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▪ The key determinants of the price elasticity of demand for a good are: the availability of
close substitutes, the passage of time, whether the good is a luxury or a necessity, the
definition of the market, and the share of the good in the consumer’s budget.
6.3 The Relationship between Price Elasticity of Demand and Total Revenue
(pages 193–197)
Explain the relationship between the price elasticity of demand and total revenue.
▪ When demand is inelastic, price and total revenue move in the same direction. When
demand is elastic, price and total revenue move inversely.
▪ The cross-price elasticity of demand measures the responsiveness of the quantity demanded
of one good to a change in the price of another good; the income elasticity of demand
measures the responsiveness of the quantity demanded of a good to a change in income.
▪ Elasticity can help us understand why the family farm has become an endangered species
and the effects of raising the federal government’s tax on gasoline.
6.6 The Price Elasticity of Supply and Its Measurement (pages 202–208)
Define price elasticity of supply and understand its determinants and how it is measured.
▪ The price elasticity of supply measures the responsiveness of the quantity supplied to a
change in price.
Key Terms
Cross-price elasticity of demand, p. 197. The Perfectly elastic demand, p. 189. The case
percentage change in quantity demanded of one where the quantity demanded is infinitely
good divided by the percentage change in the responsive to price and the price elasticity
price of another good. of demand equals infinity.
Elastic demand, p. 185. Demand is elastic when Perfectly inelastic demand, p. 189. The case
the percentage change in the quantity demanded where the quantity demanded is completely
is greater than the percentage change in price, so unresponsive to price, and the price elasticity
the price elasticity is greater than 1 in absolute of demand equals zero.
value.
Price elasticity of demand, p. 184. The
Elasticity, p. 184. A measure of how much one responsiveness of the quantity demanded to
economic variable responds to changes in a change in price, measured by dividing the
another economic variable. percentage change in the quantity demanded
of a product by the percentage change in the
Income elasticity of demand, p. 198. A product’s price.
measure of the responsiveness of the quantity
demanded to changes in income, measured by Price elasticity of supply, p. 202. The
the percentage change in quantity demanded responsiveness of the quantity supplied to
divided by the percentage change in income. a change in price, measured by dividing the
percentage change in the quantity supplied
Inelastic demand, p. 185. Demand is inelastic of a product by the percentage change in the
when the percentage change in quantity product’s price.
demanded is less than the percentage change in
price, so the price elasticity is less than 1 in Total revenue, p. 193. The total amount of
absolute value. funds a seller receives from selling of a good or
service, calculated by multiplying price per unit demanded is equal to the percentage change in
by the number of units sold. price, so the price elasticity is equal to 1 in
absolute value.
Unit-elastic demand, p. 185. Demand is unit
elastic when the percentage change in quantity
Chapter Outline
Do People Respond to Changes in the Price of Gasoline?
In the summer of 2008, the average price of a gallon of gasoline was $4.00; by the end of the year it was
down to $1.50. The price rose to nearly $4.00 by 2011 before falling to below $2.00 at the beginning of
2015 and then rising again. Some people argue that consumers don’t vary the quantity of gas they buy as
the price fluctuates because the number of miles they drive is roughly constant. But actual consumer
behavior contradicts this. In December 2014, when the average price of gasoline was $2.50 per gallon, U.S.
consumers bought about 7 percent more gasoline than they did in April 2014, when the average price of
gasoline was $3.60 per gallon.
Elasticity is a measure of how much one economic variable responds to changes in another economic
variable. The price elasticity of demand is the responsiveness of the quantity demanded to a change in
price, measured by dividing the percentage change in the quantity demanded of a product by the percentage
change in the product’s price.
The price elasticity of demand is always negative. Because we are usually interested in the relative size of
elasticities, we often compare their absolute values.
Inelastic demand refers to when the percentage change in quantity demanded is less than the percentage
change in price, so the price elasticity is less than 1 in absolute value.
Unit-elastic demand refers to when the percentage change in quantity demanded is equal to the percentage
change in price, so the price elasticity is equal to 1 in absolute value.
(Q 2 − Q1) ( P 2 − P1)
Price elasticity of demand = .
Q1 + Q 2 P1 + P 2
2 2
Teaching Tips
After illustrating a perfectly inelastic demand curve, ask your students to suggest examples. They may
mention cigarettes, gasoline, or other goods that have relatively inelastic, but not perfectly inelastic,
demands. Ask if the quantity demanded of the products they suggest would change if the price were not
only higher but lower as well. Even students who claim they would not buy less gasoline if the price rose
are unlikely to argue that they would not buy more gasoline at lower prices. This discussion will help your
students understand that very few products actually have perfectly inelastic demand curves. You don’t need
to spend much time discussing perfectly elastic demand. It should be sufficient to make a brief reference to
perfect competition, a topic covered in Chapter 12.
