Power Quality & FACTS

GOVERNMENT ENGINEERING
COLLEGE, BANKA
POWER QUALITY & FACTS (100804)
Faculty Name: Mr. Ajit Kumar Singh
ASSISTANT PROFESSOR, DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL

ENGINEERING
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Ajit Kumar Singh (Asst. Professor, GEC Banka)
Aryabhatta Knowledge
University - [AKU], Patna
Department of Electrical Engineering
SEMESTER- VIII
POWER QUALITY & FACTS (100804)
SYLLABUS
L-T-P:3-0-0 Credit : 3
Module 1: Transmission Lines and Series/Shunt Reactive Power

Compensation (4 hours)
Basics of AC Transmission. Analysis of uncompensated AC transmission lines. Passive

Reactive Power Compensation. Shunt and series compensation at the mid-point of an AC
line. Comparison of Series and Shunt Compensation.
Module 2: Thyristor-based Flexible AC Transmission Controllers (FACTS)

(6 hours)
Description and Characteristics of Thyristor-based FACTS devices: Static VAR Compensator

(SVC), Thyristor Controlled Series Capacitor (TCSC), Thyristor Controlled Braking Resistor
and Single Pole Single Throw (SPST) Switch. Configurations/Modes of Operation,
Harmonics and control of SVC and TCSC. Fault Current Limiter.
Module 3: Voltage Source Converter based (FACTS) controllers (8 hours)
Voltage Source Converters (VSC): Six Pulse VSC, Multi-pulse and Multi-level Converters,
Pulse-Width Modulation for VSCs. Selective Harmonic Elimination, Sinusoidal PWM and
Space Vector Modulation. STATCOM: Principle of Operation, Reactive Power Control:
Type I and Type II controllers, Static Synchronous Series Compensator (SSSC) and Unified
Power Flow Controller (UPFC): Principle of Operation and Control. Working principle of
Interphase Power Flow Controller. Other Devices: GTO Controlled Series Compensator.
Fault Current Limiter.
Module 4: Application of FACTS (4 hours)
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Application of FACTS devices for power-flow control and stability improvement. Simulation
example of power swing damping in a single-machine infinite bus system using a TCSC.
Simulation example of voltage regulation of transmission mid-point voltage using a
STATCOM.
Module 5: Power Quality Problems in Distribution Systems (4 hours)
Power Quality problems in distribution systems: Transient and Steady state variations in
voltage and frequency. Unbalance, Sags, Swells, Interruptions, Waveform Distortions:
harmonics, noise, notching, dc-offsets, fluctuations. Flicker and its measurement. Tolerance
of Equipment: CBEMA curve.
Module 6: DSTATCOM (8 hours)
Reactive Power Compensation, Harmonics and Unbalance mitigation in Distribution Systems

using DSTATCOM and Shunt Active Filters. Synchronous Reference Frame Extraction of
Reference Currents. Current Control Techniques in for DSTATCOM.
Module 7: Dynamic Voltage Restorer and Unified Power Quality

Conditioner (6 hours)
Voltage Sag/Swell mitigation: Dynamic Voltage Restorer – Working Principle and Control
Strategies. Series Active Filtering. Unified Power Quality Conditioner (UPQC): Working
Principle. Capabilities and Control Strategies.
Text / Reference Books:

1. N. G. Hingorani and L. Gyugyi, “Understanding FACTS: Concepts and Technology of
FACTS Systems”, Wiley-IEEE Press,1999.
2. K. R. Padiyar, “FACTS Controllers in Power Transmission and Distribution”, New Age
International (P) Ltd.2007.
3. T. J. E.Miller, “Reactive Power Control in Electric Systems”, John Wiley and Sons, New
York, 1983.
4. R. C. Dugan, “Electrical Power Systems Quality”, McGraw Hill Education,2012.
5. G. T. Heydt, “Electric Power Quality”, Stars in a Circle Publications,1991
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MODULE- I Transmission Lines and Series/Shunt Reactive
Power Compensation
1.1 INTRODUCTION
The quality of the electrical supply is an important consideration for both power utilities and
consumers. Electrical engineers have always been concerned about power quality. They see it
as anything that affects voltage, current, and frequency of power being supplied to end-users.
A power quality (PQ) problem is defined as any problem that

causes voltage, current, or frequency deviations in the supply and may result in failure or
mal-operation of end-user equipment.
It should be noted that in the majority of cases, power quality actually refers to the quality of
the voltage. This is because the supply distribution system can only control the quality of the
voltage but it has no control over the currents drawn by the loads. Therefore, PQ standards
are mostly aimed at specifying the requirements on the supply voltage.
Although such standards are often used as benchmarks, there is no agreed definition on how
to accurately quantify power quality. The ultimate measure is determined by the performance
and productivity of end-user equipment.
Historically, PQ and reliability were synonymous. In early days, the main concern was about
“keeping the lights on”. Various measures were applied to protect power system: use of surge
arresters and circuit breakers, redundancy, computers checking power flow and transient
stability, etc. Since the late 1980s, the emphasis has shifted from reliability concern at
generation, transmission and distribution level to concern about PQ at the customer or end-
user level.
There are four major factors that cause an increased need to solve and prevent power quality
problems:
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1) Increased use of power quality-sensitive equipment such as computers, microprocessors,
consumer electronic and telecommunication appliances, etc. Electronic devices do not require
much energy or significant over-voltage to cause insulation breakdown. These values are
decreasing with increasing reduction in the scale of micro-circuit elements. Studies were
performed to determine effect of variations in voltage levels and durations. The Information
Technology Industry Council (formerly Computer and Business Equipment Manufacturers
Association) developed the ITIC (CBEMA) tolerance envelope. It describes an ac input
voltage envelope which can be tolerated by most information technology (IT) equipment
without loss of function. The curve is considered as a design objective for computer
designers. The acceptable or function region is bracketed by an upper over-voltage curve
(prohibited region) and a lower under-voltage curve (no damage region). It can be seen that
there is a very strong dependence on the duration, i.e. more tolerant if duration is short.
2) Increased use of equipment that generates power quality problems: harmonic distortion
is produced from nonlinear loads such as adjustable-speed drives, electronic ballasts for
fluorescent lamps, arc welders. Adjustable speed drives have become one of the most popular
technologies for saving energy in industry. They use power electronic switching to control
the motor speed to match the load requirement.
3) Increased inter-connectedness of power system: problem can propagate and is difficult to

isolate. Harmonics and flicker are examples of power quality problems that can be transferred
from a utility to another through interconnection.
4) Deregulation of the power industry: change from the monolithic structure of a single full-
service, vertically integrated supply authority to competitive, decentralized supply industry.
Complications arise because different companies will supply generation, transmission and
distribution services. Deregulation has been in effect in many parts of the world including
Australia and the USA.
Following are the core terms and definitions that are used in association with power quality:
Voltage sag - is a decrease in RMS voltage at the power frequency for durations from 0.5
cycles to one minute.
Voltage swells – An increase in supply voltage beyond the rated value for a duration of 0.5
cycles to one minute.
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Interruption – Loss of supply voltage in one or more phases for one minute or more than
one minute.
Transients – voltage disturbances shorter than sags or swells, which are caused by sudden
changes in the power systems.
Voltage unbalance –The voltages of a three-phase voltage source are not identical in
magnitude or the phase differences between them are not 120 electrical degrees.
Harmonics – Steady-state deviation in the voltage or current waveform from an ideal sine
wave, which are sinusoidal voltages or currents having frequencies that are whole multiples
of the frequency at which the supply system is designed to operate (50 Hz).
Long duration voltage interruption – Complete loss of supply voltage in the RMS
supply voltage at fundamental frequency for period exceeding one minute.
1.2 POWER QUALITY PROBLEMS AND THEIR IMPACTS
The power quality issue is defined as an occurrence manifested in voltage, current and
frequency deviation. This results in the failure of end-user equipment. Commercial customers
have become more particular in their demand for the quality of power they purchase.
Variations in voltage can actually damage and disrupt sensitive electronics, such as
computers and microprocessors. As the modern society relies on high tech-processes, power
quality has become even more critical. Power quality is influenced among other factors by
utility operations, customer load types, and equipment designs. Distribution utilities and their
customers, along with their engineering equipment manufacturers and vendors, generate,
propagate, and receive power quality problems.
1.3 POWER QUALITY STANDARDS
Power quality improvement methods and solutions, which can be implemented independent
of any standardization. However, proper standardization provides important guidelines for the
implementation of the technical solutions. The power quality standards are mostly concerned
with the following three areas:
Defining the nominal environment
Defining the terminology
Limiting the number of power quality problems
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The International Electro Technical Commission (IEC) and the Institute of Electrical and
Electronics Engineers (IEEE) have proposed their sets of power quality standard. The
highlights are given below:
EN 50160 Voltage Characteristics of Public Distribution Systems
Standard 519-1992, IEEE Recommended Practices and Requirements for Harmonic
Control in Electrical Power Systems.
Proper standardization has to solve the problem of power quality disturbances adequately.
Various power quality standards as listed in Table 1 and 2.
Table .1 Current harmonics limits in distribution systems as for on IEEE standards 519-1992.
Table .2 Power quality standards
1.4 IMPORTANCE OF POWER QUALITY
The increasing emphasis on overall power system efficiency has resulted in continued growth
in the application of devices such as high-efficiency, adjustable-speed motor drives and shunt
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capacitors for power factor correction to reduce losses. This has resulted in an increase in the
harmonic content of the power systems and is of great concern about the future impact on
system capabilities.
Nowadays, the users of electrical power are quite aware of power quality issues. More
and more customers are becoming better informed about such power quality issues as
interruptions, sags and switching transients and thus the utilities are challenged by customers
to improve the quality of the power delivered. Both electric utilities and end users of electric
power are increasingly concerned about the quality of electric power. The increased interest
in power quality is mainly a result of the following factors:
• Equipment has become more sensitive to voltage disturbances.
• Some equipment causes voltage disturbances.
• A growing need for standardization and performance criteria.
• In order to be competitive, utilities are forced to deliver a good product.
1.5 POWER QUALITY IMPROVEMENT TECHNIQUES AND SOLUTIONS
Power quality improvement techniques and solutions are also discussed. The problems can be
viewed as the difference between the quality of power supplied and the quality of the power
required for reliable operation of the load equipment. With reference to this viewpoint, power
quality problems can be resolved in to one of the three ways, listed as follows:
 Reducing the power supply disturbances
 Improving the load equipment immunity to disturbances
 Inserting corrective equipment between the electrical supply and the sensitive loads.
Conventional mitigation techniques include adding filters at the point in power system where
power quality problem occurs. Harmonic resonance problems are sometimes found with the
use of passive capacitor banks. Using synchronous condenser, resonance problems are
eliminated, but they are expensive and their operation and maintenance are more costly. Both
capacitor banks and synchronous condenser have a slow response. Static VAR Compensation
(SVC) generates a considerable amount of harmonics that may have to be filtered. Due to
their high cost, the SVCs are not economical for small power users. Tap-switching and ferro-
resonant voltage regulators were the only devices to compensate for under voltages and over
voltages. However, it was not possible to compensate for short duration sags because fast
control devices were not available.
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Fig.1: Hierarchy of power quality improvement techniques
It must be appreciated that the above discussed conventional techniques are not flexible
enough. Therefore it is imperative that better and flexible correcting devices are used for
power quality problems. The implementation of such devices has become possible due to
advances in power electronics and availability of fast acting controllers. Power electronic
controllers provide a flexible choice and better performance to improve the power quality
problems. These modern power electronics based systems are called custom power devices.
There are many custom power devices and they are divided in to two groups. They are as
follows.
• Network reconfiguring type
Solid-State Transfer Switch (SSTS). These devices are much faster than their
mechanical devices.
• Compensating types
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The compensating devices either compensate a load and correct its power factor or
improve the quality of the supply voltage. The hierarchy of all the feasible power quality
solutions is shown in Fig.1
OVERVIEW OF MAJOR CUSTOM POWER DEVICES
Custom Power embraces a family of power electronic devices which is applicable to

distribution systems to provide power quality solutions. This technology has been made
possible due to the widespread availability of cost effective high power semiconductor
devices such as Gate-Turn-Off (GTO) thyristors and Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistors
(IGBTs).
(a) Network Reconfiguring Device - Solid State Transfer Switch (SSTS)
The SSTS provides a seamless transfer of electrical energy from a primary source to an
alternate source without service interruption to even the most critical and sensitive loads. As
a result, power quality problems become transparent to the critical or sensitive customer loads
that the SSTS protects. Fig.2 depicts the Solid State Transfer Switch System.
Fig.2: Solid State Transfer Switch System
During normal operation, line current is bypassed by the parallel switch. When the transfer
operation is required, the PS1 is opened and TS1 is turned on, simultaneously. The opposite
side, Thyristor switch (TS2) begins to conduct, the current flows from alternate source to the
load. The parallel switch (PS2) is closed and the current bypassed form primary source. The
limitation of this system is that there is no compensation of sag and swell devices.
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(b) Compensating Types
• Compensating type devices are as follows.
• Distribution Static Compensator (DSTATCOM) to compensate load reactive power and
current harmonics.
• Dynamic Voltage Restorer (DVR) for supporting the load voltage.
• UPQC with PV which solves the power quality problems.
1.5.1 Distribution Static Compensator (DSTATCOM)
The primary aims of DSTATCOM are:

• Power factor correction
• Current harmonics filtering
• DC Load offset cancellation
• Load balancing
It can be used for voltage regulation at the distribution bus, being an active filtering
device. It is connected in parallel with the PCC. DSTATCOM is often referred as a shunt
active power filter. It consists of a voltage source PWM converter equipped with a DC
capacitor and an interface inductor, as shown in Fig.3. The advantages of the voltage-source
PWM converter are higher efficiency, lower cost and smaller physical size. The current-
source PWM inverter cannot be used in multilevel or multi-step mode configurations to allow
compensation in higher power ratings. The limitation of this system is that it provides only
current harmonic compensation.
Fig.3: Block diagram of DSTATCOM system
1.5.2 Dynamic Voltage Restorer (DVR)
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DVR structures, control techniques and rating requirements are developed by Arindam
Ghosh. Fig.4 shows that DVR system is a series-connected custom power device, the aim of
which is to protect sensitive loads from supply side disturbances except outages. The DVR
can act as a series active filter, isolating the source from harmonics generated by loads.
An Alternative method for preventing the coupling transformer saturation is also in use.
DVR coupling transformer can experience saturation during the transient period after voltage
sag. For preventing this, usually, a rating of magnetic flux that is double that of the steady-
state limit is chosen.
DVR structure also makes use of batteries for energy storage. In this case, the real power
required for voltage sag compensation is drawn from the batteries connected across the dc
link. The DVR cannot mitigate any interruptions, unless it is batteries supported. The
batteries supported DVR injects current harmonics into the distribution network.
Fig.4: Block diagram of DVR system

The DVR coupling transformer performs two important functions like voltage boost and
electrical isolation. However, it increases the DVR costs, requires considerable space and
contributes to DVR losses. As mentioned above, the transformer can be driven into saturation
in some conditions. The DVR acts as an additional energy source. Introducing it into the
system has effects seen both by system and customer. The limitation of this system is that it
compensates voltage harmonics and sag only.
The performance of UPQC for mitigating the effect of supply voltage sag at the load or at
the PCC in a distributed network will also be studied in the course. This method prevents the
propagation of the load current harmonics to the utility and improves the power quality. This
method prevents the propagation of the load current harmonics to the utility and improved the
input power factor of the load. The drawback of this system is that there is no active power
supply for compensation of voltage interruption.
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1.6 POWER QUALITY BENCHMARKING AND MONITORING
Electric utilities throughout the world are embracing the concept of benchmarking service
quality. Utilities realize that they must understand the levels of service quality provided
throughout their distribution systems and determine if the levels provided are appropriate.
This is certainly becoming more prevalent as more utilities contract with specific customers
to provide a specified quality of service over some period of time. The typical steps in the
power quality benchmarking process are
1. Select benchmarking metrics : The EPRI RBM project defined several performance
indices for evaluating the electric service quality.
2. Collect power quality data: This involves the placement of power quality monitors on the
system and characterization of the performance of the system. A variety of instruments and
monitoring systems have been recently developed to assist with this labor-intensive process.
3. Select the benchmark : This could be based on past performance, a standard adopted by
similar utilities, or a standard established by a professional or standards organization such as
the IEEE, IEC, ANSI, or NEMA.
4. Determine target performance levels. These are targets that are appropriate and
economically feasible. Target levels may be limited to specific customers or customer groups
and may exceed the benchmark values.
The benchmarking process begins with selection of the metrics to be used for benchmarking
and evaluating service quality. The metrics could simply be estimated from historical data
such as average number of faults per mile of line and assuming the fault resulted in a certain
number of sags and interruptions. However, electricity providers and consumers are
increasingly interested in metrics that describe the actual performance for a given time
period. The indices developed as part of the EPRI RBM project are calculated from data
measured on the system by specialized instrumentation.
Electric utilities throughout the world are deploying power quality monitoring infrastructures
that provide the data required for accurate benchmarking of the service quality provided to
consumers. These are permanent monitoring systems due to the time needed to obtain
accurate data and the importance of power quality to the end users where these systems are
being installed. For most utilities and consumers, the most important power quality variation
is the voltage sag due to short-circuit faults. Although these events are not necessarily the
most frequent, they have a tremendous economic impact on end users. The process of
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benchmarking voltage sag levels generally requires 2 to 3 years of sampling. These data can
then be quantified to relate voltage sag performance with standardized indices that are
understandable by both utilities and customers.
Finally, after the appropriate data have been acquired, the service provider must determine
what levels of quality are appropriate and economically feasible. Increasingly, utilities are
making these decisions in conjunction with individual customers or regulatory agencies.
The economic law of diminishing returns applies to increasing the quality of electricity as it
applies to most quality assurance programs. Electric utilities note that nearly any level of
service quality can be achieved through alternate feeders, standby generators, UPS systems,
energy storage, etc. However, at some point the costs cannot be economically justified and
must be balanced with the needs of end users and the value of service to them. IEEE Standard
1366-1998 was established to define the benchmarking metrics for this area of power quality.
The metrics are defined in terms of system average or customer average indices regarding
such things as the number of interruptions and the duration of interruption (SAIDI, SAIFI,
etc.). Interest in expanding the service quality benchmarking into areas other than traditional
reliability increased markedly in the late 1980s. This was largely prompted by experiences
with power electronic loads that produced significant harmonic currents and were much more
sensitive to voltage sags than previous generations of electromechanical loads. In 1989, the
EPRI initiated the EPRI Distribution Power Quality (DPQ) Project, RP 3098-1, to collect
power quality data for distribution systems across the United States. Monitors were placed at
nearly 300 locations on 100 distribution feeders, and data were collected for 27 months.
The DPQ database contains over 30 gigabytes of power quality data and has served as the
basis for standards efforts and many studies. The results were made available to EPRI
member utilities in 1996.
Upon completion of the DPQ project in 1995, it became apparent that there was no
uniform way of benchmarking the performance of specific service quality measurements
against these data. In 1996, the EPRI completed the RBM project, which provided the power
quality indices to allow service quality to be defined in a consistent manner from one utility
to another. The indices were patterned after the traditional reliability indices with which
utility engineers had already become comfortable. Indices were defined for
1. Short-duration rms voltage variations. These are voltage sags, swells, and interruptions of
less than 1 min.
2. Harmonic distortion.
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3. Transient overvoltages. This category is largely capacitor-switching transients, but could
also include lightning-induced transients.
4. Steady-state voltage variations such as voltage regulation and phase balance.
1.7 POWER QUALITY MONITORING DEVICES
The objectives for power quality monitoring program determine the methods of collecting
data and the type of measurement equipment. Depending on the power quality problems such
as harmonics, sag, swell, interruption, flicker equipments must have required features and the
measurement must be done in a specific way.
Power quality monitoring includes classification and characterization of electrical
disturbances, propagation of disturbances, and measurement campaigns, which is optimizing
the number of monitoring points.
They include everything from very fast transient over voltages (microsecond time frame) to
long-duration outages (hours or days time frame). Power quality problems also include
steady-state phenomena, such as harmonic distortion, and intermittent phenomena, such as
voltage flicker.
1.7.1 Types of Instruments
Although instruments have been developed that measure a wide variety of disturbances, a
number of different instruments may be used, depending on the phenomena being
investigated. Basic categories of instruments that may be applicable include
Wiring and grounding test devices
Multi meters Oscilloscopes Disturbance analyzers
Harmonic analyzers and spectrum analyzers
Combination disturbance and harmonic analyzers
Flicker meters Energy monitors
Besides these instruments, which measure steady-state signals or disturbances on the power
system directly, there are other instruments that can be used to help solve power quality
problems by measuring ambient conditions:
1. Infrared meters can be very valuable in detecting loose connection sand overheating
conductors. An annual procedure of checking the system in this manner can help prevent
power quality problems due to arcing, bad connections, and overloaded conductors.
2. Noise problems related to electromagnetic radiation may require measurement of field
strengths in the vicinity of affected equipment. Magnetic gauss meters are used to measure
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magnetic field strengths for inductive coupling concerns. Electric field meters can measuret
he strength of electric fields for electrostatic coupling concerns.
3. Static electricity meters are special-purpose devices used to measure static electricity in the
vicinity of sensitive equipment. Electrostatic discharge (ESD) can be an important cause of
power quality problems in some types of electronic equipment.
Regardless of the type of instrumentation needed for a particular test, there are a number of
important factors that should be considered when selecting the instrument. Some of the more
important factors include
Number of channels (voltage and/or current)
Temperature specifications of the instrument
Ruggedness of the instrument
Input voltage range (e.g., 0 to 600 V)
Power requirements
Ability to measure three-phase voltages
Input isolation (isolation between input channels and from each input to ground)
Ability to measure currents
Housing of the instrument (portable, rack-mount, etc.)
Ease of use (user interface, graphics capability, etc.)
Documentation
Communication capability (modem, network interface)
Analysis software
The flexibility (comprehensiveness) of the instrument is also important. The more

