Major project submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirement for the degree of

Bachelor of Engineering in E&C on topic

ARDUINO BASED DUAL AXIS SOLAR TRACKER

Head of Department Submitted By:

Dr. Sameru Sharma Tushar Bajgotra (191101009)

Sahil Mansotra (191101010)

Sourav Sharma (191101031)

1 | Page DEPARTMENT OF E&C ENGINEERING GCET JAMMU

 CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that the Major Project Report on “ARDUINO BASED DUAL
AXIS SOLAR TRACKER” has been successfully submitted by TUSHAR
BAJGOTRA (191101009), SAHIL MANSOTRA (191101010), SOURAV
SHARMA (191101031), for the partial fulfillment of the award of Bachelor of
Engineering In E&C from University of Jammu.

Submitted to Department of E&C:

HEAD OF DEPARTMENT PROJECT GUIDE

Dr. SAMERU SHARMA Er. AYUSHE

DEPARTMENT OF E&C ENGG. GOVERNMENT COLLEGE OF ENGG. AND

TECHNOLOGY, JAMMU

2 | Page DEPARTMENT OF E&C ENGINEERING GCET JAMMU

 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

Keeping up with the tradition of torch bearer of the nation, we would like
to highly acknowledge and pay respect to one and all associated with this
project report at different stages, we owe our sincere gratitude and
humbleness to respected head of the department Dr. SAMERU
SHARMA, the professors and associates of Department of E&C
Engineering especially our project guide Er. AYUSHE for being the
guiding light and whose pursuits and confidence in us were an instant
booster during this endeavor. They also help us in understanding basic
aspects of project. Our parents and family also deserve a special mention
here for believing in us and supporting us. We are also thankful to our
friends who helped us in understanding the basic concepts regarding the
project topic.

Tushar Bajgotra 191101009

Sahil Mansotra 191101010

Sourav Sharma 191101031

3 | Page DEPARTMENT OF E&C ENGINEERING GCET JAMMU

 ABSTRACT

Solar panels are devices that convert light into electricity. Solar panels use
sunlight to generate power. Solar panels work best when the sun is shining.
As the angle of the sun varies throughout the day and seasons, this affects the
amount of electricity a solar power system will generate. To make solar
power systems work more efficiently, this project will include the design and
construction of a microcontroller-based solar panel tracking system. Solar
tracking allows more energy to be produced because the solar array can
remain aligned to the sun. In this project, we will design a dual-axis solar
tracker that allows solar panels to move on two axes, aligned both north-
south and an east-west. This type of system is designed to maximize solar
energy collection throughout the year. This project will make use of the Light
Depending Resistor (LDR) which is important to detect the sunlight by
following the source of the sunlight location. Arduino Uno microcontroller is
used to control the motors based on LDR. This project discusses the
development of a prototype for a dual-axis solar tracking system.

4 | Page DEPARTMENT OF E&C ENGINEERING GCET JAMMU

 INDEX

CONTENTS PAGE NO.

DECLARATION 1
CERTIFICATE 2

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT 3

ABSTRACT 4

CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION AND APPROACHES 10-12

1.1 INTRODUCTION 10
1.2 APPROACHES TO MAKE DUAL 11
AXIS SOLAR TRACKER.

CHAPTER 2
13-31
DUAL AXIS SOLAR TRACKER
13
2.1 HARDWARE COMPONENTS
13-17
2.1.1 ARDUINO UNO
2.1.2 VOLTAGE REGULATOR 17-19

2.1.3 SOLAR PANEL 19-21

2.1.4 LDR SENSOR [4 UNITS] 21-22

2.1.5 IR SENSOR [4 UNITS] 22-25

25-29
2.1.6 MOTAR DRIVES (L298N)
2.1.7 10RPM GEAR MOTAR [ 2 UNITS] 29-30

2.1.8 9- VOLT BATTERY [2 UNITS] 30-31

CHAPTER 3
HARDWARE IMPLEMENTATION 32-39
3.1 CONSTRUCTION OF DUAL AXIS SOLAR TRACKER 32-37
3.2 WORKING OF DUAL AXIS SOLAR TRACKER 38-39

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 CHAPTER 4

APPLICATIONS, ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGE 40-41

4.1 APPLICATIONS OF DUAL AXIS TRACKER 40

4.2 ADVANTAGES OF DUAL AXIS SOLAR TRACKER 40-41
4.3 DISADVANTAGES OF DUAL AXIS SOLAR TRACKER 41

CHAPTER 5
CONCLUSION AND FUTURE AVENUES 42-43
5.1 CONCLUSION 42
5.2 AVENUES FOR FUTURE WORK 43

REFERENCES 44

6 | Page DEPARTMENT OF E&C ENGINEERING GCET JAMMU

 LIST OF FIGURES
FIG NO. FIG NAME PAGE

Fig 1.1 LDR layout for Dual Axis Solar Tracker with a 12
Divider.
Fig 1.2 IR Sensor Module. 12
Fig 2.1 Diagram of Arduino Uno. 14
Fig 2.2 Pin layout of Arduino Uno. 15
Fig 2.3 LM7805 pinout diagram. 18
Fig 2.4 Conversion of Voltage generated by Solar Panel 19
to 5V using LM7805.
Fig 2.5 Electricity generated from Single Solar 20
Photovoltaic cell
Fig 2.6 Solar Panel. 21
Fig 2.7 Light Dependent Resistor (LDR). 22
Fig 2.8 Infrared Sensor. 23
Fig 2.9 Working of IR Sensor. 24
Fig 2.10 IR Sensor without a Transmitter and Receiver. 25
Fig 2.11 L298N Motor Driver. 26
Fig 2.12 Pin layout of L298N IC. 27
Fig 2.13 Internal Voltage Drop in L298N Motor Driver. 28
Fig 2.14 Pin layout of L298N Motor Driver. 29
Fig 2.15(a) DC Motor. 29
Fig 2.15(b) Geared DC Motor. 30
Fig 2.16 9V Batteries. 31
Fig 2.17 Battery Cap. 31
Fig 3.1 Structure of Dual Axis Solar Tracker. 32
Fig 3.2 Circuit diagram for Dual Axis Solar Tracker. 33
Fig 3.3 Circuitry of Dual Axis Solar Tracker. 34
Fig 3.4 Dual Axis Solar Tracker. 37
Fig 3.5 Block diagram of Dual Axis Solar Tracker. 38
Fig 3.6 Solar tracking along both Axes. 39