Extra Making
the Rewriting the Formula
Connection
Your understanding of elasticity (E) may be increased by rewriting the elasticity formula. To make this
explanation easier to follow, assume that we are interested in measuring the price elasticity of a linear
demand curve. The elasticity formula in the textbook is:
(Q 2 − Q1) ( P 2 − P1)
E= .
(Q1 + Q 2) ( P1 + P 2)
2 2
Both “2”s can be dropped from this equation. Recall that (Q2 − Q1) = ΔQ and (P2 − P1) = ΔP. Substituting,
we have:
Q P
E= .
(Q1 + Q 2) ( P1 + P 2)
Because the elasticity equation divides one fraction by another fraction you can rewrite this expression by
multiplying the numerator by the inverse, or reciprocal, of the denominator. The associative property of
multiplication allows us to divide ΔQ by ΔP and (P1 + P2) by (Q1 + Q2). Therefore:
Q P1 + P 2
P= .
P Q1 + Q 2
Because the slope of a linear or straight line demand curve is constant and can be written as ΔP/ΔQ, the
elasticity formula can now be written as:
P1 + P 2
E = (1/slope) .
Q1 + Q 2
Writing the elasticity formula this way makes it clear that the slope is not the same as the elasticity of a
demand curve. Along a linear demand curve, the slope will have a constant value but the elasticity will not.
The formula highlights this and also can be used to make another important point. Because the law of
demand tells us that high prices are associated with relatively low values of quantity demanded (and vice
versa), the absolute values for elasticity will be high at high prices (demand is elastic) and relatively low at
low prices (demand is inelastic). This result can easily be shown by substituting in actual price and quantity
values for a given demand curve into the rewritten formula and observing the change in the ratio of (P1 +
P2) to (Q1 + Q2) as price is decreased.
B. Passage of Time
The more time that passes, the more elastic the demand for a product becomes.
Teaching Tips
It is useful to emphasize two points. First, each of the five determinants of the price elasticity of demand
should be considered separately from the others. A product that consumes a small part of a consumer’s
budget (this suggests demand would be relatively inelastic) may have several good substitutes (this suggests
demand would be relatively elastic). Second, changes in the market price of any product will result in
different values for price elasticity. Estimates of the price elasticity of demand use market prices for
products at a particular time. Different market prices from different timer periods would result in different
elasticity estimates.
Currently, consumers appear to be “trading down,” choosing lower-priced restaurants than they
used to. The National Restaurant Association projects sales, adjusted for inflation, will decline by
2.5% in full service restaurants in 2009, while it predicts quick service will grow by 0.4%.
Stephen Hanson, who closed several of his once-successful restaurants in New York and Chicago, has had
better luck with restaurants that offer less expensive meals. Mr. Hanson explained the success of his big
restaurants that earn a small profit from a large number of customers: “I’m in the volume business.” By
2010, business at upscale and other restaurants began to recover as the recession ended.
Sources: Katy McLaughlin, “What’s Not Cooking,” Wall Street Journal, January 23, 2009, and Kevin P. Casey, “From fast food
to fine dining, business is up at restaurants,” USA Today, November 22, 2010.
a. What are the key determinants of the price elasticity of demand for meals served at high-end
restaurants?
b. Cite evidence that high restaurant prices resulted in a lower quantity demanded and a substitution
by consumers to lower-priced alternatives.
Step 2: What are the key determinants of the price elasticity of demand for meals served at
high-end restaurants?
The key determinants are the availability of close substitutes (for example, “quick service”
restaurants that serve less expensive meals) and the share of the restaurant meals in the
consumer’s budget.
Step 3: Cite evidence that high restaurant prices resulted in a lower quantity demanded and
a substitution by consumers to lower-priced alternatives.
High-end restaurants had their worst downturn in decades. San Francisco’s Rubicon and the
Blue Water Grill in Chicago closed in 2008. But sales at “quick service” restaurants increased.
Steven Hanson, owner of several restaurants, reported that he had greater success with
restaurants that charge lower prices.
A firm is interested in price elasticity of demand for its products because it allows the firm to calculate how
changes in price will affect its total revenue. Total revenue is the total amount of funds a seller receives
from selling a good or service, calculated by multiplying price per unit by the number of units sold. When
demand is inelastic, price and total revenue move in the same direction: An increase in price raises total
revenue, and a decrease in price reduces total revenue. When demand is elastic, price and total revenue
move inversely: An increase in price reduces total revenue, and a decrease in price raises total revenue. If
demand is unit elastic a change in price is exactly offset by a proportional change in quantity demanded,
leaving revenue unaffected.