functions that can be performed with a single instrument, the fewer the number of
instruments required.
(a) Wiring and Grounding Testers
Many power quality problems reported by end users are caused by problems with wiring
and/or grounding within the facility. These problems can be identified by visual inspection of
wiring, connections, and panel boxes and also with special test devices for detecting wiring
and
grounding problems.
Important capabilities for a wiring and grounding test device include
Detection of isolated ground shorts and neutral-ground bonds
Ground impedance and neutral impedance measurement or indication
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Detection of open grounds, open neutrals, or open hot wires
Detection of hot/neutral reversals or neutral/ground reversals
Three-phase wiring testers should also test for phase rotation and phase-to-phase voltages.
These test devices can be quite simple and provide an excellent initial test for circuit
integrity.
(b) Multi Meters
After initial tests of wiring integrity, it may also be necessary to make quick checks of the
voltage and/or current levels within a facility. Overloading of circuits, under voltage and
overvoltage problems, and unbalances between circuits can be detected in this manner. These
measurements just require a simple multi meter. Signals used to check for these include
Phase-to-ground voltages Phase-to-neutral voltages Neutral-to-ground voltages
Phase-to-phase voltages (three-phase system) Phase currents
Neutral currents
The most important factor to consider when selecting and using a multimeter is the method
of calculation used in the meter. All the commonly used meters are calibrated to give an rms
indication for the measured signal. However, a number of different methods are used to
calculate the rms value. The three most common methods are
1. Peak method : Assuming the signal to be a sinusoid, the meter reads the peak of the signal
and divides the result by 1.414 (square root of 2) to obtain the rms.
2. Averaging method : The meter determines the average value of a rectified signal. For a
clean sinusoidal signal (signal containing only one frequency), this average value is related to
the rms value by a constant.
3. True rms : The rms value of a signal is a measure of the heating that will result if the
voltage is impressed across a resistive load. One method of detecting the true rms value is to
actually use a thermal detector to measure a heating value. More modern digital meters use a
digital calculation of the rms value by squaring the signal on a sample by-sample basis,
averaging over the period, and then taking the square root of the result. These different
methods all give the same result for a clean, sinusoidal signal but can give significantly
different answers for distorted signals.
(c) Disturbance Analyzers
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Disturbance analyzers and disturbance monitors form a category of instruments that have
been developed specifically for power quality measurements. They typically can measure a
wide variety of system disturbances from very short duration transient voltages to long-
duration outages or under voltages. Thresholds can be set and the instruments left unattended
to record disturbances over a period of time. The information is most commonly recorded on
a paper tape, but many devices have attachments so that it can be recorded on disk as well.
There are basically two categories of these devices:
1. Conventional analyzers that summarize events with specific information such as
overvoltage and under voltage magnitudes, sags and surge magnitude and duration, transient
magnitude and duration, etc.
2. Graphics-based analyzers that save and print the actual waveform along with the
descriptive information which would be generated by one of the conventional analyzers.
It is often difficult to determine the characteristics of a disturbance or a transient from the

summary information available from conventional disturbance analyzers. For instance, an
oscillatory transient cannot be effectively described by a peak and duration. Therefore, it is
almost imperative to have the waveform capture capability of a graphics-based disturbance
analyzer for detailed analysis of a power quality problem. However, a simple conventional
disturbance monitor can be valuable for initial checks at a problem location.
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1.8 POWER QUALITY PROBLEMS
Summary of power quality problems
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1.9 POWER QUALITY ISSUES AND THEIR IMPORTANCE
As mentioned earlier, power quality refers to maintaining the rated magnitude and frequency
of near sinusoidal rated voltage and current of a power system. Any interruption of the power
quality would cost the efficiency of the system. In most of the cases, control of the power
quality refers to the control of the voltage only. This is because in most cases voltage can be
controlled more easily than current. More specifically, the quality of power can be described
by some parameters such as continuity of service, variation in voltage magnitude, transient
voltages and currents, harmonic content (for AC) etc.
To describe the importance of power quality issues, we can say that poor power quality
leads to unnecessary wastage of power and economy. It creates financial burden on the
suppliers and consumers. Unstable voltage and frequency often creates disturbance in the
power flow through transmission line. Evaluation process of power quality problem is
depicted in fig. 5. From the flow diagram, it can be seen that the first stage of this evaluation
is to identify the problem category. There are mainly five categories of problems: voltage
unbalance, voltage interruptions, flicker, transients, and harmonic distortion. After identifying
the category, characterization of the problem is done by measuring or collecting data to find
out the causes, characteristics, and equipment impacts. The next two steps are identifying the
range of solutions, and evaluation of solutions. The final step is to evaluate the optimum
solution from all the possibilities to achieve the most economic outcome.
One of the major power quality issues is ``Voltage Fluctuation'', which indicates changes in
voltage amplitude. ``Voltage Sag'' refers to the reduction in supply voltage magnitude. The
phenomenon called ``Voltage Swell'' refers to the momentary increase in the voltage beyond
the normal tolerance levels. It has duration of more than one cycle and it lasts typically less
than a few seconds. Transient is a short duration burst of energy. It is usually caused by a
sudden change of state, such as surges. This sudden change can occur in the steady-state
condition of voltage, current, or both.
Another important power quality issue is the ``long time voltage interruption''. This problem
refers to the total interruption or decrease of the voltage or load current for a few milliseconds
to one or two second durations. This type of problem causes malfunction in data processing
equipment. ``Noise'' is the superimposing high frequency signals with the main waveform of
power system. It may cause data loss too.
``Flicker'' is the fluctuation of voltage, which is between 90% to 110% of nominal, coming
from the power supply. This fluctuation damages the equipment at the load side. Waveform
distortion is a steady-state deviation from an ideal sine wave of power frequency. It is usually
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FIGURE 2. Flow diagram for evaluation of power quality problems, solution of a problem
comes through a process starting with identification of the problem category
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characterized by the spectral content of the deviation. The primary types of waveform
distortion are: DC offset harmonics, inter-harmonics, notching, and noise. Power frequency
variation is the deviation of the power system fundamental frequency from its specified
nominal value (50 Hz or 60 Hz).
The term harmonics refers to a waveform distortion of the voltages or currents, which are
caused by nonlinear loads. We can call a spectral component as harmonic if,
𝒇 = n 𝒇𝒇𝒖𝒏𝒅 (1)
It will be a dc component if,
𝒇 = 𝟎 (2)
It will be called interharmonic if,
𝒇 = n 𝒇𝒇𝒖𝒏𝒅 (3)
And lastly, it will be subharmonic if,
𝒇 > 𝟎 and 𝒇 < n 𝒇𝒇𝒖𝒏𝒅 (4)
Where, n>0 and an integer, f = frequency, 𝒇𝒇𝒖𝒏𝒅 = fundamental power system frequency.
Intermittent lock-up and garbled data can be caused by harmonics.
Voltage spike is the momentary increase of the voltage beyond the normal tolerances.
Its duration is more than one cycle and typically less than a few seconds. According to EPRI,
power quality issues vary with severity. One way to consider this severity is by considering
the economic damage they do to the equipment.
Fig 1.6. Sources of power quality problems. The problems can originate from the utilities,
internally, or from power electronic sources.
22
To discuss about the sources of power quality problems, two perspectives can be addressed.
The first one is the utility sources and the latter one is the internal sources. The first one
includes lightning, power factor correction equipment, faults, switching etc. while the second
one includes individual loads, lighting ballasts, arc welders, and medical equipment. Another
type of source can be added which can be described as power electronic source. Variable
frequency drives, battery chargers, smart grid, microgrid, electronic dimming system, large
motors, UPS etc. fall into this category. Fig.1.6 depicts this classification.
1.10 IMPACTS OF POWER QUALITY ISSUES
Impact of power quality issues can affect various equipment and systems. As discussed
before, it can create economic burden as well as loss of equipment. Its overall impact can
affect every kind of facility: high cost, medium cost, and low cost. Fig. 1.7 shows various
kinds of facilities, classified by cost, which are affected by power quality issues.
Fig. 1.7. Distinct types of facilities affected by power quality issues, classified according to cost.
23
24
Fig 1.8. Power quality disturbance classification according to IEEE-1159 Standard. The
primary categories are Transient, Long-Duration Voltage Variations, Short-Duration Voltage
Variations, Voltage Imbalance, Flicker, and Consumer End Devices.
1.11 POWER QUALITY MONITORING
To guarantee a uniform power quality, proper monitoring is necessary. Monitor and analysis
systems are widely used for power quality. This was done by means of frequency spectrum
analysis method based on acquisition of time domain signals. Influence factor of fluctuation
of power quality was also analysed. Lab VIEW - which is a monitoring and analysing tool-
was also developed. As mentioned earlier, harmonics threaten power quality of electric
network and harm safety of equipment. Compensating harmonic signals is necessary to
improve power quality. There are several methods of harmonic analysis to improve power
quality such as: Fast Fourier Transform (FFT), singular value decomposition (SVD), artificial
25
neural network (ANN) etc. Distributed system of power quality monitoring is necessary for
the detection of power quality issues. In most of the cases, focus of monitoring scheme has
been limited to the harmonics in supply voltage in the mode close to a real-time mode. For
this purpose, there exists Phasor Measurement Unit (PMU) structure, where instantaneous
values of electric current and voltage in different cutsets are measured. After that, their values
are transferred to the control
centre.
Another technique for detection and adjustment of harmonics problem is adaptive linear
combiner (ADALINE). ADALINE is also effective for the detection of voltage sag, swell,
transients, interruptions etc. This method removes the need of setting up a threshold value for
power quality detection. Rather it provides an honest and high tracking capability. The input
of ADALINE are the time delayed samples. The output is the predicted value of the signal
(Fig. 9).
Fig 1.9 ADALINE based detection scheme, where time delayed samples are the inputs and
predicted values of the signal are the outputs
High-Resolution Technique has been developed for monitoring ``fliicker'' problem.

According to this technique, the frequency spectrum of the signal is analyzed for the flicker
detection purpose. Effective use of this method can be achieved more easily than other
techniques as it has used Pony's Method which is more accurate and robust.
26
Kalman Filtering (KF) approach is very useful for the detection of sag, swell, brief time
interruptions etc. Previously, disturbance waveforms were automatically identified in the time
domain with an individual artificial neural network. Using KF approach, this can be done in
the wavelet domain which has been proved to be more efficient. Application of KF approach
for the tracking of harmonics problems has also been investigated.
The Total Energy Operator (TEO) algorithm, which is a non-linear operator, is used to track
the instantaneous energy content of the signal. Measurement of the mechanical process that
generates the signal can be usefully done by TEO. The value of this operator is the square of
the multiplication of the signal amplitude and frequency. The distorted signal
Fig 1.10. Power quality monitoring techniques to measure different parameters.
is divided into two separate signals: the smoothed version, and a detailed version. High
frequency can be detected in the detailed version where low frequency disturbances can be
detected from the smoothed version using TEO. Another mathematical approach to track the
envelope of the signal is Hilbert Transform (HT) algorithm. HT method shifts each frequency
component of the instantaneous spectrum by 90 degrees. This method can be used in a
specific frequency band, using an analog all-pass filter. Both TEO and HT are useful for
monitoring voltage flicker problem. In fig. 1.10 power quality monitoring techniques are
summarized.
27
1.12 BASICS OF FLEXIBLE A.C. TRANSMISSION SYSTEM (FACTS)
With ever increasing demand of electric power, the existing transmission networks even in
the developed countries are found to be weak which results in poor quality of unreliable
supply. Also, it is seen that in order to expand or enhance the power transfer capability of the
existing transmission network huge sum of finances are required and sometimes even
difficulties are encountered in finding right-of-way for the new lines. Lot of research has
gone into developing new technologies over the past few years to gain increased efficiency
from the existing power system. This programme is known as Flexible a.c. Transmission
System abbreviated as FACTS. The new technologies employ high speed thyristors for
switching in or out transmission line components such as capacitors, reactors or phase
shifting transformer for some desirable performance of the systems.
The main objective of FACTS devices is to replace the existing slow acting mechanical
controls required to react to the changing system conditions by rather fast acting electronic
controls. The mechanical controls require power system operators and designers to provide
generous margins to assure a stable and reliable operation of the system. As a result the
existing systems cannot be made use of to their full capacity. However, with the use of fast
acting controls, the power system margins could be reduced and power system capability
could be more fully utilised while maintaining the present levels of quality and reliability.
The concept of FACTS is explaining as follows:
We know that, the power transfer between two systems interconnected through a tie line
is given as
𝑽𝟏 𝑽𝟐
𝑷= 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜹
𝑿
It can be seen that the power flow can be controlled by three parameters, the voltages at the
two systems, the reactance of the tie-line and the difference in the voltage angles at the two
ends. The FACTS devices can be used to control one or more of these parameters. The
various devices used are (i) Static var compensators (SVC) (ii) Controlled series
compensation (iii) Static condensers (STATCON) (iv) Advanced controlled series
compensation (v) Thyristor controlled phase shifting transformer.
A flexible alternating current transmission system (FACTS) is a system composed of static
equipment used for the alternating current (AC) transmission of electrical energy. It is meant
to enhance controllability and increase power transfer capability of the network. It is
generally a power electronics-based system.
28
General Symbol for FACTS Controller
FACTS is defined by the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) as "a
power electronic based system and other static equipment that provide control of one or more
AC transmission system parameters to enhance controllability and increase power transfer
capability".
According to Siemens, "FACTS Increase the reliability of AC grids and reduce power
delivery costs. They improve transmission quality and efficiency of power transmission by
supplying inductive or reactive power to grid.
1.12.1 Features of Flexible AC Transmission Systems (FACTS)

 Fast voltage regulation,
 Increased power transfer over long AC lines,
 Damping of active power oscillations, and
 Load flow control in meshed systems,
Thereby significantly improving the stability and performance of existing and future
transmission systems.
1.12.2 Why is a Flexible AC Transmission System Needed?
In a conventional AC transmission system, the ability to transfer AC power is limited by

several factors like thermal limits, transient stability limit, voltage limit, short circuit current
limit, etc. These limits define the maximum electric power which can be efficiently
transmitted through the transmission line without causing any damage to the electrical
equipment and the transmission lines. This is normally achieved by bringing changes in the
power system layout. However, this is not feasible and another way of achieving maximum
power transfer capability without any changes in the power system layout. Also with the
introduction of variable impedance devices like capacitors and inductors, the whole of the
energy or power from the source is not transferred to the load, but a part is stored in these
devices as reactive power and returned to the source. Thus the actual amount of power
29
transferred to the load or the active power is always less than the apparent power or the net
power. For ideal transmission, the active power should be equal to the apparent power. In
other words, the power factor (the ratio of active power to apparent power) should be unity.
This is where the role of a Flexible AC transmission System comes.
1.12.3 What is Flexible AC Transmission System (FACTS)?
A Flexible AC transmission System refers to the system consisting of power electronic

devices along with power system devices to enhance the controllability and stability of the
transmission system and increase the power transfer capabilities. With the invention of
thyristor switch, opened the door for the development of power electronics devices known as
Flexible AC transmission systems (FACTS) controllers. The FACT system is used to
provide the controllability of the high voltage side of the network by incorporating power
electronic devices to introduce inductive or capacitive power in the network.
1.12.4 BASIC TYPES OF FACTS CONTROLLERS
 Series Controllers: Series Controllers consist of capacitors or reactors which introduce

voltage in series with the line. They are variable impedance devices. Their major task is to
reduce the inductivity of the transmission line. They supply or consume variable reactive
power.
30

The series controllers are used to introduced voltage in series with the line voltage. It consists
of a capacitor or reactor (impedance devices). This type of controllers is used to supply or
consume variable reactive power.
When the load of the transmission line is more, it needs extra reactive power. In this
condition, it is used to supply reactive power with the help of a capacitor. When the
transmission line operates on very light load, the receiving end voltage increase than the
sending end voltage due to less demand for reactive power. In this condition, it is used to
consumes reactive power with the help of an inductor.
In most of the case, the capacitors are installed at the end of the line to compensate
demand for reactive power. For this purpose, Thyristor Controlled Series Capacitor (TCSC),
and Static Synchronous Series Compensator (SSSC) are used.
 Shunt Controllers: Shunt controllers consist of variable impedance devices like

capacitors or reactors which introduce current in series with the line. Their major task is to
reduce the capacitive of the transmission line. The injected current is in phase with the line
voltage. Examples of shunt controllers are STATCOM, TSR, TSC, SVC.
31
This type of device is used to inject current to the power system at the point of connection.
Similar to the series-connected controllers, it also consists of variable impedance like
capacitor and inductor.
When a capacitor is used to connect parallel with the power system, the method is known
as shunt capacitive compensation. When the transmission line consists of a more inductive
load, it operates on a lagging power factor. This method is used to draws current leading to
the source voltage to compensate for the lagging load with the help of a shunt connected
capacitor.
When an inductor is used to connect in shunt with the power system, the method is known
as shunt inductive compensation. Generally, this method is not more useful with the
transmission network. But in case of a very large transmission line, the load is disconnected
or it operates on no-load or less load condition, due to the Ferranti effect, the receiving end
voltage increase then the sending end voltage. to avoid this condition, the shunt inductive
compensator is used.
 Combined Series - Shunt Controllers: These controllers introduce current in series

using the series controllers and voltage in shunt using the shunt controllers.
This type of controller is used to introduce voltage in parallel using the shunt
controller and along with it used to introduce the current is series using the series
controller. But both controllers must operate with coordination. The example of this type
of controller is the Unified Power Flow Controller (UPFC).
 Combined Series-Series Controllers: These controllers consist of a combination of

series controllers with each controller providing series compensation and also the transfer
real power along the line. An example is IPFC.
32
In multilane transmission lines, a combination of separate series controllers is used in a
coordinated manner to provide independent series reactive compensation for each line. But it
can transfer real power with lines via power link. Or it can be connected with unified
controllers that the DC terminals of converters are interlinked together. This will help to
transfer the real power to the transmission line. An example of this type of system is the
Interlink Power Flow Controller (IPFC).
1.13 BASICS OF POWER TRANSMISSION NETWORKS
A large majority of power transmission lines are AC lines operating at different voltages (10
kV to 800 kV). The distribution networks generally operate below 100 kV while the bulk
power is transmitted at higher voltages. The lines operating at different voltages are
connected through transformers which operate at high efficiency. Traditionally, AC lines
have no provision for the control of power flow. The mechanically operated circuit breakers
(CB) are meant for protection against faults (caused by flashovers due to over-voltages on the
lines or reduced clearances to ground). A CB is rated for a limited number of open and close
operations at a time and cannot be used for power flow control. (unlike a high power
electronic switch such as thyristor, GTO, IGBT, IGCT, etc.). Fortunately, ac lines have
inherent power flow control as the power flow is determined by the power at the sending end
or receiving end. For example, consider a transmission line connecting a generating station to
a load centre in Fig.1.1(a). Assuming the line to be lossless and ignoring the line charging,
the power flow (P) is given by
𝑽𝟏 𝑽𝟐
𝑷= 𝐬𝐢𝐧(𝜽𝟏 − 𝜽𝟐 ) (1.1)
𝑿
where X is the series line reactance. Assuming 𝑽𝟏 and 𝑽𝟐 to be held constants (through
voltage regulators at the two ends), the power injected by the power station determines the
flow of power in the line. The difference in the bus angles is automatically adjusted to enable
33
P = 𝑷𝑮 (Note that usually there could be more than one line transmitting power from a
generating station to a load centre). If one or more lines trip, the output of the power station
may have to be reduced by tripping generators, so as to avoid overloading the remaining lines
in operation.
Fig. 1.1(b) shows another situation where a line supplies power to a load located at bus (2).
Here also the eq. (1.1) applies but the power flow in the line is determined by the load
supplied. The essential difference between the two situations is that in Fig. 1.1(a), the load
centre is modelled as an infinite bus which can absorb (theoretically) any amount of power
supplied to it from the generating station. This model of the load centre assumes that the
generation available at the load centre is much higher than the power supplied from the
remote power station (obviously, the total load supplied at the load centre is equal to the net
generation available at that bus).
The reliability of the power supply at a load bus can be improved by arranging two (or
more) sources of power as shown in Fig. 1.2. Here, 𝑷𝟏 is the output of 𝑮𝟏 while 𝑷𝟐 is the
output of 𝑮𝟐 (Note that we are neglecting losses as before). However, the tripping of any one
line will reduce the availability of power at the load bus. This problem can be overcome by
providing a line (shown dotted in Fig. 1.2) to interconnect the two power stations. Note that
this results in the creation of a mesh in the transmission network. This improves the system
reliability, as tripping of any one line does not result in curtailment of the load. However, in
steady state, 𝑷𝟏 can be higher or lower than 𝑷𝑮𝟏 (the output of 𝑮𝟏 ). The actual power flows
in the 3 lines forming a mesh are determined by Kirchhoff's Voltage Law (KVL). In general,
the addition of an (interconnecting) line can result in increase of power flow in a line (while
decreasing the power flow in some other line). This is an interesting feature of AC
34
transmission lines and not usually well understood (in the context of restructuring). In
general, it can be stated that in an uncontrolled AC transmission network with loops (to
improve system reliability), the power flows in individual lines are determined by KVL and
do not follow the requirements of the contracts (between energy producers and customers). In
other words, it is almost impossible to ensure that the power flow between two nodes follows
a predetermined path. This is only feasible in radial networks (with no loops), but the
reliability is adversely affected as even a single outage can result in load curtailment.
Consider two power systems, each with a single power station meeting its own local load,
interconnected by a tie line as shown in Fig. 1.3(a). In this case, the power flow in the tie line
(P) in steady state is determined by the mismatch between the generation and load in the
individual areas. Under dynamic conditions, this power flow is determined from the
equivalent circuit shown in Fig. 1.3(b). If the capacity of the tie is small compared to the size
(generation) of the two areas, the angles 𝜹𝟏 and 𝜹𝟐 are not affected much by the tie line
power flow. Thus, power flow in AC tie is generally uncontrolled and it becomes essential to
trip the tie during a disturbance, either to protect the tie line or preserve system security.
35
In comparison with a AC transmission line, the power °ow in a HVDC line in controlled and
regulated. However, HVDC converter stations are expensive and HVDC option is used
primarily for (a) long distance bulk power transmission (b) interconnection of asynchronous
systems and (c) underwater (submarine) transmission. The application of HVDC transmission
(using thyristor converters) is also constrained by the problem of commutation failures
affecting operation of multiterminal or multi-feed HVDC systems. This implies that HVDC
links are primarily used for point-to-point transmission of power and asynchronous
interconnection (using Back to Back (BTB) links).
1.14 ANALYSIS OF UNCOMPENSATED AC LINE
A transmission line has distributed circuit parameters. We will be assuming the line to be
symmetric in three phases and operating with balanced (positive sequence) voltages and
currents. Hence it is adequate to consider only a single phase positive sequence equivalent
network of the line (see Fig. 2.1).
In Fig. 2.1, it is assumed that the sending end is connected to a generator and the receiving
end is connected to a (unity power factor) load. The line has series resistance r and
inductance l, shunt conductance g and capacitance c (all parameters expressed per unit
length).
Transmission Line Equations

It is assumed that in steady state all the voltages and currents in the line are sinusoidal of
frequency (𝝎 rad/sec) and expressed in phasors.
36
Considering a small element of the line of length (dx) at a distance x from the receiving end,
(see Fig. 2.2) the following equations apply,
It is to be noted that both V and I are phasors that are functions of x. From the above
equations, we get the following differential equations for V and I.
is termed as the propagation constant. 𝜶 is called the attenuation constant and 𝜷 is called the
phase constant. 𝑨𝟏 and 𝑨𝟐 are constants dependent on the boundary conditions. Substituting
(2.7) in (2.3), we can derive
37
Normally, the conductance g of a line can be neglected. The series resistance r has only a
secondary effect on the voltage and power flow in the line and hence can be neglected for
simplicity. It is to be noted that r is to be considered while computing transmission (active
power) loss.
Expressions for a Lossless line
Neglecting r and g, the propagation constant 𝜸 is purely imaginary with
38
This shows that the magnitude of voltage (and current) at any point on the line is constant but
the phase angle varies uniformly as the distance (x) increases. When x = 𝛌, such that
Typically, the value of u for overhead high voltage transmission lines is slightly less than the
velocity of light (u = 3 x𝟏𝟎𝟖 m/sec). Substituting x = d (where d is the length of the
transmission line) in Eqs. (2.17) and (2.18) we have
is termed as the electrical length of the line expressed in radians.

