Assignment No.

Course title: Citizenship Edu. & Community

Course code: 8606

Programme: B.Ed. (1.5 years)

Submitted to: Nabila Kausar

Submitted by: Aiman Maqsood

Student Id: 0000240232

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Q. 1

a) Explain the form of social control Social control is a concept within the
disciplines of the social sciences.

Answer:

 Social control:

Social control is described as certain set of rules and standards in society that keep
individuals bound to conventional standards as well as to the use of formalized mechanisms. The
disciplinary model was the forerunner to the control model. The term "social control" was first
introduced to sociology by Albion Woodbury Small and George Edgar Vincent in 1894;
however, at the time sociologists only showed sporadic interest in the subject.

 Some social philosophers have played a role in the development of social control such as
Thomas Hobbes in his work ((Leviathan that discusses social order and how the state
exerts this using civil and military power.
 Cesare Beccaria's On Crimes and Punishments that argues that people will avoid
criminal behavior if their acts result in harsher punishment, stating that changes in
punishment will act as a form of social control.
 Sociologist Émile Durkheim also explored social control in the work The Division of
Labour in Society and discusses the paradox of deviance, stating that social control is
what makes us abide by laws in the first place.

Society uses certain sanctions to enforce a standard of behavior that is deemed socially
acceptable. Individuals and institutions utilize social control to establish social norms and rules,
which can be exercised by peers or friends, family, state and religious organizations, schools, and
the workplace.

 Goal of social control:

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 The goal of social control is to maintain order in society and ensure conformity in those who
are deemed deviant or undesirable in society. Sociologists identify two basic forms of social
control:

1. Informal means of control –Internalization of norms and values by a process known as

socialization, which is "the process by which an individual, born with behavioral
potentialities of enormously wide range, is led to develop actual behavior which is
confined to the narrower range of what is acceptable for him by the group standards".
2. Formal means of social control – External sanctions enforced by government to prevent
the establishment of chaos or anomie in society. Some theorists, such as Émile Durkheim,
refer to this form of control as regulation. As briefly defined above, the means to enforce
social control can be either informal or formal.

Sociologist Edward A. Ross argues that belief systems exert a greater control on human
behavior than laws imposed by government, no matter what form the beliefs take. Social control
is considered one of the foundations of order within society. Roodenburg identifies the concept
of social control as a classical concept. While the concept of social control has been around since
the formation of organized sociology, the meaning has been altered over time. Originally, the
concept simply referred to society's ability to regulate itself.

However, in the 1930s, the term took on its more modern meaning of an individual's
conversion to conformity. Academics began to study Social control theory as a separate field in
the early 20th century. The concept of social control is related to the notion of social order,
which is identified as existing in the following areas of society:

i. The education system

ii. Policing and the law Psychiatry
iii. Social work
iv. The welfare state
v. The working environment

The term social control has also been linked to the term delinquency, defined as deviancy,
which is the violation of established mores, social norms, and laws. More serious acts of

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delinquency are defined as consensus crimes and conflict crimes that are determined by society
and the law to inhibit unwanted or negative behavior as a form of social control.

Fig1.1. Basic principle of social control

b) What is social deviance? Differentiate between formal and informal

deviance.

Answer:

 Social deviance:

Social deviance can be simply defined as any violation of social norms and laws, be it formal
or informal (Conley, 2011). These transgressions may include minor acts such as violation of
personal space, playing loud music or picking one’s nose publicly. It also includes major acts of
crime such as theft, murder, rape, or assault.

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 One of the currently hot topics regarding social deviance is the society’s acceptance towards
gay people, especially those who went for surgery and became transgender. Today, LGBT rights
are being established and strengthened step by step. However, not so long ago, gay people were
usually glared at especially when they chose to exhibit their cross-dressing or their affairs
publicly.

Social deviance is a concept used in the social sciences to represent all social actions – or in
some cases words and images – that transgress socially accepted behavioural norms and ethical
standards. Social deviance is a far broader term than crime.

 The latter is restricted to actions or signs that exist beyond boundaries set by law, whilst
the former incorporates crime but also includes any legal action, word or image deemed
unacceptable.

 The disciplines of sociology and criminology share a long history of dealing with the
concept of social deviance, a history that, roughly speaking, moved through the layered
phases of classicism, positivism/integrationism, pluralism and radicalism.

In order to transcend these multiple sociological and philosophical problems, contemporary

analyses try to explain the forms of ‘deviance’ we see today as incorporated deviance, created
and reproduced because, when controlled and harnessed, it has a ‘function’ in the consumer
capitalist economy.

 Exclusive society and social deviance:

In The Exclusive Society (1999), for instance, Jock Young argues that contemporary
capitalism is bulimic, incorporating young people into consumer culture’s structure of desires
whilst at the same time ejecting them from the economy, thus increasing the likelihood of
deviance and crime. This is a cautious and partial revival of strain theory, which views the
‘malady of infinite aspirations’ as culturally constructed rather than natural.

1. Alternatively, In Criminal Identities and Consumer Culture (2008), the research team
conceptualize today’s forms of deviance as the ‘spillage’ that occurs as the contemporary

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 capitalist system invokes and intensifies solipsistic, narcissistic and anti-social human
drives, which in a more ethical society would be classified as deviant.

2. The system is conceptualized as a ‘pseudo-pacification process’, which subsequently

attempts to contain and harness these drives as dynamic forces that fuel the continuous
expansion of human desires for symbolic objects, which create an imaginary social world
in the place of the real one that has disappeared.

3. These desires are translated into demand in the vital consumer dimension of the
economy. The dynamic tension operates at such a pitch that spillage is inevitable
throughout the social order.

4. Controlled deviance overheats and breaks through the control system at its weakest
points to appear as plural forms of uncontrolled deviance. Even these new theories are
open to criticisms such as universalism and essentialism, and it remains to be seen how
successful new theories might be as they develop in their efforts to solve the multiple
philosophical problems that characterize the sociological investigation into social
deviance.

 Formal deviation:

Deviance can be broken into two, which are formal and informal. Formal deviations imply
the type of criminal behavior in nature and tend to violate social norms. On the other hand,
informal refer to minor violations that break the unwritten laws of life. Formal deviance includes
criminal violation of formally-enacted laws.