Extra Making
Determining the Price Elasticity of Demand through Market
the
Experiments
Connection
Firms usually have a good idea of the price elasticity of demand for products that have been on the market
for at least a few years. For new products, however, firms often experiment with different prices to
determine the price elasticity. For example, Apple introduced the first-generation iPhone in June 2007, at a
price of $599. But demand for the iPhone was more elastic than Apple had expected, and when sales failed
to reach Apple’s projections, the company cut the price to $399 just two months later. Similarly, when 3D
televisions were introduced into the U.S. market in early 2010, Sony and other manufacturers believed that
sales would be strong despite prices being several hundred dollars higher than for other high-end ultra-thin
televisions. Once again, though, demand turned out to be more elastic than expected, and by December
firms were cutting prices 40 percent or more in an effort to increase revenue.
Since electronic books (e-books) became popular after Amazon introduced the Kindle e-reader, firms have
experimented with different prices in trying to determine the relevant price elasticity. Amazon had
originally priced most best-selling e-books at $9.99, but when Apple introduced the iPad in 2010, Apple
negotiated contracts with publishers that raised prices for e-books. Amazon and Barnes & Noble eventually
signed similar contracts, and the prices for best selling e-books rose from $9.99 to $12.99 or $14.99.
Publishers hoped that a low price elasticity of demand for e-books would result in the price increase leading
to higher revenues. Many buyers, however, claimed that rather than pay higher prices, they would go back
to reading printed books. Joel Waldfogel, an economist at the University of Pennsylvania, raised the
possibility that the higher prices might lead some readers to illegally download pirated e-books, in violation
of the publishers’ copyrights. Although piracy has been a problem with music and movies, it had not yet
been a problem with books. Waldfogel argued that, “I would be scared to death about a culture of piracy
taking hold. I wouldn’t mess around with price increases.” Whether the demand for e-books turns out to be
elastic or inelastic may depend on how many readers consider printed books or pirated e-books to be close
substitutes for legally downloaded e-books.
Source: Daisuke Wakabayashi and Miguel Bustillo, “TV Makers Can’t Hold Line on 3-D Prices,” Wall Street Journal, December
20, 2010; Motoko Rich and Brad Stone, “Cost of an e-Book Will Be Going Up,” New York Times, February 11, 2010; and Kate
Hafner and Brad Stone, “iPhone Owners Crying Foul Over Price Cut,” New York Times, September 7, 2007.
Question
A publisher was quoted as saying the following about the pricing of e-books: “We may introduce [an e-
book] at $14.95 for a year and then move the book to $9.99 when we would have put out the trade paperback
edition. I suspect you’re going to see a fair amount of experimentation.” Why would issuing a paperback
version of a book affect the price a publisher would charge for an e-book? Why would publishers be
experimenting with the prices of e-books?
Source: Motoko Rich and Brad Stone, “Cost of an e-Book Will Be Going Up,” New York Times, February 11, 2010.
Answer
The paperback edition is a reasonably good substitute for the e-book edition. Publishers are experimenting
with the prices of e-books because they are relatively new products, which makes estimating price elasticity
difficult.
In addition to price elasticity, two other demand elasticities are important: the cross-price elasticity of
demand and the income elasticity of demand.
The cross-price elasticity of demand is the percentage change in the quantity demanded of one good
divided by the percentage change in the price of another good. An increase in the price of a substitute will
lead to an increase in quantity demanded, so the cross-price elasticity of demand will be positive.
An increase in the price of a complement will lead to a decrease in the quantity demanded, so the cross-
price elasticity of demand will be negative.
If the quantity demanded of a good increases as income increases, then the good is a normal good. Normal
goods are often further subdivided into luxuries and necessities. The income elasticity of demand for a
necessity is positive but less than 1. The income elasticity of demand for a luxury is greater than 1. A good
is inferior if the quantity demanded falls as income increases.
Teaching Tips
Many students confuse one type of elasticity with another. Ask your students to solve the following
problem. Assume that the absolute value of the price elasticity of demand for good X is 2.5. Is good X a
normal good? (Answer: You cannot determine whether X is normal or inferior by knowing its price
elasticity. You need to know the income elasticity of demand for good X to answer this question).
a. There is a 20 percent increase in New York subway fares. As a result, the price of a taxicab ride
increases by 5 percent.
b. An economic expansion causes a 5 percent increase in the incomes of tourists visiting New York
City. As a result, the price of a taxicab ride increases by 2 percent.
Describe the cross-price and income elasticity formulas and use the formulas to determine the values of
these elasticities for taxicab rides.
Step 2: State the cross-price elasticity formula and determine the value of this elasticity for
taxicab rides.
The cross-price elasticity formula is:
Because a 20 percent increase in subway fares raised the quantity demanded of taxi rides by
5 percent, the value of the cross-price elasticity is:
5 percent
= 0.25.
20 percent
Step 3: State the income elasticity formula and determine the value of this elasticity for taxi
rides.
The income elasticity is:
Because a 5 percent increase in income led to a 2 percent increase in taxi rides, the value of the
income elasticity is:
2 percent
= 0.4.
5 percent
The elasticity is positive but less than 1. Therefore, a taxi ride is a normal good and a necessity.