7 | Page DEPARTMENT OF E&C ENGINEERING GCET JAMMU

 ABBREVIATIONS & ACRONYMS

SAPHT: Solar Assist Plug-In Hybrid Electric Tractor

LDR: Light Dependent Resistor

MOSFET: Metal Oxide Semiconductor Field Effect Transistor

PV: Photovoltaic Cell

IDE: Integrated Development Environment

DC: Direct Current

ADC: Analog-to-Digital Converter

LUX: Luminous Flux (Lumens/m²)

PWM: Pulse Width Modulation

ICSP: In-Circuit Serial Programming

USB: Universal Serial Bus

CMOS: Complementary Metal-Oxide-Semiconductor

RISC: Reduced Instruction Set Computer

MIPS: Million instructions per second

EEPROM: Electrically Erasable programmable Read-Only

memory
SRAM: Static Random Access Memory

I/O: Input/ Output

GND: Ground

8 | Page DEPARTMENT OF E&C ENGINEERING GCET JAMMU

 VCC: Supply Voltage

AREF: Another RDF Encoding Form

PCINT: Pin Change Interrupt Library

RDF: Resource Description Framework

9 | Page DEPARTMENT OF E&C ENGINEERING GCET JAMMU

 CHAPTER 01
INTRODUCTION AND APPROACHES
1.1 INTRODUCTION

This project will utilize the maximum solar energy through solar panels. To do so, a
digital automatic sun tracking system is proposed. The project will help solar panels to get
the maximum sunlight automatically thereby increasing the efficiency of the system.

In this project, a working dual-axis solar tracker is built by using a balanced concept which is
four signals from the different sensors are compared. Light Dependent Resistor (LDR) as a
light sensor has been used. The four light-sensors are separated by a divider which will create
a shadow on one side of the light sensor if the solar panel is not perpendicular to the sun.
This will create a variation in light intensities sensed by the light sensors. The difference in
these values will the Arduino know that solar panel isn’t perpendicular to the sun, Arduino,
as a microcontroller, will control the movement of the motors via motor driver IC (L298n).
Data will be received from the sensors and then processed by the Arduino. The Arduino will
send the processed data to the Bi-directional DC-geared motor via motor driver IC (L298n) to
ensure the solar panel is perpendicular towards the Sun. Motor driver IC(L298n) controls the
rotation of the motor either to rotate clockwise or anticlockwise. The solar panel that attached
to the motors will be reacted according to the direction of the motors.

To get maximum intensity of light and zero voltage difference (error degree) the position of
the panel must always perpendicular to the light source. Uses of Single Axis throughout the
year do not maintain the output power. The position of the sun will change from the position
of installed solar tracker and make the panel no more perpendicular to the sun which affects
the output power. Therefore, dual-axis solar tracking moves the solar panel to be always
perpendicular to the sun. The tracker will track the sun throughout the years and maintaining
the output power generated by the solar panel.

The Arduino microcontroller controls all the motors of the tracker. The solar panel is aligned
according to the intensity of sunlight under the control of the microcontroller. Since Arduino
uses much less voltage than DC motor, so, we need to Interface a DC motor with the
microcontroller, usually H-bridge is preferred way of interfacing a DC motor. These days
many IC manufacturers have H-bridge motor drivers available in the market like L298n. A

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 LDR is a component that has a (variable) resistance that changes with the light intensity that
falls upon it. They are also called as photoconductors, photoconductive cells or simply
photocells. Here we have used four LDRs to sense the light falling on the solar panel is
perpendicular to all four directions. So, the values of all four LDR should be the same to
achieve the correct direction for the solar panel. A DC geared motor is a device that uses DC
electricity to produce mechanical energy. The energy in electric current causes the DC geared
motor to spin. Any devices attached to the motor can then take advantage of this spinning
motion to create another type of motion. In a gear motor, the magnetic current turns gears
that are either in a gear reduction unit or an integrated gearbox. A second shaft is connected
to these gears. Gear head or gear motor was used in solar trackers which has the advantage of
producing high torque, A well-designed solar tracking system is necessary to improve the
efficiency of the panel in a most economical way. The amount of power available to a solar
panel is proportional to the amount of light that reaches it. The more light it gets, the more
power it produces. By using a single-axis solar tracker can only capture the minimum power
tracking sunlight in one direction which is the elevation movements from east to west by
rotating the structure along the vertical axis. The use of single-axis tracking can increase the
electricity yield by as much as 27% to 32%, but by using a dual-axis solar tracker, it can
capture the maximum sunlight in two movements at the same time, so, dual-axis tracking
increases the electricity output as much as 35% to 40%. Dual-axis solar trackers allow for
two degrees of flexibility, offering a much wider range of motion. The primary and
secondary axes work together to allow these trackers to point the solar panels at specific
points in the sky.

1.2 APPROACHES TO MAKE DUAL AXIS SOLAR TRACKER

the system uses four LDRs which are separated by a divider (made of wood or opaque
material) to locate a correct position of direct sunlight. Depending on the directions of the sun
rays, if not perpendicular to the four LDRs setup, the LDR of one side will get illuminated
and due to the divider, a shadow will fall on the LDR of the other side. This will create a
difference in resistance values of the LDR which will help in the movement of the solar panel
in the direction in which the intensity of the sun rays is maximum.
The four LDR setup will act as the photo-sensor for this tracker system. LDR act as input and
sense the sun position. The resistance of LDR falls with increasing light intensity. When the
LDR receives the light, the resistance becomes low and the signal is sent to the IR sensor
module.

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 Fig1.1: LDR layout for Dual-Axis Solar Tracer with a Divider.
In this project, the photodiode or phototransistor of the IR-sensor module is replaced with
LDR. The IR-sensor module sends an output signal whenever it’s photodiode or
phototransistor generates any signal. But here we have replaced its photodiode or
phototransistor by LDR, so whenever LDR generates a signal, an output signal is sent by the
IR-sensor module to the Arduino microcontroller.

