BIO105 (Genetics)

Department of Biological Sciences

College of Science and Mathematics

Mindanao State University- Iligan Institute of Technology

Iligan City, Philippines

Compiled by:

Christine Cherry E. Solon, Ph.D.

Strictly for educational purposes only. Do not upload to any site nor
distribute to those who are not enrolled in this course. The images
herein are used to make understanding of the concepts easier.
Not for sale.
BIO105 Module 1 1|Page
REFERENCES:
Annunziato, A. (2008). DNA Packaging: Nucleosomes and Chromatin.
Nature Education 1(1):26

Klug, W.S., M. R. Cummings, C. A. Spencer and M. A. Palladino. (2012).

Concepts of Genetics. 10th ed. Pearson Education, Inc.

O'Connor, C. (2008). Karyotyping for Chromosomal Abnormalities. Nature

Education. 1(1):27. Retrieved from
https://www.nature.com/scitable/topicpage/ karyotyping-for-
chromosomal-abnormalities-298/

Russell, P.J. (2010). iGenetics A Molecular Approach. 3rd edition.

Pearson Education, Inc.

Szerlong, H. J. and Hansen, J. C. (2011). Nucleosome distribution and

linker DNA: connecting nuclear function to dynamic chromatin
structure. Biochemistry and cell biology = Biochimie et biologie
cellulaire, 89(1), 24–34. https://doi.org/10.1139/O10-139

Verma, P.S. and V.K. Agarwal. (2004). Cell Biology, Genetics, Molecular
Biology, Evolution and Ecology. Multicolour Edition. S. Chand &
Company, Ltd.

USING THIS MODULE

Read carefully this section. It provides you an overview of the
overall approach used for the development and implementation of
learning and teaching activities.

All sessions are self-directed, which requires you to take full control of the
learning process. You need to take initiative, with or without the
assistance of your teacher, to complete all learning and assessment
activities. You have to develop and sustain your motivation to succeed in
this course.

To become successful in your learning, you need to do the following:

1. Read the learning outcomes for each session. They articulate the
knowledge you need to acquire and skills to develop.

BIO105 Module 1 2|Page

 2. Assess your prior knowledge by identifying which learning outcomes
you already know, and which learning outcomes you need to focus
on. Recall as much information as you can. Indicating NONE in ALL
items is discouraged.
3. Develop your learning goals based on the results in #2. Keep those
learning outcomes in mind while you engage in the learning
activities.
4. After completing all learning activities, reflect which learning
outcomes/ learning goals you have achieved by accomplishing the
ROYL. A software will be utilized to check for plagiarism so copying
and pasting is prohibited. At the end of the ROYL (or activity with
questions), always include a list of refences. Copied-pasted answers
will not be credited. Answer directly to the point. Long answers do
not necessarily mean more points.

Housekeeping Rules:
1. You need to study all reading materials and complete all activities.
2. Be mindful of the schedule of activities. If circumstance/s will not
allow you to take the quiz/exam, inform your teacher within 24 hrs
through email to your teacher or through private message in FB.
3. For any inquiry/clarification related to the topics, post the question
in Google Classroom. There may be changes regarding this. Just
wait for announcements from your teacher. For concerns which are
not related to the course topics but which you feel can affect your
performance, send a message through FB messenger. Questions
will be answered right away if they are asked during the agreed real-
time online consultation. If questions are asked at other times,
answers might be delayed but you will really get answers. Inquiries
done during the weekend will be answered on Monday.
4. Extension for submission would only be allowed if the reason is valid.
What is valid? Power interruption, internet connectivity problem,
real emergencies.
5. Each topic will be good for a certain duration and that will serve as
your guide in managing your schedule so that you can finish
everything within the allowable time. Schedule is posted in MOLE.

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6. The files for submission can be downloaded from MOLE and answers
will be entered there. Example: Completion of a table where the
format is already given in the module. Be sure to use the proper file
name, as instructed. Observe proper etiquette in the submission of
output through e-mail. Outputs should be submitted to your teacher
via e-mail. Follow basic e-mail etiquette and include this basic
information:
Subject: filename like APK1, ROYL1 or Ex1
Write a short message just to save your teachers time in replying
since automatic options are only given if there is a message in the e-
mail.
And MAKE SURE that you really ATTACH the file that you are
submitting. If you will not get acknowledgment of your submission,
it is your duty to check or follow-up from your teacher if your
submission was really received.
7. Follow all instructions given above. Comprehension is part of your
grade for communication.

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 MODULE 1: Introduction to Genetics

INTRODUCTION
In this module, we will review on how everything starts with the behavior
of chromosomes during cell division. It is important to understand these
cell division processes because they will help us understand how we got
traits from the generations ahead of us, how we may have gotten some
unique traits out of the combinations that we got from our parents, what
we may be able to contribute to the next generation and a deeper look at
some aspects of inheritance that still need to be studied deeply.
Why do you need to learn these things? Of course, you have to have a way
to explain how some traits come to be, how some diseases can be
hereditary while some are not, how it is not just the nucleus that governs
heredity and how you can appreciate the fact that there is variation.
Another thing that you should already know by this time is the basic cell
structure and what functions each of the cellular parts perform. If you
have forgotten these things, time to review on them so that you can fully
appreciate the process of learning this module.

Learning Outcomes:
At the end of this module, you should be able to:
1. describe the chromatin structure before and during cell division.
2. describe the changes that happen during cell division and discuss
how these can affect gene segregation.
3. compare and contrast the types of meiosis and life cycles.
4. define and explain the significance of “crossing over” and “random
assortment” during meiosis.
5. differentiate mitosis and meiosis and describe the changes that
happen during cell division.
6. name at least 6 important people who contributed greatly to the
science of genetics and your reasons for considering them most
important.
7. summarize and describe the common applications of genetics.
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Activating Prior Knowledge (Individual)
This should be accomplished before you start studying the
module. Reflect on the seven learning outcomes above. To
complete the Table below, use the downloadable file (in document
format) that is posted in our MOLE classroom. Name and save the file
using this format: your family name (section) – APK1. E-mail the
completed document to your professor.
Any questions/clarifications
Learning
What do you know? in relation to learning
Outcomes
outcomes
1
2
3
4
5
6
7

A. The Chromosomal Basis of Heredity

This topic is a review of some of the concepts that you have learned in
General Botany and General Zoology or even in your senior high school.
It is important for you to internalize this part as this is the basis for the
segregation of genes. Read this material and do the activity at the end of
this part.