From 1950 to 2015, the number of farms decreased from 5 million to about 2 million, and the number of
people who lived on farms fell from 23 million to fewer than 3 million. Rapid growth in farm output has
combined with low price and income elasticities to make family farming difficult in the United States. In
1950, the average U.S. wheat farmer harvested about 17 bushels from each acre. By 2015, the average U.S.
wheat farmer harvested 44 bushels per acre. This increase in wheat production resulted in a substantial
decline in prices because: (1) the demand for wheat is inelastic, and (2) the income elasticity of demand for
wheat is low.
a. Suppose the price elasticity of demand for cocaine is −2. If legalization causes the price of
cocaine to fall by 95 percent, what will be the percentage increase in the quantity of cocaine
demanded?
b. If the price elasticity is −0.02, what will be the percentage increase in the quantity demanded?
c. Discuss how the size of the price elasticity of demand for cocaine is relevant to the debate over its
legalization.
Step 2: Answer part (a) using the formula for the price elasticity of demand.
Percentage change in quantity demanded
Price elasticity of demand = .
Percentage change in price
We can plug into this formula the values given for the price elasticity and the percentage change
in price:
Percentage change in quantity demanded
−2 = .
−95%
Or rearranging:
Percentage change in quantity demanded = −2 × −95% = 190%
Step 4: Answer part (c) by discussing how the size of the price elasticity of demand for
cocaine helps us to understand the effects of legalization.
Clearly, the higher the absolute value of the price elasticity of demand for cocaine, the greater
the increase in cocaine use that would result from legalization. If the price elasticity is as high
as in part (a), legalization will lead to a large increase in use. If, however, the price elasticity is
as low as in part (b), legalization will lead to only a small increase in use.
Extra Credit: One estimate puts the price elasticity at −0.28, which suggests that even a large fall in the
price of cocaine might lead to only a moderate increase in cocaine use. However, even a moderate increase
in cocaine use would have costs. Some studies have shown that cocaine users are more likely to commit
crimes, to abuse their children, to have higher medical expenses, and to be less productive workers.
Moreover, many people object to the use of cocaine and other narcotics on moral grounds and would oppose
legalization even if it led to no increase in use. Ultimately, whether the use of cocaine and other drugs
should be legalized is a normative issue. Economics can contribute to the discussion but cannot decide the
issue.
Source for estimate of price elasticity of cocaine: Henry Saffer and Frank Chaloupka, “The Demand for Illicit Drugs,” Economic
Inquiry, Vol. 37, No. 3, July 1999, pp. 401–411.
To measure how much quantity supplied increases when price increases, we use the price elasticity of
supply.
Because of the law of supply, price elasticity of supply will be a positive number. If the price elasticity of
supply is less than 1, then supply is inelastic. If the price elasticity of supply is greater than 1, then supply
is elastic. If the price elasticity of supply is equal to 1, then supply is unit elastic.
Sources: Jared Mayer, “New York’s Taxi King Is Going Down,” the Federalist, October 26, 2015; Ilya Marritz, “NYC Taxi
Medallions Fetch ‘Unbelievable’ Returns,” National Public Radio, November 15, 2011; and “NYC Taxi Medallions Sell for $1.1
Million,” Economic Policy Journal, March 18, 2013.
a. What was the value of the price elasticity of supply of New York City taxi medallions between
1980 and 2015?
b. Describe some of the consequences of the New York City Taxi and Limousine Commission’s
decision to limit the quantity of taxi medallions.
Step 2: What was the value of the price elasticity of supply of New York City taxi medallions
between 1980 and 2013?
The price elasticity of supply formula is:
Because the quantity supplied of medallions did not change between 1980 and 2015, the
percentage change in the quantity supplied of medallions was zero, as was the price elasticity
of supply. The medallion supply curve was vertical at the quantity of about 13,200 medallions.
Step 3: Describe some of the consequences of the New York City Taxi and Limousine
Commission limiting the quantity of taxi medallions.
The high cost of medallions has limited the number of taxi cabs available for residents and
visitors to the city, which has raised the price of taxi rides. Another consequence is the high
number of unlicensed cabs that break the law by offering their services. Economist Paul
Krugman claims that a disproportionately high number of traffic accidents in New York City
are caused by unlicensed and unregulated taxi drivers. The limited the number of medallions
and taxis created an incentive for competitors such as Uber to offer its transportation services
in New York City.
Question: After studying the material in this chapter, you should understand why knowing the income and
price elasticities of their products is important to the owners and managers of firms. But what if you are not
a manager or owner? If, for example, you were interested in investing some of your hard-earned savings in
the stock market, how would knowing income and price elasticities help you?
Answer: The best advice for success in the stock market is still “buy low, sell high.” But what you learned
about elasticity also may be helpful, at least in a general way. Firms that sell products with high income
elasticities (for example, houses and automobiles) experience especially large fluctuations in sales as the
overall economy moves through the business cycle. Consumers are reluctant to buy expensive products
during a recession, especially if they must take out loans to do so. But sales of these same items tend to
increase rapidly when the economy moves into an expansion.