Fig 1.2: IR Sensor Module.

The Arduino is programmed to respond according to the signal it receives from the IR- sensor
module. The Arduino will run the motors towards the direction depending on the LDR inputs,
such that all LDR starts receiving the maximum sunlight. As a result, making the solar panel
directly perpendicular to sunlight. The Arduino is programmed in such a way that if the input
of all LDRs is high, it will stop the motors and keep the solar panel stationary facing directly
towards sunlight.

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 CHAPTER 02
DUAL AXIS SOLAR TRACKER

2.1 HARDWARE COMPONENTS

 Arduino Uno
 Voltage regulator (7805)
 Solar Panel
 LDR Sensor [4 units]
 IR sensor [4 units]
 9-volt battery [2 units]
 Motor Driver (L298N)
 10 RPM gear motor [2 units]

2.1.1 ARDUINO UNO

The Arduino Uno is a microcontroller board based on the ATmega328.It has 14 digital
input/output pins (of which 6 can be used as PWM outputs), 6 analog inputs, a 16 MHz
ceramic resonator, a USB connection, a power jack, an ICSP header, and a reset button.
Arduino board designs use a variety of microprocessors and controllers.

The boards are equipped with sets of digital and analog input/output (I/O) pins that may be
interfaced to various expansion boards or breadboards (shields) and other circuits. The
boards feature serial communications interfaces, including Universal Serial Bus (USB) on
some models, which are also used for loading programs from personal computers.

The microcontrollers are typically programmed using a dialect of features from the
programming languages C and C++. In addition to using traditional compiler toolchains the
Arduino project provides an integrated development environment (IDE) based on the
Processing language project.
Most Arduino boards consist of an Atmel 8-bit AVR microcontroller (Atmega8, Atmega168,
Atmega328, Atmega1280, Atmega2560) with varying amounts of flash memory, pins, and
features. The 32-bit Arduino Due, based on the Atmel SAM3X8E was introduced in 2012.

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 The boards use single or double-row pins or female headers that facilitate connections for
program

and incorporation into other circuits. These may connect with add-on modules termed
shields.

Multiple and possibly stacked shields may be individually addressable via an I²C serial
buses. Most boards include a 5V linear regulator and a 16 MHz crystal oscillator or ceramic
resonator. Some designs, such as the LilyPad, run at 8 MHz and dispense with the onboard
voltage regulator due to specific form-factor restrictions.

Fig 2.1 Diagram of Arduino Uno

Arduino microcontrollers are pre-programmed with a boot loader that simplifies uploading of
programs to the on-chip flash memory. The default bootloader of the Arduino UNO is the
optiboot bootloader Boards are loaded with program code via a serial connection to another
computer. Some serial Arduino boards contain a level shifter circuit to convert between RS-
232 logic levels and transistor-transistor logic (TTL) level signals. Current Arduino boards
are programmed via Universal Serial Bus (USB), implemented using USB-to-serial adapter
chips such as the FTDI FT232. Some boards, such as later-model Uno boards, substitute the
facilitate connections for programming and incorporation into other circuits. These may
connect with add-on modules termed shields. Multiple and possibly stacked shields may be
individually addressable via an I²C serial bus. Most boards include a 5V linear regulator and a
16 MHz crystal oscillator or ceramic resonator. Some designs, such as the Lilypad, run at 8

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 MHz and dispense with the onboard voltage regulator due to specific form-factor restrictions.
FTDI chip with a separate AVR chip containing USB-to-serial firmware, which is
reprogrammable via its own ICSP header. Other variants, such as the Arduino Mini and the
unofficial Boarduino, use a detachable USB-to-serial adapter board or cable, Bluetooth, or
other methods. When used with traditional microcontroller tools, instead of the Arduino IDE,
standard AVR in-system
programming (ISP) programming is used.

Fig 2.2: Pin Layout of Arduino Uno

Vin: The input voltage or Vin to the Arduino while it is using an exterior power supply
opposite to volts from the connection of USB or else RPS (regulated power supply). By
using this pin, one can supply the voltage.
5Volts: The RPS can be used to give the power supply to the microcontroller as well as
components which are used on the Arduino board. This can approach from the input
voltage through a regulator.
3V3: A 3.3 supply voltage can be generated with the onboard regulator, and the highest
draw current will be 50 mA.
GND: GND (ground) pin.

Memory: The memory of an ATmega328 microcontroller includes 32 KB and 0.5 KB

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 memory is utilized for the Boot loader), and also it includes SRAM-2 KB as well as
EEPROM-1KB.

Input and Output: We know that an arguing Uno R3 includes 14-digital pins which
can be used as an input otherwise output by using the functions like pin Mode (), digital
Read(), and digital Write(). These pins can operate with 5V, and every digital pin can
give or receive 20mA, & includes a 20k to 50k ohm pull up resistor. The maximum
current on any pin is 40mA which cannot surpass for avoiding the microcontroller from
the damage. Additionally, some of the pins of an Arduino include specific functions.

Serial Pins: The serial pins of an Arduino board are TX (1) and RX (0) pins and these
pins can be used to transfer the TTL serial data. The connection of these pins can be
done with the equivalent pins of the ATmega8 U2 USB to TTL chip.

External Interrupt Pins: The external interrupt pins of the board are 2 & 3, and these
pins can be arranged to activate an interrupt on a rising otherwise falling edge, a low-
value otherwise a modify in value.

PWM Pins: The PWM pins of an Arduino are 3, 5, 6, 9, 10, & 11, and gives an output
of an 8-bit PWM with function analog write.

SPI (Serial Peripheral Interface) Pins: The SPI pins are 10, 11, 12, 13 namely SS,
MOSI, MISO, SCK, and these will maintain the SPI communication with the help of the
SPI Library.
LED pins: An arguing board is inbuilt with a LED using digital pin-13. Whenever the
digital pin is high, the LED will glow otherwise it will not grow.

TWI (2-Wire Interface) Pins: The TWI pins are SDA or A4, & SCL or A5, which can
support the communication of TWI with the help of Wire library.

AREF (Analog Reference) Pin: An analog reference pin is the reference voltage to the
inputs of an analog i/ps using the function like analog Reference().

