weightless in an orbi6ng spacecra) because there is no gravity
• magne6c field lines are really there – a magne6c field really is a paSern of lines
 • all metals are aSracted to a magnet
• all magnets are made of iron
• magne6c poles are always at the end of the magnet
• larger magnets are stronger than smaller magnets
• all materials that can be magne6sed are magnets
• objects float in water because they're 'lighter' than water or sink because they are heavier; wood
always floats and metal always sinks
• all floa6ng objects float because they have air in them
• all objects containing air float
• there is no/less gravity in water
• power, work, energy and force all mean the same thing.
Forces and mo.on
Pupils o)en think that:
• if an object is moving there must be a force ac6ng on it
• if an object is sta6onary there are no forces ac6ng on it
• if a force acts on an object it will inevitably move
• force is a property of an object; an object has force and, when the force 'runs out', it stops moving
• accelera6on can only occur in the same direc6on as an object is moving
• when dropped in a vacuum, heavier objects will reach the ground first
• falling objects stay at the same speed as they fall
• opening a parachute during freefall makes the skydiver go upwards
• rocket propulsion is due to exhaust gases pushing on something behind the rocket.
Pupils o)en confuse speed, accelera6on and velocity; distance–6me and speed–6me graphs.
Forces and turning effects
Pupils o)en think that:
• only equal masses can be balanced on a seesaw
• the pivot has to be between the two forces that are ac6ng
• forces only cause changes in speed, not direc6on
• when a force makes an object travel on a circular path the object must get faster, i.e. the force must
cause a change in speed, not just direc6on
• cornering objects are forced outwards by a force called centrifugal force.
Forces and pressure
Pupils o)en think that:
• pressure and force are synonymous
• pressure in liquids and gases can be stronger in one direc6on than another
• pressure arises from moving liquids or gases; s6ll gas or liquid cannot exert a pressure
• moving fluids cause higher pressures
• liquids rise in a drinking straw because of 'suc6on'
• fluid pressure only acts downward.
Organisms, behaviour and health: Behaviour
• It is hard for pupils not to interpret responses in terms of human experience, i.e. anthropomorphism.
• Pupils tend to put themselves in place of the animal when interpre6ng data, i.e. anthropocentric
responses.
• Pupils do not easily make links between the brain, nervous system, hormones and behaviour; nor
between behaviour and survival.
• Pupils will o)en interpret the cause of the observa6on in terms of its outcome by giving a
predetermined purpose to a behaviour, such as seeing a dog ea6ng and assuming it did so because it
was hungry, i.e. teleology
• It is important to make pupils aware that many studies on behaviour have taken place under
controlled condi6ons and may not reflect the behaviour of organisms in their natural environment.
Organisms, behaviour and health: Life processes
Movement
Pupils o)en think that:
• muscles push when they relax
• bones are not living material.
Reproduc.on
Pupils o)en think that:
• sexual reproduc6on is the same as 'ma6ng' so plants don't reproduce sexually
• asexual reproduc6on produces weak individuals and is the same as hermaphrodi6sm
• hereditary informa6on is only passed on and interpreted when an organism reproduces
• cells get smaller with every division.
Pupils o)en confuse:
• cell division, cell enlargement and cell differen6a6on.