Source: Ben McClure, “The Ups and Downs of Investing in Cyclical Stocks,” www.investopedia.com. October 22, 2002.
Review Questions
1.1 Price elasticity of demand = (percentage change in quantity demanded)/(percentage change in
price). The price elasticity of demand isn’t measured by the slope of the demand curve because the
slope depends on the units of measurement. The slope of the demand curve will change by a factor
of 100 if you use cents instead of dollars, for example. Another example: consider six-packs of
soda versus cans of soda. If the price drops by $1.00 per six-pack and the quantity demanded
increases by two six-packs, then that is the same thing as quantity demanded increasing by 12 cans.
So, you could calculate the slope either as −1/2 six-packs, or as −1/12 cans. In addition, using
percentage changes in the elasticity formula allows for meaningful comparisons of demand
responsiveness between very different kinds of goods; for example, breakfast cereal versus health
care.
1.3 In calculating the percentage change in price and quantity, the midpoint formula divides the change
in price and change in quantity by the average of their starting and ending values.
(Q 2 − Q1) ( P 2 − P1)
Midpoint formula :
Q1 + Q 2 P1 + P 2
2 2
Percentage changes can also be calculated by using the starting or ending value without averaging,
but, unlike the midpoint formula, these methods gives different results depending on whether the
starting or ending value is used.
1.4 A perfectly inelastic demand curve is a vertical line, as shown at the bottom of Table 6.1. Such a
good will have no substitutes; for example, a life-saving drug. Therefore, an increase in price from
$30 to $40 or decrease in price from $30 to $20 will have no effect on the quantity demanded (Qd)
of the good, which remains at 16.
Because the price elasticity of demand is less than one (in absolute value) the demand for gasoline would
be price inelastic. The percentage change in quantity demanded is less than the percentage change in price.
12,000,000 − 8,000,000
1.6 a. = −4,000,000
$2.00 − $3.00
12 − 8
b. = −4 . This is a much smaller value than in (a).
$2.00 − $3.00
c. We can calculate the price elasticity using the midpoint formula as follows:
12,000,000 − 8,000,000
Percentage change in quantity demanded = 100 = 40%
10,000,000
$2.00 − $3.00
Percentage change in price = 100 = −40%
$2.50
40%
So, the price elasticity of demand = = −1
−40%
Notice that this value is significantly different from the values calculated in (a) and (b).
For D2:
40 − 30
Percentage change in quantity demanded = 100 = 28.6%
35
$2 − $3
Percentage change in price = 100 = −40%
$2.5
28.6%
Elasticity = = −0.7
−40.0%
Step 2: Calculate percentage change in quantity demanded and percentage change price:
1,131 − 1,469
Percentage change in quantity demanded = 100 = −26%
1,300
$29, 454 − $24,751
Percentage change in price = 100 = 17.4%
27,102.5
Step 3: Divide the percentage change in the quantity demanded by the percentage change in price
to arrive at the price elasticity for the demand curve:
−26%
Price elasticity of demand = = −1.5
17.4%
Demand for Pace University is therefore elastic.
Total tuition received in 2006 declined to $33,312,474 (= $29,454 × 1,131 students) from
$36,359,219 (= $24,751 × 1,469 students) in 2005.
1.9 Suppose Ford did cut the price by $1 from $440 to $439 and quantity demanded increased by
1,000 cars from 500,000 to 501,000. The midpoint price would be $439.50 and the midpoint
quantity would be 500,500. Then, the percentage change in quantity would equal:
(1,000/500,500) × 100 = 0.20%. The percentage change in price would equal: (–$1/$439.50)
× 100 = –0.23%. The price elasticity of demand is: 0.20%/–0.23% = –0.87. If Ford’s belief about
the responsiveness of the quantity demanded for Model Ts to a change in their price was
accurate, then the demand for Model Ts was price inelastic.
1.10 At a higher price, quantity demanded will decrease, so the total revenue (price × quantity sold) will
still be less than the total cost. Only in the very unlikely case where the demand for the magazine
is perfectly inelastic would the publisher’s analysis be correct.
Review Questions
2.1 The most important determinant of the price elasticity of demand is usually the availability of
substitutes for the product. If there are close substitutes, elasticity will be high because people can
switch to buying another good as the product’s price rises. Other factors determining the price
elasticity of demand for a product include the passage of time, whether the good is a necessity or a
luxury, how narrowly the market for the good is defined, and the share of the good in the
consumer’s budget.
2.2 The demand for most agricultural goods is inelastic. Food is a necessity, and the demand for
necessities tends to be less elastic than the demand for luxuries.