Reset (RST) Pin: This pin brings a low line for resetting the microcontroller, and it is
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 very useful for using an RST button toward shields which can block the one over the
Arduino R3 board.

Communication: The communication protocols of an Arduino Uno include SPI, I2C,

and UART serial communication.

UART: An Arduino Uno uses the two functions like the transmitter digital pin1 and the
receiver digital pin0. These pins are mainly used in UART TTL serial communication.

I2C: An Arduino UNO board employs SDA pin otherwise A4 pin & A5 pin otherwise
SCL pin is used for I2C communication with wire library. In this, both the SCL and
SDA are CLK signal and data signal.

SPI Pins: The SPI communication includes MOSI, MISO, and SCK.
MOSI (Pin11): This is the master out slave in the pin, used to transmit the data to the
devices.

MISO (Pin12): This pin is a serial CLK, and the CLK pulse will synchronize the
transmission of which is produced by the master.

SCK (Pin13): The CLK pulse synchronizes data transmission that is generated by the
master. Equivalent pins with the SPI library is employed for the communication of SPI.
ICSP (in-circuit serial programming) headers can be utilized for programming AT mega
microcontroller directly with the boot loader.

2.1.2 7805 VOLTAGE REGULATOR

A voltage regulator IC maintains the output voltage at a constant value. 7805 IC, a
member of 78xx series of fixed linear voltage regulators used to maintain such
fluctuations, is a popular voltage regulator integrated circuit (IC). The xx in 78xx
indicates the output voltage it provides. 7805 IC provides +5 volts regulated power
supply with provisions to add a heat sink. A 7805 IC’s input voltage range can vary
from 7 Volts to 35 Volts.
 1 INPUT: Input voltage (7V-35V). In this pin of the IC positive unregulated
voltage is given in regulation.
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  GROUND: Ground (0V). In this pin where the ground is given. This pin is
neutral for equally the input and output.
 OUTPUT: Regulated output; 5V (4.8V-5.2V). The output of the regulated 5V
volt is taken out at this pin of the IC regulator.

Fig 2.3: LM7805 pinout diagram.

As you may have noticed, there is a significant difference between the input voltage &
the output voltage of the voltage regulator. This difference between the input and output
voltage is released as heat. The greater the difference between the input and output
voltage, the more the heat generated. If the regulator does not have a heat sink to
dissipate this heat, it can get destroyed and malfunction. Hence, it is advisable to limit
the voltage to a maximum of 2-3 volts above the output voltage. So, we now have 2
options. Either design your circuit so that the input voltage going into the regulator is
limited to 2-3 volts above the output regulated voltage or place an appropriate heatsink,
that can efficiently dissipate heat.
LM7805 is applied in a wide range of circuits:
• Fixed-Output Regulator
• Positive Regulator in Negative Configuration
• Adjustable Output Regulator
• Current Regulator
• Regulated Dual-Supply
• Output Polarity-Reversal-Protection Circuit
• Reverse bias projection Circuit
If differences between the input and output voltages are not well managed, LM7805
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 can overheat, which may result in malfunctioning. Solutions Include:
• Limiting input voltage to 2-3 volts above the output regulated voltage
• Placing a heat sink in the circuit to dissipate heat solutions.
If your voltage regulator is situated more than 25cm (10 inches) from the power supply,
capacitors are needed to filter residual AC noise. Voltage regulators work efficiently on
a clean DC signal being fed. The bypass capacitors help reduce AC ripple. Essentially,
they short AC noise from the voltage signal and allow only DC voltage into the
regulator. The two capacitors are not necessarily required and can be omitted if you are
not concerned about line noise.
However, for a mobile phone charger or logic assessment, you require a nice clean DC
line. Capacitors will be beneficial in this case as they are good at maximizing voltage
regulation. The values of capacitors can also be changed slightly.
The 7805’s scaled output provides the input voltage (Vin) to the bandgap reference and
the bandgap provides an error signal as the output. The 7805’s bandgap circuit removes
the feedback loop that exists inside a traditional bandgap reference. Instead, the entire
chip becomes the feedback loop.
If the output voltage is correct (5V), then the voltage divider provides 3.75V at Vin.
Any change in output voltage propagates through Q6 and R7, causing the voltage at the
base of Q7 to rise or fall accordingly. This change is amplified by Q7 and Q8,
generating the error output. The error output, in turn, decreases or increases the current
through the output transistor. The negative feedback loop adjusts the output voltage
until it is correct.

7805 IC also finds usage in building circuits for inductance meter, phone charger,
portable CD player, infrared remote-control extension and UPS power supply circuits.
LM7805 is applied in a wide range of circuits like Fixed-Output Regulator, Positive
Regulator in Negative Configuration, Adjustable Output Regulator, Current Regulator,
Regulated Dual-Supply, Output Polarity-Reversal-Protection Circuit, Reverse bias
projection Circuit.

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 Fig 2.4: Conversion of Voltage generated from Solar Panel to 5v using LM7805.

2.1.3 SOLAR PANEL

Solar panels are devices that convert light into electricity. A solar panel is a collection
of solar cells. Lots of small solar cells spread over a large area can work together to
provide enough power to be useful. The more light that hits a cell, the more electricity it
produces.
Solar Photovoltaic (PV) is a technology that converts sunlight (solar radiation) into
direct current electricity by using semiconductors. When the sun hits the semiconductor
within the PV cell, electrons are freed and form an electric current.
Solar PV technology is generally employed on a panel (hence solar panels). PV cells are
typically found connected and mounted on a frame called a module. Multiple modules
can be wired together to form an array, which can be scaled up or down to produce the
amount of power needed. PV cells can be made from various semiconductor materials.
The most commonly used material today is silicon.

Fig 2.5: Electricity generated from Single Solar Photovoltaic Cell.

A photovoltaic module is a packaged, connect assembly of typically 6x10 photovoltaic

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 solar cells. Photovoltaic modules constitute the photovoltaic array of a photovoltaic
system that generates and supplies solar electricity in commercial and residential
applications.
Each module is rated by its DC output power under standard test conditions, and
typically ranges from 100 to 365 Watts (W). The efficiency of a module determines the
area of a module given the same rated output – an 8% efficient 230 W module will have
twice the area of a 16% efficient 230 W module.
There are a few commercially available solar modules that exceed the efficiency of
22% and reportedly also exceeding 24%. A single solar module can produce only a
limited amount of power; most installations contain multiple modules.
A photovoltaic system typically includes an array of photovoltaic modules, an inverter,
a battery pack for storage, interconnection wiring, and optionally a solar tracking
mechanism. The most common application of solar panels is solar water heating
systems.