Before we proceed to the meat of this topic, it is but proper to review

on what you know about cell structure and function. Reflect on the
following questions:
1. Does a dividing cell only contain few cell parts? Why or why not?
2. Do all cells contain the same number of chromosomes?
3. What kinds of cells undergo mitosis? What kinds of cells undergo
meiosis?
4. Why is cell division important for maintaining number of
chromosomes?
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Reading Material
Our knowledge about the cell has shed light on a lot of the
importance of each part in the success of the body. If, in itself,
a cell is already an efficient machinery, when cells are organized
into tissues, other capabilities are activated. So, at the level of the
organism, coordination of all the functions can actually be due to the
efficient cells. By this time, you should already be able to appreciate how
important it is for all these cells to work well. We even just assume that
they are doing just that because that way we can continue with our daily
lives without thinking about them. And we are optimistic that for as long
as we are alive, they will work just fine.
Review on Cell Division
One way that cells ensure that they survive for a long time is through
the process of cell division, also known as cell reproduction. Pre-existing
cells divide to form new cells, which grow by macromolecular synthesis,
reach a species-determined division size and divide again and the cycle
goes on and on until they die. Cell cycle can be defined as the entire
sequence of events happening from the end of one nuclear division to the
beginning of the next. There are 3 cycles in the cell cycle:
1. Chromosome cycle. DNA synthesis alternates with mitosis (or
karyokinesis or nuclear division). During DNA synthesis, each double-
helical DNA molecule is replicated into two identical daughter DNA
molecules and during mitosis the duplicated copies of the genome are
ultimately separated.
2. Cytoplasmic cycle. Cell growth alternates with cytokinesis (or
cytoplasmic division). During cell growth many other components of the
cell (RNA, proteins and membranes) become double in quantity and
during cytokinesis cell, as a whole, divides into two. Usually, the
karyokinesis is followed by the cytokinesis but sometimes the cytokinesis
does not follow the karyokinesis and results into the multinucleate cell,
e.g., cleavage of egg in Drosophila.
3. Centrosome cycle. Both of the above cycles require that the
centrosome be inherited reliably and duplicated precisely in order to form
the two poles of the mitotic spindle; thus, centrosome cycle forms the third
component of cell cycle.

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 The cell cycle is divided into four phases or stages: G1, S, G2 and M
phase. These 4 phases are combined to from the classical interphase
(Howard and Pelc, 1953 as cited by Verma and Agarwal, 2004).

1. G1 Phase. After the M phase of previous cell cycle, the daughter cells
begin G1 of interphase of new cell cycle. G1 is a resting phase. It is called
first gap phase, since no DNA synthesis takes place during this stage;
currently, G1 is also called first growth phase, since it involves synthesis
of RNA, proteins and membranes which leads to the growth of nucleus
and cytoplasm of each daughter cell towards their mature size.
During G1 phase, chromatin is fully extended and not distinguishable
as discrete chromosomes. This is a time of resumption of normal cell
metabolism which has slowed down during the previous cell division.
Thus, G1 involves transcription of three types of RNAs, namely rRNA,
tRNA and mRNA; rRNA synthesis is indicated by the appearance of
nucleolus in the interphase (G1 phase) nucleus. Proteins synthesized
during G1 phase are (a) regulatory proteins which control various events
of mitosis; (b) enzymes (e.g., DNA polymerase) necessary for DNA
synthesis of the next stage; and (c) tubulin and other mitotic apparatus
proteins.
G1 phase is most variable as to duration; it either occupies 30 to 50
per cent of the total time of the cell cycle or entirely lacking or absent in
rapidly dividing cells (e.g., blastomeres of early embryo of frog and
mammals). Terminally differentiated somatic cells (i.e., end cells such
as neurons and striated muscle cells) that no longer divide, are arrested
usually in the G1 stage; such a type of G1 phase is called G0 phase.
2. S phase. During the S phase or synthetic phase of interphase,
replication of DNA and synthesis of histone proteins occur. New
histones are required in massive amounts immediately at the beginning
of the S period of DNA synthesis to provide the new DNA with
nucleosomes. Thus, at the end of S phase, each chromosome has two
DNA molecules and a duplicate set of genes. S phase occupies roughly
35 to 45 per cent of cell cycle.
3. G2 phase. This is a second gap or growth phase or resting phase of
interphase. During G2 phase, synthesis of RNA and proteins continues
which is required for cell growth. It may occupy 10 to 20 per cent time

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 of cell cycle. As the G2 phase draws to a close, the cell enters the M
phase.

General Events of Interphase

The interphase (fig. 1) is characterized by the following features:

Fig. 1. Interphase cells. Note that they

have distinct nuclei complete with
intact nuclear envelope, well
demarcated from the rest of the
cell.

Aside from the intact nuclear envelope, the chromosomes occur in the
form of diffused, long, coiled and indistinctly visible chromatin fibers. The
DNA amount becomes double during this time.
Due to accumulation of ribosomal RNA (rRNA) and ribosomal proteins in
the nucleolus, the size of the latter is greatly increased. In animal cells, a
daughter pair of centrioles originates near the already existing centriole
and, thus, an interphase cell has two pairs of centrioles which are
positioned perpendicular to each other.
In animal cells, net membrane biosynthesis increases just before cell
division (mitosis). This extra membrane seems to be stored as blebs on the
surface of the cells about to divide.
Before we proceed to the next stage, the M phase, let us first examine the
structure of chromosome (fig. 2).

Chromatin is loose, thin and long. It is DNA. To make the process of

segregation possible during M phase, there is a need to organize
chromatin into short dense chromosomes. You can see the progression
of this organization in fig 2 and 3.

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Fig. 2. Chromatin and chromosome structure.

Loose DNA is coiled around histones to form nucleosomes, which look like
beads on a string. Linker DNA can be seen extending from one
nucleosome to the next.
Nucleosomes coil to
form a thicker solenoid
fiber and the solenoid
fiber is organized tighter
by protein scaffold to
form the condensed
chromosome charac-
teristic of metaphase
chromosome (fig. 3).

Fig. 3. Eukaryotic chromosome structure.

CHROMATIN STRUCTURE
There are several levels of structure of chromatin. Let us differentiate
them.

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Chromatin Primary Structure. This refers to the nucleosome (fig. 4) which
is the first order of DNA packaging in the nucleus. A nucleosome is a
histone octamer composed of 2 copies of H2A, H2B, H3 and H4. Histones
are proteins which are rich in lysine and arginine residues and are thus
positively-charged, the main reason that they can bind tightly to the
negatively-charged phosphates in DNA. There are actually 5 kinds of
histones that can be found in eukaryotic chromosomes. H1, which is not
included in the nucleosome, is not part of the binding histones. They are
responsible for tightening the binding of the DNA for the histone octamer.
The nucleosome is composed of 146 base pairs (bp) of superhelical DNA.
Between nucleosomes is linker DNA approximately 20 to 90 bp and varies
among different species, tissues, and even fluctuates within a single
cellular genome.
Chromatin Secondary Structure. The formation of the secondary
structure of chromatin (solenoid fiber) is driven by salt and intrinsic
nucleosome-nucleosome and nucleosome-
DNA interactions and is stabilized by linker
histones. In physiological salt (100-150 mM
NaCl or 2-5 mM Mg2+), chromatin compacts
into the maximally folded structure,
comparable to the “30 nm fiber. See
structure of the solenoid fiber in fig. 4.
Chromatin Tertiary Structure. This is
formed from interactions between discreet
secondary chromatin structures (also
referred to as fiber-fiber interactions). See
structure of the condensed chromosome in
fig. 4.