2.4
Percentage change in quantity demanded −14
= = − 0.42
Percentage change in price 33
Because the price elasticity of demand was less than one (in absolute value) the demand for bus
rides was price inelastic. The five determinants of the price elasticity are: (a) the availability of
substitutes, (b) the passage of time, (c) whether the good is a luxury or a necessity, (d) the definition
of the market, and (e) the share of the good in a consumer’s budget. For many people who do not
own their own automobiles, there are no good substitutes for bus transportation, which is more of
a necessity than a luxury. These are probably the most important reasons why demand was price
inelastic.
2.5 The more narrowly a market is defined, the more elastic demand will be, because more substitutes
are available. The price elasticity of Coca-Cola (or any specific brand of soda) will be higher than
for soda as a product because there are more substitutes available for a specific product like Coca-
Cola than there are for a product category like soda.
2.6 It usually takes consumers some time to adjust their buying habits when prices change. The more
time passes, the more elastic the demand for a product becomes. In the case of oil prices, a good
part of the demand is determined by the demand for gasoline. Consumers are slow to react to
changes in gasoline prices because doing so often involves buying new cars, moving closer (or
farther away) from work, and so on.
2.7 a. We can’t know with certainty from the information given whether in this case demand will be
elastic or inelastic. We can say, though, that a family that has driven to Yellowstone with the
intention of vacationing there is probably not going to be very responsive to changes in the
admission price because that price would likely make up only a small fraction of the family’s
vacation budget. So, it seems likely that demand for entry from someone driving a car, minivan,
or motor home will be inelastic.
b. Once again, we can’t answer this question with certainty from the information given. As noted
in part (a), someone arriving for a vacation in a private vehicle is likely to have an inelastic
demand for entering the park. Someone who is entering by foot, bike, or on skis likely lives in
the area or is staying close to the park. These people may have access to recreational
opportunities outside of the park and so may choose not to enter the park if the price is too
high. They are likely to have a more elastic demand for entering the park. People who arrive
by motorcycle may be intending to vacation in the park, or they be from the local area and just
planning a short visit. They are likely to have a price elasticity of demand that is between the
two other groups. This ordering of the groups from highest price elasticity of demand to lowest
corresponds to the ordering of prices charged by the National Park Service.
Review Questions
3.1 If demand is inelastic, an increase in price will increase revenue because the price will increase
proportionally more than the quantity sold will decrease.
3.2 If revenue increases when price falls, other things remaining equal, then demand must be elastic.
3.4 a. The observation that an increase in ticket prices to the opera “backfired” means that total
revenue from ticket sales decreased following the price increase.
b. Assuming that there were no other reasons why ticket revenue fell (for example, because of bad
weather on the dates of the performances or a negative reaction by the public to the operas
performed in 2012), the decline in revenue means that demand for opera tickets was elastic.
3.5 Elasticity = (percentage change in quantity/percentage change in price). The article states that
consumption decreases by 3 to 5 percent in response to a 10 percent increase in price, so the range
of elasticity is: (−3%/10%) = −0.3 to (−5%/10%) = −0.5. The demand for cigarettes is inelastic
because the elasticity values computed are both less than 1 in absolute value. Because demand is
inelastic, if price increases, revenue will also increase.
3.6 a. The Coca-Cola executive’s comment suggests that he believes the demand for Coca-Cola is
inelastic. If he believes that consumers don’t care at all about price, then he believes that the
demand for Coke is perfectly inelastic. It is unlikely that the executive believes that demand is
perfectly inelastic, because it’s implausible that however high the firm raised the price,
consumers would buy the same quantity of Coke.
b. If the executive was correct, then by raising the per ounce price of Coca-Cola, the firm’s
revenues should increase.
c. It may be that placing cans of Coke near checkout lines “within arm’s reach” results in more
impulse buying on the part of shoppers. If this is true, then it could make the demand for Coke
more price inelastic. If Coke is the only soda that is displayed near checkout lines, then
shoppers who decide to buy soda at that point in their shopping trip would have no “close”
substitutes for Coke.
3.7 a. We can calculate the price elasticity along D1 between points A and C as follows:
300 − 200
Percentage change in quantity demanded = 100 = 40.0%
250
$2.50 − $3.00
Percentage change in price = 100 = −18.2%
$2.75
40.0%
So, the price elasticity of demand = = −2.2
−18.2%
Similarly, the price elasticity of demand along D2 between points A and B can be calculated as
follows:
225 − 200
Percentage change in quantity demanded = 100 = 11.8%
212.5
$2.50 − $3.00
Percentage change in price = 100 = −18.2%
$2.75
11.8%
So, the price elasticity of demand = = −0.65
−18.2%
Because the quantity response is much larger for the same price change, demand curve D1 is
much more elastic.
b. Along D1, revenue increases from $3 × 200 = $600 to $2.50 × 300 = $750. Revenue rises by
$150 as the price is cut because this demand curve is elastic between these prices. Along D2,
revenue falls from $600 to $2.50 × 225 = $562.50. Revenue falls by $37.50 as the price is cut
because D2 is inelastic between these prices.