 Informal deviation:

Informal deviance refers to violations of informal social norms, which are norms that have
not been codified into law. Examples of informal deviance include picking one's nose, belching
loudly, or standing unnecessarily close to another person. Formal is often associated with the
conventional or etiquette. It means to be in accord with the established procedures, forms,
conventions or rules. It is also associated with official norms.

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 On the other hand, informal denotes a non formal style. It indicates a causal manner
characterized by relaxed and friendly attitude. Formal and informal are antonyms to each other.
Formal defines an official style or manner. On the other hand, informal can be associated with a
casual or a friendly manner. Thus, anything that is associated with the 'formal' attribute is
regarded to be in accordance to certain rules and regulations or based on a standard format.
Informal is just the opposite of formal.

Something that is informal need not follow rules or regulations. It may also not be based on
any f the conventional procedures. Informal approach is a casual type of approach. It is often
associated with a friendly manner.

 Example:

For example, a formal letter is a type of letter that is written according to a standard business
format. This letter is generally written for correspondence between organizations and customers,
etc. On the other hand, an informal letter is written in a friendly manner to friends, relatives, etc.
and there is no fixed format to refer to while writing such a letter. Both the terms are generally
used as adjectives.

 Comparison between formal and informal deviance:

Formal Informal

Definition Being in accordance with the Without formality or ceremony;

usual requirements, customs, casual: an informal visit. Not
etc.; conventional: to pay one's according to the prescribed,
formal respects. official, or customary way or
manner; irregular; unofficial:
informal proceedings. Suitable
to or characteristic of casual
and familiar, but educated,

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 speech or writing.

Dictionary Marked by form or ceremony: a (Grammar) characterizing the

formal occasion. Designed for second singular pronominal or
wear or use at occasions or verbal form
events marked Without
formality or ceremony; casual:
an informal visit. Not according
to the prescribed, official, or
customary way or manner;
irregular; unofficial: informal
proceedings. Suitable to or
characteristic of casual and
familiar, but educated, speech
or writing. (Grammar)
characterizing the second
singular pronominal or verbal
form, or its use, in certain by
elaborate ceremony or
prescribed social observance:
The formal attire included
tuxedos and full-length gowns.
Requiring a type of dress
suitable for such occasions: a
formal dance. Observant of
conventional requirements of
behavior, procedure, etc., as
persons; ceremonious.

Example in sentences A formal request is to be made She was wearing an informal

by the ministers. The word dress. It is just an informal

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 ‘shall’ is generally used in letter. Dad is an informal term
formal situations. for father.

Dress A formal dress refers to the An informal dress refers to a

dress that is regarded to be dress that is found to be
suitable for events like appropriate to be worn in
wedding, garden party, etc. For everyday affairs. It is a casual
men, a formal dress is generally clothing style.
a business suit.

Language A formal language is language An informal language may

that has no grammar or spelling have grammar or spelling
mistakes. mistakes. It often uses slang
words.

Organizations A formal organization is An informal organization is a

marked by a set of rules and network consisting of personal
regulations that must be and social relationships, in
followed by the employees. which friendships are formed
within the organization.

Meetings Formal meetings are Informal meetings are generally

preplanned with a fixed agenda last minute meetings. They
to be discussed. It takes place in have casual discussions. These
an official set-up. meetings can take place in
restaurants, etc.

Q.2

a) Discuss different types of school and community relationships?

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  Answer:

Formal school-community relations programs have both internal and external programs.
Internal programs are those designed for the benefit of communicating with the employees and
students of the school or district. External programs are those designed for communicating with
the communities which a school or district serves.

 School community relationships:

 Introduction:

The sudden and continuous increase in school population at all level of Nigeria education has
led to the inadequacy of facilities and equipment in many Nigerian schools (Musaazi, 1994).For
goals and objectives of the school systems to be achieved, funds and facilities are required for
the various activities of the schools programmes. But government in Nigeria has been unable to
single-handedly provide qualitative education to all those who demand it due to its financial
implications.

It therefore has to invite the people to participate actively in running schools especially in the
area of providing supporting educational services (Madiewesi, 1991). This is clearly stated by
the Federal Government of Nigeria (2004) in the National Policy on Education, that the
administrative machinery will be based on the following cardinal principles, Vis:

a. Close participation and involvement of the communities, at the local level, in the
administration and management of their schools

b. Effective line of communication between local community and the state on one hand and
national machinery for policy and implementation on the other.

c. The separation of schools into Junior and Senior Secondary Schools as a result of the
Universal Basic Education and other forces of demand for education have led to the
creation of new schools. This situation led to the sharing of existing facilities by both
schools.

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 d. Many of these schools were in need of a lot of resources ranging from classrooms,
furniture, accommodations for staff and so on. No required facilities and equipment no
infrastructure and so on.

e. Therefore, the only solution is to urge communities to come for the rescue of their
schools and for the education of their children

 What is school?

What is School? School is a training center helps develop pupils into efficient social being
and to train them to further educate the backward members of their society. The school is a
special environment where a certain quality of life types of activities and occupations are
provided with the object of securing child’s development along desirable lines.

 School is an open system and a social organization which thrives on the effective
interrelationship within it and with its relevant communities.

 School interacts with people of the community and is linked with the larger society.
The function of the traditional school was to transmit the social heritage of the
community. Its role was too academician nature.

 The modern sociological view of education lay down that school constantly draw
upon social life and activities for its subject matter, its methods of teaching and its
methods of work.

 The school will serve as a society in miniature-a small but ideal community. It will be
model for the society around.

 It will be the peoples` school, but at the same time it will give new direction to the
people and community. It will act as a watch dog against social degeneration. By
enhancing its own status and contribution it will enhance the status of the community
as a whole.

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 There must be a conscious and continuous intercourse, a free give and take between the
little world of the school and bigger one outside. The school has to arrange for the students
opportunities to participate in social services, health campaigns, development plans, another
public activities. The divorce between school and community is likely to make teaching
artificial.

 What is community:

Community according to Jones and George (2006) refers to physical location like towns or
cities or to social milieus like ethnic neighborhoods in which an organization is located. A
3community provides an organization with the physical and social infrastructure that allows it to
operate; it utilities and labour force; the homes in which its managers and employees live; other
organization such as hospital, town services, carriers and theatres that service their needs and
soon. The above definition clearly describes school community. The school community physical
locations are the towns or cities in which it is located. The schools source their physical and
social infrastructure from its communities.