Fig. 4. The chromatin structure.

Parts of the Chromosome (fig. 5)

1. Centromere is the part of a chromosome that links sister chromatids. In
mitotic chromosomes, centromeres represent a constricted region
(primary constriction) where 2 identical sister chromatids are most
closely in contact. During mitosis, spindle fibers attach to the
centromere via the kinetochore. The physical role of this segment is to
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 act as the site of assembly of the kinetochore (a highly complex multi-
protein structure that is responsible for the actual events of
chromosome segregation, being the binding sites of microtubules).
2. arms. There are usually 2 arms: the p arm is the short one and the q
arm is the long one. P stands for “petit” which means small. The other
arm is called q because it is the letter that follows p in the English
alphabet.
3. telomere. This is a region of
repetitive nucleotide sequences at
each end of a chromatid, which protects
the end of the chromosome from
deterioration or from fusion with
neighbouring chromosomes. When
they get too short, the cell can no longer
divide, instead becomes inactive or
senescent or it dies. Shortening of
telomere is associated with aging,
cancer and a higher risk of death.

Fig. 5. The chromosome and its parts.

Chromosomes can be classified into 4 types based on the position of the

centromere (fig. 6).

1. metacentric – centromere is in the middle and the chromosome arms

are of equal length. When a
chromosome of this type is
pulled to one pole during cell
division, it appears V-shaped.

2. submetacentric –
centromere is near the
middle and the
chromosome arms slightly
vary in length. When
pulled to one pole, this
type of chromosomes
appeared L-shaped.

Fig. 6. Types of Chromosomes based on centromere position.

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3. acrocentric – centromere is near one end and the arms clearly vary in
length; thus, p and q arms are easily distinguishable. When a
chromosome of this type is pulled to one pole during cell division, it
appears J-shaped.

4. telocentric – centromere is at one end and there is only 1 chromosome

arm. Thus, when pulled to one pole, this chromosome appears I-
shaped.

The position of the centromere, therefore, provides a useful landmark for

dividing chromosomes into karyotype groups and for establishing a
standardized nomenclature for mapping the positions of genes on
chromosomes.

How to prepare a Karyotype

Karyotyping is the process of pairing and ordering all the chromosomes

of an organism, thus providing a genome-wide snapshot of an individual's
chromosomes (O’Connor, 2008). The procedure is shown in fig. 7.

Fig. 7. Step-by-step guide in karyotyping.

Can you prepare a karyotype from a cell that is in interphase? Why or why not?
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If karyotyping is done prenatally, samples for karyotyping can be taken
from the amniotic fluid, fetal blood, chorionic villi, umbilical cord and other
embryonic or fetal tissues. If done postnatally, samples can be taken from
peripheral blood, one marrow, skin and other tissues.

It is important to get a very good chromosome

spread (fig. 8) in order to produce a karyotype. The
chromosomes can be clearly identified according to
type (based on centromere location) and are thus
easy to group and count.

Fig. 8. Metaphase chromosome spread.

This is the organized profile of a human’s

chromosomes. Each pair is numbered (fig. 9).
By looking at this, one can tell if the set is
complete or not. Abnormalities in
chromosome count can be seen in either lack
or excess of the expected number.

Based on size and shape, the chromosomes

are classified into 7 groups (Table 1).

Fig. 9. Normal Human Karyotype.

Table 1. Chromosome groups and their characteristics.

Group Chromosomes
A 1-3
B 4 and 5
C 6 -12 and X
D 13 – 15
E 16 - 18
F 19 and 20
G 21 and 22 and Y
Size and Shape
Large metacentric
Large submetacentric
Medium submetacentric
Medium acrocentric
Short submetacentric
Short metacentric
Short acrocentric

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Now that we have finished characterizing chromosomes, let us continue
with the cell cycle.

Checkpoints in the Cell Cycle

To ensure that cells that enter any part of the cell cycle are ready and
equipped to do so, there are established checkpoints at certain phases
(fig. 10).

During interphase, there are 2 checkpoints: one is the G1 checkpoint,

before the cell enters S phase. This is the primary point at which a cell
must choose whether or not to divide. Once the cell passes the G1
checkpoint and enters S phase, it becomes irreversibly committed to
division. This checks for cell size, availability of nutrients, DNA damage or
replication errors. A cell that passes the G1 checkpoint will continue the
rest of the way through the cell cycle and produce two daughter cells.
Next is the G2 checkpoint which makes sure that the cells already have all
the requirements for division. It again checks for DNA damage and
whether DNA replication has really been completed. If there are damages
or errors, the cell stays in this stage for repair. If it is not possible to repair
the damage, the cell may undergo apoptosis or programmed cell death
and will no longer qualify for cell division. The 3rd checkpoint occurs in
metaphase, which is also known as M checkpoint or spindle checkpoint,
and will be mentioned later.

Fig. 10. The cell cycle checkpoints.

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4. M phase or Mitotic phase. The mitosis (Gr., mitos=thread) occurs in the
somatic cells and it is meant for the multiplication of cell number during
embryogenesis and blastogenesis of plants and animals. It is related
with the growth of an individual from zygote to adult stage. Mitosis starts
at the culmination point of interphase (i.e., G2 phase). It is a short period
of chromosome condensation, segregation and cytoplasmic division.
Mitosis is also important for replacement of cells lost to natural friction
(attrition), wear and tear and for wound healing and in some organisms,
regeneration of replacement of lost parts.

As a process, mitosis is remarkably similar in all animals and plants. It

is a smoothly continuous process. It is divided into the following stages
or phases for convenient reference:
a. Prophase (fig. 11). The appearance of thin-thread like condensing
chromosomes marks the first phase of mitosis, called prophase (Gr.,
pro=before; phasis=appearance). The cell becomes spheroid, more
refractile and viscous.
Each prophase chromosome is composed of two coiled filaments,
the chromatids, which are the result of the replication of DNA during the
S phase. As prophase progresses, the chromatids become shorter and
thicker. The two sister chromatids of each chromosome are held
together by a special DNA-containing region, called the centromere or
primary constriction. During prophase, kinetochore proteins (one for
each chromatid) start depositing or organizing on the centromere of
each chromosome. During early prophase, the chromosomes are evenly
distributed in the nuclear cavity; as prophase progresses, the
chromosomes approach the nuclear envelope, causing the central
space of the nucleus to become empty.
In the cytoplasm, the spindle or mitotic
apparatus forms. In the early
prophase, there are two pairs of
centrioles (in animal cells), each one
surrounded by the so-called aster
which is composed of microtubules
radiating in all directions. The two
pairs of centrioles migrate to opposite
poles of the cell along with the asters.