Remarks
39
Performance of a Line Connected to Unity Power Factor Load
Assuming that the sending end voltage of the line is held constant at 𝑽𝑺 , the receiving end
voltage 𝐕𝐑 varies with the load. It will be assumed that the line is lossless. It is convenient to
represent the line by Thevenin equivalent at the receiving end. The Thevenin voltage is the
open circuit voltage at the receiving end given by,
and Thevenin impedance is obtained as
The equivalent circuit of the line and the load is shown in Fig. 2.4. The phasor diagram of the
voltages 𝑽𝑻𝒉 and 𝑽𝑹 are shown in Fig. 2.5. It can be seen from Fig. 2.5, that
and the power flow in the line, P = 𝑷𝑹 is given by
The maximum power (theoretical limit) occurs at 𝜹 = 𝟒𝟓𝟎 and is given by
At this value of power, the receiving end voltage is
Figure 2.4: Equivalent circuit of the line connected to a unity p.f. load
40
At no load (𝑷𝑹 = 0), the voltage at the receiving end is higher than the sending due to the line
charging. This is termed as Ferranti Effect. The no load voltage at the receiving end is given
by
This can be excessive as µ increases. At line lengths approaching quarter wavelength, 𝑽𝑹𝟎 is
very high. Note that 𝑽𝑹𝟎 is bounded in real lines as the resistance of the line cannot be
ignored at high charging currents.
At no load, the sending end current is the charging current of the line and is given by
This also increases as µ increases and can overload the generator. The no load reactive power
𝑸𝑺𝟎 is obtained as
Performance of a Symmetrical Line
To control the receiving end voltage and increase the power transfer capability of the line it is
necessary to have a generator or a controlled reactive power source (with fast control) such as
a SVC at the receiving end (see Fig. 2.6). The reactive power injected is −𝑸𝑹 . If line is
symmetrical (𝑽𝑺 = 𝑽𝑹 = V), then from symmetry, 𝑸𝑺 = −𝑸𝑹 . Thus, the reactive power
requirements of the line are shared equally at both ends of the line. From Fig. 2.6, it can be
derived that if the voltage 𝑽𝑹 is controlled using a reactive power source in parallel with 𝑹𝑳 ,
then the power transfer
Figure 2.6: A transmission line with dynamic voltage support at the receiving end
on the line is given by
41
The voltage profile along the line varies as the loading varies. For P = 𝑷𝑹 (SIL) the voltage
profile is flat. The voltage variation at the midpoint is maximum for the symmetrical line as
the load varies from zero to the maximum value. (see Fig. 2.7) To compute the midpoint
voltage (𝑽𝒎 ) we can divide the line into two equal sections of half the length. For the line
section connecting the sending end to the midpoint, we have
42
For the line section connecting midpoint to the receiving end, we have
The charging reactive power at no load is given by
Comparing the expressions for the power, no load voltage and charging reactive power with
those given in the previous section (2.1.3) shows that a symmetrical line can be viewed as
two line sections of half the length each (see Fig. 2.8). One end of each line section is
connected to unity power factor load and at the other end the voltage is regulated. The load is
negative for one line section and positive for the other line section. The negative load results
in the reversal of power flow.
Figure 2.8: Representation of a symmetrical line

In general, it is not possible to consider the voltages at the two ends of the line as constants. It
is necessary to consider the effects of the systems connected to the two ends by representing
43
Thevenin equivalents at both ends as shown in Fig. 2.9. The mutual coupling between 𝑿𝑺 and
𝑿𝑹 is neglected.
Figure 2.9: A transmission line with Thevenin equivalent at both ends

For simplifying the analysis we can consider 𝑬𝑺 = 𝑬𝑹 = E and 𝑿𝑺 = 𝑿𝑹 = 𝑿. In this case, it
can be shown that
The power flow (P) is obtained as
The effect of source reactances is to reduce the power flow (compared to the case with 𝒙 = 0)
when
and increase it for higher values of x. However increasing values of x result in large values of
𝒙
𝑽𝒎 and high reactive power flows. In practical situations, is generally less than unity.
𝒁𝒏
Performance of uncompensated lines { summary}
Based on the analysis given in this and the previous sections, the following points emerge
1. The dynamic regulation of voltage at the receiving (load) end of the line by using a
controllable reactive source, improves power transfer and voltage profile along the line.
2. However, even with symmetrical lines (with voltages maintained at both ends), the power
transfer capability is decreased as the line length increases. Assuming that a line is operated
with 𝜹max = 𝟑𝟎𝟎 , the maximum power transfer reduces below SIL for line lengths 𝜽 > 𝟑𝟎𝟎
(approximately 500 km long line in systems operating at 50 Hz).
44
3. The problems of voltage control and charging reactive power (at no load) become severe as
line length increases. For a symmetric line, the voltage variation is maximum at the mid-point
of the line.
1.15 PASSIVE REACTIVE POWER COMPENSATION
The transmission line has series inductance which absorbs reactive power while the shunt
capacitance releases (generates reactive power). For light loads, the absorption is less than the
generation and voltage in the line tends to rise. On the other hand, at loads exceeding Surge
Impedance Loading (SIL), the absorption is higher than the generation and the voltage tends
to fall. By connecting series capacitors and shunt inductors in the line, we can control the
reactive power flow in the line to limit the voltage variations and increase (active) power
transfer capability. To study the effects of passive reactive compensation, we will first
consider the distributed compensation (which is difficult to arrange, but is easier to analyze)
before taking up discrete compensation (which is practical).
Distributed Compensation
Let us consider distributed series compensation (capacitive) whose effect, in steady state, is
to counteract the effect of the distributed series inductance of the line. Similarly, by providing
distributed shunt (inductive) compensation, the effect of line capacitance is reduced.
The phase constant (𝜷′ ) of a compensated line is given by
where 𝜷 is the phase constant of the uncompensated line, 𝒌𝒔𝒆 is the degree of series
compensation and 𝒌𝒔𝒉 is the degree of shunt compensation. It is assumed that both 𝒌𝒔𝒆 and
𝒌𝒔𝒉 are less than unity. The surge impedance (𝒁′𝑹 ) of the compensated line is obtained as
From Eqs. (2.54) and (2.55) we note that the electrical length (𝜽′ ) of the compensated line
given by
45
is reduced by both series and shunt compensation. On the other hand, Zn is reduced by series
compensation (capacitive) and increased by shunt compensation (inductive). For a lossless
symmetrical line, the power flow in a compensated line is given by
for small values 𝜽′ . The no load voltage at the mid-point (𝑽′𝒎𝟎 ) is given by
1. The distributed shunt compensation reduces the no load voltage and charging reactive
power, but has little effect on the maximum power flow in the line.
2. The distributed series compensation reduces the no load voltage and increases the power
transfer capacity, but less little effect on the no load charging reactive power.
Discrete Passive Compensation
It is not practical to provide distributed compensation. Here, we will consider discrete series
and shunt compensation. Before taking this up, it is instructive to derive an equivalent circuit
(in steady state) of the distributed parameter, uncompensated line. Figure 2.10 shows the
equivalent 𝝅 circuit of the line.
Figure 2.10: The exact 𝝅 equivalent circuit of a lossless uncompensated line
This is obtained by comparing the A and B constants of the line and the equivalent circuit as
given below
46
Note: When we are dealing with single phase equivalent of a balanced symmetric 3 phase
network, the parameters of this circuit are the positive sequence parameters while the
voltages and currents are assumed to contain only positive sequence components. As a matter
of fact, for symmetric networks with no zero sequence components, the coupled 3 phase
network can be reduced to 3 uncoupled single phase networks. For example, from the simple
3 phase network described by
For a lossless transmission line, the shunt susceptance is capacitive and results in charging
reactive power at no load. The shunt reactors at both ends of the line can be used to fully or
partially compensate for this reactive power. With full shunt compensation (by reactors), the
lossless line is represented by only a series reactance (X) given by
1.16 Compensation by a Series Capacitor Connected at the Midpoint of the Line
The two cases of the series compensation are considered.

Case 1: Series compensation accompanied by shunt compensation:
The equivalent circuit of the line with the series and (full) shunt compensation connected at
the midpoint in addition to the two ends of the line (see Fig. 2.11(a)) is shown in Fig. 2.11(b).
The power flow in the compensated line is given by
47
It is to be noted that when 𝑽𝑺 = 𝑽𝑹 = V , the no load voltage at the midpoint of the line is V
(and at both terminals of the series capacitor as the current through the capacitor is zero at no
load). The Eq. (2.63) can also be expressed as
48
Case 2: With pure series compensation at the midpoint:
If no shunt reactors are used at the terminals the series capacitor, the equivalent circuit of half
the line can be obtained − as shown in Fig. 2.4 and the combined equivalent circuit of the
series compensated line is shown in Fig. 2.12.
Remarks
Using the equivalent circuits of the uncompensated line sections, the power flow in a series
compensated line, where the series capacitor is located at any point in the line, can be
obtained as
1.16 Shunt Compensation Connected at the Midpoint of the Line
As mentioned earlier, the control of no load voltage requires a shunt reactor. On the other
hand, increase in the power flow in a line requires shunt capacitor. Unlike in the case of the
series capacitor, the location of the shunt capacitor is very crucial. The best location is at the
midpoint of the line to maximize the power flow in the line.
49
Figure 2.13: Equivalent circuit of a line with shunt capacitor at the midpoint
The equivalent circuit of the line with the shunt susceptance connected at the midpoint, is
shown in Fig. 2.13.The transfer reactance (𝑿𝒕 ) between the nodes (1) and (2) is given by
The power flow (P) in the line is given by
The current (𝑰𝒎 ) at the midpoint is given by the same expression as in Eq. (2.46). It is
unaffected by the shunt susceptance. Both 𝑽 𝐬𝐡
𝐦 and 𝑰𝒎 are in phase and hence the power
flow is the product of 𝑽𝒎 and 𝑰𝒎 .
Remarks
𝐦 and 𝑰𝒎 , the following circuit relations are used .

In deriving expressions for 𝑽 𝐬𝐡
Adding (2.74) and (2.75) results in (2.73).
1.18 Comparison between Series and Shunt Capacitor
50
The maximum power flow in the line is given by substituting 𝜹 = 𝜹𝐦𝐚𝐱 in the expression for
the power flow (P). 𝜹𝐦𝐚𝐱 is chosen from considerations of the steady state margin that will
not result in the power flow exceeding limits during a contingency.
For the same amount of maximum power transfer, we obtain the following relation
(comparing (2.65) with (2.72)).
The above relation shows that the series capacitor is much more effective than the shunt
capacitor in increasing power transfer.
Note: The peak voltage (𝐕𝑷𝒔𝒉 ) across the shunt capacitor occurs at no load and is given by
51
Figure 2.14: Equivalent circuits for determining resonance frequencies
Another factor in the comparison of the series and shunt (capacitor) compensation is the
electrical resonance frequency. The comparison can be made from the Fig. 2.14.
52
1.19 FACTS Controller & Control Attributes
53
54
1.20 Advantages & Disadvantages of FACTS Devices
Advantages
The advantages of FACTS devices are listed below,
 The FACTS devices are used to increase the power transfer capability of the transmission
line. Hence, it saves costs to develop an entirely new transmission line.
 It increases the loading capability of the transmission line of their thermal capability.
 It reduces the amount of reactive power in the transmission line. In this way, the
transmission line can transfer more amount of active power to the load.
 The FACTS devices are used to control the amount of flow of power through the
transmission line. So, it helps to follow the guideline and contract of utility and ensure the
optimum flow of power.
 It reduces the cost of power as it reduces the transmission cost.
 It increases the quality of power, voltage stability, thermal stability, and transient stability
of the system.
 FACTS devices are not containing any environmentally hazardous waste material. Hence,
this technology of environmentally friendly.
 It improves the power factor of the power system network.
 It increases the reliability and flexibility of the transmission network.
Disadvantages
The disadvantages of FACTS devices are as listed below.
 The FACTS devices are used power electronics switches to control supply or absorb the
power. The major disadvantage of the use of power electronics switch is that it induces
harmonics in the output signals. These harmonics enter into the power system network.
So, the active filters are used to remove the harmonics.
 The initial cost of FACTS devices is very high.
 It transmits a limited amount of power.
 It needs continuous maintenance and the repair cost of these devices are very high.
 It uses converters. Hence, the amount of power loss occurs in the switches.
 If the current from the FACTS devices is increased due to any reason, there may be a
chance to damage the power electronics switches used in the converter. And the cost of
these switches is very high.
1.21 Series Compensation
55
Series compensation is the method of improving the system voltage by connecting a capacitor
in series with the transmission line. In other words, in series compensation, reactive power is
inserted in series with the transmission line for improving the impedance of the system. It
improves the power transfer capability of the line. It is mostly used in extra and ultra high
voltage line.
Advantages of Series Compensation
Series compensation has several advantages like it increases transmission capacity, improve
system stability, control voltage regulation and ensure proper load division among parallel
feeders. These advantages are discussed below.
 Increase in Power Transfer Capability – The power transfer over a line is given by
where P1 – power transferred per phase (W)

Vs – sending-end phase voltage (V)
Vr – receiving-end phase voltage
XL – series inductive reactance of the line
δ – phase angle between Vs and Vr
If a capacitor having capacitance reactance Xc is connected in series with the line, the
reactance of the line is reduced from XL to ( XL– Xc). The power transfer is given by
56
Where,
The factor k is known as a degree of compensation or compensation factor. Thus, per unit
compensation is given by the equation percentage
Compensation is given by the equation
Where XL = total series inductive reactance of the line per phase

XC = capacitive reactance of the capacitor banck per phase
In practice , k lies between 0.4 and 0.7. For k = 0.5,
Thus, the power transfer is doubled by 50 % compensation.
 Improvement in System Stability – For same power transfer and for the same value of
sending and receiving end voltage, the phase angle δ in the case of the series impedance
line is less that for the uncompensated line. The reduced value of δ gives higher stability.
 Load Division among Parallel Line – Series capacitors are used in transmission
systems for improving the load division between parallel lines. When the new line with
large power transfer capability is paralleled with an already existing line, then it is
difficult to load the new line without overloading the old line. In such case the series
compensation reduces the series reactance and proper load division among parallel
circuit can be done easily. Load division increases the power transfer capability of the
system and reduced losses.
57
 Control of Voltage – In series capacitor, there is an automatic change in VAR (reactive
power) with the change in load current. Thus the drops in voltage levels due to sudden
load variations are corrected instantly.
Location of Series capacitor
The location of the series capacitor depends on the economic and technical consideration of
the line. The series capacitor may be located at the sending end, receiving end, or at the
center of the line. Sometimes they are located at two or more points along the line.
The degree of compensation and the characteristic of the line decide the location of the
capacitors. Their installation at the terminal provides the facility of maintenance, but the
overvoltage appearing across the terminals of the capacitors under fault conditions will over
stress the capacitor.
The capacitors are installed in the intermediate switching station of comparatively long lines.
The location at the center of the line also reduced the rating of the capacitor. The rating of the
series capacitor is given by
where I is the line current. Capacitor banks consist of small units connected in series, parallel,
or both to get the desired voltage and Var rating.
Protection Schemes for Series Capacitor
When the fault or overload occurs the large current will flow across the series capacitor of the
line. Thus, the excessive voltage drop occurs across the transmission line. For protecting the
capacitors from such abnormal voltages, spark gaps and surge diverter are connected to the
capacitor terminal. A circuit breaker is also connected in parallel with it. Some of the
methods of series capacitor are shown below.
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1.22 Shunt Compensation
In a high voltage transmission line, the magnitude of receiving end voltage depends on the
loading condition. The capacitance performs an important role in the high voltage
transmission line.
When the line is loaded, the load needs reactive power. This reactive power demand fulfills
by the line capacitance. When the load is more than SIL (surge impedance loading), then high
demand for reactive power will result in a large voltage drop at receiving end of a
transmission line. Therefore, the capacitor bank is connected in parallel with a transmission
line at the receiving end to feed the demand for reactive power. So, it reduces receiving end
voltage drop.
If the capacitance of the line increases, the receiving end voltage will increase.
When the line is lightly loaded (less than SIL), the reactive power demand is less compared
to the line capacitance. In this condition, the magnitude of receiving end increases than the
magnitude of sending end voltage. This effect is known as the Ferranti effect. To avoid this
condition, the shunt reactor is used to connect in series with the transmission line at the
receiving end. The shunt reactor will absorb extra reactive power from line and maintain
receiving end voltage at rated value.
1.22 Methods of Voltage Control in Power System
The voltage of the power system may vary with the change in load. The voltage is
normally high at light load and low at the heavy-load condition. For keeping the voltage
of the system in limits, some additional equipment requires which increase the system
59
voltage when it is low and reduces the voltage when it is too high. The following are the
methods used in the power system for controlling the voltage.
1. On – Load Tap Changing Transformer

2. Off – Load Tap Changing transformer
3. Shunt Reactors
4. Synchronous Phase Modifiers
5. Shunt Capacitor
6. Static VAR System (SVS)
Controlling the system voltage by the help of shunt inductive element is known as shunt
compensation. The shunt compensation is of two types, i.e., the static shunt compensation
and the synchronous compensation. In static shunt compensation, the shunt reactor, shunt
capacitor and static VAR system are used, whereas the shunt compensation uses the
synchronous phase modifier. The methods used for controlling the voltage are explained
below in details.
1. Off – Load Tap Changing Transformer – In this method, the voltage is controlled by
changing the turn ratio of the transformer. The transformer is disconnected from the supply
before changing the tap. The tap changing of the transformer mostly done manually.
2. On – Load Tap Changing Transformer – This arrangement is used for changing the turn
ratio of the transformer for regulating the system voltage when the transformer delivers the
load. Most of the power transformer is provided with on-load tap changer.
3. Shunt Reactor – The shunt reactor is the inductive current element which is connected
between the line and neutral. The shunt reactor compensates the inductive current from
the transmission line or underground cables. It is mainly used in the long distance EHV and
UHV transmission lines for reactive power control.
The shunt reactors are used in the sending end substation, receiving end substation
and in the intermediate substation of long EHV and UHV line. In the long transmission line,
the shunt reactor is connected at the distance of 300 Km to limit the voltage at an
intermediate point.
4. Shunt Capacitors – The shunt capacitors are the capacitors connected in parallel with the
line. It is installed at the receiving end substation, distribution substations and in the
switching substations. The shunt capacitor injected the reactive volt-ampere to the line. It is
placed in the three phase bank.
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5. Synchronous Phase Modifier – The synchronous phase modifier is the synchronous
motor running without a mechanical load. It is connected with the load at receiving the end of
the line. The synchronous phase modifier absorbs or generates the reactive power by varying
the excitation of the field winding. It keeps the voltage constant at any condition of the load
and also improves the power factor.
6. Series VAR Systems (SVS) – The static VAR compensator inject or absorb the inductive
VAR to the system when the voltage becomes higher or lower than the reference value. In
static VAR compensator, the thyristor is used as switching device in place of circuit breakers.
Nowadays, the thyristor switching is used in the system in place of mechanical switching
because thyristor switching is faster and provides transient free operation by controlling the
switching.
Q.1: A transmission line has a total series reactance of 0.2 p.u. Reactive power compensation
is applied at the midpoint of the line and it is controlled such that midpoint voltage of the
transmission line is always maintained at 0.98 pu. If voltage at both ends of the line are
maintanined at 1.0 pu, then steady state power transfer limit of the transmission line is
_________ pu.
(a) 9.8 pu (b) 4.9 pu (c) 19.6 pu (d) 5 pu
Q.2 : A transmission line has equal voltages at the two ends, maintained constant by two
sources. A third source is to be provided to maintain constant voltage (equal to end voltages)
at either the midpoint of the line or at 75% of the distance from the sending end. Then the
maximum power transfer capabilities of the line in the original case and the other two cases
respectively will be in the following ratios.
𝟏
(a) 1 :1 :1 (b) 1 : 2 : (c) 1 : 2 : 4 (d) 1 : 4 : 6
𝟎.𝟕𝟓
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62
MODULE-II Thyristor-Based Flexible AC Transmission
Controllers (FACTS)
2.1 STATIC VAR COMPENSATOR
A static VAR compensator (SVC) is a set of electrical devices for providing fast
acting reactive power on high-voltage electricity transmission networks. SVCs are part of
the Flexible AC transmission system device family, regulating voltage, power factor,
harmonics and stabilizing the system. A static VAR compensator has no significant moving
parts (other than internal switchgear). Prior to the invention of the SVC, power factor
compensation was the preserve of large rotating machines such as synchronous condensers or
switched capacitor banks.
The SVC is an automated impedance matching device, designed to bring the system closer to
unity power factor. SVCs are used in two main situations:
 Connected to the power system, to regulate the transmission voltage ("Transmission

SVC")
 Connected near large industrial loads, to improve power quality ("Industrial SVC")
In transmission applications, the SVC is used to regulate the grid voltage. If the power
system's reactive load is capacitive (leading), the SVC will use thyristor controlled reactors to
consume VARs from the system, lowering the system voltage. Under inductive (lagging)
conditions, the capacitor banks are automatically switched in, thus providing a higher system
voltage. By connecting the thyristor-controlled reactor, which is continuously variable, along
with a capacitor bank step, the net result is continuously variable leading or lagging power.
In industrial applications, SVCs are typically placed near high and rapidly varying loads,
such as arc furnaces, where they can smooth flicker voltage.
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Classification of SVC
There are two types of SVC:
1. Fixed Capacitor-Thyristor Controlled Reactor (FC-TCR)
2. Thyristor Switched Capacitor - Thyristor Controlled Reactor (TSC-TCR).
The second type is more flexible than the first one and requires smaller rating of the
reactor and consequently generates less harmonics.
Working of SVC
64
Static VAR Compensator VI Characteristics
A static VAR compensator can be operated in two approaches:
 As voltage controlling mode where there is regulation for voltage within the threshold
values
 As var regulation mode which means susceptance value of the device is maintained at a
constant level
For the voltage controlling mode, the VI characteristics are shown as below:
As far as the susceptance value stays at constant within the less and high threshold limits
levied by the entire reactive power of the capacitors and reactors, then the voltage value is
controlled at the equilibrium point which is termed as a reference voltage.
Though voltage decrease generally takes place and this ranges in between the values of 1 and
4 % when there is extreme reactive power at the output. The VI characteristic and the
equations for this condition are shown below:
Advantages and Disadvantages
Few of the advantages of static VAR compensator are