To Hornby (2000), community refers to "a group of people of the same religion, race,
occupation, etc or with shared interest”. To Omolayole (1998), in the urban centre, "community
will normally refer to all those with common interest living in a given ideographical space not
considered too large to make it unwieldy whereas in the rural areas, the community will strictly
comprise people with the same origin". Strictly speaking and for the purpose of the paper the
definition on rural area is adopted for the concept of local community.

 School community relationship:

The processes of social interaction are the bases for creating social relationship. According to
Calhoun, Light and Keller (1998) social relationship is relatively enduring patterns of interaction
between two or more people.

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  Most people have many social relationships, from casual acquaintance to intimate
friendships and close family bond.

 School community relationship is a two-way symbiotic arrangement through which the

school and the community co-operate with each other for the realization of goals of the
community and vice versa.

 It is the degree of understanding and goodwill, which exists between the school and the
community (Okorie, Ememe&Egu 2009).

 School as an open system and a social organization thrives on the effective

interrelationship within it and with its relevant communities.

What happens in a school affects the community, and what happens in the 4community
affects school. This means that community builds its schools and the schools build their
community. Therefore, school community interdependence is unbreakable. There is a reciprocal
relationship. The two works for one another and the two have direct impact on one another. If
schools are expected to be successful in their primary mission of educating the community’s
children, they need to know a great deal about the community and the families from which the
children come.

i. This means that the school cannot exist in isolation but in co-operation with the
community in which it finds itself (Ihebereme, 2008).

ii. The school has to arrange for the students opportunities to participate in social services,
health campaigns, development plans, and other public activities. The divorce between
school and community is likely to make teaching artificial.

iii. This school is not a place where only the children are educated by the whole community.
The school building, furniture, equipment, human resources, etc. are public property.

iv. They should be unhesitatingly placed at the disposal of the community after school hours.
The school teachers should also come forward and place their knowledge and experience
at the disposal of community and assume the role of guides and leaders of the social
group.
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 The school library and play grounds can especially be of significant service to the community
(Ihebereme, 2008). Effective school community relationship raises student persistence and
achievement (Eccles& Harold, 1996; Lareau, 1996; Nieto, 2004). Nieto(2004) contends that
student achievement is positively associated with parent involvement in school and that, school
which encourage high levels of parent involvement outperform their counterparts where there are
lower levels of involvement.

 Types of school communicating relationships:

There are different types of relationship which exist between school and community.
According Pawlas (2005) identified six types of school community relationship:

1. Parenting:

Schools and communities relate as parents of a student. Families must provide for the health
and safety of children, and maintain a home environment that encourages learning and good
behaviour in school. Schools provide training and information to help families understand their
children development and how to support the changes they undergo.

2. Communication:

School must reach out to families with information about the school programmes and student
reports, as well as new information on topics such as school choice and making the transition
from elementary school to higher grades. Communication must be in forms that families find it
understandable and useful. For example, school can use translator to reach parents who don’t
speak English well and it must be two-way, with educators paying attention to the concerns and
needs of families.

3. Volunteering:

Parents can make significant contribution to the environment and functions of a school.
School can get the most out of this process by creating flexible schedules, so more parents can

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participate, and by working to match the talents and interest of parent to the needs of students,
teachers, and administrators.

4. Learning:

With the guidance and support of teachers, family members can supervise and assist their
children at home with homework assignment and other school related activities.

5. Decision Making:

School can give parents meaningful roles in the school decision making process, and provide
parents, with training and information so they can make the most of 6those opportunities. This
opportunity should be open to all segments of the community, not just people who have the most
time and energy to spend on school affairs.

6. Collaboration with the Community:

Schools can help families gain access to support services offered by other agencies such as
health care, cultural events, tutoring service, and after school child care programmes. They also
can help families and community groups provide services to the community, such as recycling
programmes and food pantries.

 Importance of school community relationship:

School community relationship is today gaining more grounds than ever before. School
administrators all over the world are paying more attention to the role of communities in
managing schools. Hence the idea school based management is always on promotion. According
to Fiore (2006) when families, schools and community institutions (e.g. local business,
community colleges and health agencies) collectively agree upon their goals and decide how to
reach them, everyone benefits. He identifies the followings as the importance of school
community relationship:

1) Schools enjoy the informed support of families and community members. Families
experience many opportunities to contribute to their children’s education, and
communities look forward to educated, responsible workforce. Benefits accrue to the

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 staff of schools and community agencies as well: they can observe boosts in morale,
heightened engagement in their work, and a feeling that their work will net results.

2) Communities can provide schools with a context and environment that can either
complement and reinforce the values, culture, and learning the school provide for their
students or negates everything the school strive to accomplish.

3) Communities can furnish schools and students in them with crucial financial support
systems well as the social and cultural values necessary for success and survival in
contemporary society.

4) Communities have the potential to extend a variety of opportunities to students and to

their families-social, cultural and vocational.

5) Schools, in turn, offer communities a focal point of educational services for children.
Schools have the potential to build well-educated citizens ready to take on
responsibilities as contributing community members.

6) By working together, schools, families, and communities can prepare for a more
promising future. In urban communities struggling against violence, unemployment, and
deteriorating institutions, school- community relationship offers hope for those who may
have given on the social institution in their neighborhood and cities. Rural communities
searching for opportunities to revitalize themselves in a technologically sophisticated
society can discover ways to bring themselves into the information age by intertwining
school and community improvement initiatives.

 Community participation:

Community participation in school activities helps community members have a more

positive view of the school. It helps children have better attendance, better behaviour and high
academic achievement motivation. Community members need to be supportive by involving
themselves in school programmes and activities such as Parent-Teacher Association (PTA)
meetings, athletic events, plays, parties and other related engagements. Despite all the benefits
associated with such involvement, many community members do not regard engagement in

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school programmes with all seriousness (Okubanjo, 2006). Effective school community
relationship raises student persistence and achievement.

Fig.2.1. Basic elements of school community

b) What strategies can the administration of the school apply in order to

strengthen its relationship with the community?