Fig 2.6: Solar Panel

2.1.4 LIGHT DEPENDENT RESISTOR (LDR)

A Light Dependent Resistor (LDR) is also called a photoresistor or a cadmium sulphide
(CdS) cell. It is also called a photoconductor. It is basically a photocell that works on
the principle of photoconductivity. The passive component is basically a resistor whose
resistance value decreases when the intensity of light decreases. This optoelectronic
device is mostly used in light varying sensor circuit, and light and dark activated
switching circuits.
Some of its applications include camera light meters, street lights. On the top and

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 bottom are metal films which are connected to the terminal leads. It is designed in such
a way as to provide maximum possible contact area with the two metal films. The
structure is housed in a clear plastic or resin case, to provide free access to external
light. As explained above, the main component for the construction of LDR is cadmium
sulphide (CdS), which is used as the photoconductor and contains no or very few
electrons when not illuminated.
In the absence of light, it is designed to have a high resistance in the range of mega
ohms. As soon as light falls on the sensor, the electrons are liberated and the
conductivity of the material increases. When the light intensity exceeds a certain
frequency, the photons absorbed by the semiconductor give band electrons the energy
required to jump into the conduction band. This causes the free electrons or holes to
conduct electricity and thus dropping the resistance dramatically (< 1 Kilo ohm).
A photoresistor (or light-dependent resistor, LDR, or photo-conductive cell) is a light-
controlled variable resistor. The resistance of a photoresistor decreases with increasing
incident light intensity; in other words, it exhibits photoconductivity. A photoresistor
can be applied in light-sensitive detector circuits, and light-activated and dark-activated
switching circuits.
A photoresistor is made of a high resistance semiconductor. In the dark, a photoresistor
can have a resistance as high as several mega ohms (MΩ), while in the light, a
photoresistor can have a resistance as low as a few hundred ohms.
If incident light on a photoresistor exceeds a certain frequency, photons absorbed by the
semiconductor give bound electrons enough energy to jump into the conduction band.
The resulting free electrons (and their hole partners) conduct electricity, thereby
lowering resistance.
The resistance range and sensitivity of a photoresistor can substantially differ among
dissimilar devices. Moreover, unique photoresistors may react substantially differently
to photons within certain wavelength bands.
The solar tracker system will obtain its data from two CDS (Cadmium Sulphide)
photocells, which are type of LDR. The material used in CDS photocell is of high
resistance semiconductor. Therefore, once light falls on its surface, photons absorbed by
the semiconductor will give bound electrons enough energy to jump into the conduction
band. As a result, free electrons conduct electricity and thus lower the resistance. In case
of high intensity, the photocell will produce the lowest resistance, the opposite will
occur in case of complete darkness.
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 Fig 2.7: Light Dependent Resistors (LDR).

2.1.5 IR-SENSOR
An infrared sensor is an electronic device, that emits in order to sense some aspects of
the surroundings. An IR sensor can measure the heat of an object as well as detects the
motion. These types of sensors measure only infrared radiation, rather than emitting it
that is called a passive IR sensor. Usually, in the infrared spectrum, all the objects
radiate some form of thermal radiation. These types of radiations are invisible to our
eyes, which can be detected by an infrared sensor. The emitter is simply an IR LED
(Light Emitting Diode) and the detector is simply an IR photodiode that is sensitive to
IR light of the same wavelength as that emitted by the IR LED. When IR light falls on
the photodiode, the resistances and the output voltages will change in proportion to the
magnitude of the IR light received.

Fig 2.8: Infrared Sensor.

An infrared sensor circuit is one of the basic and popular sensor modules in an
electronic device. This sensor is analogous to human’s visionary senses, which can be
used to detect obstacles and it is one of the common applications in real-time.
Types of IR Sensors
Infrared sensors can be passive or active. Passive infrared sensors are basically Infrared

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 detectors. Passive infrared sensors do not use any infrared source and detects energy
emitted by obstacles in the field of view. They are of two types: quantum and thermal.
Thermal infrared sensors use infrared energy as the source of heat and are independent
of wavelength. Thermocouples, pyroelectric detectors and bolometers are the common
types of thermal infrared detectors.
Quantum type infrared detectors offer higher detection performance and are faster than
thermal type infrared detectors. The photosensitivity of quantum type detectors is
wavelength dependent. Quantum type detectors are further classified into two types:
intrinsic and extrinsic types. Intrinsic type quantum detectors are photoconductive cells
and photovoltaic cells.
Active infrared sensors consist of two elements: infrared source and infrared detector.
Infrared sources include an LED or infrared laser diode. Infrared detectors include
photodiodes or phototransistors. The energy emitted by the infrared source is reflected
by an object and falls on the infrared detector.

Fig 2.9: Working of an IR Sensor.

IR Transmitter:
Infrared Transmitter is a light emitting diode (LED) which emits infrared radiations.
Hence, they are called IR LED’s. Even though an IR LED looks like a normal LED, the
radiation emitted by it is invisible to the human eye.
There are different types of infrared transmitters depending on their wavelengths,
output power and response time.
A simple infrared transmitter can be constructed using an infrared LED, a current
limiting resistor and a power supply.
When operated at a supply of 5V, the IR transmitter consumes about 3 to 5 mA of
current. Infrared transmitters can be modulated to produce a particular frequency of
infrared light. The most commonly used modulation is OOK (ON – OFF – KEYING)
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 modulation.
IR transmitters can be found in several applications. Some applications require infrared
heat and the best infrared source is infrared transmitter. When infrared emitters are used
with Quartz, solar cells can be made.
IR Receiver:
Infrared receivers are also called as infrared sensors as they detect the radiation from an
IR transmitter. IR receivers come in the form of photodiodes and phototransistors.
Infrared Photodiodes are different from normal photo diodes as they detect only infrared
radiation.
Different types of IR receivers exist based on the wavelength, voltage, package, etc.
When used in an infrared transmitter – receiver combination, the wavelength of the
receiver should match with that of the transmitter.
It consists of an IR phototransistor, a diode, a MOSFET, a potentiometer and an LED.
When the phototransistor receives any infrared radiation, current flows through it and
MOSFET turns on. This in turn lights up the LED which acts as a load. The
potentiometer is used to control the sensitivity of the phototransistor.
The one we use in our project does not contain its transmitter and receiver because we
do not need to sense infrared light, here we need to sense sunlight so we connect LDR
in place of photodiode at the receiver’s place. The one used in the project looks like in
the figure given below:

Fig 2.10: IR Sensor without a Transmitter and a Receiver.