Fig. 11. A cell at prophase.

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 Between the separating centrioles forms a spindle. The
microtubules of the spindle are arranged like two cones, broad at the
centre or equator of the cell and narrowing to a point at either end or
pole. Mitotic spindle contains 3 main types of fibers (fig. 12): (1) polar
fibers, which extend from the two poles of the spindle toward the
equator; (2) kinetochore fibers, which attach to the kinetochores of
centromeres of each mitotic chromosome and extend toward the poles;
and (3) astral fibers, which radiate outward from the poles toward the
periphery or cortex of cell. In cells of higher plants, however, spindle
forms without the aid of centrioles and lacks asters.
Lastly, during prophase, the nucleolus gradually disintegrates.
Degeneration and disappearance of the nuclear envelope marks the
end of prophase. There are
variations available with
respect to the dissolution of
nuclear envelope and the
nucleolus. In a number of
primitive classes of plants and
animals the nuclear envelope
does not dissolve during
mitosis.
Fig. 12. Types of spindle fibers.

b. Prometaphase. The breakdown of nuclear envelope signals the

commencement of prometaphase and enables the mitotic spindle to
interact with the chromosomes. This stage is characterized by a period
of frantic activity during which the spindle appears to be trying to
contain and align the chromosomes at the metaphase plate. In fact, at

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this stage the chromosomes are violently rotated and oscillated back
and forth between the spindle poles (like tug-of-war) because their
kinetochores are capturing the plus ends of microtubules growing from
one or the other spindle pole and are being pulled by the captured
microtubules. The kinetochores thereby act as a “cap” that tends to
protect the plus end from depolymerizing, just as the centrosome at the
spindle pole tends to protect the minus end from depolymerizing. Thus,
sister chromatids become attached by their kinetochores to opposite
poles; balanced bipolar forces hold chromosomes on the metaphase
plate.
c. Metaphase (fig. 13). During metaphase (Gr., meta = after; phasis =
appearance), the chromosomes are shortest and thickest. Their
centromeres occupy the plane of the equator of the mitotic apparatus
(a region known as the equatorial or metaphase plate), although the
chromosomal arms may extend in any direction. At this stage, the sister
chromatids are still held together by centromere and the kinetochores
of the two sister chromatids face opposite poles; this would permit
proper separation in the next phase (anaphase).
Metaphase occupies a substantial portion of the mitotic phase, as if
the cells pause until all their chromosomes are lined up appropriately
on the metaphase plate. At metaphase, subunits (tubulin dimers) are
added to the plus end of a microtubule at
the kinetochore and are removed from
the minus end at the spindle pole. Thus, a
poleward flux of tubulin subunits occurs,
with the microtubules remaining
stationary and under tension.
Can you imagine how chromosomes align
without spindle fibers? Would it be
successful? Would you expect it to be
Fig. 13. A cell at metaphase. accurate?

What is described in the previous paragraph is what was referred to

earlier as the M checkpoint or the spindle checkpoint, which is
established during this stage. This makes sure that the chromosomes
attach to the spindle and align at the equator. Although it looks like a
kind of struggle, being described as like a tug of war, extra care is
exerted to ensure that all chromosomes are properly accounted for.

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 d. Anaphase (fig. 14). Anaphase (Gr., ana=up; phasis=appearance)
begins abruptly with the synchronous splitting of each chromosome
into its sister chromatids, called daughter chromosomes, each with one
kinetochore. Synchronous splitting of
each centromere during prophase is due
to an increase in cytosolic Ca2+. In fact,
Ca2+-containing membrane vesicles
accumulate at spindle poles and release
calcium ions to initiate anaphase.

Fig. 14. A cell at anaphase.

Anaphase involves the following two steps:

(i) Anaphase A. There is a poleward movement of chromatids
due to shortening of the kinetochore microtubules. During their
poleward migration, the centromeres (and kinetochores) remain
foremost so that the chromosomes characteristically appear U, V or
J-shaped.
(ii) Anaphase B. It involves separation of poles themselves
accompanied by the elongation of the polar microtubules. The astral
microtubules also help in anaphase B by their attractive interaction
with cell cortex.
e. Telophase (fig. 15). The end of the polar migration of the daughter
chromosomes marks the beginning of the telophase, which, in turn, is
terminated by the reorganization of two new nuclei and their entry into
the G1 phase of interphase. In general terms, the events of prophase
occur in reverse sequence during this phase. A nuclear envelope
reassembles around each group of chromosomes to form two daughter
nuclei. The mitotic apparatus, except the centrioles, disappears; high
viscosity of the cytoplasm decreases; the chromosomes resume their
long, slender, extended form as their coils relax; and RNA synthesis
restarts causing the nucleolus to reappear.
Can you imagine how chromosomes segregate
without spindle fibers? Would it be successful?
Would you expect it to be accurate?

Fig. 15. A cell at telophase. Take note of the

cleavage furrow that forms at the
location of the equatorial plate.

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Cytokinesis
Both DNA synthesis and mitosis are coupled to cytoplasmic division, or
cytokinesis—the constriction of cytoplasm into two separate cells. During
cytokinesis, the cytoplasm divides by a process, called cleavage. The
mitotic spindle plays an important role in determining where and when
cleavage occurs. Cytokinesis usually begins in anaphase and continues
through telophase and into interphase. The first sign of cleavage in animal
cells is puckering and furrowing of the plasma membrane during
anaphase. The furrowing invariably occurs in the plane of the metaphase
plate, at right angles to the long axis of the mitotic spindle. A cleavage
furrow tends to form midway between asters originating from two
centrosomes.
Cleavage is accomplished by the contraction of a ring composed
mainly of actin filaments. This bundle of filaments, called contractile ring,
is bound to the cytoplasmic face of the plasma membrane by attachment
proteins. The contractile ring assembles in early anaphase. Once
assembled, it develops a force large enough to bend a fine glass needle
inserted into the cell.
Evidently, this force is generated due to muscle-like sliding of actin
and myosin filaments in the contractile ring. The actin-myosin interaction
pulls the plasma membrane down into a furrow. During a normal
cytokinesis, the contractile ring does not get thicker as the furrow
invaginates, suggesting that it continuously reduces its volume by losing
filaments. When cleavage ends, the contractile ring is finally dispensed
with altogether and the plasma membrane of the cleavage furrow narrows
to form the midbody, which remains as a tether (tether means a rope for
confining a beast within certain limits) between two daughter cells. The
midbody contains the remains of the two sets of polar microtubules,
packed tightly together with dense matrix material.
Cytokinesis greatly increases the total cell-surface area as two cells
form from one. Therefore, the two daughter cells resulting from
cytokinesis require more plasma membrane than in the plant cell.
Lastly, prior to cytokinesis, in M phase, large membrane-bounded
organelles such as Golgi apparatus and the endoplasmic reticulum break
up into smaller fragments and vesicles; this may ensure their even
distribution into daughter cells during cytokinesis.
BIO105 Module 1 20 | P a g e
Significance of Mitosis
Mitosis has the following significance for living organisms:
1. helps the cell in maintaining proper size.
2. helps in the maintenance of an equilibrium in the amount of DNA and
RNA in the cell.
3. provides the opportunity for the growth and development to organs and
the body of the organisms.
4. replacement of old and dead cells
5. In certain organisms, it is involved in asexual reproduction.
6. The gonads and the sex cells depend on mitosis for the increase in their
number (before the cells undergo meiosis).
7. The cleavage of egg during embryogenesis and division of blastomeres
both occur through mitosis.