Answer:

The new administrators who are willing to manage schools will face several difficulties. To
cope up with these they need to take up some courses which can help them in managing the

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organization. As we all know that an educational institution is a business which can give very
good profits to the sector is increasing day by day.

Generally, the supervisors can also be teachers who will administer the school framework
along with employees who will contribute to the growth of the organization. As the growth of
educational institutions is taking place at a rapid pace there is a huge demand for administrators
who would help in the expansion of the entire institute.

 Many schools are thus training the potential candidates in the school administration
management Course which imparts knowledge on all the aspects of school management
and supervision of a framework.

 First and foremost we need to know what a school administration is. Basically,
administration in an educational organization is where the managers adjudicate school
operations, and day to day tasks of colleges, or Montessori and nursery schools.

 The responsibilities of a manager at a school differ from institution to institution, but the
core work is the same at all organizations.

 The administrators aim for the growth of the students and all employees and design a
plethora of activities to develop the level of education in children. The administrators
apply the same methodologies to other businesses where it is built on the relationship
between the employee and the senior.

 School administrators will be able to handle pre and primary along with Montessori and
high schools. They can also work as deans and principals.

At many schools, the professionals work as counselors, librarians, teachers and even people
who manage the finance. The administrators can at times prepare school syllabus for the students
after consulting with the teachers while the managers in a college can work under the supervision
of the educational departments. The administrators on the higher level can, in fact, manage many
branches of a school or a similar educational institute at a time.

a. Different administrators might have to face different responsibilities but mostly their
general task includes policy creation fund management along with resource allocation.
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 b. In preparing the school syllabus as discussed, the administrators can follow some very
basic rules. A curriculum contains year and units.

Therefore, the managers will take note of factors such as if the structure of the units if they
meet the curriculum standards. Along with that, they analyze the level of effective teaching-
learning in a diverse classroom. They also look at the designed activities for children to assist in
their development and lastly the progress assessments to measure the skills that the students have
acquired.

These are some of the basic ideas of the analysis performed to develop a curriculum. If a
candidate or a new administrator wants to learn more of these things then it is best for them to
take up a school administration management Course to obtain a clear understanding of all the
topics that fall inside it. As discussed already that the school administrators need to manage a lot
of things. They are discussed in details below:

 Finance:

Budget and resource allocation is one of the most important factors in school administration
and the managers will regulate the accounts to prepare budgets and the resources. They will
review and then implement the school finances.

 Rule books:

All organizations have a rule book of their own. The administrators may modify the rule
books according to their needs. It is also necessary to review the regulations mentioned in the
rule book.

 Handling complaints:

Handling of complaints is an essential task that the school administrators need to perform. It
requires patience and persistence to go through the issues that people might be facing. One to
one interaction Administrators will talk to other employees and engage in one to one interaction
to know their problems and solve them accordingly. This is important for the growth of both the
individual and the organization.

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  Handling employment:

The administrators of schools are expert at handling employment. This topic is discussed in
details in a school administration management Course, where the methods to select the
candidates are stated. The administrators will be able to evaluate their skills. By selecting good
candidates the administrators will take an organization forward. Employee performance School
administrators will keep track of the performance of employees or teachers so that the entire
school framework runs smoothly.

The administrators will try to promote and appreciate the good work of the employees. As
said that teachers can be good administrators. The administrators will make good decisions about
their organization along with good strategies.

i. They will evaluate the entire classroom curriculum to facilitate effective learning along
with the use of classroom management techniques.

ii. The teachers will provide many strategies for the growth of the organization. It is thus
necessary to pursue a course on school administration by a candidate. School
administrators should possess a range of potentials to take the organization forward.

iii. They will engage in personal interactions with students in case of any emergencies. The
character of the administrators will be such that the students should feel comfortable
about approaching and interacting with him or her. School administrators will also
empower their employees.

iv. The administrators are generally responsive to the suggestions and feedback for school
improvement. School administrators are generally effective teachers who are consistent
in all parts of the entire school framework.

v. They remain unbiased and follow the same rules and procedures just like all the other
staff and do not cater to favouritism. School administrators do not judge employees and
always support them at times of trouble.

vi. The school administrators need to undergo a lot of research and studies so that the entire
framework runs well.
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vii. Therefore, it is necessary for a candidate to pursue the School Administration
Management Course provided by a reputed institution. Candidates can also take these
courses in online and offline modes from select organizations.

Fig2.2. Instructional core for school community relationship

Q.3

a) Explain the role of communication skills in teaching learning process?

 Communication skills:

Communication skills play a crucial role in the teaching learning process. The
communication skills of the teachers need to be reinforced in the teacher training programmes
for facilitating the fluent transmission of the knowledge. Verbal communication needs to be
stressed further more to make teaching learning process more interactive.

 Definition of communication skills:

Communication skills can be defined as the transmission of a message that Communication

skills can be defined as the transmission of a message that involves the shared understanding

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between the contexts in which the communication takes place (Saunders and Mills, 1999). In
addition, teacher communication skills are important for a teacher in delivery of education to
students (McCarthy and Carter, 2001). Communication skills involve listening and speaking as
well as reading and writing. For effective teaching a teacher need to be highly skilled in all these
areas. Teacher with good communication always make the things easier and understandable
(Freddie Silver).

i. Effective communication skills are really important for a teacher in transmitting of

education, classroom management and interaction with students in the class. Teacher has
to teach the students having different thinking approaches.

ii. To teach in accordance with the ability and capability of the students a teacher need to
adopt such skills of communication which motivate the students toward their learning
process.

iii. Good communication skills of teacher are the basic need of academics success of
students, and professional success of life. Teacher communicates more instructions orally
in classroom to students.

iv. Teacher with poor communication skills may cause failure of students to learn and
promote their academics. Student need to understand that what is right, and what is
wrong while it totally depend upon the communication skills of teachers which he adopt
in class-room.

v. Good communications minimize the potential of unkind feeling during the process of
teaching.

For learning the learner must be attentive toward their teacher during the lecture. Loss
(2000), recommended that teacher communicate in clear and understandable manner.
Communication is a dynamic process which need of mind and courage to face the other and
convey his/her massage in effective way. Communication process is successful when we deliver
the message in clear and understandable way.

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  Effective communication need to convey and accept his/her massage in all kind of
situation and circumstances.

 Good communication is considered a strong tool `for effectiveness in the teaching

profession.