There are other applications of this module in which we do not need a transmitter and a
receiver where we can connect any other sensor like LDR, Rain sensor PCB, and much

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 more.
This module has its variety of uses that are not related to infrared sensing only but can
be of any type because it consists of IC LM358 which is a great, low power and easy to
use dual channel op-amp IC.
LM 358 has a lot of real-life applications e.g., Operational Amplifier (Op-amp) circuits,
transducer amplifiers, DC gain blocks, etc. LM-358 is available in as small size as chip.
It is the most commonly used device due to its cost-efficiency.

2.1.6 MOTOR DRIVER (L298N)

The L298N is a dual-channel H-Bridge motor driver capable of driving a pair of DC
motors. That means it can individually drive up to two motors making it ideal for
building two-wheel robot platforms.

Fig 2.11: L298N Motor Driver.

The L298N is an integrated monolithic circuit in a 15- lead Multiwatt and PowerSO20
packages. It is a high voltage, high current dual full-bridge driver designed to accept
standard TTL logic level sand drive inductive loads such as relays, solenoids, DC and
stepping motors. Two enable inputs are provided to enable or disable the device
independently of the input signals. The emitters of the lower transistors of each bridge
are connected and the corresponding external terminal can be used for the connection of
an external sensing resistor. An additional supply input is provided so that the logic
works at a lower voltage. Interfacing a dc motor with a microcontroller, usually H-
bridge is preferred way of interfacing a dc motor. These days many IC manufacturers
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 have H-bridge motor drivers available in the market like L298N is one of the most used
H-Bridge driver IC. H-Bridge can also be made with the help of transistors and
MOSFETS etc. rather than being cheap; they only increase the size of the design board,
which is sometimes not required so using a small 16 pin IC is preferred for this purpose.

Fig 2.12: Pin layout of L298N IC.

If you want to regulate the speed of motor A by PWM, you need to set IN1 and IN2,
confirm the rotational direction of the motor, and then output PWM pulses for enabled
terminals. Please note the motor is in the free stop state when the signal of the enabled
terminal is 0. When the enabled signal is 1, if IN1 and IN2 are 00 or 11, the motor is in
brake state, and the motor stops rotating. If IN1 is 0 and IN2 is 1, the motor A rotates
clockwise; if IN1 is 1 and IN2 is 0, the motor A rotates counterclockwise. This is the
control method for motor A. The control method for motor B is the same as that for
motor A.
POWER PINS:
The L298N motor driver module is powered through 3-pin 3.5mm-pitch screw
terminals. It consists of pins for motor power supply(Vs), ground and 5V logic power
supply(Vss). From Vs pin the H-Bridge gets its power for driving the motors which can
be 5 to 35V. Vss is used for driving the logic circuitry which can be 5 to 7V. And they
both sink to a common ground named ‘GND’. The module has an on-board 78M05 5V
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 regulator from STMicroelectronics. It can be enabled or disabled through a jumper.
When this jumper is in place, the 5V regulator is enabled, supplying logic power
supply(Vss) from the motor power supply(Vs). In this case, 5V input terminal acts as an
output pin and delivers 5V 0.5A. You can use it to power up the Arduino or other
circuitry that requires 5V power supply. When the jumper is removed, the 5V regulator
gets disabled and we have to supply 5 Volts separately through 5 Volt input terminal.

Voltage drop:

Fig 2.13: Internal Voltage Drop in L298N Motor Driver.

The voltage drop of the L298N motor driver is about 2V. This is due to the internal
voltage drop in the switching transistors in the H-Bridge circuit.
So, if we connect 12V to the motor power supply terminal, the motors will receive
voltage around 10V. This means that a 12V DC motor will never spin at its maximum
speed.
To get maximum speed out of motor, the motor power supply should be bit higher
voltage(2V) than motor’s actual voltage requirement.
Considering the voltage drop of 2V, if you are using 5V motors you’ll need to provide
7V at motor power supply terminal. If you have 12V motors then your motor supply
voltage should be 14V.
OUTPUT PINS:
The L298N motor driver’s output channels for the motor A and B are broken out to the
edge of the module with two 3.5mm-pitch screw terminals. we can connect two DC
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 motors having voltages between 5 to 35V to these terminals. Each channel on the
module can deliver up to 2A to the DC motor. However, the amount of current supplied
to the motor depends on system’s power supply.

Fig 2.14: Pin layout of L298N Motor Driver

2.1.7 GEAR MOTOR

A gear motor is a specific type of electrical motor that is designed to produce high
torque while maintaining a low horsepower, or low speed, motor output. Gear motors
can be found in many different applications, and are probably used in many devices in
your home. Gear motors are commonly used in devices such as can openers, garage
door openers, washing machine time control knobs, and even electric alarm clocks.
Common commercial applications of a gear motor include hospital beds, commercial
jacks, and cranes. Regardless of what type of gear motor you’re dealing with, they all
work in the same manner. Gear motors are commonly used in commercial applications
where a piece of equipment needs to be able to exert a high amount of force in order to
move a very heavy object.