 The power transmission ability for the transmission lines can be enhanced through these
SVC devices
 The system’s transient strength can also be increased through the implementation of
SVC’s
 In the case of a high range of voltages and for controlling steady states, SVC is generally
used which is one of the foremost advantages
 SVC increases the load power rating and so the line losses will be decreased and system
efficiency enhances.
The disadvantages of the static VAR compensator are:

 As the device has no revolutionary parts, for the implementation of surge impedance
compensation, additional equipment is needed
 The size of the device is heavy
 Deliberate dynamic response
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 The device is not suitable to employ for the regulation of voltage up and downs because of
furnace loads
SVC VI Characteristics
2.1.1 Thyristor Controlled Reactor (TCR)

In this type of controller, the reactor is connected in series with the thyristor valve. It consists
of two thyristors connected in anti-parallel. These thyristors conduct an alternate half cycle of
the power supply. The control circuit is used to give pulse to thyristor at every half cycle. The
firing angle of the thyristor controls the amount of lagging power supply to the power system.
Generally, this device is used in the EHV transmission line to provide reactive power during
light load or no-load condition. The basic diagram of a Thyristor Controlled Reactor is as
shown in the below figure.
66
2.1.2 Thyristor Switched Reactor (TSR)
This is similar to the Thyristor controlled reactor (TCR). In TCR, the firing angle of the
thyristor is controlled to control the current from the device. But in case of the TSR, the
thyristor either fully on or off. There is no phase control. So, because of the absence of firing
control, the cost of the thyristor is less and it reduces the loss of switch. The basic diagram of
the Thyristor Switched Reactor is the same as the Thyristor Controlled Reactor.
2.1.3 Thyristor Switched Capacitor (TSC)
During heavy load conditions, the reactive power demand increases. In this condition, the
Thyristor Switched Capacitor (TSC) is used to fulfill the demand for reactive power.
Generally, this type of device is used in the EHV transmission line and used in heavy load
conditions. This device is the same as TCR just a reactor is replaced by a capacitor. Similar to
TCR, the amount of power provide to the transmission line is controlled by controlling the
firing angle of a thyristor. The basic diagram of the Thyristor Switched Capacitor (TSC) is as
shown in the below figure.
2.2 THYRISTOR CONTROLLED SERIES COMPENSATOR (TCSC)
The basic Thyristor Controlled Series Capacitor scheme was proposed in 1986 by Vithayathil
with others as a method of "rapid adjustment of network impedance". A TCSC can be defined
as a capacitive reactance compensator which consists of a series capacitor bank shunted by a
thyristor-controlled reactor in order to provide a smoothly variable series capacitive
67
reactance. In a practical TCSC implementation, several such basic compensators may be
connected in series to obtain the desired voltage rating and operating characteristics.
However, the basic idea behind the TCSC scheme is to provide a continuously variable
capacitor by means of partially canceling the effective compensating capacitance by the TCR.
The basic conceptual TCSC module comprises a series capacitor, C, in parallel with a
thyristor controlled reactor.
A TCSC is a series-controlled capacitive reactance that can provide continuous control of
power on the ac line over a wide range. From the system viewpoint, the principle of variable-
series compensation is simply to increase the fundamental-frequency voltage across a Fixed
Capacitor (FC) in a series compensated line through appropriate variation of the firing angle,
α. This enhanced voltage changes the effective value of the series capacitive reactance. A
simple understanding of TCSC functioning can be obtained by analyzing the behavior of a
variable inductor connected in parallel with an FC. The maximum voltage and current limits
are design values for which the thyristor valve, the reactor and capacitor banks are rated to
meet specific application requirements.
Characteristics of TCSC :
Below shows the characteristics of TCSC. α is the delay angle measured from the crest
of the capacitor voltage or equivalently, the zero crossing of the line current. Therefore,
with the usual TCSC arrangement in which the impedance of the TCR reactor X L is
smaller than that of the capacitor, XC, the TCSC has two operating ranges around its
internal circuit resonance.
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2.3 SINGLE POLE SINGLE THROW SWITCH (SPST)
SPST Single pole single throw switch is nothing but a simple two-terminal switch which help
us to disconnect the one terminal to another terminal (vice versa – ON or OFF operation).
Example: our household lamp switch.
Here pole refers to the maximum number of input connection. In our SPST switch, you can
give one input. Also, throw refers to the maximum number of output from the switch. In our
Single pole single throw switch, you can get single output. Hence SPST uses to control a
single circuit at a time.
Construction of SPST:
Construction front, the switch has two terminal and contact portion is made up of silver alloy
to withstand the high circuit breaking current. It will be separated by the minimal distance to
avoid internal induction current circulation. The distance between the two contacts can be
varied according to its application.
69
The best example for high voltage SPST switch is railway 25 kV DC voltage system. The
negative terminal will be looed with the source through the track, but the positive will be
connected through SPST switch (It is called circuit breaker).
The contact will be insulated by Polyvinyl chloride material to avoid external contact. The
insulation material can be varied according to the operating voltage.
Working principle of SPST Switch:
Just take a simple circuit. A small lamp is connected in series with the power source and with
our switch. Look the circuit, at the initial condition the lamp will not glow since the switch is
in off position there is no current flow through the circuit.
But when you turn the switch from off to on, the lamp starts glowing until you do the same
process again.
For high voltage application, you cannot use your hand to open or close the switch contact.
There is a spring mechanism uses to ON or OFF the process.
Types of SPST Switch:
Depending upon the application convenient, It can be classified into three types such as
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 Simple SPST
 (ON)-OFF, Push-to-close, SPST Momentary
 ON-(OFF), Push-to-Open, SPST Momentary
 Inches Switch SPST
Simple SPST:
In this, the manual action is used to connect or disconnect the circuit. Example: On/Off
switch.
(ON) – OFF Push to Open – Momentary Switch:
A Momentary mechanism is used to keep the switches in a new position, in such While
pushing an SPST with your hand, the switch goes to Off to ON position. While returning
your hand the switch remains the same position. These switches play major roles in electrical
safety circuit. Also sometimes they come with the internal key based locking system.
(Off) – ON Push to Close – Momentary Switch:
It is a reverse function of Push to Open switch. The switch will be at open condition while
pushing the switch will close the circuit. It means ON to Off position.
Inches Switches:
It does not come with the momentary contact, which means, it can be used as ON-OFF or
OFF to ON by changing the contact element. In this switch, while pushing the button, they
71
become ON to off Position and while releasing it will come to its original position. These
logics are used in a Crane operating system.
2.4 FAULT CURRENT LIMITATION
When a short circuit occurs at any point in a system, the short-circuit current is limited by the
impedance of the system upto the point of fault. Thus referring to Fig. 17.2, if a fault occurs
on the feeder at point F, then the short circuit current from the generating station will have a
value limited by the impedance of generator and transformer and the impedance of the line
between the generator and the point of fault. This shows that the knowledge of the
impedances of various equipment and circuits in the line of the system is very important for
the determination of short-circuit currents.
In many situations, the impedances limiting the fault current are largely reactive, such as
transformers, reactors and generators. Cables and lines are mostly resistive, but where the
total reactance in calculations exceeds 3 times the resistance, the latter is usually neglected.
The error introduced by this assumption will not exceed 5%.
Percentage Reactance
The reactance of generators, transformers, reactors etc. is usually expressed in percentage
reactance to permit rapid short circuit calculations. The percentage reactance of a circuit is
defined as under :
72
It is the percentage of the total phase-voltage dropped in the circuit when full-load current
is flowing i.e.,
Short - Circuit kVA
Although the potential at the point of fault is zero, it is a normal practice to express the short-
circuit current in terms of short-circuit kVA based on the normal system voltage at the point
of fault.
The product of normal system voltage and short-circuit current at the point of fault
expressed in kVA is known as short-circuit kVA.
Reactor Control of Short - Circuit Currents
With the fast expanding power system, the fault level (i.e. the power available to flow into a
fault) is also rising. The circuit breakers connected in the power system must be capable of
dealing with maximum possible short-circuit currents that can occur at their points of
connection. Generally, the reactance of the system under fault conditions is low and fault
currents may rise to a dangerously high value. If no steps are taken to limit the value of these
short-circuit currents, not only will the duty required of circuit breakers be excessively heavy,
but also damage to lines and other equipment will almost certainly occur.
In order to limit the short-circuit currents to a value which the circuit breakers can
handle, additional reactances known as reactors are connected in series with the system at
suitable points. A reactor is a coil of number of turns designed to have a large inductance as
compared to its ohmic resistance. The forces on the turns of these reactors under short-circuit
conditions are considerable and, therefore, the windings must be solidly braced. It may be
added that due to very small resistance of reactors, there is very little change in the efficiency
of the system.
Advantages
(i) Reactors limit the flow of short-circuit current and thus protect the equipment from
overheating as well as from failure due to destructive mechanical forces.
73
(ii) Troubles are localised or isolated at the point where they originate without
communicating their disturbing effects to other parts of the power system. This increases the
chances of continuity of supply.
(iii) They permit the installation of circuit breakers of lower rating.
Location of Reactors
Short circuit current limiting reactors may be connected (i) in series with each generator (ii)
in series with each feeder and (iii) in bus-bars.
(1) Generator reactors: When the reactors are connected in series with each generator, they
are known as generator reactors (see Fig. 17.4). In this case, the reactor may be considered
as a part of leakage reactance of the generator ; hence its effect is to protect the generator in
the case of any short-circuit beyond the reactors.
Disadvantages
(i) There is a constant voltage drop and power loss in the reactors even during normal
operation.
(ii) If a bus-bar or feeder fault occurs close to the bus-bar, the voltage at the bus-bar will be
reduced to a low value, thereby causing the generators to fall out of step.
(iii) If a fault occurs on any feeder, the continuity of supply to other is likely to be affected.
Due to these disadvantages and also since modern power station generators have sufficiently
large leakage reactance to protect them against short-circuit, it is not a common practice to
use separate reactors for the generators.
(2) Feeder reactors: When the reactors are connected in series with each feeder, they are
known as feeder reactors (see Fig. 17.5). Since most of the short-circuits occur on feeders, a
large number of reactors are used for such circuits. Two principal advantages are claimed for
feeder reactors. Firstly, if a fault occurs on any feeder, the voltage drop in its reactor will not
74
affect the bus-bars voltage so that there is a little tendency for the generator to lose
synchronism. Secondly, the fault on a feeder will not affect other feeders and consequently
the effects of fault are localised.
Disadvantages
(i) There is a constant power loss and voltage drop in the reactors even during normal
operation.
(ii) If a short-circuit occurs at the bus-bars, no protection is provided to the generators.
However, this is of little importance because such faults are rare and modern generators have
considerable leakage reactance to enable them to withstand short-circuit across their
terminals.
(iii) If the number of generators is increased, the size of feeder reactors will have to be
increased to keep the short-circuit currents within the ratings of the feeder circuit breakers.
(3) Bus-bar reactors. The above two methods of locating reactors suffer from the
disadvantage that there is considerable voltage drop and power loss in the reactors even
during normal operation. This disadvantage can be overcome by locating the reactors in the
bus-bars. There are two methods for this purpose, namely ; Ring system and Tie-Bar system.
(i) Ring system. In this system, bus-bar is divided into sections and these sections are
connected through reactors as shown in Fig. 17.6. Generally, one feeder is fed from one
generator only. Under normal operating conditions, each generator will supply its own
section of the load and very little power will be fed by other generators. This results in low
power loss and voltage drop in the reactors. However, the principal advantage of the system
is that if a fault occurs on any feeder, only one generator (to which the particular feeder is
connected) mainly feeds the fault current while the current fed from other generators is small
75
due to the presence of reactors. Therefore, only that section of bus-bar is affected to which
the feeder is connected, the other sections being able to continue in normal operation.
(ii) Tie-Bar system. Fig. 17.7 shows the tie-bar system. Comparing the ring system with tie-
bar system, it is clear that in the tie-bar system, there are effectively two reactors in series
between sections so that reactors must have approximately half the reactance of those used in
a comparable ring system. Another advantage of tie-bar system is that additional generators
may be connected to the system without requiring changes in the existing reactors. However,
this system has the disadvantage that it requires an additional bus-bar i.e. the tie-bar.
Steps for Symmetrical Fault Calculations

It has already been discussed that 3-phase short-circuit faults result in symmetrical fault
currents i.e. fault currents in the three phases are equal in magnitude but displaced 120o
electrical from one another. Therefore, problems involving such faults can be solved by
considering one phase only as the same conditions prevail in the other two phases. The
procedure for the solution of such faults involves the following steps :
(i) Draw a single line diagram of the complete network indicating the rating, voltage and
percentage reactance of each element of the network.
(ii) Choose a numerically convenient value of base kVA and convert all percentage
reactances to this base value.
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(iii) Corresponding to the single line diagram of the network, draw the reactance diagram
showing one phase of the system and the neutral. Indicate the % reactances on the base kVA
in the reactance diagram. The transformer in the system should be represented by a reactance
in series.
(iv) Find the total % reactance of the network upto the point of fault. Let it be X%.
(v) Find the full-load current corresponding to the selected base kVA and the normal system
voltage at the fault point. Let it be I.
(vi) Then various short-circuit calculations are :
Q. A 3-phase, 20 MVA, 10 kV alternator has internal reactance of 5% and negligible

resistance. Find the external reactance per phase to be connected in series with the
alternator so that steady current on short-circuit does not exceed 8 times the full load
current.
Solution:
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THYRISTOR CONTROLLED BRAKING RESISTOR(TCBR)
Thyristor Controlled Braking Resistor (TCBR), is a kind of power electronic equipment

based on FACTs technology. It can participate in power grid steady-state frequency control,
transient emergency control, power grid black start and also has the function of suppressing
power oscillation. It is an effective means of power grid stability control system to participate
in primary frequency regulation by using load characteristics. Compared with traditional
mechanical switch switching resistor, electronic load can adjust power smoothly without
impact, fast response, high efficiency, long service life, easy maintenance and obvious
technical advantages.
The property of resistors to dissipate heat can be used to slow down a mechanical
system. This process is called dynamic braking and such a resistor is called a dynamic
braking resistor (or simply a brake resistor). To decelerate an electric motor, kinetic energy is
transformed back into electrical energy.
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Module 3: Voltage Source Converter based (FACTS) controllers
3.1 Interline Power Flow Controller (IPFC): The IPFC is a recently introduced Controller
and thus has no IEEE definition yet. A possible definition is: The combination of two or more
Static Synchronous Series Compensators which are coupled via a common de link to
facilitate bi-directional flow of real power between the ac terminals of the SSSCs, and are
controlled to provide independent reactive compensation for the adjustment of real power
flow in each line and maintain the desired distribution of reactive power flow among the
lines. The IPFC structure may also include a STATCOM, coupled to the IFFC's common dc
link, to provide shunt reactive compensation and supply or absorb the overall real power
deficit of the combined SSSCs.
Structure of IPFC
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A Generalized Interline Power Flow Controller scheme for comprehensive power
transmission control and management.
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Pulse Width Modulation for Voltage Source Converters
PWM stands for pulse width modulation, It is a method used to control the output voltage of
the converter by modulating the width of the pulse of the output waveform.
Pulse-width modulation (PWM), or pulse-duration modulation (PDM), is a method of

reducing the average power delivered by an electrical signal, by effectively chopping it up
into discrete parts. The average value of voltage (and current) fed to the load is controlled by
turning the switch between supply and load on and off at a fast rate. The longer the switch is
on compared to the off periods, the higher the total power supplied to the load. Along
with maximum power point tracking (MPPT), it is one of the primary methods of reducing
the output of solar panels to that which can be utilized by a battery. [1] PWM is particularly
suited for running inertial loads such as motors, which are not as easily affected by this
discrete switching, because their inertia causes them to react slowly. The PWM switching
frequency has to be high enough not to affect the load, which is to say that the resultant
waveform perceived by the load must be as smooth as possible.
The rate (or frequency) at which the power supply must switch can vary greatly
depending on load and application. For example, switching has to be done several times a
minute in an electric stove; 100 or 120 Hz (double of the utility frequency) in a lamp dimmer;
between a few kilohertz (kHz) and tens of kHz for a motor drive; and well into the tens or
hundreds of kHz in audio amplifiers and computer power supplies. The main advantage of
PWM is that power loss in the switching devices is very low. When a switch is off there is
practically no current, and when it is on and power is being transferred to the load, there is
almost no voltage drop across the switch. Power loss, being the product of voltage and
current, is thus in both cases close to zero. PWM also works well with digital controls, which,
because of their on/off nature, can easily set the needed duty cycle. PWM has also been used
in certain communication systems where its duty cycle has been used to convey information
over a communications channel.
In electronics, many modern microcontrollers (MCUs) integrate PWM

controllers exposed to external pins as peripheral devices under firmware control by means of
internal programming interfaces. These are commonly used for direct current (DC) motor
control in robotics and other applications.
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Duty Cycle
The term duty cycle describes the proportion of 'on' time to the regular interval or 'period' of
time; a low duty cycle corresponds to low power, because the power is off for most of the
time. Duty cycle is expressed in percent, 100% being fully on. When a digital signal is on
half of the time and off the other half of the time, the digital signal has a duty cycle of 50%
and resembles a "square" wave. When a digital signal spends more time in the on state than
the off state, it has a duty cycle of >50%. When a digital signal spends more time in the off
state than the on state, it has a duty cycle of <50%. Here is a pictorial that illustrates these
three scenarios:
Advantages of pulse width modulation :

 Cheap to make
 Low power consumption
 Efficiency up to 90 %
 A signal can be separated very easily at demodulation and noise can be also separated
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easily
 High power handling capacity
 Can utilize very high frequency
 Little heat whilst working
 Noise interference is less
 Very energy efficient when used to convert the voltage or to his light bulb
 A system in moderate inefficiency among all three types
 Synchronization between transmitter and receiver is not required unlike pulse position
modulation (PPM)
 Filter requirement is reduced
 Amplitude and frequency can be control independently
 Significance reduction in THD of load current
Disadvantages of pulse width modulation :

 The complexity of the circuit
 Voltage spikes
 The system requires a semiconductor device with low turn ON and turn OFF times.
Hence they are very expensive
 Radiofrequency interference
 Electromagnetic noise
 Bandwidth should be large to use in communication
 High switching loss due to the high PWM frequency
 Instantaneous power of the transmitter is varies
Space Vector Pulse Width Modulation

Space-vector pulse-width modulation has become one of the most popular PWM techniques
because of its easier digital implementation and higher DC bus utilization, when compared
with the sinusoidal PWM method. The principle of SVPWM lies in the switching
of inverter in a special way to apply a set of space vector for specific time. There is a lot of
flexibility available in choosing the proper space-vector combination for an effective control
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of multiphase VSIs because of the large numbers of space vectors available in multiphase
power converters.
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PWM Technique
Sinusoidal PWM
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Sinusoidal pulse width modulation is a method of pulse width modulation used in
inverters. An inverter produces an AC output voltage from a DC input by using switching
circuits to simulate a sine wave by producing one or more square pulses of voltage per half
cycle. If the widths of the pulses are adjusted as a means of regulating the output voltage, the
output is said to be pulse width modulated.
With sinusoidal or sine weighted pulse width modulation, several pulses are produced per
half cycle. The pulses near the edges of the half cycle are always narrower than the pulses
near the center of the half cycle such that the pulse widths are proportional to the
corresponding amplitude of a sine wave at that portion of the cycle. To change the effective
output voltage, the widths of all pulses are increased or decreased while maintaining the
sinusoidal proportionality. With pulse width modulation, only the widths (on-time) of the
pulses are modulated.
Figure: Sinusoidal PWM technique.
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Selective Harmonic Elimination (SHE)
Selective Harmonic Elimination (SHE) method is used to reduce the quantity of Total
Harmonic Distortion (THD) in the existing system. Three phase voltage source inverter
converts the DC into AC which in this is fed to the load (RL).
Selective Harmonic Elimination (SHE) to eliminate harmonics produced by Pulse Width

Modulation (PWM) inverter. The selective harmonic elimination method for three phase
Voltage Source Inverter (VSI) is generally based on ideas of opposite harmonic injection. In
this scheme, the lower order harmonics (3rd, 5th, 7th, and 9th) are eliminated by the
dominant harmonics of same order generated in opposite phase by Sinusoidal Pulse Width
Modulation (SPWM) inverter and by using this scheme the Total Harmonic Distortion (THD)
is reduced.
Figure 1. Complete block diagram of Selective Harmonic Elimination
Voltage Source Inverter