 As variety of skills are needed for good teaching and teachers. A study conducted by
Ehindero & Ajibade, (2000) indicates that for effective teaching, teacher requires
good communication skills such as good communication, good classroom
management, updating knowledge and maintaining personality.

 No one can teach effectively until having these basics skills of teaching. Different
research revolves that there is significant co-relation between communication skills
and supervisor perception of job performance.

Furthermore, Student’s character building and academic background totally depends

upon the professional attitude of teachers. If teachers adopt positive professional attitude towards
the students in their academic and as well as their social achievements, then students can easily
promote their academic level. Teacher has the responsibility to teach and practically prepare
students for the purpose that they can cope with all type of situations.

It also comes under the responsibilities of teacher to behave as role model to the students
(Honby, 2006). Communication means the process which one adopts while sharing his / her
views with others. For a teacher it is necessary to have good communication skills for the good
learning of the students. Teachers need good communication skills for facilitating the students
and achieving good professional goals.

 Effectiveness of teaching:

Effectiveness of teaching is not dependent on technicality but on the method adopted by the
teacher while teaching to the students. Teachers need clear communication for the good
understanding of students and avoiding the problems for students while learning from their
lecture. It is also needed by the teachers to understand first himself before teaching to students

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(Loss, J. 2000). Good communication is not only needed for the effective teaching profession but
it is also very important for the effectiveness of every concern to our life.

Performance of teachers in classroom totally depends upon the communication skills. if the
teacher has good communication skills then he can easily convey his /her massage or deliver the
lecture in an understandable manner. Teaching is a very noble profession that aims at inculcating
knowledge, tradition, values etc. in the child. It is where a more mature personality guides a less
mature ones especially on the areas related to the cognitive side of the mind.

According to Gage, "Teaching is a form of interpersonal influence aimed at changing the

behaviour potential of another person." Teaching is essentially a social activity which has a
significant impact not only on the learning of the child but also on his/her overall personality.
The teacher is now being designated as a facilitator who facilitates in the teaching learning
process of a child in all the possible ways. He is regarded as the friend, philosopher and a guide
to the students who helps the child in the process of cognitive development.

Communication plays a vital role in all spheres of life. Being an essence of any and every
society, it helps the people to share and understand the meanings. Communication has been
derived from the word ‘communize’ which means ‘to share or to make common’. It plays a vital
role in creating understandings and establishing relationships.

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 Fig3.1. Effective communication skills of classroom

b) How can effective communication create an environment that is

conducive for learning?

Answer:

 Creating dialogue:

Creating dialogue between your students can be a challenging yet fundamental part of
teaching. Effective communication can help to build and foster a safe learning environment
where students can thrive, prosper and learn. The importance of establishing good
communication at a young age is critical in a child’s development and future learning. The
importance of establishing good communication at a young age is critical in a child’s
development and future learning. The communication skills that students learn at school are fully
transferable and essential across all aspects of life.

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 Furthermore, it has been proven that supportive teacher-student relationships have a positive
impact on class participation, engagement, and ultimately a student’s achievements.

 Communication can be described as the process where people exchange thoughts or ideas
with one another.

 The benefits of fostering such relationships enable students to freely discuss thoughts and
ideas and create an open environment in which questions can be asked without the risk of
being judged or humiliated.

 Poor communication is the main reason why students lack motivation, perform badly,
and consequently drop out of school. According to many studies, the success of students
is directly related to the effective communication of their teachers. Nurturing this kind of
interactive and engaging teaching environment demands regular and effective
communication.

We have compiled our top techniques to create a positive dialogue between students and
teachers. So let's see what you can do. Create a safe environment Encourage teamwork don’t
stand at the front of the classroom Use some active listening exercises be sure to give positive
feedback.

1. Create a safe environment:

Create a safe and supportive environment where students feel comfortable to open up and
express their thoughts and ideas. An atmosphere that allows students to ask if they need help is
crucial to their academic success. It is important that at all stages of the teaching process you
nurture this kind of non-judgmental environment. Having an open door policy and allowing
students to pop in and talk about anything that may occur is a great way to promote good
communication. Giving students extra support, tuition, or explanations before and after class
helps shy students that don’t feel comfortable in class to ask questions to learn. This is something
we here at Mentimeter strive to promote.

2. More teamwork:

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 Doing more team activities, and group work is a great way to take the focus of competing
with one another and concentrate more on working together to get the best results. It can
encourage communication, cooperation, and collaboration and help students talk more and
effectively express themselves with their peers.

Teamwork and collaboration are skills that are transferable across all aspects of life and will
be particularly important in their future working lives. Consider incorporating some games and
even some quizzes into your lesson plan. Split students into pairs or small groups and tell them
that they need to work together to play or have a chance at doing well. Pair and group work will
also have the added benefit of encouraging students that may not hang out together regularly to
interact more; to ask questions, talk about them, and listen to others. We have plenty of
classroom games and quizzes you can easily arrange that are sure to get students communicating
with you and one another.

3. Positive feedback:

Often teachers forget to mention when a student has performed well and instead focus on the
negative aspects such as bad behavior. This can have significant effects and demoralize students.
Although negative feedback can create positive outcomes by helping students to improve, giving
positive feedback is a necessary part of promoting effective communication in the classroom. It
has been shown that students that receive praise are more likely to believe that they can
accomplish tasks and be successful.

a) Other benefits are that it can help to build a student’s confidence, create a good rapport
and supportive environment.

b) Why stop giving feedback to students yourself? Why not teach students how they can
provide positive feedback to one another, the importance of showing gratitude,
recognition, and appreciation.

c) Conversely, it can be beneficial to encourage your students to give you feedback.

Allowing them to share their feedback on lessons or teaching styles shows that you
appreciate and value their opinion as well as helping to improve learning.

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 If you are looking for an easy way to get started with a lesson on feedback then we have put
together a template on that very topic that you can download and use with just a click or two.
Here everyone can submit anonymous feedback and give some well-deserved praise to their
classmates.

4. Don’t stand at the front of the classroom:

Moving around the classroom and getting involved with the students will create less of a
student-teacher feel. Moving away from the front of the classroom and joining them either at
their desks to discuss ideas and getting involved in small discussions will help them feel more
comfortable and more likely to open up.