Sensi.vity
The connec6on between light and vision is o)en considered as ‘light is needed to illuminate the object'; light
is a facilitator rather than an enabler of vision.
Growth
Pupils o)en think that:
• cells and atoms/molecules are the same size and are o)en confused
• living things contain cells rather than are made from cells
• seeds always need light for germina6on.
Respira.on
Pupils o)en think that:
• breathing and respira6on are the same thing
• oxygen is the same as air, and pupils do not relate the need for oxygen with the use of food
• 'animals need oxygen' and 'plants need carbon dioxide', i.e. photosynthesis is a 'plant process' and
respira6on an 'animal process' – if plants do respire, it is only at night
• breathing is an end in itself, i.e. air is inhaled into the lungs and then exhaled, without links to the
heart
• respira6on and photosynthesis are not energy transfer processes or linked together
• carbon dioxide is absorbed through plant roots
 • carbon dioxide is not the source of increasing mass in plants
• respira6on takes place in leaves because they have stomata for gas exchange.
Excre6on
Pupils o)en think that:
• Carbon dioxide and water are not always recognised as excretory products.
Nutri.on
Pupils o)en think that:
• carbohydrates and proteins are made of cells
• carbohydrate is a gas
• diges6on releases usable energy from food
• enzymes are living and made of cells
• food is anything useful taken into the body – but not a substrate for respira6on
• soil is a plant food which gets into the plant through the roots; trees grow because of the food they
have taken in
• photosynthesis is a substance rather than a process and is there for the benefit of people (producing
oxygen and removing carbon dioxide)
• chlorophyll is a food, a storage product, has a similar role to blood or makes a plant strong – it
absorbs carbon dioxide or aSracts light.
Organisms, behaviour and health: Varia9on and interdependence
Pupils think that:
• energy accumulates in an ecosystem so that a top predator has all the energy from the organisms
below it
• a species high on the food web is a predator of everything below it
• carnivores can exist in a plant-free world if their prey produce enough offspring
• food that is eaten and used in the food chain is separate from the food that is eaten and becomes
part of the animal
• diseases are caused by ‘germs' and all bacteria are pathogenic
• natural and biodegradable materials are not pollutants
• varia6on is a result of environmental factors and not inheritance
• sons inherit their genes mainly from the father or that the characteris6cs from the father are stronger
in sons than those from the mother
• adapta6on is undertaken to sa6sfy an organism's need, i.e. the Lamarckian view in which transmiSed
characteris6cs are acquired during the life6me of the animal
• sexual reproduc6on occurs in animals but not in plants, and that asexual reproduc6on produces weak
offspring while sexual reproduc6on produces superior offspring
• some human groups have not evolved as much as others
• evolu6on is goal-directed and evolu6onary changes are driven by need
• there are different human races and think that humans aren't all from same gene pool.
Pupils are o)en confused or uncertain about:
• conserva6on of mass and energy, the lack of understanding of which underpin poor conceptual
understanding of interdependence and recycling of maSer
• direc6on of arrows in food chains/webs which seem counterintui6ve – pupils will have met food
chains during Key Stage 2 but their understanding will be limited, in part due to a lack of awareness
 of conserva6on of maSer and partly due to their lack of understanding of interdependence in food
webs
• what cons6tutes an animal and therefore where pets and large animals fit into the animal kingdom
• why plants are a key component of food webs and that all vegeta6on is formed from plants, i.e.
weeds, vegetables, seeds or trees are not seen as plants except when trees are seedlings
• the nature of organisms at different levels of a food chain, i.e. those at the top are seen as stronger
with more energy, all energy is at the top of the chain and predators prey on all organisms below in
the chain
• the role of bacteria, fungi and decomposers in decay – pupils do not associate microorganisms as
agents of change
• the chemical nature of inheritance or the interac6ons between genes and the environment
• the rela6onship between DNA, genes and chromosomes, and therefore the gene6c concept of
species
• applying chance and probability to assigned gene6cs problems, but not to human situa6ons in
families.
The environment, Earth and the universe: Changing Earth
Pupils o)en think that:
• erosion is the same as weathering
• only weather causes weathering
• rocks are heavy and so small rock fragments are stones, not rocks
• soil is the precursor of rocks: soil changes to clay and then to rock
• minerals are 'precious rocks', or they are linked to mineral water, minerals and vitamins
• all sedimentary rocks form under water, and the oldest sedimentary rocks are the hardest
• fossils are only found in sedimentary rock and are preserved plant or animal parts
• earth is molten except for the crust
• con6nents do not move
• humans and dinosaurs co-existed and humans are responsible for the ex6nc6on of dinosaurs.

Pupils are o)en confused:

• over the 6mescale of the forma6on of rock and other geological features, e.g. mountains and glaciers
were formed instantaneously
• about how geological 6mescales relate to the forma6on of the Earth
• about the dis6nc6on between tectonic and teutonic plates
• about the dis6nc6on between compac6on, compression and sedimenta6on.
The environment, Earth and the universe: Changing environment and sustainability
Pupils o)en confuse:
• what is meant by pollu6on, e.g. anything natural is not pollu6on; biodegradable materials are not
pollutants; solid waste in dumps is safe
• the terms greenhouse effect, ozone layer, global warming and acid rain, and they do not link
par6cular causes with par6cular consequences
• biosphere with environment.
Pupils o)en think that:
• any 'green' ac6ons will help all environmental problems
• decaying material will fer6lise the soil but not that it is part of the soil
• maSer is thought to be created or destroyed during recycling.
The environment, Earth and the universe: Earth, Space and beyond
Pupils o)en think that:
• the Sun orbits the Earth and this causes day and night
• the phases of the Moon are caused by cloud cover or the shadow of planets, the Earth or the Sun
• the seasons are caused by the distance of the Earth from the Sun, i.e. the Earth is nearer to the Sun in
summer
• the planets and the Moon are light emiSers
• there is not much difference in the size of the Sun and the planets, and that all stars are the same
distance from the Earth; alterna6vely pupils may think that all stars are the same size and that their
different distances from the Earth cause differences in brightness – this is because of the scales used
in the solar system and universe diagrams
• the Sun rises exactly in the east and sets exactly in the west every day
• the Sun is always directly overhead or directly south at twelve o'clock noon
• the surface of the Sun has no visible features
• light years refers to 6me rather than distance
• dwarf planets are '6ny planets' rather than a celes6al body rounded by its own gravity.