The schematic diagram for a basic three phase Voltage Source Inverter (VSI) is shown
[5]
in Figure 2. A Three phase voltage source inverter circuit changes DC input voltage to a
three phase variable frequency, variable voltage output. The input DC voltage can be from a
DC source or rectified AC voltage. A Three phase inverter can be constructed by combining
three single phase half bridge inverters. It consists of six power switches with six associated
with freewheeling diodes. The switches are opened and closed periodically in the proper
sequence to produce the desired output waveform.
Basically, there are two possible schemes of gating the devices.
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• Each switch conducts for 180°
• Each switch conducts for 120°
But in both these schemes, gating signals are applied and removed at 60° intervals of the
output voltage waveform.
Figure 2. Circuit diagram for three phase Voltage Source Inverter
Selective harmonic elimination control has been a widely researched alternative to traditional
pulse-width modulation technique. The elimination of specific low-order harmonics from a
given voltage/current waveform achieved by Selective Harmonic Elimination (SHE)
technique. In this method there is no need to calculate the firing angles for placing notches.
Here, the lower order harmonics will be reduced by the dominant harmonics of same order
generated in opposite phase by sine PWM inverter. This is achieved by varying the phase
angle of the carrier wave of the sinusoidal Pulse Width Modulation (PWM) inverter , which
generates the dominant harmonics with sidebands very close to the amplitude of prominent
voltage harmonics present in the system but in opposite polarity. In this method first,
calculate the Total Harmonic Distortion (THD) for 3 rd, 5th, 7th and 9th order harmonics. Then
calculate the amplitude of these order (3rd, 5th, 7th, and 9th) harmonics with help of Total
Harmonic Distortion (THD). After calculating amplitude, injecting the same order of
harmonics in opposite amplitude Thus the resultant disorder sine wave is compared with
triangular waveform and results in pulse are produced and will give to the switches. This
method is simple and easy implementation method for reducing the Total Harmonic
Distortion (THD).
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Module 7: Dynamic Voltage Restorer & Unified Power Quality
Conditioner
Introduction
When the fast variations in the source voltage cannot be ignored, these can affect the
performance of critical loads such as (a) semiconductor fabrication plants (b) paper mills (c)
food processing plants and (d) automotive assembly plants. The most common disturbances
in the source voltages are the voltage sags or swells that can be due to (i) disturbances arising
in the transmission system, (ii) adjacent feeder faults and (iii) fuse or breaker operation.
Voltage sags of even 10% lasting for 5-10 cycles can result in costly damage in critical loads.
The voltage sags can arise due to symmetrical or unsymmetrical faults. In the latter case,
negative and zero sequence components are also present.
Uncompensated nonlinear loads in the distribution system can cause harmonic
components in the supply voltages. To mitigate the problems caused by poor quality of power
supply, series connected compensators are used. These are called as Dynamic Voltage
Restorer (DVR) in the literature as their primary application is to compensate for voltage sags
and swells. Their configuration is similar to that of SSSC. However, the control techniques
are different. Also, a DVR is expected to respond fast (less than 1/4 cycle) and thus employs
PWM converters using IGBT or IGCT devices.
The first DVR entered commercial service on the Duke Power System in U.S.A. in
August 1996. It has a rating of 2 MVA with 660 kJ of energy storage and is capable of
compensating 50% voltage sag for a period of 0.5 second (30 cycles). It was installed to
protect a highly automated yarn manufacturing and rug weaving facility. Since then, several
DVRs have been installed to protect microprocessor fabrication plants, paper mills etc.
Typically, DVRs are made of modular design with a module rating of 2 MVA or 5 MVA.
They have been installed in substations of voltage rating from 11 kV to 69 kV.
A DVR has to supply energy to the load during the voltage sags. If a DVR has to supply
active power over longer periods, it is convenient to provide a shunt converter that is
connected to the DVR on the DC side. As a matter of fact one could envisage a combination
of DSTATCOM and DVR connected on the DC side to compensate for both load and supply
voltage variations.
A DVR with IGBT/IGCT devices can be controlled to act as a series active filter to
isolate the load from voltage harmonics on the source side. It is also possible to balance the
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voltage on the load side by injecting negative and/or zero sequence voltages in addition to
harmonic voltages.
7.1 Dynamic Voltage Restoration (DVR)
The configuration of a DVR is shown in Fig. 14.1. The voltage source converter is typically
one or more converters connected in series to provide the required voltage rating. The DVR
can inject a (fundamental frequency) voltage in each phase of required magnitude and phase.
The DVR has two operating modes
1. Standby (also termed as short circuit operation (SCO) mode) where the voltage injected
has zero magnitude.
2. Boost (when the DVR injects a required voltage of appropriate magnitude and phase to
restore the prefault load bus voltage).
The power circuit of DVR shown in Fig. 7.1 has four components listed below.
(a) Voltage Source Converter (VSC)
This could be a 3 phase - 3 wire VSC or 3 phase - 4 wire VSC. The latter permits the
injection of zero-sequence voltages. Either a conventional two level converter (Graetz bridge)
or a three level converter is used.
Figure 7.1: Dynamic Voltage Restorer
(b) Boost or Injection Transformers
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Three single phase transformers are connected in series with the distribution feeder to couple
the VSC (at the lower voltage level) to the higher distribution voltage level. The three single
transformers can be connected with star/open star winding or delta/open star winding. The
latter does not permit the injection of the zero sequence voltage. The choice of the injection
transformer winding depends on the connections of the step down transformer that feeds the
load. If a ∆ − Y connected transformer (as shown in Fig. 7.1) is used, there is no need to
compensate the zero sequence voltages. However if 𝒀 − 𝒀 connection with neutral
grounding is used, the zero sequence voltage may have to be compensated. It is essential to
avoid the saturation in the injection transformers.
(c) Passive Filters

The passive filters can be placed either on the high voltage side or the converter side of the
boost transformers. The advantages of the converter side filters are (a) the components are
rated at lower voltage and (b) higher order harmonic currents (due to the VSC) do not flow
through the transformer windings. The disadvantages are that the filter inductor causes
voltage drop and phase (angle) shift in the (fundamental component of) voltage injected. This
can affect the control scheme of DVR. The location of the filter on the high voltage side
overcomes the drawbacks (the leakage reactance of the transformer can be used as a filter
inductor), but results in higher ratings of the transformers as high frequency currents can flow
through the windings.
(d) Energy Storage

This is required to provide active power to the load during deep voltage sags. Lead-acid
batteries, flywheel or SMES can be used for energy storage. It is also possible to provide the
required power on the DC side of the VSC by an auxiliary bridge converter that is fed from
an auxiliary AC supply.
Control Strategy
There are three basic control strategies as follows.
(a) Pre-Sag Compensation
The supply voltage is continuously tracked and the load voltage is compensated to the pre-sag
condition. This method results in (nearly) undisturbed load voltage, but generally requires higher
rating of the DVR.
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Before a sag occur, VS = VL = Vo. The voltage sag results in drop in the magnitude of the
supply voltage to VS1. The phase angle of the supply also may shift (see Fig. 7.2). The DVR
injects a voltage VC1 such that the load voltage (VL = VS1 + VC1) remains at Vo (both in
magnitude and phase). It is claimed that some loads are sensitive to phase jumps and it is
necessary to compensate for both the phase jumps and the voltage sags.
Figure 7.2: Phasor diagram showing injected voltage by DVR

(b) In-phase Compensation
The voltage injected by the DVR is always in phase with the supply voltage regardless of the
load current and the pre-sag voltage (Vo). This control strategy results in the minimum value
of the injected voltage (magnitude). However, the phase of the load voltage is disturbed. For
loads which are not sensitive to the phase jumps, this control strategy results in optimum
utilization of the voltage rating of the DVR. The power requirements for the DVR are not
zero for this strategy.
(c) Minimum Energy Compensation

Neglecting losses, the power requirements of the DVR are zero if the injected voltage (VC) is
in quadrature with the load current. To raise the voltage at the load bus, the voltage injected
by the DVR is capacitive and VL leads VS1 (see Fig. 7.3). Fig. 7.3 also shows the in-phase
compensation for comparison. It is to be noted that the current phasor is determined by the
load bus voltage phasor and the power factor of the load.
Figure 7.3: Alternate DVR control strategy
Implementation of the minimum energy compensation requires the measurement of the

load current phasor in addition to the supply voltage. When VC is in quadrature with the load
current, DVR supplies only reactive power. However, full load voltage compensation is not
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possible unless the supply voltage is above a minimum value that depends on the load power
factor.
When the magnitude of VC is not constrained, the minimum value of VS that still allows
full compensation is
........ (7.1)
where Á is the power factor angle and Vo is the required magnitude of the load bus voltage.
If the magnitude of the injected voltage is limited ( ), the minimum supply voltage that
allows full compensation is given by
.............(7.2)
The expressions (7.1) and (7.2) follow from the phasor diagrams shown in Fig. 7.4. Note that
at the minimum source voltage, the current is in phase with VS for the case (a).
Figure 7.4: Phasor diagrams determining with quadrature injection
If the source voltage magnitude is less than , the DVR has to supply non-zero energy
to provide full compensation. But it is possible to devise a strategy that results in minimum
energy requirement for full compensation.
Control and Protection
The control and protection of a DVR designed to compensate voltage sags must consider the
following functional requirements.
1. When the supply voltage is normal, the DVR operates in a standby mode with zero voltage
injection. However if the energy storage device (say batteries) is to be charged, then the DVR
can operate in a self charging control mode.
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2. When a voltage sag/swell occurs, the DVR needs to inject three single phase voltages in
synchronism with the supply in a very short time. Each phase of the injected voltage can be
controlled independently in magnitude and phase. However, zero sequence voltage can be
eliminated in situations where it has no effect. The DVR draws active power from the energy
source and supplies this along with the reactive power (required) to the load.
3. If there is a fault on the downstream of the DVR, the converter is by-passed temporarily
using thyristor switches to protect the DVR against overcurrents. The threshold is determined
by the current ratings of the DVR.
7.2 Series Active Filtering

The series connected power (quality) conditioner can be designed as an active filter to
provide harmonic isolation between the source and the load. The harmonics in the source
voltage can be compensated by series connected VSC and the load bus voltage will contain
only fundamental frequency balanced voltages. If the load has linear characteristics, then the
line currents will be balanced (contain only positive sequence components) and sinusoidal.
The series converter can also compensate for the unbalance in the supply without having to
supply active power in steady state. Note that, here, we are referring to steady state
compensation against source harmonics and unbalance. In the previous section, we dealt with
transient compensation of the voltage sags.
Control Strategies for Active Filtering

Fig. 7.6 shows a single phase equivalent circuit for harmonics, representing a distribution
feeder supplying a load. The load is assumed to be nonlinear with ILh as the harmonic current.
ZFh represents the harmonic impedance of the shunt passive filter. VTh and ZTh represent
Thevenin (harmonic) voltage and impedance on the supply side. VCh is the harmonic voltage
injected in series.
Figure 7.6: Harmonic equivalent circuit for series active filtering
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Three control methods for the series active filter. These are,
1. Current detection method. Here VCh is controlled according to the equation
(7.3)
2. Voltage detection method. Here VCh is controlled as
(7.4)
3. Combined method when VCh is obtained as
(7.5)
K is a real number that represents a proportional gain of the controller.
The equivalent circuits of the system taking into account the three control strategies listed
above, are shown in Fig. 7.7. From these circuits we can easily obtain the expressions for the
load voltage harmonic (VLh) and the source current harmonic (ISh). These are given below.
Figure 7.7: Equivalent circuits for three control methods

1. Current detection method
(7.6)
(7.7)
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2. Voltage detection method
(7.8)
(7.9)
3. Combined method
(7.10)
(7.11)
It is to be noted that the subscript `h' represents not only a harmonic (of order h) but also any
frequency component including low frequency components corresponding to voltage flicker.
In method 1, both VLh and ISh are minimized if . However, for low
frequencies, it is difficult to satisfy this condition as the filter exhibits a high capacitive
impedance at fundamental or lower frequency. Thus, while the source current is unaffected
by the harmonic currents in the load, the load bus voltage is affected by the low frequency
components in the source voltage (such as voltage flicker).
In method 2, the load voltage remains sinusoidal, but the source current harmonics are
not attenuated. Actually, the passive filter in this case, fails to filter the load current
harmonics as the source appears as a short circuit.
The combined method eliminates the disadvantages of the first two methods. Not only the
source voltage disturbances have no effect on the load bus voltage, the source current
harmonics are eliminated if This is easy to arrange for harmonic frequencies of

5f0 and above, where f0 is the fundamental (supply) frequency.
Remarks
1. If the source currents are balanced and sinusoidal, the series active filter that compensates
for harmonic voltages (from the source side) does not have to supply or draw active power in
steady state if losses in the converter are neglected.
Similar comments also apply if the series active filter has to compensate for the
negative sequence voltages (at fundamental frequency). However, the converter draws an
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oscillating power of frequency 2f0. If the DC capacitor is finite, this results in a voltage ripple
across the DC capacitor.
2. If the series active filter has to compensate for the zero sequence voltages, the
instantaneous power exchanged by the converter remains zero (as the zero sequence current
in the line is zero).
3. Only voltage variations at the fundamental frequency caused by flicker requires a variable
power exchange by the converter which can cause large excursions in the capacitor voltage as
the frequency of the disturbances is variable and low. Hence, the compensation of low
frequency flicker in the source voltage requires an energy source for satisfactory operation of
the series active filter.
4. Note that, in the absence of standardized terminology, we can label the series active filter
also as a DVR or series power quality conditioner (SPQC) that compensates not only for the
harmonic voltages but also for the unbalance and flicker in the source voltages.
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7.3 Unified Power Quality Conditioner (UPQC)
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Classification of UPQC
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A shunt connected DSTATCOM can balance the source currents and eliminate the harmonics
in them in the presence of unbalanced nonlinear loads. By injecting reactive current of
desired magnitude, the power factor (or displacement factor) on the source side can be
controlled. Instead of controlling the power factor, it is possible to control the load bus
voltage magnitude (within limits determined by the source impedance). It was shown in the
previous sections that a series connected DVR can balance the voltages at the load bus in
addition to isolation of the harmonics from the source side.
The provision of both DSTATCOM and DVR can control the power quality of the source
current and the load bus voltage. In addition, if the DVR and STATCOM are connected on
the DC side, the DC bus voltage can be regulated by the shunt connected DSTATCOM while
the DVR supplies the required energy to the load in case of the transient disturbances in
source voltage. The configuration of such a device (termed as Unified Power Quality
Conditioner (UPQC)) is shown in Fig. 7.15. This is a versatile device similar to a UPFC.
However, the control objectives of a UPQC are quite different from that of a UPFC.
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Figure 7.15: A Unified Power Quality Conditioner
Control Objectives of UPQC
The shunt connected converter has the following control objectives

1. To balance the source currents by injecting negative and zero sequence components required by the
load.
2. The compensate for the harmonics in the load current by injecting the required harmonic currents.
3. To control the power factor by injecting the required reactive current (at fundamental frequency)
4. To regulate the DC bus voltage.
The series connected converter has the following control objectives
1. To balance the voltages at the load bus by injecting negative and zero sequence voltages to
compensate for those present in the source.
2. To isolate the load bus from harmonics present in the source voltages, by injecting the harmonic
voltages.
3. To regulate the magnitude of the load bus voltage by injecting the required active and reactive
components (at fundamental frequency) depending on the power factor on the source side.
4. To control the power factor at the input port of the UPQC (where the source is connected. Note that
the power factor at the output port of the UPQC (connected to the load) is controlled by the shunt
converter.
Operation of UPQC
Figure 14.16: Equivalent circuit of ideal UPQC
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The operation of a UPQC can be explained from the analysis of the idealized equivalent
circuit shown in Fig. 7.16. Here, the series converter is represented by a voltage source VC
and the shunt converter is represented by a current source IC. Note that all the currents and
voltages are 3 dimensional vectors with phase coordinates. Unlike in the case of a UPFC the
voltages and currents may contain negative and zero sequence components in addition to
harmonics. Neglecting losses in the converters, we get the relation
(7.23)
where (X, Y) denote the inner product of two vectors, defined by
(7.24)
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MODULE 6: DSTATCOM
Large fluctuating loads such as arc furnaces, steel rolling mills, electric traction cause current
unbalance and large variations in the reactive power demand. The load compensation by
shunt connected compensators that are fast acting, helps to maintain unity power factor while
balancing the load. The improvement of power factor reduces the line current for a given load
demand and enables better utilization of the distribution system. It also helps to reduce the
line losses.
The DSTATCOM is a three-phase and shunt connected power electronic devices. It
is connected near the load of the distribution systems. It consists of a dc capacitor, three-
phase inverter (IGBT, thyristor) module, ac filter, coupling transformer and a control
technique. The basic electronic block of the DSTATCOM is the voltage-sourced convertor
that converts an input dc voltage into a three-phase ac output voltage at fundamental
frequency in capacitive mode and it converts three phase ac voltage to dc voltage in inductive
mode.
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Basically, the DSTATCOM system is comprised of three main parts: a Voltage Source
Converter (VSC), a set of coupling reactors and a controller. The basic principle of a
DSTATCOM installed in a power system is the generation of a controllable ac voltage source
by a voltage source inverter (VSI) connected to a dc capacitor (energy storage device). The ac
voltage source, in general, appears behind a transformer leakage reactance. The active and
reactive power transfer between the power system and the DSTATCOM is caused by the
voltage difference across this reactance. The DSTATCOM is connected to the power
networks where the voltage-quality problem is a concern. All required voltages and currents
are measured and are fed into the controller to be compared with the commands. The
controller then performs feedback control and outputs a set of switching signals to drive the
main semiconductor switches (IGBT’s, which are used at the distribution level) of the power
converter accordingly.
Figure: Block Diagram of the voltage source converter based DSTATCOM

The AC voltage control is achieved by firing angle control. Ideally the output voltage of
the VSI is in phase with the bus (where the DSTATCOM is connected.) voltage. In steady
state, the dc side capacitance is maintained at a fixed voltage and there is no real power
exchange, except for losses. The DSTATCOM differs from other reactive power generating
devices (such as shunt Capacitors, Static VAR Compensators etc.) in the sense that the ability
for energy storage is not a rigid necessity but is only required for System unbalance or
harmonic absorption.
There are two control objectives implemented in the DSTATCOM. One is the ac voltage
regulation of the power system at the bus where the DSTATCOM is connected. And the other
is dc voltage control across the capacitor inside the DSTATCOM. It is widely known that
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shunt reactive power injection can be used to control the bus voltage. In conventional control
scheme, there are two voltage regulators designed for these purposes. AC voltage regulator
for bus voltage control and dc voltage regulator for capacitor voltage control. In the simplest
strategy, both the regulators are proportional integral (PI) type controllers.
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OPERATION & CONTROL OF DSTATCOM
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Control of DSTATCOM
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Shunt Active Power Filter
Use of non linear harmonic producing loads in the distribution system creates power
quality problems for power engineers. The use of power electronics devices at the end user
side is increasing tremendously because of the advancements in the semiconductor
technology. The use of power electronics devices gives rise to problems like harmonic
generation, poor power factor, reactive power disturbance, low system efficiency, disturbance
to other consumer, heating of devices, etc. This adverse may becomes sizable in future year,
hence it is very important mitigate this problems.
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Basically there are two approaches for the mitigation of power quality problems. The first
approach is load conditioning, which ensures that the load is immune harmonics. Equipments
are made less sensitive to harmonics and power disturbance, which is not so possible
practically. The other solution is power line conditioning. In this approach line conditioning
system is installed at point of common coupling (PCC) that suppresses or counteract for the
adverse effect produced by non linear harmonic producing loads.
Traditionally passive filters were used to deal with harmonic generation and reactive power
disturbance problems. But they were facing major drawbacks like resonance problem, large
size, fixed compensation characteristics, effect of source impedance on performance etc. so
this solution became less attractive. Subsequently the concept of active power filter was
introduced by Sasaki and Machida in 1971. Active power filters gives effective solution
compared to conventional passive filters for the mitigation of harmonic and reactive power
disturbance problems.
Active power filters is the device which generate the same amount of harmonic as generated
by the load but 180o phase shifted. So when these harmonics are inserted into the line at the
point of common coupling the load current harmonics are eliminate and utility supply
becomes sinusoidal. There are basically two types of active filter: Series active filters and
shunt active filters.
Fig. 1 shows the basic scheme of shunt active power filter which compensate load
current harmonics by injecting equal but opposite harmonic compensating current.
Fig. 1 Basic scheme of shunt active power filter
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Basically shunt active power filter operates as a current source injecting the harmonic
components generated by the load but phase shifted by 180°. As shown in Fig.2 series active
power filters operate mainly as a voltage regulator and as a harmonic isolator between the
nonlinear load and the utility source.
Fig. 2 Basic scheme of series active power filter
The series active filter injects a voltage component in series with the supply voltage and
removes harmonic components in voltage waveforms and therefore can be regarded as a
controlled voltage source, compensating voltage sags and swells on the load side. Practically
shunt active power filter are more effective and cheaper compared to series active power
filters because most of the non linear loads produce current harmonics. Moreover series
active power filter requires adequate protection scheme. The combined series and shunt
active filter is called as Unified Power Quality Conditioner (UPQC).
HYSTERESIS CURRENT CONTROL TECHNIQUE
Hysteresis Current Control (HCC) technique is basically an instantaneous feedback current

control method of PWM, where the actual current continually tracks the command current
within a hysteresis band. Basic working principle of the HCC technique is shown in Fig. 3.
Hysteresis band (HB) is the possible boundary of the compensating current. This current
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deviates between upper and lower hysteresis limits. For example in phase a, if ica is equal or
over than the upper hysteresis limit (ica* + HB/2) then the comparator output is 0 (S1=0,
S2=1). On the other hand, if ica is equal or less than the lower hysteresis limit (ica* - HB/2)
then the comparator output is 1 (S1=0, S2=1). From this operating, the ica can deviate inside
the hysteresis band following the reference current ica*. The main advantage of hysteresis
current control method is excellent dynamic response, easy implementation and low cost.
Fig.4 shows the basic scheme of generation of six pulses to drive the six switches of
inverter of shunt active power fitter. In this method the actual output current generated by
inverter is compared with reference current generated using instantaneous reactive power
theory. Hysteresis current controller will generate pulses in such a manner that inverter output
current will follow the reference current.
Fig. 3 Principle of hysteresis current control technique
Fig. 4 Pulse generation using hysteresis current control technique
Instantaneous Reactive Power Theory
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The p-q theory was proposed by Akagi et al. in 1983. The p-q theory is based on conversion
of a-b-c coordinate into α-β-0 coordinates and α-β-0 coordinates into a-b-c coordinates,
popularly known as Clark transformation and inverse transformation respectively. Basic
block diagram of p-q theory is shown in Fig. 8. Generated compensating current will be:
Icomp = Isource - Iload
Where,
Icomp = Compensating current

Isource = Source current and
Iload = Load Current
Fig. 5 Basic block diagram of p-q theory
In this method three phase source voltage and load current are converted into α-β-0 stationary
reference frame.
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From this transformed quantities, instantaneous real and reactive power of the load is
calculated which consists of average and oscillating component.
For three phase three wire systems I0= 0, so source power P0 also becomes zero. So power
equation becomes as follows.
Instantaneous active and reactive power of load can be calculated as follows:
Instantaneous real and reactive power can be decomposed into two components called
oscillatory components and average components. Considering completely balanced and
sinusoidal main supply conditions average power components represents first harmonic
current of positive sequence and oscillatory components are related to all high order
harmonic components including first harmonic current of negative sequence. So the shunt
active filter should compensate for oscillatory power components, as a result of which
average power components remains same in the main supply.
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The oscillating component is extracted using high-pass filter and taking inverse of α-β
transformation compensating reference signals in terms of either currents or voltages are
derived.
Reactive Power Compensation
Definition: The compensation of reactive power of the circuit is quite important as it is

associated with the value of the power factor. The reactive power compensation corresponds
to the controlling of reactive power to increase the performance characteristics of the AC
system. There are some methods by which the power factor of the system can be improved
and hence these are regarded as methods of reactive power compensation.
On a practical basis, it is said that the value of the load power factor should be nearly unity as
As here we are dealing with reactive power compensation methods thus, let us first
understand in brief, what is reactive power?
Reactive power is defined as the amount of power that remains unused and gets generated
within an AC circuit or system by the reactive components. This is sometimes
called imaginary power. A reactive circuit supplies the amount of power back to the supply
which it has consumed thus, the average consumed power of the circuit will be zero. The
reason for this is that the same amount of energy flows from source to load back and forth.
The reactive power is regarded as a fundamental part of the total power of the circuit.
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It is expressed in a unit called volt-ampere reactive (VAr) with the symbol ‘Q’ and is the
product of volt and ampere that are out of phase with respect to each other.
Need for reactive power compensation
We have recently discussed that there is a back and forth movement of reactive power from
supply to the reactor in a way that in the first quarter cycle of the AC signal, a capacitor
stores the power while in the second quarter cycle, the stored power gets back to the AC
source. This to and fro movement of the reactive power between the source and load must be
controlled.
Also, the loads in industrial equipment like induction motors, induction furnaces, arc, etc. are
the ones that operate at poor power factor while fluorescent tubes, fans, etc. that operate at
low power factor requires quite a large amount of reactive power hence the level of voltage at
the load terminals get reduced. However, such low voltage at the load terminal is not
desirable as this will lead to cause performance impairment of their utility devices.
Due to this reason, the power factor of the system must be necessarily improved using some
specific methods.
With reactive power compensation, transmission efficiency is increased. Along with this, the
steady-state and temporary over voltages can be regulated that resultantly avoids disastrous
blackouts.
Reactive Power Compensation
A low value of power factor requires large reactive power and this affects the voltage level.
Hence in order to compensate for the reactive power, the power factor of the system must be
improved.
Thus, the methods for reactive power compensation are nothing but the methods by which
poor power factors can be improved. The methods are as follows:
 Using capacitor banks