Moving around the room also has the added effect of changing students’ points of focus. By
moving towards students who usually don’t speak up you can encourage them to participate by
simply being in closer proximity. Some may not want to raise their voice around their classmates
and simply being close means they can contribute without the added pressure that speaking aloud
may bring.

5. Active listening:

Listen to hear your students, not just to respond and give an immediate answer. Sometimes
just lending an ear can be extremely useful in promoting a supportive and caring environment.
Other times, students have a question about homework or need some clarification about a topic
that has been discuss where an answer is needed.

Listening to your students enables you to provide better assistance and consequently a better
education. Likewise, helping to teach your students both the value and the skills of active
listening will both help to improve their ability to understand instructions and lessons as well as
their ability to connect with their peers. These are skills that will be invaluable throughout their
time in education and throughout their lives.

6. Improve your classroom communication with Mentimeter:

Another important aspect of improving communication in any setting, but especially in the
classroom, is to make students feel safe and comfortable contributing. We mentioned earlier
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about the importance of creating a safe and supportive environment, students will naturally
develop communication skills but some will do so more gradually than others as they may have a
fear of speaking in front of a group or lack confidence in what they have to say. A tool like
Mentimeter can help to alleviate and remove these fears and blockers.

Fig3.2. Effective communication in learning of student in classroom

Q.4

a) Compare the theories of motivation from different school of thought?

 Theories of Motivation:

Since the beginning of industrialization and the advent of factories, people have been trying
to figure out what motivates employees.

One of the very first theories was developed by Frederick Taylor, who wrote, “The Principles
of Scientific Management” in 1911.

More recent theories of motivation include ERG Theory (1972) by Alderfer and the Equity
Theory of Motivation (1963) by Adams.

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 Unfortunately, most of the theories of motivation differ in what they think the best way to
motivate employees is.

The reason the theories draw different conclusions is that motivation is somewhat of a black
box, where it’s difficult to see what’s going on inside our heads, and each of us is unique enough
to make it very difficult to draw anything other than very general conclusions.

 Theories of Motivation:

In a general sense, you can think of motivation as working as follows: As you can see, each
of us has needs. Your needs will be different from my needs. But each of us is motivated by our
needs to exhibit certain behaviors. The aim of our behaviors is obviously to meet our needs.
Whether our needs are satisfied or not can then cause us to change our needs. In this way, the
cycle begins again with our new needs, potentially causing us to exhibit new behavior.

 Content Theories vs. Process Theories:

As we’ve already discussed, there are many different theories of motivation in existence, and
each of them is different. However, they can be categorized into two groups, known as Content
Theories and Process Theories.

1. Content Theories:

Content theories are also sometimes called needs theories. They look at motivation from the
perspective of our needs and aspirations. The theories then discuss motivation in terms of filling
these needs. You can think of content theories of motivation as focusing on what will motivate
us. The main content theories of motivation are – Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs, Alderfer’s ERG
Theory, McClelland’s Three Needs Theory, Herzberg’s Two Factor Theory, and McGregor’s
Theory X and Theory Y.

2. Process Theories:

Process theories look at how people are motivated. They are concerned with the process by
which motivation occurs, and how we can adjust our processes to alter motivation levels. You
can think of process theories of motivation as focusing on HOW motivation occurs. The main

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process theories of motivation are – Skinner’s Reinforcement Theory, Vroom’s Expectancy
Theory, Adam’s Equity Theory, and Locke’s Goal Setting Theory.

Fig4.1. Content and process theories

Let’s now give a brief overview of each of these theories of motivation. If you’d like to dig
deeper, then we have provided links to an article covering the theory in greater depth.

1. Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs:

Maslow described needs in terms of a hierarchy. The concept being that needs at the bottom
of the hierarchy must be satisfied before an individual can move to the next level and seek to
satisfy those needs. Now, each individual’s needs are changing all the time, but at any time, an
employer can use the hierarchy to try and determine what is going to motivate an employee. The
five levels of the hierarchy are:

 Physiological needs: such as food and water.

 Safety needs: such as being free from war, natural disasters, and having job security.

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  Social needs: such as having relationships and belonging to groups.

 Esteem needs: such as receiving praise, recognition, and status.

 Self-actualization needs: such as wanted to be the best we can be.

When using Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs, a business should offer different rewards to
encourage employees to keep moving up the hierarchy. This will keep employees motivated.

2. Herzberg’s Two Factor Theory:

Herzberg argued that there are two factors which are essential in the motivation of
employees. These are motivators and hygiene factors.

Motivators: these encourage employees to work harder if present. Examples of motivators

include having an interesting job, advancement, and growth.

Hygiene factors: These don’t encourage employees to work harder, but they will cause them
to become unmotivated if they are not present.

Examples of hygiene factors include working conditions and remuneration. Herzberg’s Two
Factor Theory believed that to motivate employees, employers should: Eliminate job hygiene
stressors: remove those things that are causing poor job satisfaction, for example, poor working
conditions. Boost job satisfaction: through job enrichment (making the job more interesting by
giving it more complex tasks) and job empowerment (making the post more satisfying by giving
it a greater variety of functions). Empower employees: by delegating increasing responsibility to
each employee.

3. McClelland’s Three Needs:

Theory McClelland’s Three Needs Theory argues that each of us has three needs to a greater
or lesser extent. The three needs are:

a) Need for achievement: for example if you are motivated by setting a new record, or
by the opportunity to get promoted.

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 b) Need for affiliation: for example if you are motivated by collaborating with others or
being accepted as part of a group.

c) Need for power: for example if you are motivated by being in charge of others, or if
you are motivated by having high status.

Some people live at the extremes for each of these needs. For example, a team member
with no need for power might be subordinate and overly dependent, whereas a team member
with too much need for power might exaggerate their own abilities. Managers can use the Three
Needs Theory to set motivational targets tailored to each member of their team.

4. McGregor’s Theory X and Theory Y:

 Theory X:

Theory X assumes that team members are intrinsically lazy and unmotivated, and will avoid
doing work if any opportunity presents itself. Because of this, management must work tirelessly
and continually to build systems of control and supervision over employees.

 Theory Y:

Theory Y assumes that team members are ambitious and self-motivated.