Follow the links given in MOLE for further information on cell division. Do
the worksheets for your self-check and review only. DO NOT submit.

MEIOSIS

The term meiosis (Gr., meioun = to reduce or to diminish) was coined by

J.B. Farmer in 1905. It produces a total of four haploid cells from each
original diploid cell. These haploid cells either become or give rise to
gametes, which, through union (fertilization), support sexual reproduction
and a new generation of diploid organisms.

Meiosis superficially resembles two mitotic divisions without an

intervening period of DNA replication. The first meiotic division includes a
long prophase in which the homologous chromosomes become closely
associated to each other and the exchange of hereditary material takes
place between them. Further, in the first meiotic division, the reduction of
chromosome number takes place and, thus, two haploid cells are
produced by this division. In the second meiotic division the haploid cell
divides mitotically and results into four haploid cells. There is no pairing

BIO105 Module 1 21 | P a g e
of chromosomes, no exchange of the genetic material and reduction of the
chromosome number do not occur.

Both the meiotic divisions occur continuously and each includes the usual
stages of the meiosis: prophase, metaphase, anaphase and telophase.
The prophase of first meiotic division is very significant phase because the
most cytogenetical events such as synapsis and crossing over occur
during this phase. The prophase is the longest meiotic phase; it is divided
into substages: leptonema (leptotene), zygonema (zygotene), pachynema
(pachytene), diplonema (diplotene) and diakinesis. The successive
meiotic substages can be represented as follows:

First Meiotic Division

Meiosis starts after an interphase which is not very different from that of
an intermitotic interphase. During the premeiotic interphase DNA
duplication has occurred at the S phase. The cell passed G2 phase of
interphase and directed toward meiosis. Further, in the beginning of the
first meiotic division the nucleus of the meiocyte starts to swell up by
absorbing the water from the cytoplasm and the nuclear volume increases
about three folds. After these changes the cell passes to the first stage of
first meiotic division which is known as prophase.

Prophase I
The first prophase (fig. 16) is the longest stage of the meiotic division. It
includes following substages:

1. Leptotene or Leptonema. In this stage, the chromosomes become

more uncoiled and assume a long thread-like shape. The
chromosomes at this stage take up a specific orientation inside the
nucleus; the ends of the chromosomes converge toward one side of
the nucleus, that side where the centrosome lies (the bouquet stage).
Along each chromosome are chromomeres, localized condensations
that resemble beads on a string. The centriole duplicates and each
daughter centriole migrates towards the opposite poles of the cell. On
reaching at the poles, each centriole duplicates and, thus, each pole
of cell possesses two centrioles of a single diplosome.

2. Zygotene or Zygonema. (Gr., zygon = adjoining). In this stage, the

pairing of homologous chromosomes takes place. The homologous
chromosomes which come from the mother (by oocyte) and father (by
sperm) are attracted towards each other and their pairing takes place.
This pairing is known as synapsis (Gr., synapsis = union) which begins
at one or more points along the length of the homologous
chromosomes.
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Three types of synapsis have been recognised.
(i) Proterminal synapsis: the pairing of homologous chromosomes
starts from the end and continues towards their centromeres.
(ii) Procentric synapsis: the homologous chromosomes start
pairing from their centromeres and the pairing progresses
towards the ends of the homologues.
(iii) Localized pairing or Random synapsis: occurs at various points
of the homologous chromosomes.

The pairing of the homologous

chromosome is very exact and specific
(i.e., alignment of chromosomes is
exactly gene-for-gene). The paired
homologous chromosomes are joined by
a roughly 0.2-µm thick, protein-
containing framework called a
synaptonemal complex (SC). This
complex extends along the whole length
of the paired chromosomes and is
usually anchored at either end to the
nuclear envelope. SC helps to stabilize
the pairing of homologous chromosomes
and to facilitate the cytogenetical
activity, called recombination or
crossing over (occurring during
pachynema). SC is not found in those
organisms in which crossing over does
not occur (e.g., the male fruitfly,
Drosophila melanogaster; see Burns and
Bottino, 1989). It is upon completion of
this stage that the paired homologs are
referred to as bivalents or tetrads.
Although both members of each bivalent
have already replicated their DNA, it is
not yet visually apparent that each
member is a double structure. The
number of bivalents in each species is
equal to the haploid (n) number.

Fig. 16. Stages of Meiotic Prophase I.

(source: Klug, Cummings, Spencer and
Palladino, 2012)

BIO105 Module 1 23 | P a g e
4. Pachytene or Pachynema. (Gr., pachus = thick). In this stage, the pair
of chromosomes continue to coil and shorten and further development
of the synaptonemal complex occurs between the two members of
each bivalent. This leads to synapsis, a more intimate pairing.
Compared to the rough-pairing characteristic of zygonema, homologs
are now separated by only 100 nm.

Actually, the doubling of the DNA molecule strands which is necessary

for the subsequent duplication of chromosomes occurs earlier, before
the beginning of meiotic prophase. Through the earlier part of the
meiotic prophase, however, the DNA molecule in each chromosome
behaves as a single body. In this stage, this is now changed, the two
chromatids of each chromosome containing half of the DNA present
in the chromosome at start, become partially independent of one
another, although they still continue to be linked together by their
common centromere. Each synaptonemal pair at this point is
commonly referred to as bivalent or dyad because it consists of two
visible chromosomes, or as a quadrivalent or tetrad because of the
four visible chromatids.