 Using synchronous condensers
 Using static VAr compensators
Let us now discuss each one separately.
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1. Capacitor Banks: In this method, a bank of capacitors forms a connection across the load.
As we know that the capacitor takes the leading reactive power, thus this causes the decrease
in power taken from the source. This resultantly improves the value of the power factor of the
system. This is further classified as series and shunt compensation.
Suppose we have a circuit shown here,
As we have discussed at the beginning itself that the value of the power factor must be
unity, thus, to achieve this, here the capacitor across the terminals of the motor must be
changed according to the load variation of the induction motor. This is known as dynamic
power factor control as reactive power compensation is done by switching in or out of the
capacitors at all load conditions.
In order to have a continuous controlling of pf of the system, various small rating

capacitors must be required. The switching in and out of the capacitor was done by
mechanical switches earlier but now thyristors are used which helps in regulating the flow of
reactive power and controlling reactive power voltage by rapid switching of the static
capacitors.
2. Synchronous Condensers: Exciting a synchronous motor above a fixed level makes it

work as a synchronous condenser or capacitor. It is designed to provide dynamic correction
of power factors over the range of its excitation. Initially, when the synchronous motor is
under excited then it functions as a lagging power factor thus reactive power is absorbed.
While under overexcited conditions, the leading power factor comes into action and starts
generating reactive power thus acts as a capacitor.
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We have discussed recently static capacitor bank where we have seen that it offers power
factor controlling in a discrete manner while in case of synchronous condenser power factor
improvement and reactive power flow are of continuous nature.
However, the losses in synchronous condensers are comparatively more than the capacitor
bank. Along with this, it offers equipment installation at a single fixed place while capacitor
bank offers distributed installation. This increases the effectiveness of the synchronous
condenser. The response time of the synchronous condenser is comparatively more than the
capacitor bank.
3. Static VAr Compensators: The high voltage power system, makes use of a static VAr
compensator. It is abbreviated as SVC and shows improved system stability, reduction in line
losses, maintaining the variation within limits. It has shunt reactors and shunt capacitors.
Shunt reactors and thyristor-controlled reactors are used for limiting the voltage rise at no
load or low load conditions while static capacitors and thyristor switched capacitors are used
for preventing the voltage sag at peak load conditions.
This can be formed in two ways, one with the parallel combination of thyristor controlled
reactor and fixed capacitor while the other one is the parallel combination of thyristor
switched capacitor and thyristor controlled reactor.
SVC is designed to generate as well as absorb reactive power.
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REFERENCE SIGNAL EXTRACTION TECHNIQUES
The development of real-time methods for the detection and analysis of disturbances is a
major concern to evaluate the quality of supply voltage and to prevent the harmful effects on
equipment. The performance of a DSTATCOM strictly depends on its reference signal
generation technique. In general, frequency-domain and time-domain methods are used to
generate the reference signal. The time-domain methods are faster and easy to implement
than the frequency-domain methods but they present worse detection performance than the
frequency-domain methods. Fig. 20 illustrates the classification according to reference signal
extraction techniques used in DSTATCOM.
(1) Frequency-domain methods: Frequency-domain methods are suitable for both single and
three-phase systems. They are mainly derived from the Fourier analysis and include the
following three subdivisions.
 (i) Fast Fourier transform (FFT): A FFT is used to compute the discrete Fourier
transform (DFT) and inverse of it. A Fourier transform converts functions from time
to frequency domains and vice versa. FFT computes such transformations by
factorising the DFT matrix into a product of sparse factors. In DSTATCOMs, FFT is
used to extract the harmonic components from the harmonic polluted signals. Owing
to excessive computation in on-line application of FFT, it has high response time
Classification according to reference signal extraction techniques
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(ii) Kalman filter: Kalman filter is a recursive optimal estimator and requires a state
variable model for the parameters to be estimated and a measurement equation that
relates the discrete measurement to the state variables. Kalman filter uses a
mathematical model of the states to be estimated and suitable for real time
applications. If the harmonic contents have a time varying amplitude, Kalman filter-
based algorithm tracks the time variation after the initialisation period .
(iii) Wavelet transform base algorithm: This method is based on the definition of the
active and reactive power in the time-frequency domain using the complex wavelet
transform. The voltage and current signals are transformed to the time-frequency
domain using the complex wavelet with scaling and translation parameters to set the
frequency range and localise the frequency, respectively.
(2) Time-domain methods: The following time-domain approaches are mainly used
for three-phase systems.
(i) p–q Theory: In p–q theory, voltages/currents of 3P3 W system are

converted into two-phase voltage/current components by Clarke
transformation on orthogonal α–β coordinates, thus the instantaneous active
and reactive powers can be determined without any time delay. P–q theory
provides a theoretical validation that the instantaneous active and reactive
powers are uniquely related with the instantaneous active and reactive
currents, respectively, in 3P3 W systems. P–q theory does not follow power
conservation and conflicts with the general understanding of power in that the
zero sequence instantaneous reactive power cannot be defined by this theory
in 3P4 W systems.
(ii) Synchronous detection theory: This technique, is similar to p–q theory,

and comprises of three approaches-equal power, equal current and equal
resistance criterion. The average power is calculated and divided equally
between the three phases. In synchronisation process, the compensation
signals are synchronised with relative utility grid phase voltage. It is easy
theory to implement but it is affected from voltage harmonics.
(iii) Cross vector theory: In cross vector theory, the instantaneous active and
reactive power is defined by scalar/vector product of the voltage and the
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current space vectors in a 3P4 W system. Cross vector theory identifies one
instantaneous active power and three instantaneous reactive powers. However
the three components of instantaneous reactive powers are linearly dependent
to each other. In the presence of a zero sequence voltage, the neutral line
current cannot be eliminated completely by compensating the instantaneous
reactive power.
(iv) Global theory: Since the reference compensation currents are determined
in the A-B-C reference frame, there is no reference-frame transformation
requirement. Therefore the global theory gives less complexity in realising the
control circuit of the DSTATCOM. By using this theory, DSTATCOM able to
compensate reactive power and suppress harmonic/neutral currents of the
imbalanced/distorted load without supplying or consuming real power.
(v) Vectorial theory: In this method, vectorial formulation does not need to
undergo any kind of coordinates translation. Vectorial theory utilises the same
power variables as p–q theory and identifies the instantaneous reactive power
in phase coordinates. The current vector is split into three components. The
first one is collinear with respect to the modified voltage vector, and it
transports the instantaneous real power. The second one is collinear with
respect to the zero-sequence voltage vector, and it transports the instantaneous
zero-sequence power. The last one is normal with respect to the modified and
zero-sequence voltage vectors, and it transports the instantaneous imaginary
power.
(vi) p–q–r theory: The p–q–r theory takes the advantages of both p–q theory
and cross vector theory. The defined instantaneous powers follow power
conservation. Both instantaneous active and reactive powers can be defined in
the zero sequence circuit in three-phase four-wire systems. The three power
components are linearly independent of each other. In the presence of a zero
sequence voltage, the neutral line current can be eliminated completely by
applying the p–q–r theory.
(vii) Synchronous frame-based theory: This algorithm is based on the

transformation of the three-phase system into synchronously rotating frame to
extract the direct, quadrature and zero-sequence components of signals. The
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active and reactive components of the system are defined by the direct and
quadrature components, respectively. The high-order harmonics still remain in
the signal; however they are modulated at different frequencies. These are the
undesired components to be eliminated from the system and they represent the
reference harmonic current. The system is very stable since the controller
deals mainly with DC quantities. The computation is instantaneous but causes
a time delay in filtering the DC quantities.
(viii) Instantaneous symmetrical component theory: In instantaneous

symmetrical components method, a symmetrical voltage and current are
transformed by symmetrical components to obtain positive sequence, negative
sequence and zero sequence components of three phase variables. The
instantaneous symmetrical component theory has advantages such as: it is
simple in formulation, computationally less intensive for reference currents
generation thus ensuring fast dynamic response and avoids interpretation of
various definitions of instantaneous reactive powers and complex
transformations. Numerous studies focused on symmetrical components
theory were used for extraction the reference signal.
(ix) Unity power factor theory: This is another technique, except the fact that
it forces the instantaneous current signal to track the voltage-reference
waveform. This implies that the power factor would be fixed to unity and the
system would only be suitable for the combined system of VAr and current
harmonic compensation.
(x) Neural network (NN)-based theory: NN-based algorithms are used to

extract required information after processing of signals by learning or training
and activation function. An algorithm based on load conductance estimation
using NN is implemented on a three phase DSTATCOM. Its structure is
reflected as Kohonen learning or Kohonen feature maps. It is used for
extraction of fundamental component of load currents in terms of conductance
and susceptance. A NN based Anti-Hebbian control algorithm for PQ
improvement under linear/non-linear type consumer loads which is used for
extraction of fundamental active and reactive power components of load
currents in terms of weighted signals. A NN based adjustable step least mean
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square (LMS) for signal extraction. It uses autocorrelation time mean estimate
error signal for updating the step size in place of simple error signal.
(xi) Back propagation (BP) based theory: BP algorithm includes three steps
namely, the feed-forward of the input signal training, calculation and BP of the
error signals, and upgrading of training weights. Continuity, differentiability,
and non-decreasing monotony are the main characteristics of this algorithm. It
is based on a mathematical equation and does not need special features of
function in the learning process. It also has smooth variation on weight
correction because of batch updating features on weights. In the training
process, it is slow because of more number of learning steps, but after the
training of weights, this algorithm generates very fast trained output response.
(xii) Learning vector quantisation (LVQ)-based theory: It is a standard

statistical clustering technique which is also known as special case of
competitive network. The desired values are extracted through training of
weighed values of load currents using the gradient descent method. In the
training process, the desired signals are at the position of the learning stage.
After training, LVQ network classifies the supply current vector by assigning
it to the same class as the output stage. It has its weighted vector closest to the
input vector. In the LVQ network, each unit has a known value or elements
and used supervised learning which differed from the Kohonen self-organising
map.
(xiii) Adaptive-based theory: It is a closed loop controller that can adjust

system behaviour in terms of response to disturbances. An area of adaptive
control provides an automatic adjustment of the controller gains and
parameters in real time, to achieve a desired level of performance.
Characteristics of these control algorithms are the ability to extract required
information from real online data to tune the controller, and also used for grid
synchronisation. Based on this control theory, many control algorithms are
also reported in available literature such as adaptive nature for synchronous
extraction, adaptive theory-based improved linear sinusoidal tracer, adaptive
control strategy based on artificial immune system and leaky LMS adaptive
filter.
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(xiv) Composite observer-based theory: Composite observer is used to extract
individual harmonics from repetitive signals. The settling period and the
bandwidth of the observer depend on how far the observer poles have been
placed from the origin of the S-plane or the Z-plane. The errors in the
magnitude and phase of the extracted components, because of the deviation of
the signal from the central frequency of the observer, are made very small by
providing an integrated phase-locking arrangement. Further improvement in
the accuracy, particularly in the extracted higher harmonics, is because of the
introduction of multi-rate sampling. Advantages of this algorithm are that it is
less sensitive with supply frequency variation, low distortion in the extracted
signal without leakage of harmonics and so on.
CURRENT CONTROL TECHNIQUES
Generation of suitable switching signal is the most significant part of DSTATCOM's control
algorithm and has a high influence on the compensation performance. PWM is the most
reliable way of reconstructing a desired output voltage waveform. The frequency of the
switching should be significantly higher than that of the desired signal for a reliable signal
representation. PWM methods are often categorised as open loop (feed-forward) and closed
loop (feed-back) methods. The open loop method is subdivided into SPWM and space vector
PWM (SVM). The closed loop method are classified into hysteresis current control and linear
current control involving ramp comparison, state feedback, synchronous vector, predictive,
deadbeat, sliding mode, linear quadratic regulator, pole shift controllers. Apart from these
methods the selective harmonic elimination technique also used for generation proper
switching signal. Fig. 21 illustrates the classification of current control methods used in
DSTATCOM.
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Fig. 21 Classification of current control methods
(i) Open loop PWM methods
SPWM: In SPWM, a sinusoidal reference signal is compared with a triangular carrier

waveform to generate switching signals. The multi-carrier SPWM control methods were used
to increase the performance of inverter, especially in multilevel inverter based
DSTATCOMs. The multi-carrier SPWM can be categorised according to vertical or
horizontal arrangements of carrier signal. The vertical multi-carrier SPWM techniques are
identified as level shifted (LS-PWM), which includes phase disposition (PD-PWM), phase
opposition disposition (POD-PWM) and alternative phase opposition disposition, while
horizontal multi-carrier SPWM is defined as phase shifted (PS) control technique .
Space vector modulation (SVM): The goal of the SVM is to find the proper switching
combinations and their duty ratios according to certain modulation scheme. SVM uses the
control variable given by the control system and identifies each switching vector as a point in
complex space of (α, β). SVM operates in a complex plane divided in the six sectors
separated by a combination of conducting or non-conducting switches in the power circuit.
Although with the good reliability and strong anti-jamming of digital control technique, SVM
is of low speed of response caused by the inherent calculation delay. The main feature of the
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SVM switching strategy is that it enables to control the DC voltage and can balancing
voltages of the DC capacitors in multilevel inverter, with no requirement of additional
controls or auxiliary devices. With SVM method, it is also possible to reduce THD and to
solve the voltage unbalance problem.
(ii) Closed loop PWM methods
Hysteresis controller: Hysteresis control is a widely used current control technique in the
DSTATCOM applications because of its ease of implementation, fast dynamic response and
inherent peak current-limiting capability. The basic principle of current hysteresis control
technique is that the switching signals are derived from the comparison of the current error
signal with a fixed width hysteresis band. To bring the switching frequency to acceptable
level for practical devices, hysteresis logic with suitable width (h) is required. The various
switching schemes of hysteresis controller to achieve the desired switching frequency are
two-level switching, basic three-level switching and forced switching .
(iii) Second and higher order systems
Ramp comparison controller: The ramp comparison current controller also called as the
stationary controller, uses three proportional-integrator controllers to provide a high DC gain,
which eliminates steady-state errors and provides a controlled of the high-frequency
response. In this scheme, comparison with the triangular carrier signal generates the control
signals (switching functions).
Predictive and deadbeat controllers: This technique predicts the current error vector on the
basis of the present error and the AC side parameters at the beginning of each sampling
period. The voltage vector to be generated by PWM during the next sampling period is
determined to minimise the forecast error.
Selective harmonic elimination PWM: SHE-PWM is based on fundamental frequency

switching method and realised to eliminate the defined harmonic orders. This method defines
the switching angles of harmonic orders to eliminate and obtain the Fourier series expansion
of output voltage. Basically, in SHE-PWM, the harmonic components of the predefined
switched waveform with the unknown switching angles are bring to zero for those undesired
harmonics, while the fundamental component is kept to the desired reference amplitude.
SHE-PWM is a very attractive option for multilevel inverter applications, because the
equipment requires operating at a very low switching frequency to decrease the power
switches losses.
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MODULE 5: POWER QUALITY PROBLEMS IN DISTRIBUTION
SYSTEMS
Correcting power quality problems requires an understanding of all power distribution system
components and how a problem in one component can cause problems in other components.
Distribution system components include transformers, distribution lines, switchboards, and
panel boards, disconnects, circuit breakers, fuses, and receptacles to deliver, control, and
protect the system.
Electrical power distribution systems must deliver quality power to loads if the loads are to
operate properly for their rated lifetime and performance.
Quality power is power delivered to a load that is within the load specified voltage, is
capable of delivering enough current under any operating condition, and includes minimal,
not damaging, changes.
Poor quality power is power delivered to a load that includes excessive or damaging
changes such as voltage drops, voltage unbalance, voltage fluctuations, current unbalance,
transients, and harmonic distortion. See Figure 1.
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Single Phasing
Single phasing is the operation of a motor that is designed to operate on three phases but is
only operating on two phases because one phase is lost. Single phasing occurs when one of
the three lines leading to a 3φ motor does not deliver voltage to the motor. Single phasing is
the maximum condition of voltage unbalance in a distribution system. Single phasing occurs
when one phase opens on either the primary or secondary power distribution system. A phase
opens when one fuse blows, when there is a mechanical failure within the switching
equipment, or when lightning takes out one of the lines. Single phasing can go undetected in
some systems because a 3φ motor running on two phases can still run in low torque
applications. A motor that is single phasing will draw all of its current from two lines.
Voltage measurements taken at a motor do not normally indicate a single-phasing

condition. The open winding in the motor generates voltage almost equal to the phase voltage
that is lost. In this case, the open winding acts as the secondary of a transformer, while the
two windings connected to power act as the primary.
Single phasing is reduced through the use of properly sized dual-element fuses and
heaters. An electronic phase-loss monitor is used to detect phase loss in motor circuits and
other types of circuits in which a single-phasing condition cannot be allowed to exist for even
a short period of time. The monitor activates a set of contacts to drop out the starter coil when
a phase loss is detected.
The severe blackening of one delta winding or two wye windings of the three 3φ windings
will be observable when a motor has failed due to single phasing. The coil or coils that
experienced the voltage loss will be in the best condition. The damage occurs in the other
coils because of over current. See Figure 2.
Single phasing is distinguished from voltage unbalance by the severity of the damage.
Voltage unbalance causes less blackening (but over more windings, normally) than single
phasing and little or no distortion. Single phasing causes burns and distortion to one winding.
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Improper Phase Sequence
Improper phase sequence is the changing of the sequence of any two phases (phase reversal)
in a 3φ motor circuit. Improper phase sequence reverses the motor rotation. Reversing motor
rotation can damage driven machinery or injure personnel. Phase reversal can occur when
modifications are made to a power distribution system or when maintenance is performed on
electrical conductors or switching equipment.
The NEC® requires phase reversal protection on all personnel transportation equipment such
as moving walkways, escalators, and ski lifts. See Figure 3.
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Figure 3: Improper phase sequence is the changing of the sequence of any two phases (phase
reversal) in a 3φ motor circuit.
Phase Unbalance
Phase unbalance is the unbalance that occurs when power lines are out of phase. Phase
unbalance of a 3φ power system occurs when 1φ loads are applied, which causes one or two
of the lines to carry more or less of the load. An electrician balances the load of a 3φ power
system during the installation process.
A power quality meter can be used to check phase unbalance on power lines. An unbalance
begins to occur when additional 1φ loads are added to the system. This unbalance causes the
3φ lines to move out of phase so the lines are no longer 120 electrical degrees apart.
See Figure 4.
Phase unbalance causes 3φ motors to run at temperatures higher than their listed ratings. The
greater the phase unbalance, the greater the temperature rise. High temperatures cause
insulation breakdown and other related problems.
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A 3φ motor operating in an unbalanced circuit cannot deliver its rated horsepower. For
example, a phase unbalance of 3% causes a motor to work at 90% of its rated power. This
requires the motor to be derated. See Figure 5.
Figure 5 : A motor operating on a circuit that has phase unbalance must be derated.
AC Voltage Variations
Motors are rated for operation at specific voltages. Motor performance is affected when the supply
voltage varies from a motor’s rated voltage. A motor operates satisfactorily with a voltage variation of
±10% from the voltage rating listed on the motor nameplate. See Figure 6.
Figure 6 : A motor operates satisfactorily with a voltage variation of ±10% from the voltage
rating listed on the motor nameplate.
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AC Frequency Variations
Motors are rated for operation at specific frequencies. Motor performance is affected when
the frequency varies from a motor’s rated frequency. A motor operates satisfactorily with a
frequency variation of ±5% from the frequency rating listed on the motor nameplate.
See Figure 7.
Figure 7 : A motor operates satisfactorily with a frequency variation of ±5% from the
frequency rating listed on the motor nameplate.
DC Voltage Variations
DC motors should be operated on pure DC power. Pure DC power is power obtained from a
battery or DC generator. DC power is also obtained from rectified AC power. Most industrial
DC motors obtain power from a rectified AC power supply. DC power obtained from a
rectified AC power supply varies from almost pure DC power to half-wave DC power.
DC motor operation is affected by a change in voltage. The change may be intentional, as in

a speed-control application, or it may be caused by variations in the power supply.
The power supply voltage normally should not vary by more than 10% of a motor’s rated
voltage. Motor speed, current, torque, and temperature are affected when the DC voltage
varies from the motor rating. See Figure 8.
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Figure 8 : Motor speed, current, torque, and temperature are affected if the DC voltage varies
from the motor rating.
Voltage Surges
A voltage surge is a higher-than-normal voltage that temporarily exists on one or more power
lines. Lightning is a major cause of large voltage surges.
A lightning surge on a power line comes from a direct lightning hit or induced voltage.
The lightning energy moves in both directions on the power lines, much like a rapidly
moving wave.
A traveling surge of lightning energy causes a large voltage rise in a short period of time.
The large voltage is impressed on the first few turns of the motor windings, destroying the
insulation and burning out the motor.
An electrician will be able to observe the burning and opening of the first few turns of the
windings that occur when a motor has failed due to a voltage surge. The rest of the windings
will appear normal, with little or no damage. See Figure 9.
Lightning arresters with the proper voltage rating and connection to an excellent ground
ensure maximum voltage surge protection.
Surge protectors are also available. Surge protectors are placed on equipment or throughout
the distribution system.
Voltage surges can also occur due to the normal switching of high-power circuits. Voltage
surges that occur due to the switching of high-power circuits are of lesser magnitude than
lightning strikes and normally do not cause motor problems. A surge protector should be used
on computer equipment circuits to protect sensitive electronic components.
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Figure 9: A voltage surge causes burning and opening of the first few turns of the windings.
Tech Fact
Never assume that phase A, phase B, and phase C are the same throughout a structural
distribution system. Instead, a phase sequence test instrument is used to identify which lines
are powered and which power lines are phase A, phase B, and phase C.
Voltage Unbalance
Voltage unbalance, also known as voltage imbalance, is the unbalance that occurs when
voltages at the terminals of an electric motor or other 3φ load are not equal.
Voltage unbalance causes motor windings to overheat, resulting in thermal deterioration of