A Theory Y manager holds the view that if provided with the right conditions, team members
will perform well. McGregor himself was in favor of adopting a Theory Y style of management
in most cases. Employers looking to use Theory Y might: Use job enlargement to increase job
satisfaction. Use a collaborative style of management, so employees feel they are a crucial part
of decision making.

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 Fig4.2. Motivation theories components

b) Develop a yearly plan for the collaboration among community, school

and local bodies.

Answer:

As the old African proverb says, "It takes a village to raise a child." One could imagine then
that it would take a community to raise a school. We can't rely on local, state, or federal
governments to take ownership of the issues we face locally. We need to work as a community to
nurture our schools for our particular community needs. I believe the answer to real
education/school transformation is strong, authentic community connections and actions.

When families, community groups, business and schools band together to support learning,
young people achieve more in school, stay in school longer, and enjoy the experience more.
Great examples of school/community partnerships are happening all over the world. We need
more of them, and we need to ensure they are healthy and relevant to the needs of 21st century
learners. Throughout my journey setting up the Reinventing School Challenge, I did a significant
amount of research to ensure I had a thorough understanding of what existed already, what
worked, and what was possible. The more I searched the themes for successful school
transformation emerged:

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 1. Community/business school partnerships

2. Parental collaboration

3. Curriculum connected to real world experiences

4. Student voice

5. Cross generation learning

6. Locals designing solutions to local problems

 Whole Community Engagement Is Key:

To lift up and rise our schools to a place that suits all 21st century learners, help needs to
come from many parts of the community. The leading roles should be alternated according to the
need and focus of the particular aspect of the transformation project. If we respect each other and
acknowledge our unique contribution, we can move forward quickly in a positive environment
where we can all be teachers and learners. I'm approaching this post from an inclusive, design-
focused view, and I put to you ideas that target and engage the four main players I believe can
make all the difference in transforming our schools and curriculum today: students, parents,
seniors/grandparents and local businesses.

 Step 1: Expand Your Vision of School to Include Community:

Ryan Bretag writes, "Educators shouldn't be the only ones contributing. The community
should be creating questions, puzzles, quotes, mind benders, trivia, philosophical and ethical
challenges, thought provoking videos, "graffiti walls," brainstorming spaces, and play areas."
There are so many opportunities for experiential learning to happen out in the community
surrounding the school. We just need to find ways to connect core curriculum beyond the
classroom by attracting the right people and asking the right questions.

 Step 2: Reach Out to All Stakeholders:

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 One of the best ways to connect and create an authentic bond is to go to the people who
matter most, and meet them on their own turf. A series of community walks are a great way to
start.

a. Get your teachers, some local businesses on board and go and knock on people's doors,
visit local businesses and senior homes and talk with them.

b. Try the same approach with groups of students. This time let the students communicate
what they hope and wish for their school and encourage them to ask for mentoring and
support.

Share your dreams for enhanced community-school partnerships, ask people what matters to
them, ask them how they might help, and show them your passion. Deliver them an open
invitation to reconnect, collaborate and share their experience, skills and time to make a
difference.

 Step 3: Create a Community Resource Map:

A visual representation of your community and the various skills people have to offer is a
super way to understand what community resources are available. If you build one, also point out
the materials people can supply at cost or for free, the time they can invest in projects, and how
they can connect to curriculum, and classroom activities. Include the networks they can utilize to
raise awareness of the needs of local children and families, and always promote and foster
resource -sharing and collaboration.

Use libraries to advocate for school-community partnerships and student learning. Libraries
are important hubs and can provide meaningful connection points outside the school gates. A
community resource map can come in the form of a hand-drawn map (use a graphic facilitator),
Google Map, Mind Map or even a spreadsheet with some visual outputs.

 Step 4: Connect with Curriculum:

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 Much of what we learn as children and adults happens outside the classroom through real
world experiences and from our peers, mentors or on the job. How might we connect today's
core curriculum with the real world?

 That is an important question that is in urgent need of answers. Kids today are asking far
too often for relevance in what they are learning. "Why am I learning this? I'll never use
this!" is a response far too often heard from the mouths of young people today.

 Let's find ways to work with local businesses and subject matter experts to connect core
curriculum to the outside world and design engaging learning experiences in and out of
the classroom.

 "Asking the Experts" from Kathleen Cushman's wonderful book Fires in the Mind: What
Kids Can Tell Us about Motivation and Mastery. Please consider using project-based
learning. Try using a matching technique to match students with subject matter experts,
businesses and community organizations.

Here is a great book on the subject by Suzie Boss. Reinventing Project-Based Learning: Your
Field Guide to Real-World Projects in the Digital Age. Let's not forget the largely untapped
wealth of experience and knowledge that resides with retires grandparents and millions of
socially isolated senior citizens in aged care facilities.

 Step 5: A Design Challenge for the Community:

Here is an example of a community challenge to reinvent the school experience. I created

the Reinventing School Challenge earlier this year to encourage discussion, empower youth,
teachers and communities to design and facilitate change locally.

Reinventing school can mean lots of things such as redesigning classrooms, creating a
community garden, creating an open and shared learning space, designing a course, changing the
way students participate in decision making, you name it! Using Stanford's K12 lab Design
Thinking for Educators a methodology, or process leading product and service designers use
every day, participants collaborate to come up with ideas and learning experiences and then
share them online for all to benefit from.

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 Fig4.3. Framework of school leadership research work

Q.5

a) Explain the technological change which has taken place in the last
decade?

Answer:

When we think about the gadgets, gizmos, and apps aplenty that we use in our everyday
lives, it’s hard to imagine that there was ever a time when we got along without them. From food
delivery apps like Seamless and music streaming services like Spotify and Google (and the
magnificent art of Googling), certain tech advancements that have arisen over the past years and
decades have become so ubiquitous that we hardly even give them a second thought.

1) Yet, the reality is those that are most central to our lives didn’t even exist 10 years ago.
From technological advances like Uber that have changed how we get from point A to
point B to apps like Venmo that have created a social experience around sending and
requesting money, the past decade has seen several tech trends that have become
commonplace while still affecting how we live in major ways.

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 2) Stacker scoured some of the top sources for tech and news to compile a list of 25 major
advancements in technology that have changed the way we live our lives and interact
with the world around us, along with the companies that have spearheaded technological
breakthroughs to make them part of our everyday lives.