3.8 Manager 2 is wrong. Cutting the price will increase revenue if demand is price elastic. But notice
that Manager 1 is just as wrong to say “only” as Manager 2 was to say “never.” Manager 1 says the
only way to boost revenue is by cutting the price, but if demand is inelastic, then cutting the price
will decrease revenue, not increase it.
3.9 a. Because Coca-Cola’s revenue rose while it sold 1 percent less soda in North America, it
must have raised its prices. Lowering its prices would have resulted in its selling more soda,
not less, holding all other factors constant.
b. Because Coke’s revenue increased following an increase in price, we know that the demand
for Coke is price inelastic, holding all other factors constant.
3.10 a. No. If the demand for the publisher’s books is inelastic, then an increase in price will increase
total revenue.
b. The author of the article is assuming the demand for the publisher’s books is elastic. If demand
for the books is elastic, an increase in price will decrease total revenue.
3.11 Assuming that there was not an increase in demand for the author’s book(s), then a decrease in
price that resulted in an increase in income, or revenue, implies that the demand for her books was
price elastic.
Review Questions
4.1 Cross-price elasticity of demand equals the percentage change in quantity demanded of one good
divided by the percentage change in the price of another good. If the cross-price elasticity is
negative, then the goods are complements; if it is positive, then they are substitutes.
4.2 Income elasticity of demand equals the percentage change in the quantity demanded divided by the
percentage change in income. If the income elasticity is greater than 0, then the good is normal; if
it is less than 0, then the good is inferior. Goods with income elasticities between 0 and 1 are often
called necessities; goods with income elasticities greater than 1 are often called luxuries.
4.4 To find the cross-price elasticity, divide the percentage change in the quantity demanded of buns
by the percentage change in the price of hot dogs. At the initial price of buns ($1.20), the quantity
demanded rises from 10,000 to 12,000, which is the change in quantity demanded that should be
used.
12,000 − 10,000
Percentage change in the quantity demanded = 100 = 18.2%
11,000
$1.80 − $2.20
Percentage change in the price of hot dogs = 100 = −20.0%
$2.00
18.2%
So, the cross-price elasticity = = −0.91.
−20.0%
Because the cross-price elasticity of demand is negative, we know these two goods are
complements.
4.5 (a) and (c) are substitutes, so the cross-price elasticities will be positive; (b) and (d) are
complements, so the cross-price elasticities will be negative.
4.6 a. On the basis of the information given, the cross-price elasticity of demand is negative
(everything else equal) because the percentage change in ridership on mass transit increased
(by 1 percent) at the same time that gasoline prices decreased (by 33 percent). If the cross-price
elasticity of demand between two products is negative the products are considered
complements.
b. Because during the same period–late 2014–unemployment was falling and more people used
private and public transportation to commute to work, it is likely that “everything else” was not
equal; in addition to the changes in the price of transportation there was a simultaneous increase
in the demand for transportation. So we cannot be sure of the value of the cross-price elasticity
of demand between gasoline and rides on mass transit, or even whether the value is positive or
negative.
4.7 (a) Bread, (b) Pepsi, (d) laptop computers, (c) Mercedes-Benz automobiles is the most likely order.
For normal goods that are considered necessities (such as food and clothing), their income elasticity
is positive and less than 1. For normal goods that are considered luxuries (such as laptop computers
and Mercedes-Benz automobiles), their income elasticity is positive and greater than 1. The items
are ranked from most necessary to most luxurious.
4.8 The more narrowly we define a market, the more price elastic demand will be. So if data for only
one brand of beer is used instead of multiple brands, demand for beer will likely be more elastic,
which may not be an accurate estimate of the price elasticity for beer as a product.
4.9 During recessions, falling consumer incomes can cause firms selling luxury goods (goods with an
income elasticity of demand greater than 1) to see their sales decrease the most. During recessions,
falling consumer incomes can cause firms selling inferior goods (goods with an income elasticity
of demand less than 1) to see their sales increase the most.
Review Questions
5.1 Increasing productivity in agriculture has brought about lower prices for food products as, over
time, increases in supply have dramatically outpaced increases in demand. Because the price
elasticity of demand for food is low, lower prices have not caused a large increase in quantity
demanded. The increase in incomes over time has not increased the demand for food much because
the income elasticity for food is low. Farmers, therefore, need to sell larger and larger quantities of
food at lower and lower prices to earn the same revenue. As a result, small farms are no longer as
profitable as they once were, and many people have abandoned farming to pursue other
occupations.