the windings. When a 3φ motor fails due to voltage unbalance, one or two of the stator
windings become blackened. See Figure 10.
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The problem with voltage unbalance within a power distribution system is that a small
amount of voltage unbalance can cause a high current unbalance in loads such as electric
motors.
In general, voltage unbalance should not be more than 1%. Whenever there is a 2% or greater
voltage unbalance, corrective action should be taken. This may include repositioning loads to
balance the current draw on the three power lines if the problem is within the building. The
problem is within the building if the unbalance deteriorates when loads are ON and improves
when loads are OFF.
If the unbalance is at the main power entrance at all times, the problem is most likely with the
utility system and the utility company should be notified.
Figure 10 : Voltage unbalance within a power distribution system can cause high current
unbalance in loads such as electric motors.
Voltage unbalance can be determined through the use of a test instrument or meter.
 First, the meter is set to measure AC voltage for an AC circuit or DC voltage for a DC
circuit.
 Next, the meter is tested on a known energized source to verify that the meter is in
proper working condition before measurements are taken.
 Then, to find voltage unbalance, the following procedure is applied:
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1. Measure the voltage between each incoming power line. The readings are taken from
L1 to L2, L1 to L3, and L2 to L3. See Figure 11.
2. Add the voltages.
3. Find the voltage average by dividing the sum of the voltages by 3.
4. Find the voltage deviation by subtracting the voltage average from the voltage with
the largest deviation.
5. Find voltage unbalance by applying the following formula:
Figure 11 : Voltage unbalance is the unbalance that occurs when the voltages at different
motor terminals are not equal.
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Current Unbalance
Current unbalance, also known as current imbalance, is the unbalance that occurs when the
currents on each of the three power lines of a 3φ power supply are not equal.
Current unbalance from overloading one or two of the 3φ power lines can cause voltage
unbalances. This can cause voltage unbalances on all loads connected within a building.
A 2% voltage unbalance can cause an 8% or higher current unbalance. Current unbalances

should not exceed 10%. Any time current unbalance exceeds 10%, the system should be
tested for voltage unbalance. Likewise, any time a voltage unbalance is more than 1%, the
system should be tested for a current unbalance.
Current unbalance is determined in the same manner as voltage unbalance, except that current
measurements are used. See Figure 12.
Figure 12 : Current unbalance is determined in the same manner as voltage unbalance, except
that current measurements are used.
Current unbalance can be determined through the use of a test instrument or meter.
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 First, the meter is set to measure AC current for an AC circuit or DC current for a DC
circuit.
 Next, the meter is tested on a known energized source to verify that the meter is in
proper working condition before measurements are taken.
 Then, to find the percentage of current unbalance in a circuit, the following
procedure is applied:
1. Measure current on each of the incoming power lines.
2. Add all current values together.
3. Calculate the current average by taking the sum of current measurements and dividing
by the number of measurements taken.
4. Calculate the largest current deviation by subtracting the lowest current measurement
from the current average.
5. Calculate the current unbalance by dividing the largest current deviation by the
current average and multiplying by 100.
Tolerance of Equipment : CBEMA Curve
CBEMA Curve is one of the most frequently employed power acceptability curve. It was
developed by the Computer Business Equipment Manufacturers Association in the 1970s, as
a guideline for the organization's members in designing their power supplies. Basically, the
CBEMA curve was originally derived to describe the tolerance of mainframe computer
business equipment to the magnitude and duration of voltage variations on the power system.
Also, the association designed the curve to point out ways in which system reliability could
be provided for electronic equipment. Eventually, it became a standard design target for
sensitive equipment to be applied on the power system and a common format for
reporting power quality variation data. The CBEMA curve was adapted from IEEE Standard
446, which is typically used in the analysis of power quality monitoring results.
The CBEMA curve was derived from experimental and historical data taken from
mainframe computers. The best scientific interpretation of the curve can be given in terms of
a voltage standard applied to the DC bus voltage of a rectifier load.
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Figure 1. The CBEMA curve was originally derived from both experimental and historical data
CBEMA Curve - Steady-State Portion
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The boundaries of the CBEMA curve itself were created by using real world measurements
from mainframe computers of the day. The boundaries were further refined by
experimentation.
The CBEMA curve defines various regions based on voltage deviations from norm
(magnitude plus duration). The horizontal (x) axis represents the duration of an event and the
vertical (y) axis indicates the percentage of nominal voltage being applied. The center of the
graph in the area between the upper and lower lines is the so called acceptable region.
Voltage values above the envelope could cause damage to connected equipment while
voltage values below the envelope are likely to cause equipment malfunctions or cause it to
shut down completely. If the supply voltage stays within the acceptable region of the graph
then the connected equipment should operate properly.
To elaborate, the CBEMA curve shows that voltage transients of certain magnitudes, say
about 200%, are acceptable for short periods of time - 1 millisecond. Yet, that same transient
with a duration of 1/2 cycle or 8.333 milliseconds would already cause malfunctions (i.e.
disruption of data). Also, the CBEMA curve illustrates that voltage levels below nominal are
acceptable, provided that they do not drop below the magnitude and duration indicated by the
curve. Thus, a decrease in nominal voltage by 30% for 1/2 cycle would not cause disruption
of data. Moreover, the CBEMA curve shows that voltage levels of even zero can be tolerated
for a very brief period of time - 4.167 milliseconds or 1/4 cycle. However, losing voltage for
only a little more than 1/4 cycle for a computer and/or other extremely sensitive
equipment would already cause unwanted disruption.
In short, computers, programmable logic controllers (PLCs), power distribution units (PDUs),
instrumentation, telecom and other solid-state systems will operate reliably when applied
properly. Nonetheless, all these units are voltage and time sensitive, which means that voltage
sags and swells, as well as interruptions and transients will critically affect their operation.
Furthermore, balanced voltage sag events in three phase systems can be treated effectively as
a single phase equivalent. The CBEMA curve is originally utilized to address this case. Yet,
most voltage sags are unbalanced, just like the phase-to-ground fault (most common type of
fault) in which only one of the phase voltages is depressed. All the highlighted causes of
voltage sag events will have to be considered if one is to develop a meaningful power
acceptability curve for three phase systems. However, developing a single power
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acceptability curve to capture all these possible scenarios is nearly impractical. The
recommended approach is to model several fault types in conjunction with a dynamic load
model to obtain a power acceptability curve.
In using the CBEMA curve, one must first determine the nature of the power quality
disturbances that are most prevalent in a facility. Power quality phenomena associated with
powering, grounding, and protecting solid-state devices can be measured, analyzed, and
evaluated using test equipment specifically intended for digital logic systems. These
instruments, when located near the suspected disturbance, or when measuring the unusual
operation of the power distribution system, will provide data on voltage variations and
fluctuations and the specifics on how the power quality problem places the equipment at risk.
The measurements and results can then be analyzed in combination with the CBEMA curve
to help understand the nature of power quality disturbances.
FLICKER & IT'S MEASUREMENT
Power-line flicker is a visible change in brightness of a lamp due to rapid fluctuations in the
voltage of the power supply. The voltage drop is generated over the source impedance of the
grid by the changing load current of an equipment or facility. These fluctuations in time
generate flicker. The effects can range from disturbance to epileptic
attacks of photosensitive persons. Flicker may also affect sensitive electronic equipment such
as television receivers or industrial processes relying on constant electrical power.
Causes
Flicker may be produced, for example, if a steel mill uses large electric motors or arc
furnaces on a distribution network, or frequent starting of an elevator motor in an office
building, or if a rural residence has a large water pump starting regularly on a long feeder
system. The likelihood of flicker increase as the size of the changing load becomes larger
with respect to the prospective short-circuit current available at the point of common
connection.
Measurement of flicker
The requirements of a flicker measurement equipment are defined in the international

electro-technical standard IEC 61000-4-15.[2]
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A flicker meter is composed of several function blocks which simulate a 230 V/60
W incandescent lamp (reference lamp) and the human perception system (eye-brain model).
From the resulting momentary value of flicker the short term flicker "perceptibility" value Pst
is calculated according to a statistical process over a standardized 10-minute observation
interval. Long term flicker Plt is calculated as the cubic mean of several Pst values over a
standardized two-hour period.
The perceptibility value calculation and scaling algorithm were chosen such that a P value of
1.0 corresponds to a level at which 50% of test subjects found the flicker to be both
noticeable and irritating.
In the standard IEC 61000-3-3 the observation intervals and the limiting values for Pst and
Plt are specified:
Value Observation Interval Limiting Value
Pst 10 min 1.0
Plt 2h 0.65
Operating Condition of the EUT
The IEC-flicker standard states that the EUT (Equipment Under Test) has to be operated
during the test in a way which is the worst case state with respect to flicker. If the EUT is
operated in a (relatively) constant fashion during the whole test, Plt = Pst will result. If this
state is feasible and realistic this means Pst has to fulfill the limits for Plt (which are lower).
Estimation
A purely analytical calculation of Pst is almost impossible. In the standard there are formulas
which allow the estimation of the Pst values to be expected.
Flicker Mitigation
Flicker is generated by load changes. Only the amplitude of the load change is relevant, not
the absolute value. A reduction in flicker can be attained through making less frequent load
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changes, or smaller load changes. If the load is changed gradually (for example, by the help
of power electronics) instead of step fashion, this also makes flicker less perceptible.
The relationship between amplitude of load changes and Pst is linear, i.e. halving the
switched load results in half the Pst. The relationship between number of load changes per
time (n/ Tp) and Pst is non-linear. A halving of load changes reduces Pst by only about 20%.
In order to have half the Pst, the number of load changes must be reduced by a factor of 9.
Transient in Power Quality
It is an event that is undesirable and momentary in nature. It is the sudden change in one
steady state operating condition to another.
Transients are power quality disturbances that involve destructive high magnitudes of
current and voltage or even both. It may reach thousands of volts and amps even in low
voltage systems. However, such phenomena only exist in a very short duration from less than
50 nanoseconds to as long as 50 milliseconds. This is the shortest among PQ problems,
hence, its name. Transients usually include abnormal frequencies, which could reach to as
high as 5 MHz.
In addition, transients are also known as surge. According to IEEE 100, surge is a transient
wave of voltage, current or power in an electric circuit. Other IEEE definitions suggest that it
is the part of the change in a variable that disappears during transition from one steady-state
operating condition to another. Such description is too vague, which could be used to
describe just about any unusual events occurring in the electrical system. Moreover, most
electrical engineers would refer to the damped oscillatory transient phenomena in a RLC
circuit when hearing such term.
Sources of Transients
Lightning Strikes
Switching activities
· Opening and closing of disconnects on energized lines
· Capacitor bank switching
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· Reclosing operations
· Tap changing on transformers
Loose connections in the distribution system that results to arcing
Accidents, human error, animals and bad weather conditions
Neighboring facilities
Effects of Transients
Electronic Equipment
Ø Equipment will malfunction and produces corrupted results
Ø Improper specification and installation of TVSS can aggravate the failures
Ø Efficiency of electronic devices will be reduced
Motors
Ø Transients will make motors run at higher temperatures
Ø Result in micro-jogging leading to motor vibration, excessive heat and noise
Ø Degrades the insulation of the motor winding resulting to equipment failure.
Ø Increases the motor’s losses (hysteresis) and its operating temperature
Lights
Ø Fluorescent bulb and ballast failure
Ø Appearance of black rings at the fluorescent tube ends (indicator of transients)
Ø Premature filament damage leading to failure of the incandescent light.
Electrical Equipment
Ø Transients degrade the contacting surfaces of circuit breakers and switches
Ø Nuisance tripping of breakers due to false activation to a non-existent current demand
Ø Reduce transformer efficiency because of increased hysteresis losses
Damages due to such PQ problems are uncommon as compared to voltage sags and
interruptions, but when it does occur it is more destructive. To protect against transients, end-
users may use Transient Voltage Surge Suppressors (TVSS), while utilities install surge
arresters.
Furthermore, transients are classified as:
1. Impulsive
2. Oscillatory
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1. Impulse transient:
A sudden, non power frequency change in the steady state condition of voltage or current that
is unidirectional in polarity.
 An impulsive transients a sudden non–power frequency change in the steady-state

condition of voltage, current, or both that is unidirectional in polarity (either positive
or negative).
 Impulsive transients are normally characterized by their rise and decay times.
 Due to high frequency nature, the shape of impulsive transients may be changed
quickly by circuit components and may have significant different characteristics when
viewed from different parts of the power system. They are generally not conducted far
from the source.
 Impulsive transients can excite the natural frequency of power system circuits and
produce oscillatory transients.
Source: lightning
2. Oscillatory transient:
An oscillatory transient is a sudden, non–power frequency change in the steady-state

condition of voltage, current, or both, that includes both positive and negative polarity values.
Instantaneous value of oscillatory transient changes polarity rapidly.
It can be classified into 3 types,
1. High-frequency Transients: These have frequency components greater than 500 kHz and a
typical duration measured in microseconds (or several cycles of the principal frequency).
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2. Medium-frequency Transients: These have frequency components between 5 and 500kHz
with duration measured in the tens of microseconds (or several cycles of the principal
frequency).
3. Low-frequency Transients: These have frequency components less than 5 kHz, and a
duration from 0.3 to 50 ms .
Sources: Back-to-back capacitor switching, Transformer energization.
3. Short-Duration Voltage Variations
When the rms value of voltage deviates for duration less than 1 minute, it is termed as long
duration voltage variation.
Each type of variation can be designated as instantaneous, momentary, or temporary,
depending on its duration.
It may be categorized into following types.
1. Interruption: An interruption occurs when the supply voltage or load current decreases to
less than 0.1 pu for a period of time not exceeding 1 min.
Sources: Interruptions can be the result of power system faults, equipment failures, and
control malfunctions.
2. Sags(dips): A sag is a decrease in rms voltage or current between 0.1 and 0.9 pu at the
power frequency for durations from 0.5 cycle to 1 min.
Sources: Voltage sags are result of system faults and also can be caused by energization of
heavy loads or starting of large motors.
3. Swells: A swell is defined as an increase to between 1.1 and 1.8 pu in rms voltage or
current at the power frequency for durations from 0.5 cycle to 1 min.
Sources: Voltage swells occur from temporary voltage rise on the unfaulted phases
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duringan SLG fault. Swells can also be caused by switching off a large load or energizing
large capacitor bank. The complete loss of voltage on one or more phase conductors for a
time less than 1 min.
3.1 Types of Short Duration interruption:
ü
Momentary Interruption < 1 min , <0.1 pu
ü
Temporary Interruption < 1 min , <0.1 pu
4. Long-Duration Voltage Variations
The complete loss of voltage on one or more phase conductors for a time greater than 1 min.
Sources: Load variations, System switching operation.
It may be categorized into following types.
1. Over Voltage: An overvoltage is an increase in the rms ac voltage greater than 110
percent at the power frequency for duration longer than 1 min.
Sources: (a) Overvoltage is usually the result of load switching (e.g., switchingoff a large
load or energizing a capacitor bank).
(b) Incorrect tap settings on transformers can also result in system over voltages.
2. Under Voltage: An under voltageis a decrease in therms ac voltage to less than 90
percentat the power frequency for a duration longer than 1 min.
Sources: A load switching on or a capacitor bank switching off.
3. Sustained Interruptions: When the supply voltage becomes zero for a period of time in
excess of 1 min, the long-duration voltage variation is considered a sustained interruption.
Synopsis:
Magnitude: Several thousands of volts and amps
Duration: <50 ns to 50 ms
Source: Lightning and switching activities
Symptoms: Electronic component damage
Occurrence: Low
Mitigating Devices: TVSS and Surge Arresters
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Voltage Imbalance
Voltage imbalance (also called voltage unbalance) is defined as the maximum deviation
from the average of the three-phase voltages or currents, divided by the average of the three-
phase voltages or currents, expressed in percent.
The ratio of either the negative- or zero-sequence component to the positive-sequence
component can be used to specify the percent unbalance.
The source of voltage unbalances is single-phase loads on a three-phase circuit.
Voltage unbalance can also be the result of blown fuses in one phase of a three-phase
capacitor bank.
Severe voltage unbalance (greater than 5 percent) can result from single-phasing
conditions.
Waveform Distortion
Waveform distortion is defined as a steady-state deviation from an ideal sine wave of power
frequency.
There are five primary types of waveform distortion:
1. DC offset
2. Harmonics
3. Interharmonics
4. Notching
5. Noise
1. DC offset:
The presence of a dc voltage or current in an ac power system is termed dc offset.
Effects: (a) It may saturate the transformer core causing additional heating and loss of
transformer life.
(b) Direct current may also cause the electrolytic erosion of grounding electrodes and
other connectors.
2.Harmonics
Harmonics are sinusoidal voltages or currents having frequencies that are integer multiples of
the supply frequency (fundamental frequency).
Sources: Non-linear loads
Total Harmonic Distortion is used to measure the effective value of harmonic distortion.
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The following figure illustrates the waveform and harmonic spectrum for a typical adjustable
speed-drive (ASD) input current.
3. Inter harmonics
Voltages or currents having frequency components that are not integer multiples of the
frequency at which the supply system is designed to operate (e.g., 50 or 60 Hz) are called
inter harmonics.
Sources: Static frequency converter, cyclo-converters, induction furnaces, and arcing
devices. Power line carrier signals can also be considered as inter harmonics.
4. Notching
Notching is a periodic voltage disturbance caused by the normal operation of power
electronic devices when current is commutated from one phase to another.
The following figure shows an example of voltage notching from a three-phase converter that
produces continuous dc current. The notches occur when the current commutates from one
phase to another. During this period, there is a momentary short circuit between two phases,
pulling the voltage as close to zero as permitted by system impedances.
5. Noise
Noise is the unwanted electrical signals with broadband spectral content lower than 200 kHz
superimposed upon the power system voltage or current in phase conductors, or found on
neutral conductors or signal lines.
Sources: Power electronic devices, control circuits, arcing equipment, loads with solid-state
rectifiers, and switching power supplies.
The problem can be mitigated by using filters, isolation transformers, and line conditioners.
Voltage Fluctuation
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Voltage fluctuations are systematic variations of the voltage envelope or a series of random
voltage changes, the magnitude of which does not normally exceed the voltage range 0.9 to
1.1 pu.
Voltage fluctuations are characterized as a series of random or continuous voltage
fluctuations.
Loads that can exhibit continuous, rapid variations in the load current magnitude can cause
voltage variations that are often referred to as flicker.
The term flicker is derived from the impact of the voltage fluctuation on lamps such that
they are perceived by the human eye to flicker. To be technically correct, voltage fluctuation
is an electromagnetic phenomenon while flicker is an undesirable result of the
voltage fluctuation in some loads.
The following fig. shows voltage fluctuations caused by an arc furnace operation.
Power Frequency Variations
Power frequency variations are defined as the deviation of the power system fundamental
frequency from it specified nominal value (50 or 60 Hz).
Sources: Due to faults on the bulk power transmission system, a large block of load being
disconnected, or a large source of generation going off-line.
On modern interconnected power system, frequency variations are rare.
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Power Quality Terms
Some power quality terms are described below.
Active filter: Consists of a number of power electronic devices for eliminating harmonic
distortion.
CBEMA Curve: A set of curves representing the withstand capabilities of computers in

terms of the magnitude and duration of the voltage disturbance. It is developed by the
Computer Business Equipment Manufacturers Association (CBEMA). It became standard for
measuring the performance of all types of equipment and power systems and is commonly
referred to by this name. CBEMA has been replaced by the Information Technology Industry
Council (ITI), and a new curve has been developed that is commonly referred to as the ITI
curve.
Common mode voltage: The noise voltage that appears equally from current carrying
conductor to ground.
Coupling: A circuit element, or elements, or a network that may be considered common to

the input mesh and the output mesh and through which energy may be transferred from one to
another.
Crest factor: A value reported by many power quality monitoring instruments representing
the ratio of the crest value of the measured waveform to the root mean square of the
fundamental. For example, the crest factor of a sinusoidal wave is 1.414.
Critical load: Devices and equipment whose failure to operate satisfactorily jeopardizes the
health or safety of personnel, and/or results in loss of function, financial loss, or damage to
property deemed critical by the user.
Current distortion: Distortion in the ac line current.
Differential mode voltage: The voltage between any two of a specified set of active
conductors.
Distortion: Any deviation from the normal sine wave for an AC quantity.
Distributed generation (DG): Generation dispersed throughout the power system as
opposed to large, central station power plants. DG typically refers to units less than 10
megawatts (MW) in size that are interconnected with the distribution system rather than the
transmission system.
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Dropout: A loss of equipment operation (discrete data signals) due to noise, sag, or
interruption.
Dropout voltage: The voltage at which a device will release to its de-energized position (for
this document, the voltage at which a device fails to operate).
Electromagnetic Compatibility(EMC):The ability of a device, equipment, or system to
function satisfactorily in its electromagnetic environment without introducing intolerable
electromagnetic disturbances to anything in that environment.
Equipment grounding conductor: The conductor used to connect the non–current carrying
parts of conduits, raceways, and equipment enclosures to the grounded conductor (neutral)
and the grounding electrode at the service equipment (main panel) or secondary of a
separately derived system (e.g., isolation transformer).
Failure mode: The effect by which failure is observed.
Fast tripping: Refers to the common utility protective relaying practice in which the circuit
breaker or line recloser operates faster than a fuse can blow.
Fault: Generally refers to a short circuit on the power system.
Fault, transient: A short circuit on the power system usually induced by lightning, tree
branches, or animals, which can be cleared by momentarily interrupting the current.
Ferro resonance: An irregular, often chaotic type of resonance that involves the nonlinear
characteristic of iron-core (ferrous) inductors. It is nearly always undesirable when it occurs
in the power delivery system, but it is exploited in technologies such as constant-voltage
transformers to improve the power quality.
Flicker: An impression of unsteadiness of visual sensation induced by a light stimulus whose
luminance or spectral distribution fluctuates with time.
Frequency deviation: An increase or decrease in the power frequency. The duration of a
frequency deviation can be from several cycles to several hours.
Frequency response: In power quality usage, generally refers to the variation of impedance
of the system, or a metering transducer, as a function of frequency.
Fundamental (component): The component of order one (50 to 60 Hz) of the Fourier series
of a periodic quantity.
Ground: A conducting connection, whether intentional or accidental, by which an electric
circuit or electrical equipment is connected to the earth, or to some conducting body of
relatively large extent that serves in place of the earth. It is used for establishing and
maintaining the potential of the earth (or of the conducting body) or approximately that
potential, on conductors connected to it, and for conducting ground currents to and from earth
(or the conducting body).
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Ground electrode: A conductor or group of conductors in intimate contact with the earth for
the purpose of providing a connection with the ground.
Ground grid: A system of interconnected bare conductors arranged in a pattern over a

specified area and on or buried below the surface of the earth. The primary purpose of the
ground grid is to provide safety for workers by limiting potential differences within its
perimeter to safe levels in case of high currents that could flow if the circuit being worked
became energized for any reason or if an adjacent energized circuit faulted. Metallic surface
mats and gratings are sometimes utilized for the same purpose. This is not necessarily the
same as a signal reference grid.
Ground loop: A potentially detrimental loop formed when two or more points in an
electrical system that are nominally at ground potential are connected by a conducting path
such that either or both points are not at the same ground potential.
Ground window: The area through which all grounding conductors, including metallic
raceways, enter a specific area. It is often used in communications systems through which the
building grounding system is connected to an area that would otherwise have no grounding
connection.
Harmonic (component): Integer multiple of fundamental frequency.
Harmonic content: The quantity obtained by subtracting the fundamental component from
an alternating quantity.
Harmonic distortion: Periodic distortion of the sine wave.
Harmonic filter: On power systems, a device for filtering one or more harmonics from the
power system. Most are passive combinations of inductance, capacitance, and resistance.
Newer technologies include active filters that can also address reactive power needs.
Harmonic number: The integral number given by the ratio of the frequency of a harmonic
to the fundamental frequency.
Harmonic resonance: A condition in which the power system is resonating near one of the
major harmonics being produced by nonlinear elements in the system, thus exacerbating the
harmonic distortion.
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Impulse: A pulse that, for a given application, approximates a unit pulse or a Dirac function.
When used in relation to monitoring power quality, it is preferable to use the term impulsive
transient in place of impulse.
Impulsive transient: A sudden, non-power frequency change in the steady state condition of
voltage or current that is unidirectional in polarity (primarily either positive or negative).
Instantaneous: When used to quantify the duration of a short-duration variation as a

modifier, this term refers to a time range from one-half cycle to 30 cycles of the power
frequency.
Instantaneous reclosing: A term commonly applied to reclosing of a utility breaker as

quickly as possible after an interrupting fault current. Typical times are 18 to 30 cycles.
Interharmonic (component):A frequency component of a periodic quantity that is not an

integer multiple of the frequency at which the supply system is designed to operate (e.g., 50
or 60 Hz).
Interruption, momentary (electrical power systems):An interruption of a duration limited
to the period required to restore service by automatic or supervisory controlled switching
operations or by manual switching at locations where an operator is immediately available.
Such switching operations must be completed in a specified time not to exceed 5 min.
Interruption, momentary (power quality monitoring): A type of short-duration variation.