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 Fig 2.15(a): DC Motor

Fig 2.15 (b): Geared DC Motor

A gear motor is an all-in-one combination of a motor and gearbox. The addition of a
gear head to a motor reduces the speed while increasing the torque output. The most
important parameters in regards to gear motors are speed (rpm), torque (lb-in) and
efficiency (%). A gear motor or stepping motor is a dc brushless electric motor that
divides a full rotation into a display device is an output device for presentation of
information in visual or tactile form. When the input information is supplied as an
electrical signal, the display is called an electronic display number of equal steps. The
motor’s position can then be commanded to move and hold at one of these steps without
any position sensor for feedback as long as the motor is carefully sized to the
application with respect to torque and speed.
Gear motor performance curves are a helpful tool when selecting a motor for your
application. To get the most out of the performance curves it’s important to thoroughly
understand the application requirements. You can use your load and speed requirements
to help determine the required torque. Most DC motor and gear motor manufacturers
provide performance curves upon request.

2.1.8 9V BATTERY AND BATTERY CAP

The nine-volt battery, or 9-volt battery, is a common size of battery that was introduced
for the early transistor radios. It has a rectangular prism shape with rounded edges and a
polarized snap connector at the top. This type is commonly used in walkietalkies, clocks
and smoke detectors.

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 Fig 2.16: 9V Batteries.

BATTERY CAP: - The battery has both terminals in a snap connector on one end. The
smaller circular (male) terminal is positive, and the larger hexagonal or octagonal
(female) terminal is the negative contact. The connectors on the battery are the same as
on the load device; the smaller one connects to the larger one and vice versa.

Fig 2.17: Battery Cap.

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 CHAPTER 03
HARDWARE IMPLEMENTATION

3.1 CONSTRUCTION OF DUAL AXIS SOLAR TRACKER

STEP 1: First we have to construct a structure frame for solar panel which is capable to
rotate along both axes.
STEP 2: Now mount the solar panel on the frame and then place the four LDR setup on
it.
After these steps, the project will look like the fig given below:

Fig 3.1: Structure of Dual Axis Solar Tracker.

STEP 3: Now to make a circuit to control the structure made above, make the following
circuit:

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 Fig 3.2: Circuit diagram for Dual Axis Solar Tracker

 Connect all four LDR to the IR-sensors by replacing its photodiode.

 Connect Vcc of motor driver (L298N) to the +5V of Arduino.
 Connect Vcc of all four IR-sensors to the +5V of motor driver (L298N).
 Common the GND of all IR-sensors, Arduino, and motor driver.
 Connect the OUT of all IR-sensors to the Digital Pin 2, 3, 4, and 5 of the
Arduino respectively.
 Connect IN1, IN2, IN3, and IN4 of the motor driver to the Arduino Digital Pin
6, 7, 8, and 9 respectively.
 Connect OUT1 and OUT2 of the motor driver to one Gear motor. And OUT3
and OUT4 to another Gear motor.

 Connect a 9V Battery to the Arduino and a 12V Battery to the motor

driver(L298N)

The complete circuit will look like the figure given below:

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 Fig 3.3: Circuitry of Dual Axis Solar Tracker

STEP 4: Arduino program to make the above system working as required:

////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////
void setup ()
{
// initialize digital pin 13 as an output.
pinMode(2, INPUT);
pinMode(3, INPUT);
pinMode(4, INPUT);
pinMode(5, INPUT);
pinMode(6,OUTPUT );
pinMode(7,OUTPUT );
pinMode(8,OUTPUT );
pinMode(9,OUTPUT );

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 } // the loop function runs over and over again forever
void loop ()
{
if( digitalRead(2)&&digitalRead(3)&&digitalRead(4)&&digitalRead(5)==HIGH)
{
digitalWrite(6,LOW);
digitalWrite(7,LOW);
digitalWrite(8,LOW);
digitalWrite(9,LOW);
}
else if( digitalRead(2)&&digitalRead(4)==HIGH)
{
digitalWrite(6,HIGH);
digitalWrite(7,LOW);
digitalWrite(8,HIGH);
digitalWrite(9,LOW);
}
else if( digitalRead(3)&&digitalRead(5)==HIGH)
{
digitalWrite(6,LOW);
digitalWrite(7,HIGH);
digitalWrite(8,LOW);
digitalWrite(9,HIGH);
}
else if( digitalRead(2)&&digitalRead(5)==HIGH)
{
digitalWrite(6,HIGH);
digitalWrite(7,LOW);
digitalWrite(8,LOW);
digitalWrite(9,HIGH);
}
else if( digitalRead(3)&&digitalRead(4)==HIGH)
{
digitalWrite(6,LOW);
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 digitalWrite(7,HIGH);
digitalWrite(8,HIGH);
digitalWrite(9,LOW);
}
else if( digitalRead(2)==HIGH)
{
digitalWrite(6,HIGH);
digitalWrite(7,LOW);
digitalWrite(8,LOW);
digitalWrite(9,LOW);
}
else if( digitalRead(3)==HIGH)
{
digitalWrite(6,LOW);
digitalWrite(7,HIGH);
digitalWrite(8,LOW);
digitalWrite(9,LOW);
}
else if( digitalRead(4)==HIGH)
{
digitalWrite(6,LOW);
digitalWrite(7,LOW);
digitalWrite(8,HIGH);
digitalWrite(9,LOW);
}
else if( digitalRead(5)==HIGH)
{
digitalWrite(6,LOW);
digitalWrite(7,LOW);
digitalWrite(8,LOW);
digitalWrite(9,HIGH);
}
else
{
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 digitalWrite(6,LOW);
digitalWrite(7,LOW);
digitalWrite(8,LOW);
digitalWrite(9,LOW);
}
}
////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////
STEP 5: Now upload the code using USB cable to the Arduino, and the prototype is
ready to work.
The complete project looks like the figure given below:

Fig 3.4: Dual Axis Solar Tracker.

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 3.2 WORKING OF DUAL AXIS SOLAR TRACKER

The project is built using a balanced concept which is four signals from the different
sensors are compared. Light Dependent Resistor (LDR) as a light sensor has been used.
The four light sensors are separated by divider which will create shadow on one side of
the light sensor if the solar panel is not perpendicular to the sun. The Arduino
microcontroller will take continuous readings of LDR and control the motors
accordingly by sending signals to motor driver. Motor driver IC(L298n) controls the
rotation of the motor either to rotate clockwise or anticlockwise depending on the signal
from Arduino microcontroller. The solar panel that attached to the motors will be
reacted according to the direction of the motors.
The basic working of the system is shown below in the diagram:

Fig 3.5: Block diagram of Dual Axis Solar Tracker.