5.3 a. We can plug into the midpoint formula the values given for the price elasticity, the original
price of $3.00, and the new price of $3.70 (= $3.00 + $0.70):
Rearranging and writing out the expression for the percentage change in quantity demanded:
Q2 -140 billion
-0.11=
æ 140 + Q ö
ç 2
÷
è 2 ø
Because the price elasticity of demand for gasoline is low (−0.55), a 21 percent increase in
price of gasoline leads to only about a 10 percent decline in gasoline consumption per year.
b. The federal government would collect an amount equal to the tax per gallon multiplied by the
number of gallons sold: $1 per gallon × 125.40 billion gallons = $125.4 billion.
c. The answers are similar to Solved Problem 6.5 on page 201. Even though demand for gasoline
is more elastic in the long run than in the short run, the elasticity is still relatively low, so the
decline in the quantity of gasoline demanded is relatively small, and the government collects a
relatively large amount of tax revenue.
5.4 For the government policy to be effective, the demand for bribes must be elastic. The more elastic
the demand curve, the more effective the policy will be. On the graph, the burden of corruption
before the policy is enacted is represented by the area 0Q1AP1. The burden of corruption after the
policy is enacted is represented by the area 0Q2BP2. In effect, this problem is applying the result
that a price increase will result in an increase in revenue if demand is inelastic but a decrease in
revenue if demand is elastic.
5.5 His reasoning is correct: Because the demand for kumquats is elastic, a price increase resulting from
the implementation of a price floor will decrease the revenue received by kumquat producers.
5.6 Imposing a price ceiling causes the market quantity to decline from Q1 to Q2 and the price to decline
from P1 to PC. We measure the loss of efficiency by the deadweight loss. When demand is elastic
D2), the deadweight loss in the figure is A. When demand is inelastic (D1), the deadweight loss is
A + B. Therefore, the loss of economic efficiency from a price ceiling is greater when demand is
price inelastic.
Review Questions
6.1 The price elasticity of supply = (percentage change in quantity supplied)/(percentage change in
price). In this case, the elasticity of supply = 9%/10% = 0.9. The dividing point between elastic and
inelastic is 1.0, so the price elasticity of supply for frozen pizzas is inelastic.
6.2 The main determinant of the price elasticity of supply is time. The longer the time period, the more
firms are able to adjust the quantity they supply to a change in price. So, we would expect that as
the time period increases, the price elasticity of supply will increase. An exception to this rule is
products that require use of a resource that is in fixed supply, such as wine from a particular region
in France.
b. The graph below shows that an increase in the supply of oil from S1 to S2 will result in a smaller
change in price when demand is relatively elastic (D2) than when demand is relatively inelastic
(D1). With the more inelastic demand curve (D1), the equilibrium price falls from $110 to $47.
With the more elastic demand curve (D2), the price only falls from $110 to P1.
6.7 To find the price elasticity of supply, divide the percentage change in quantity supplied by
percentage change in price. In panel (a), the percentage change in quantity supplied =
1, 400 − 1, 200 $4 − $2
100 = 15.4% , and the percentage change in price = 100 = 66.7% . So, the
1,300 $3
15.4%
price elasticity of supply = = 0.23. In panel (b), the percentage change in quantity supplied
66.7%
2,100 − 1,200 $2.50 − $2.00
= 100 = 54.5% , and the percentage change in price = 100 = 22.2%.
1,650 $2.25
54.5%
So, the price elasticity of supply = = 2.45.
22.2%
6.8 Because it can take years to attract skilled construction workers back to the area or to train new
workers, it is likely that the supply of housing in Denver will be considerably more elastic in the
long run than in the short run. The following graph illustrates this point by comparing the market
for housing in the short run (S2014), when supply is relatively inelastic, and for a longer time period
(S 2018), when supply is more elastic. The graph shows that, holding other factors constant, an
increase in demand from D1 to D2 increases the price of housing from P1 to P2 when supply is
inelastic in the short run, but only from P1 to P3 when supply is more elastic in the long run. The
price increase will be lower the longer the period of time the market has to adjust to a given increase
in demand.
6.9 a. The increase in demand for roses on Valentine’s Day causes the price to increase from $1 to $2.
b. Based on this information, we don’t know much about the price elasticity of demand for roses.
The demand curve has shifted, so the rise in the quantity of roses demanded is not caused by
the rise in their price—and we can’t calculate the price elasticity of demand. We have a
movement along the supply curve, so we can calculate the price elasticity of supply for roses.
6.10 a. Price elasticity of supply is the percentage change in the quantity supplied divided by the
percentage change in price. In this case, the percentage change in supply is always zero,
because the quantity supplied by the university does not change in response to changes in
demand, so the price elasticity of supply is 0.
b. As shown in the following graph, when the demand curve for basketball tickets shifts from D1
to D2, the equilibrium price increases from $15 to $20, but there is no change in the equilibrium
quantity.
c. One determinant of price elasticity of supply is the period of time. Over a longer period of time,
supply is more price elastic. So, although the supply curve for basketball tickets is perfectly
inelastic in the short run, it is possible that over time State University could build a larger
basketball arena with more seats to accommodate more fans.