During this stage, an important genetic phenomenon called “crossing

over” takes place. The crossing over involves reshuffling,
redistribution and mutual exchange of hereditary material (from two
parents) between two homologous chromosomes. According to
recent views, one chromatid of each homologous chromosome of a
bivalent may divide transversely by the help of an enzyme, the
endonuclease, which is reported to increase in the nucleus during this
stage. After the division of chromatids, the interchange of chromatid
segments takes place between the non-sister chromatids of the
homologous chromosomes. The broken chromatid segments are
united by the enzyme, ligase. The process of interchange of chromatin
material between one non-sister chromatid of each homologous
chromosome is known as the crossing over (genetic recombination)
which is accompanied by the chiasmata formation.

5. Diplotene or diplonema. This is the middle to late prophase I, when

the synaptonemal complex disassembles and the homologous
chromosomes begin to move apart. The result of crossing-over
becomes visible during diplonema as a cross-shaped structure called
a chiasma (plural, chiasmata). At each chiasma, the homologous
chromosomes are very tightly associated. Because all four
chromatids may be involved in crossing-over events along the length
of the homologs, the chiasma pattern at this stage may be quite
complex.
BIO105 Module 1 24 | P a g e
 In most organisms, diplonema is followed rapidly by the remaining
stages of meiosis. However, in many animals, the oocytes (egg cells)
can remain in diplonema for very long periods. In human females, for
example, oocytes go through meiosis I up to diplonema by the seventh
month of fetal development and then remain arrested in this stage for
many years. At the onset of puberty and until menopause, one oocyte
per menstrual cycle completes meiosis I and is ovulated. If the oocyte
is fertilized by a sperm as it passes down the fallopian tube, it quickly
completes meiosis II, and, by fusion with a haploid sperm, a functional
zygote is produced.

6. diakinesis (late prophase I), the chromosomes condense even more,

making it now possible to see the four members of the tetrads. The
chiasmata are clearly visible at this stage. The nucleolus detaches
from the nucleolar organizer and ultimately disappears. The nuclear
envelope breaks down. During diakinesis the chiasma moves from the
centromere towards the end of the chromosomes and the
intermediate chiasmata diminish. This type of movement of the
chiasmata is known as terminalization. The chromatids still remain
connected by the terminal chiasmata and these exist up to the
metaphase.

The synapsis and crossing-over phenomena that take place in

prophase I apply to homologous chromosomes—namely, the
autosomes. Even though the sex chromosomes are not homologous,
the Y chromosome of eutherian (placental) mammals has small
regions at each end that are homologous to regions on the X
chromosome. These pseudo-autosomal regions (PARs) pair in male
meiosis, and crossing-over occurs between them. When the PAR is
deleted from the short arm of the Y chromosome, pairing between the
X and Y chromosomes does not occur, and the male is sterile. Thus,
pairing and crossing-over of the PARs have been considered
necessary for the correct segregation of X and Y chromosomes as
meiosis proceeds. Interestingly, the genes found in the PARs are
variable, even among primates. Even the mouse and human PARs are
completely different. PARs are not found in all mammals, however:
PARs are absent from some rodents and from all marsupial
chromosomes, and the X and Y chromosomes of these animals do not
pair or show crossing-over in meiosis. Still, the X and Y chromosomes
segregate normally in marsupial meiosis, indicating that a PAR is not
essential for sex chromosome pairing and male fertility in these
mammals. In females, the 2 X chromosomes can have crossing overs
in the same manner as homologous autosomes.

BIO105 Module 1 25 | P a g e
Metaphase I (fig. 17)

During this stage, the microtubules of the spindle are attached to the
kinetochores at the centromeres of the homologous chromosomes of
each tetrad, aligning chromosomes at the equator. The centromere of
each chromosome is directed towards the opposite poles. The repulsive
forces between the homologous chromosomes increase greatly and the
chromosomes become ready to separate.

Anaphase I (fig. 17)

Homologues are freed from each other and due to the shortening of
chromosomal fibers or microtubules, each homologous chromosome with
its two chromatids and undivided centromere moves towards the opposite
poles of the cell. The chromosomes with single or few terminal chiasmata
usually separate more frequently than the longer chromosomes
containing many chiasmata. The actual reduction and disjunction occur
at this stage. It should be emphasized that the homologous chromosomes
which move towards the opposite poles are the chromosomes of either
paternal or maternal origin. Moreover, because during the chiasma
formation out of two chromatids of a chromosome, one has changed its
counterpart, the two chromatids of a chromosome do not resemble each
other genetically.

Telophase I (fig. 17)

The arrival of a haploid set of chromosomes at each pole defines the onset
of telophase I, during which nuclei are reassembled. The endoplasmic
reticulum forms the nuclear envelope around the chromosomes and the
chromosomes become uncoiled. The nucleolus reappears and, thus, two
daughter nuclei are formed. After the karyokinesis (nuclear division),
cytokinesis (cytoplasmic division) occurs and two haploid cells are
formed. Both cells pass through a short resting phase of interphase.
During interphase, no DNA replication occurs, so that chromosomes at
the second prophase are the same double-stranded structures that
disappeared at the first telophase. In case of some flowering plants,
telophase I and interphase I do not occur and the anaphase I is followed
by prophase II directly.

BIO105 Module 1 26 | P a g e
Fig. 17. The transition of meiosis I from metaphase to telophase and from
telophase until prophase II. (source: Klug, Cummings, Spencer and
Palladino, 2012)
If meiosis ends after 1 round (meaning there is no
second round), what are some possible implications
in organisms which reproduce sexually?

Second Meiotic Division

The second meiotic division is actually when each haploid meiotic cell
divides into two haploid cells. It includes following four stages:

Prophase II (fig. 17)

Each centriole divides into two and, thus, two pairs of centrioles are
formed. Each pair of centrioles migrates to the opposite pole. The
microtubules get arranged in the form of spindle at the right angle of the
spindle of meiosis I. The nuclear membrane and the nucleolus disappear.
The chromosomes with two chromatids become short and thick.

BIO105 Module 1 27 | P a g e
Metaphase II (fig. 18)

The chromosomes arrange on the equator of the spindle. The centromere

divides into two and, thus, each chromosome produces two monads or
daughter chromosomes. The microtubules of the spindle are attached to
the centromere of the chromosomes through the kinetochore.

Anaphase II (fig. 18)

The daughter chromosomes move towards the opposite poles due to the
shortening of chromosomal microtubules and stretching of interzonal
microtubules of the spindle.

Fig. 18. Meiosis II from metaphase to the production of haploid daughter

cells. (source: Klug, Cummings, Spencer and Palladino, 2012)

BIO105 Module 1 28 | P a g e
Telophase II (fig. 18)

The chromatids migrate to the opposite poles and are now known as
chromosomes. The endoplasmic reticulum forms the nuclear envelope
around the chromosomes and the nucleolus reappears due to synthesis of
ribosomal RNA (rRNA) and also due to accumulation of ribosomal
proteins. After karyokinesis in each haploid meiotic cell, cytokinesis
occurs and, thus, four haploid cells are formed. These cells have different
types of chromosomes due to the crossing over in prophase I.