Here, Arduino microcontroller plays an important role in calculating the desired output
depending on the input conditions. These conditions are manipulated by the Arduino
program which is uploaded in it.
The Arduino program works according to the following conditions:

If all four LDRs are HIGH:

Do not send any signal to motors, system is receiving maximum sunlight.
If both LDRs of RIGHT are HIGH:
Rotate the system to the right to receive maximum sunlight.
If both LDRs of LEFT are HIGH:
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 Rotate the system to the left to receive maximum sunlight.
If both LDRs of TOP are HIGH:
Rotate the system so that the solar panel rotates upwards to receive maximum sunlight.
If both LDRs of BOTTOM are HIGH:
Rotate the system so that the solar panel rotates downwards to receive maximum
sunlight.
If TOP-LEFT LDR is HIGH:
Rotate the system to the left and upwards using both motors simultaneously to receive
maximum sunlight.
If BOTTOM-LEFT LDR is HIGH:
Rotate the system to the left and downwards using both motors simultaneously to
receive maximum sunlight.
If TOP-RIGHT LDR is HIGH:
Rotate the system to the right and upwards using both motors simultaneously to receive
maximum sunlight.
If BOTTOM-RIGHT LDR is HIGH:
Rotate the system to the right and downwards using both motors simultaneously to
receive maximum sunlight.
Else do not send any signal to the motor driver.
The system will receive maximum sunlight based on the above conditions. This will
make solar power generation most efficient throughout the year.

Fig 3.6: Solar Tracking along both Axes.

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 CHAPTER 04
APPLICATIONS, ADVANTAGES AND
DISADVANTAGES

4.1 APPLICATIONS OF DUAL AXIS SOLAR TRACKER

 Dual-axis trackers have two rotation axis degrees, which are called the “primary
axis” and the “secondary axis.”
 The rotational axis can move downwards or upwards to adjust with the angles
of the Sun throughout the day.
 Dual-axis tracking allows for the most accurate orientation of the solar device
and is said to provide 40% more output through energy absorption. However,
these solar trackers are more complex and expensive.
 Dual-axis trackers continually face the Sun as they can move in two different
directions. There are two types of altitude-based dual-axis trackers — tip-tilt
and azimuth-altitude.
 Typically, dual-axis tracking is used to orient a mirror and redirect sunlight
along a fixed axis towards a stationary receiver.
 As these trackers track the sun’s path vertically and horizontally, they help
obtain maximum solar energy.
 Azimuth-altitude dual-axis trackers can solve both issues. However, these
trackers can be expensive and add nearly $3,500–$6,500 to the solar installation
cost.
 The function of dual-axis trackers depends on vertical and horizontal pivots,
which are controller- guided similar to solar telescopes. These are quite costly,
and their usage is generally limited to solar energy systems of commercial
grade.
 The accurate tracking of dual-axis solar trackers is also used in a focused solar
application, such as mirrors that direct sunlight receivers and convert sunlight
into heat.

4.2 ADVANTAGES OF DUAL AXIS SOLAR TRACKER

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  Dual-axis trackers follow the Sun continually and provide constant power output
throughout the day.
 These solar trackers provide a reasonable solution in cases of the limited power
capacity of the connection to the grid.
 Dual-axis trackers need smaller space and provide an opportunity to use the
remaining area around for other additional purposes such as car parking,
gardening, and others.
 These trackers generate 45-50% higher power output per year, as compared to a
static station of the same installed capacity;
 Dual-axis trackers provide the optimal solution for areas that may hinder solar
productivity. Some of these areas could be a complicated structure of the ground,
complicated relief, stone protrusions, descent towards the North, and others.
 The payback period on investment is lower in the case of dual-axis trackers. Also,
there will be a significant increase in profits during their life span.

4.3 DISADVANTAGES OF DUAL AXIS SOLAR TRACKER

 Dual-axis trackers have higher technical complexity, which makes it potentially
vulnerable to glitches.
 These trackers have a shorter lifespan and lesser reliability.
 Low performance in cloudy weather.

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 CHAPTER 05
CONCLUSION AND FUTURE AVENUES

5.1 CONCLUSION
The aim of this project was to design a dual axis tracking system which can sense the
incident solar light on the panel and move it in the direction of maximum solar light
incident. The tracking controller is implemented by means of ATmega328p
microcontroller. The necessary software is developed via Arduino Uno IDE. In building
the solar tracking system, LDRs (Light Dependent Resistors) are used to determine solar
light intensity. The proposed solar tracking system can track sun light automatically.
From this study the main conclusions are:
 Proposed system is low cost and compact as compared to the other tracking
systems in use for same application.
 It is very easy to program and modify because it is Arduino based and no external
programmer is required.
 The designed system is automatic and provides better efficiency of the panel.

 Reflection on the Solar panel has been decreased and, the efficiency of solar
energy generation is increased.
 Solar trackers are slightly more expensive than their stationary counterparts, due
to the more complex technology and moving parts necessary for their operation.
But solar trackers generate more electricity in roughly the same amount of space
needed for fixed tilt systems, making them ideal optimizing land usage.
The purpose of renewable energy from this paper offered new and advanced idea to help
the people. It has been proved through previous research that solar tracking system with
single- axis freedom can increase energy output by approximately 20%, whereas the
tracking system with double axis freedom can increase the output by more than 40%.
Therefore, this work in this paper is to develop and implement a dual-axis solar tracking
system with both degree of freedom and the detection of the sunlight using sensors.
The proposed system is eco-friendly.

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 5.2 AVENUES FOR FUTURE WORK
With the available time and resources, the objective of the project was met. The project is
able to be implemented on a much larger scale. For future projects, one may consider the
use of more efficient sensors, which should also be cost effective and consume little power.
This would further enhance efficiency while reducing costs. If there is the possibility of
further reducing the cost of this project, it would help a great deal. This is because whether
or not such projects are embraced is dependent on how cheap they can be. Shading has
adverse effects on the operation of solar panels. Shading of a single cell will have an effect
on the entire panel because the cells are usually connected in series. With shading
therefore, the tracking system will not be able to improve efficiency as is required.

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 REFERENCES:

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