3) The tech inventions and innovations on this list span a wide range of categories,
including transportation, fitness, food, finance, and even romance. And while each of the
spotlighted items on this list reflects a different trend that we’ve seen over the past 10
years, there’s one thing that they all have in common:

In addition to shaping our lives over the past decade, they’re paving the way for how we live
in the future.

 Centralized work communications:

As far as technologies that have transformed the modern workplace, few examples are more
significant than Slack, which was launched in 2013. The instant-messaging app is one that has
drastically transformed the way people communicate in business and transformed the world of
remote work by creating a kind of hub for communications, file sharing, team group chats, and
more to maximize efficiency no matter where in the world employees are. While the workplace
is certainly the space that has been most affected by the launch of Slack, that’s not to say it’s the
only place. The chat platform has also been utilized by friends, families, couples, and networking
groups as a tool for communicating. Why? The widespread (and almost constant) use of the
platform allows for one of the most frictionless ways for everyone to connect.

 New formats for sharing our personal lives and marketing our businesses:

It’s hard to believe there was ever a time when we weren’t chronicling our every experience
on the ‘gram—and it’s even harder to believe that time was as recent as a decade ago. Since its
launch in 2010, Instagram has completely transformed human behavior, from the way we travel
and find travel inspiration, to the way we eat and share our meals, to the way we interact with
our friends, families, and in some cases total strangers.

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 The social media platform, which in 2018 had over 1 billion active users, has always been a
source of entertainment and inspiration for users. And in addition to finding new ways to
continue conquering that space for users via the introduction of such features as Boomerang,
Instagram Stories, and IGTV, the app is now evolving into a powerful tool for marketers, as well.

 The dawn of temporary social shares:

In the same vein as Instagram, Snapchat is another social media platform that has become so
ubiquitous in modern culture that it’s hard to remember a time before its existence. Snapchat,
which initially launched as Picaboo back in 2011, is interesting as one of the only social
platforms of its kind to replicate real-time communication in the sense that it’s fleeting. The idea
behind the app was that it would be a place where people could send disappearing images to one
another. Today, a number of features—including Snapchat Discover, which features short-form
and content from brands; Lenses, which add filters to photos taken with the self-facing camera;
and group messaging—have made the app one of the most popular social networks for casual
users and marketers alike.

 Virtual home assistants:

When Amazon Echo launched back in 2014, it brought with it a new kind of “smart home”
and a new association for the name Alexa. The smart speaker basically acts as a virtual assistant,
with the ability to do anything from tell you the weather for the day, to update you on the latest
headlines, to play your music. All it takes is a simple “Hey, Alexa” to summon the speaker, after
which the built-in voice recognition can process different questions and commands from users.
The first-of-its-kind speaker ultimately set the stage for additional smart speakers to come.

 ‘Smart’ homes:

On the topic of smart homes, Google started one of its own back in 2014 with the launch of
Google Nest, which creates smart, connected devices for almost everything one might need in
the home. The first product under Google Nest was the Wi-Fi-connected Learning Thermostat
(though this was actually created back in 2011 by a team of Apple alumni before being

40
purchased by Google in 2014). The company has since rolled out a host of additional smart home
products, including a smoke detector, security system, Chrome cast, and more.

Fig5.1. Technological change over last decades

b) Explain how technology has influenced the international labor market.

Answer:

Decades ago, renowned economists John Maynard Keynes and Wassily Leontief foretold a
time when artificial intelligence would produce “technological unemployment.” In their view,
labor would become less important and workers would be replaced by machines. Science fiction
writers often capitalize on plots where robots take over tasks traditionally performed by humans.
In such a scenario, what would be the implications on today’s labor market?

According to “Robots and jobs: evidence from US labor markets” (National Bureau of
Economic Research working paper no. 23285, March 2017) by Daron Acemoglu and Pascual
Restrepo, the use of industrial robots may reduce employment and wages in the U.S. economy.
An industrial robot does not need a human operator.

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 a) The authors’ review of the literature shows that, in the United States, the number of
robots increased from 1993 to 2007 and, by 2007, amounted to 1 robot for every
thousand workers.

b) There are an estimated 1.5–1.75 million robots in operation, with the number expected
increase to 4–6 million by 2025.

c) Industries employing many robots include the automotive industry, electronics industry,
metal products industry, and plastic and chemical industry.

The Acemoglu and Restrepo study analyzed the effect that industrial robot usage had on
labor markets from 1990 to 2007. The model used in the study built on prior research but
extended the framework to account for the varying share of tasks performed by robots across
industries. The model regressed the change in employment and wages on the exposure to robots
(exposure to robots is calculated as the national penetration of robots into each industry times the
employment share of that industry in the local labor market).

 Analysis:

The analysis showed a negative and positive effect on wages and employment from
increasing the number of robots into the economy.

1. The negative effect is that robots displace current workers from their occupations.

2. The positive effect is the priceproductivity effect. Increasing the number of robots
decreases the cost of production, thus expanding the industry and increasing the demand
for labor.

The analysis also considered gender, industry, occupation, education, and wage percentiles. It
found that the employment impact for men is 1.5–2 times greater than for women, and the effects
are concentrated in manufacturing industries. Negative effects are seen in all occupations except
for managerial positions.

Not surprisingly, large decreases are found within blue-collar jobs that have routine manual
operations, such as assembly workers, transportation workers, and machinists. The negative

42
impacts slightly diminish as a worker’s education level increases, and no impact exists for
workers with graduate degrees. The authors note an unexpected finding in that no positive
impact was found with workers who had more than a college degree. The authors suggest that
this finding may indicate that industrial robots may not be complementing any particular
occupation group.

 Effects on wages:

The study found the effects on wages similarly were concentrated around the bottom half of
the distribution. The authors acknowledge that because relatively few robots currently exist,
robots have caused the loss of only a limited number of jobs. As the use of robots is anticipated
to spread, however, future employment and wages would likely be affected. Little evidence
exists of the equilibrium impacts that this spread may cause.

This study is viewed by the authors as a first step in evaluating how robots influence labor
market equilibriums. The authors provide an empirical methodology to address the lack of
research in this area. Their research concludes by stating that if the spread of robots continues,
there could be sizable future declines in the employment– population ratio.

Fig5.2. Labor market influenced by technology

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