The complete loss of voltage (<0.1 pu) on one or more phase conductors for a time period
between 30 cycles and 3 s.
Interruption, sustained (electrical power systems):Any interruption not classified as a

momentary interruption.
Interruption, sustained (power quality):A type of long-duration variation. The complete

loss of voltage (<0.1 pu) on one or more phase conductors for a time greater than 1 min.
Interruption, temporary: A type of short-duration variation. The complete loss of voltage

(<0.1 pu) on one or more phase conductors for a time period between3 s and 1 min.
Inverter: A power electronic device that converts direct current to alternating current of
either power frequency or a frequency required by an industrial process. Common inverters
today employ pulse-width modulation to create the desired frequency with minimal harmonic
distortion.
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Islanding: Refers to a condition in which distributed generation is isolated on a portion of the
load served by the utility power system. It is usually an undesirable situation, although there
are situations where controlled islands can improve the system reliability.
Isolated ground: An insulated equipment grounding conductor run in the same conduit or
raceway as the supply conductors. This conductor is insulated from the metallic raceway and
all ground points throughout its length. It originates at an isolated ground-type receptacle or
equipment input terminal block and terminates at the point where neutral and ground are
bonded at the power source.
Isolation: Separation of one section of a system from undesired influences of other sections.
ITI curve: A set of curves published by the Information Technology Industry Council (ITI)
representing the withstand capabilities of computers connected to120-V power systems in
terms of the magnitude and duration of the voltage disturbance. The ITI curve replaces the
curves originally developed by the ITI’s predecessor organization, the Computer Business
Equipment Manufacturers Association (CBEMA).
Linear load: An electrical load device that, in steady-state operation, presents an essentially
constant load impedance to the power source throughout the cycle of applied voltage.
Long-duration variation: A variation of the rms value of the voltage from nominal voltage
for a time greater than 1 min. Usually further described using a modifier indicating the
magnitude of a voltage variation (e.g., under-voltage, over-voltage, or voltage interruption).
Low-side surges: A term coined by distribution transformer designers to describe the current
surge that appears to be injected into the transformer secondary terminals during a lightning
strike to grounded conductors in the vicinity.
Momentary: When used to quantify the duration of a short-duration variation as a modifier,

refers to a time range at the power frequency from 30 cycles to 3 s.
Noise: Unwanted electrical signals that produce undesirable effects in the circuits of the
control systems in which they occur.
Nominal voltage: A nominal value assigned to a circuit or system for the purpose of
conveniently designating its voltage class.
Nonlinear load: Electrical load that draws current discontinuously or whose impedance
varies throughout the cycle of the input ac voltage waveform.
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Normal mode voltage: A voltage that appears between or among active circuit conductors.
Notch: A switching (or other) disturbance of the normal power voltage waveform, lasting
less than a half-cycle, which is initially of opposite polarity than the waveform and is thus
subtracted from the normal waveform in terms of the peak value of the disturbance voltage.
This includes complete loss of voltage for up to a half-cycle.
Oscillatory transient: A sudden, non-power frequency change in the steady state condition
of voltage or current that includes both positive- or negative polarity value.
Overvoltage: When used to describe a specific type of long-duration variation, refers to a

voltage having a value of at least 10 percent above the nominal voltage for a period of time
greater than 1 min.
Passive filter: A combination of inductors, capacitors, and resistors designed to eliminate

one or more harmonics. The most common variety is simply an inductor in series with a
shunt capacitor, which short-circuits the major distorting harmonic component from the
system.
Phase shift: The displacement in time of one voltage waveform relative to other voltage
waveform(s).
Power factor, displacement: The power factor of the fundamental frequency components of
the voltage and current waveforms.
Power factor (true): The ratio of active power (watts) to apparent power (volt-amperes).
Plt: The long-term flicker severity level as defined by IEC 61000-4-15, based on an
observation period of 2 h.
Pst: The short-term flicker severity level as defined by IEC 61000-4-15, based on an
observation period of 10 min. A Pst value greater than 1.0 corresponds to the level of
irritability for 50 percent of the persons subjected to the measured flicker.
Pulse: An abrupt variation of short duration of a physical quantity followed by a rapid return
to the initial value.
Pulse Width Modulation (PWM): A common technique used in inverters to create an ac

waveform by controlling the electronic switch to produce varying width pulses. Minimizes
power frequency harmonic distortion in some applications, but care must be taken to properly
filter out the switching frequencies, which are commonly 3 to 6 kHz.
176
Recovery time: The time interval needed for the output voltage or current to return to a value
within the regulation specification after a step load or line change. Also may indicate the time
interval required to bring a system back to its operating condition after an interruption or
dropout.
Recovery voltage: The voltage that occurs across the terminals of a pole of a circuit-
interrupting device upon interruption of the current.
Rectifier: A power electronic device for converting alternating current to direct current.
Resonance: A condition in which the natural frequencies of the inductances and capacitances
in the power system are excited and sustained by disturbing phenomena. This can result in
excessive voltages and currents. Waveform distortion, whether harmonic or non-harmonic, is
probably the most frequent excitation source. Also, various short-circuit and open-circuit
faults can result in resonant conditions.
Sag: A decrease to between 0.1 and 0.9 pu in rms voltage or current at the power frequency
for durations of 0.5 cycle to 1 min.
Shield: As normally applied to instrumentation cables, refers to a conductive sheath (usually

metallic) applied, over the insulation of a conductor or conductors, for the purpose of
providing means to reduce coupling between the conductors so shielded and other conductors
that may be susceptible to, or which may be generating, unwanted electrostatic or
electromagnetic fields (noise).
Shielding: Shielding is the use of a conducting and/or ferromagnetic barrier between a

potentially disturbing noise source and sensitive circuitry. Shield sare used to protect cables
(data and power) and electronic circuits. They maybe in the form of metal barriers,
enclosures, or wrappings around source circuits and receiving circuits.
Shielding (of utility lines):The construction of a grounded conductor or tower over the lines
to intercept lightning strokes in an attempt to keep the lightning currents out of the power
system.
Short-duration variation: Avariation of the rms value of the voltage from nominal voltage
for a time greater than one-half cycle of the power frequency butless than or equal to 1 min.
(e.g., sag, swell, or interruption) and possibly a modifier indicating the duration of the
variation (e.g., instantaneous, momentary, or temporary).
177
Signal reference grid (or plane):A system of conductive paths among interconnected
equipment, which reduces noise-induced voltages to levels that minimize improper operation.
Common configurations include grids and planes.
Sustained: Refers to the time frame associated with a long-duration variation (i.e., greater
than 1min).
Swell: A temporary increase in the rms value of the voltage of more than 10 percent of the
nominal voltage, at the power frequency, for durations from 0.5cycle to 1 min.
Sympathetic tripping: When a circuit breaker on an unfaulted feeder section trips

unnecessarily due to back feed into a fault elsewhere. Most commonly occurs when sensitive
ground fault relaying is employed.
Synchronous closing: Generally used in reference to closing all three poles of a capacitor
switch in synchronism with the power system to minimize transients.
Temporary: When used to quantify the duration of a short-duration variation as a modifier,

refers to a time range from 3 s to 1 min.
Total Demand Distortion (TDD): The ratio of the root mean square of the harmonic current
to the rms value of the rated or maximum demand fundamental current, expressed as a
percent.
Total disturbance level: The level of a given electromagnetic disturbance caused by the
superposition of the emission of all pieces of equipment in a given system.
Total Harmonic Distortion (THD): The ratio of the root mean square of the harmonic
content to the rms value of the fundamental quantity, expressed as a percent of the
fundamental.
Transient: Pertaining to or designating a phenomenon or a quantity that varies between two

consecutive steady states during a time interval that is short compared to the time scale of
interest. A transient can be a unidirectional impulse of either polarity or a damped oscillatory
wave with the first peak occurring in either polarity.
Triplen harmonics: A term frequently used to refer to the odd multiples of the third
harmonic, which deserve special attention because of their natural tendency to be zero
sequence.
178
Undervoltage: When used to describe a specific type of long-duration variation, refers to a
measured voltage having a value at least 10 percent below the nominal voltage for a period of
time greater than 1 min. In other contexts, such as distributed generation protection, the time
frame of interest would be measured in cycles or seconds.
Voltage change: A variation of the root mean square or peak value of a voltage between two
consecutive levels sustained for definite but unspecified durations.
Voltage dip: sag.
Voltage distortion: Distortion of the ac line voltage.
Voltage fluctuation: A series of voltage changes or a cyclical variation of the voltage

envelope.
Voltage imbalance (unbalance): A condition in which the three-phase voltages differ in

amplitude or are displaced from their normal 120 degree phase relationship or both.
Frequently expressed as the ratio of the negative sequence or zero-sequence voltage to the
positive-sequence voltage, in percent.
Voltage interruption: Disappearance of the supply voltage on one or more phases. Usually
qualified by an additional term indicating the duration of the interruption (e.g., momentary,
temporary, or sustained).
Voltage regulation: The degree of control or stability of the rms voltage at the load. Often
specified in relation to other parameters, such as input-voltage changes, load changes, or
temperature changes.
Voltage magnification: The magnification of capacitor switching oscillatory transient

voltage on the primary side by capacitors on the secondary side of a transformer.
Waveform distortion: A steady-state deviation from an ideal sine wave of power frequency
principally characterized by the spectral content of the deviation.
179
MODULE 4: APPLICATION OF FACTS
Simulation of a STATCOM for Midpoint Voltage Regulation of Transmission Lines
Basic Configuration STATCOM:
An SVC provides voltage regulation and dynamic reactive power reserve by means of
thyristor-controlled reactors (TCR) and thyristor-switched capacitors (TSC) for var
absorption and production respectively. A STATCOM accomplishes the same effect by using
a VSC to synthesize a voltage waveform of variable magnitude with respect to the system
voltage. The STATCOM branch offers both reactive power absorption and production
capability whereas an SVC requires separate branches for each. The STATCOM, especially
when controlled with PWM, allows faster response and thereby improves power quality. This
is very useful to mitigate flicker from disturbances caused by electric arc furnaces at steel
mills. One of the main reasons for installing an SVC or STATCOM in transmission networks
is to increase the power transfer capability where limited by post-contingency voltage criteria
or under voltage loss of load probability. Determining the optimum mix of dynamic and
switched compensation is a challenge. Control systems are designed to keep the normal
operating point within the middle of the SVC or STATCOM dynamic range.
The voltage-sourced converter (VSC) is the basic electronic part of a STATCOM, which
converts the dc voltage into a frequency, and phase. There are different methods to realize a
voltage-sourced converter for power utility application. Based on harmonics and loss
considerations, pulse width modulation (PWM) or multiple converters are used.
Inherently, STATCOMs have a symmetrical rating with respect to inductive and capacitive
reactive power. For example, the rating can be 100 Mvar inductive and 100 Mvar capacitive.
For asymmetric rating, STATCOMs need a complementary reactive power source. Fig. 1
shows Static Synchronous Compensator (STATCOM) used for midpoint voltage regulation
on a 500-kV transmission line.
STATCOM Control:
STATCOM, by injecting current in parallel with transmission line could control bus voltage
and active power. Also, required active power for series section is supplied by DC-link
capacitor. For this purpose, the STATCOM sampling from DC-link capacitor voltage as well
as the STATCOM connected bus voltage and then by converting these values to dq0
parameters by Parks transformation and calculating voltages in per unit as follows:
180
Fig. 1: Static Synchronous Compensator (STATCOM) Used for Midpoint Voltage Regulation on a 500-kV
Transmission Line
Vbus and Vdc are compared by distinct values according to the block diagram depicted in Fig.
2, and generate error signals as follows:
Fig. 2: STATCOM control system
Generated error signals carried to PI controllers and output of PIs converted to abc
parameters a gain and enter to the PWM pulse generating unit. By adjusting control
parameters of PI and switching, finally error signals carried to zero. And accordingly V bus and
Vdc stabled in their reference values.
Model Description:
The Static Synchronous Compensator (STATCOM) is one of the key FACTS devices. Based
on a voltage sourced converter, the STATCOM regulates system voltage by absorbing or
generating reactive power. Contrary to a thyristor-based Static Var Compensator (SVC),
STATCOM output current (inductive or capacitive) can be controlled independent of the AC
system voltage.
181
The power grid consists of two 500-kV equivalents (respectively 3000 MVA and 2500
MVA) connected by a 600-km transmission line. When the STATCOM is not in operation,
the "natural" power flow on the transmission line is 930 MW from bus B1 to B3. In our
demo, the STATCOM is located at the midpoint of the line (bus B2) and has a rating of +/-
100MVA. This STATCOM is a phasor model of a typical three-level PWM STATCOM. If
you open the STATCOM dialog box and select "Display Power data", you will see that our
model represents a STATCOM having a DC link nominal voltage of 40 kV with an
equivalent capacitance of 375 uF. On the AC side, its total equivalent impedance is 0.22 pu
on 100 MVA. This impedance represents the transformer leakage reactance and the phase
reactor of the IGBT bridge.
182
183
184
185
186
Simulation Example of TCSC
Description
A TCSC is placed on a 500kV, long transmission line, to improve power transfer. Without
the TCSC the power transfer is around 110MW, as seen during the first 0.5s of the simulation
when the TCSC is bypassed. The TCSC consists of a fixed capacitor and a parallel Thyristor
Controlled Reactor (TCR) in each phase. The nominal compensation is 75%, i.e. using only
the capacitors (firing angle of 90deg). The natural oscillatory frequency of the TCSC is
163Hz, which is 2.7 times the fundamental frequency. The test system is described in [1].
The TCSC can operate in capacitive or inductive mode, although the latter is rarely used in
practice. Since the resonance for this TCSC is around 58deg firing angle, the operation is
prohibited in firing angle range 49deg - 69deg. Note that the resonance for the overall system
(when the line impedance is included) is around 67deg. The capacitive mode is achieved with
firing angles 69-90deg. The impedance is lowest at 90deg, and therefore power transfer
increases as the firing angle is reduced. In capacitive mode the range for impedance values is
approximately 120-136 Ohm. This range corresponds to approximately 490-830MW power
transfer range (100%-110% compensation). Comparing with the power transfer of 110 MW
with an uncompensated line, TCSC enables significant improvement in power transfer level.
To change the operating mode (inductive/capacitive/manual) use the toggle switch in the
control block dialog. The inductive mode corresponds to the firing angles 0-49deg, and the
lowest impedance is at 0deg. In the inductive operating mode, the range of impedances is 19-
187
60 Ohm, which corresponds to 100-85 MW range of power transfer level. The inductive
mode reduces power transfer over the line. A constant firing angle can also be applied and the
same limits will apply as above.
TCSC Control
When TCSC operates in the constant impedance mode it uses voltage and current feedback
for calculating the TCSC impedance. The reference impedance indirectly determines the
power level, although an automatic power control mode could also be introduced.
A separate PI controller is used in each operating mode. The capacitive mode also employs a
phase lead compensator. Each controller further includes an adaptive control loop to improve
performance over a wide operating range. The controller gain scheduling compensates for the
gain changes in the system, caused by the variations in the impedance.
The firing circuit uses three single-phase PLL units for synchronisation with the line current.
Line current is used for synchronisation, rather than line voltage, since the TCSC voltage can
vary widely during the operation.
Simulation
Run the simulation and observe waveforms on the main variables scope block. The TCSC is
in the capacitive impedance control mode and the reference impedance is set to 128 Ohm. For
the first 0.5s, the TCSC is bypassed using the circuit breaker, and the power transfer is 110
MW. At 0.5s TCSC begins to regulate the impedance to 128 Ohm and this increases power
transfer to 610MW. Note that the TCSC starts with alpha at 90deg to enable lowest switching
disturbance on the line.
Dynamic Response
At 2.5s a 5% change in the reference impedance is applied. The response indicates that TCSC
enables tracking of the reference impedance and the settling time is around 500ms. At 3.3s a
4% reduction in the source voltage is applied, followed by the return to 1p.u. at 3.8s. It is
seen that the TCSC controller compensates for these disturbances and the TCSC impedance
stays constant. The TCSC response time is 200ms-300ms.
188

Power Quality & FACTS

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GOVERNMENT ENGINEERING

POWER QUALITY & FACTS (100804)

Faculty Name: Mr. Ajit Kumar Singh

ASSISTANT PROFESSOR, DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL

POWER QUALITY & FACTS (100804)

Module 1: Transmission Lines and Series/Shunt Reactive Power

Basics of AC Transmission. Analysis of uncompensated AC transmission lines. Passive

Module 2: Thyristor-based Flexible AC Transmission Controllers (FACTS)

Description and Characteristics of Thyristor-based FACTS devices: Static VAR Compensator

Module 3: Voltage Source Converter based (FACTS) controllers (8 hours)

Module 4: Application of FACTS (4 hours)

Module 5: Power Quality Problems in Distribution Systems (4 hours)

Module 6: DSTATCOM (8 hours)

Reactive Power Compensation, Harmonics and Unbalance mitigation in Distribution Systems

Module 7: Dynamic Voltage Restorer and Unified Power Quality

Text / Reference Books:

A power quality (PQ) problem is defined as any problem that

3) Increased inter-connectedness of power system: problem can propagate and is difficult to

1.2 POWER QUALITY PROBLEMS AND THEIR IMPACTS

1.3 POWER QUALITY STANDARDS

Table .2 Power quality standards

1.4 IMPORTANCE OF POWER QUALITY

1.5 POWER QUALITY IMPROVEMENT TECHNIQUES AND SOLUTIONS

OVERVIEW OF MAJOR CUSTOM POWER DEVICES

Custom Power embraces a family of power electronic devices which is applicable to

(a) Network Reconfiguring Device - Solid State Transfer Switch (SSTS)

Fig.2: Solid State Transfer Switch System

1.5.1 Distribution Static Compensator (DSTATCOM)

The primary aims of DSTATCOM are:

Fig.3: Block diagram of DSTATCOM system

1.5.2 Dynamic Voltage Restorer (DVR)

Fig.4: Block diagram of DVR system

1.7 POWER QUALITY MONITORING DEVICES

1.7.1 Types of Instruments

The flexibility (comprehensiveness) of the instrument is also important. The more

(a) Wiring and Grounding Testers

(b) Multi Meters

(c) Disturbance Analyzers

It is often difficult to determine the characteristics of a disturbance or a transient from the

Summary of power quality problems

1.10 IMPACTS OF POWER QUALITY ISSUES

1.11 POWER QUALITY MONITORING

High-Resolution Technique has been developed for monitoring ``fliicker'' problem.

Fig 1.10. Power quality monitoring techniques to measure different parameters.

1.12.1 Features of Flexible AC Transmission Systems (FACTS)

1.12.2 Why is a Flexible AC Transmission System Needed?

In a conventional AC transmission system, the ability to transfer AC power is limited by

A Flexible AC transmission System refers to the system consisting of power electronic

1.12.4 BASIC TYPES OF FACTS CONTROLLERS

 Series Controllers: Series Controllers consist of capacitors or reactors which introduce

 Shunt Controllers: Shunt controllers consist of variable impedance devices like

 Combined Series - Shunt Controllers: These controllers introduce current in series

 Combined Series-Series Controllers: These controllers consist of a combination of

1.13 BASICS OF POWER TRANSMISSION NETWORKS

1.14 ANALYSIS OF UNCOMPENSATED AC LINE

Transmission Line Equations

Neglecting r and g, the propagation constant 𝜸 is purely imaginary with

is termed as the electrical length of the line expressed in radians.

and Thevenin impedance is obtained as

and the power flow in the line, P = 𝑷𝑹 is given by

The maximum power (theoretical limit) occurs at 𝜹 = 𝟒𝟓𝟎 and is given by

At this value of power, the receiving end voltage is

Performance of a Symmetrical Line