Significance of Meiosis
1. It maintains a definite and constant number of chromosomes in the
organisms.
2. By crossing over, it provides an opportunity for the exchange of the
genes and, thus, causes the genetic variations among the species,
variation being a raw material of the evolutionary process.

Verma and Agarwal (2004) compiled a stage-by-stage comparison

between mitosis and meiosis which is the basis for the information
presented in Table 2.

Table 2. Comparison between Mitosis and Meiosis.

Basis MITOSIS MEIOSIS

Type of cells Occurs in somatic cells
Occurs in germ cells during
gametogenesis
Number of Whole process 2 successive divisions which
divisions completes in one occur one after the other
sequence or phase

BIO105 Module 1 29 | P a g e
Table 2 continuation.
Basis MITOSIS MEIOSIS
Prophase Short duration; no Longer prophase I, which has
substage these successive stages:
leptotene, zygotene,
pachytene, diplotene,
diakinesis
No pairing of homologous Pairing of homologous
chromosomes or chromosomes (prophase I)
synapsis
No chiasma formation or Chiasma formation or crossing
crossing over over takes place (prophase I)
no exchange of genetic Exchange of genetic materials
materials between between the non-sister
homologous chromatids of the homologous
chromosomes chromosomes
Prophase Chromatids occur in the Chromatids of 2 homologous
(cont’d) form of dyads chromosomes occur as
tetrads
Metaphase The centromeres of the The centromeres of the
chromosomes remain chromosomes remain directed
directed towards the towards the poles and the
equator and the arms of chromosomal arms remain
the chromosomes remain directed towards the equator.
directed towards the
poles.
Anaphase The chromosomes are The chromosomes are the
the monads, i.e., having dyads, i.e., having two
single chromatid. chromatids and single
centromere.
Telophase Always occurs Telophase I is sometimes
omitted
Results 1 diploid parent cell 1 diploid parent cell produces
produces 2 diploid 4 haploid daughter cells
daughter cells
Significance Maintaining Maintaining chromosomal
chromosomal number number (fertilization combines
haploid sperm and haploid
oocyte)

BIO105 Module 1 30 | P a g e
Kinds of Meiosis and Life cycles

Meiosis occurs in the germ cells of sexually reproducing organisms. In

both plants and animals, germ cells are localized in the gonads. The time
at which meiosis takes place varies among different organisms, and based
on this, the process can be classified into:

1. Terminal or gametic meiosis. It is found in animals and a few lower

plants. In this type of meiosis, the meiotic division occurs immediately
before the formation of gametes or gametogenesis. Meiosis takes place
in the gonads and results in the formation of gametes (fig. 19).

The gametic life cycle is the reproductive

cycle found in animals and some protistans
and lower plants. The term gametic refers to
the fact that gametes are the result
of meiosis. During this type of life cycle, a
reproductive cell produces haploid gametes
(sex cells such as egg and sperm) that
combine to produce a zygote.
The zygote grows by cell division and cell
elongation to produce a multicellular diploid
individual. In the gametic life cycle, the
gametes are the only haploid stage found and
produced.

Fig. 19. Terminal or Gametic Meiosis.

2. Intermediary or sporic meiosis (fig. 20). This is characteristic of

flowering plants, taking place just before flowering, or at some
intermediate time between fertilization and the formation of gametes. It
is also involved in the production of microspores in anthers
(microsporogenesis) and megaspores in ovary or pistil
(megasporogenesis). In higher plants, however, the reproductive cycle
includes a long dominant diploid and multicellular generation (called
sporophyte) and a short, multicellular haploid generation, called
gametophyte generation.

BIO105 Module 1 31 | P a g e
 The tiny gametophyte is nurtured in
specialized tissues of sporophyte. Male
and female haploid cells called spores,
are produced by meiosis in the diploid
(sporophyte) organism. Spores grow into
multicellular male and female haploid
(gametophyte) structures, which through
meiosis produce haploid cells
corresponding to the actual gamete.
In the seed-producing plants,
development is arrested at an early
multicellular stage as a seed, which may
remain stable for long time before
germination permits a continuation of
growth. Thus, reproductive cycle
includes alternation of two generations:
haploid and diploid and involves meiosis.
Fig. 20. Sporic Life Cycle.IPLOBIONTIC

3. Initial or zygotic meiosis (fig. 21). It occurs in

some algae, fungi, and diatoms. Meiotic division
occurs immediately after fertilization. The
zygotic life cycle is the simplest sexual life
cycle, common among fungi and protists. These
organisms are haploid during most of their life
cycle. The zygote is the only diploid phase. After
fertilization the zygote undergoes meiosis to
produce haploid cells. The cells undergo
mitosis to either increase in number or grow
into a haploid multicellular organism. Some
haploid cells develop into gametes by mitosis.
Fig. 21. Zygotic Life Cycle.

1. How does meiosis contribute to genetic variation?

2. Why would an organism need meiosis before producing gametes?

BIO105 Module 1 32 | P a g e
 EXERCISE 1. Cell Division
To continue your learning, the activity below is designed to
compare and contrast mitosis and meiosis. This is your first group output.

This is just for reference. Use the downloadable file provided.

A. Complete this diagram. (Do not convert to table. Short phrases only.)
Mitosis Meiosis

B. Mitosis in Allium cepa.

Procedure:
1. Use the photographs of onion root tip cells provided in the MOLE
classroom.
2. Tally the number of cells undergoing each stage indicated in the table
included in the downloadable EXERCISE 1 file. Each picture is labelled
with a number. Assume that all of the pictures are taken from the same
BIO105 Module 1 33 | P a g e
 root tip specimen but in different microscopic fields of view. Separate
counts will be done for each picture. To get a more accurate count,
each member of the group should do separate counts and the group will
agree on the final count that will be entered in the table. Cells which do
not contain nucleus will not be included in the count. In case of
overlapping cells, count only the cell with darker and clearer nucleus.

3. Assume that it takes, on the average, 24 hours (or 1,440 minutes) for
Allium cepa root tip cells to complete a cycle. Calculate the amount of
time spent by the cell in each phase (relative duration) using the
following formula:
Percent of cells in a stage X 1,440 minutes = ____ minutes of the cell
cycle spent in that stage
Values for % & relative duration should be rounded off to the nearest
thousandth.
Compute the mitotic index from the presumed single root tip using this
formula:

Number of mitotic cells

Mitotic index = ———————————— X 100
Total number of cells

4. Assume that a diploid cell has 6 picograms of DNA in its nucleus,

distributed among 8 chromosomes of about the same sizes. Complete
Table 2 on Meiosis in the downloadable file.
5. Save as your family names (Section) – Ex1
Sample filename: MendelMorganWatson (A3A78) – Ex1
6. E-mail the completed Exercise 1 to your professor as an attachment.

B. History of Genetics
Some of us do not like history but if we think about it, there are a lot of
things that the pioneers of genetics have contributed to the science. So,
we will start this course with a tribute to the famous names behind
genetics. This will be part of your Learning activity 1. Instructions will
follow after the next topic.

BIO105 Module 1 34 | P a g e
C. Applications of Genetics
There are a lot of applications that genetics has on our daily lives. Maybe
those things may not seem obvious right now but all along they have been
making our lives easier.

1. In agriculture. Selective breeding has been practiced for a while

now. Parents with good traits are bred to produce offspring with the
good traits of parents. New varieties of crops and livestock have
been produced which have better yield, better resistance to pests
and diseases, and with improved nutritional value. Fruits have longer
shelf life. Animals are bigger, can give more meat and can produce
more milk. All of these can be translated as an increase in food
production. However, this practice has a disadvantage of removing
some genes from the gene pool because the aim is to capitalize on
the good genes. In long term, it is possible that the lost genes will be
forever lost from the gene pool and cannot be recovered anymore so
that if the remaining genes are affected by some new diseases, the
organism can easily perish. Those inferior genes could have been
what could make these organisms resistant to diseases in the future.

2. The production of transgenic organisms. These are organisms that

are formed by combining the genes of different organism. There are
transgenic plants which are resistant to pests and diseases.
Transgenic animals can be produced with inserted genes for human
growth hormone (HGH) to make them grow large very fast,
shortening the developmental period and increasing yield and
income at a shorter time. Transgenic bacteria have been inserted
with human genes aiming for the mass production of hormones such
as insulin, HGH as well as for blood clotting factor.
3. In medicine. Genetics has been used in the accurate diagnosis of
diseases, especially in the case of inherited diseases. The use of
genetics in medicine has also led to the identification of drug
sensitivities, prevention of use of medicine or even disease
prevention. Knowing that the condition is genetic in nature, one can
anticipate the development of a disease of other body abnormalities
based on family history. Thus, appropriate steps can be taken to
prevent its occurrence. Chromosomal abnormalities can be

BIO105 Module 1 35 | P a g e
 explained by genetics. The examination of chromosomes in
karyotyping can shed light on possible lack or excess of
chromosomes or segments of chromosomes. Production of
vaccines, antibodies, vitamins, insulin (as mentioned in number 2).
Gene therapy which corrects the defective gene and, in the future,
we are hoping to get access to personalized medicine, with our
genetic makeup as the basis for our treatment.
4. Legal applications. This includes the use of gathering samples and
doing DNA testing on them to identify the possible perpetrators of a
crime, or to check parentage of a child.
5. In industries. Genetics has provided some synthetically produced
raw materials for industries. For example, the brewing industry may
use geneticists to improve the strains of yeast that product the
alcohol. The pharmaceutical industry has developed strained of
molds, bacteria and other microorganisms which have high antibiotic
yield.
6. In humans. All of the benefits mentioned above benefit humans. In
addition, if we apply the knowledge of genetics to our choice of mate,
then we can have the possibility of making children with only the
desirable traits, those children who have higher resistance to
diseases that they do not get sick easily or maybe never even get sick
at all. Gene therapy can also address deficiencies by having
corrections done to the baby’s genetic structure. Life span of
humans have also been increased due to availability of vaccines,
medications and vitamins, among others.
7. Environment. The environment has benefited from the availability of
genetically modified microorganism which have the capability to
degrade waste materials rapidly. The process of bioremediation
which refers to the use of either naturally occurring or deliberately
introduced microorganisms or other forms of life to consume and
break down environmental pollutants, in order to clean up a polluted
site. Example is the rehabilitation of polluted waterways or cleaning
up oil spills. Another use of genetics is in the protection of valuable
wildlife populations. This can be done by genetic monitoring using
genetic markers which could probably solve problems causing the
reduction of populations in their natural habitats.

BIO105 Module 1 36 | P a g e
 Learning Activity 1
This is your 2nd group output. It should be realistic.
1. Read on history of genetics. Name 6 persons who you consider has
contributed most importantly to this science. Give your reasons for
choosing them each of them. Use your own words for your reasons.
Do not just lift words from your sources. Impressive words do not
guarantee more points. Just write an honest evaluation of what you
feel you benefited or will benefit from each name you chose.
2. Make a table containing the list of benefits that each of you have
enjoyed, are enjoying and sure to enjoy out of the applications of
genetics mentioned.
You can present your output as infographics or posters with this
filename: your family names (Section) – LA1
E-mail your group output to your professor.
D. Scope of Genetics
Genetics is a big field. It operates on many different levels. The scope
that is referred to here is the scope of this course. Basic aspects of the
following branches of genetics will be covered in this course:

Transmission Genetics: studies the basic principles of genetics, the

transmission of genetic material from one generation to the other with
focus on the individual organism. It emphasizes the relationship between
chromosomes and heredity, the arrangement of genes on the
chromosomes and gene mapping. This is basically Mendelian genetics.
Molecular and Biomolecular Genetics: studies the chemical nature of
genes, with emphasis on how genetic information is encoded, replicated
and processed or the cellular processes of replication, transcription and
translation and gene regulation.
Population and Biometrical Genetics: studies the behavior and effects of
genes in populations, often using mathematical models. It focuses on the
group of genes found in a population. It emphasizes how the genetic
composition of a group changes over time. It can include quantitative
genetics (which predict the response to selection given data on the
phenotype and relationships of individuals) and ecological genetics (wild
populations of organisms and attempts to collect data on the ecological

BIO105 Module 1 37 | P a g e
aspects of individuals as well as molecular markers from those
individuals.
Developmental Genetics: studies how genes control the developmental
processes especially in cell migration and differentiation. It emphasizes
on how genes control the growth and development of an organism
throughout its life-cycle.
Behavioral Genetics: studies the influence of varying genetics on animal
behavior, the effects of human disorders as well as its causes; has yielded
some very interesting questions about the evolution of various behaviors,
and even some fundamental principles of evolution in general

Reflecting on your Learning (Individual)

After engaging in all learning and assessment activities, reflect on
your learning. Which of the learning outcomes have you achieved?

Fill in the downloadable version of this table. Save as your family name
(section) – ROYL1 and e-mail to your professor. Be sure to follow basic e-
mail etiquette.
Example:
Subject: BIO105 ROYL1
Type a short note in the body of the e-mail. And DO NOT FORGET to attach
the file.
What are your key learnings/highlights of
Learning Outcomes
your learning?
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

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