What Is Comprehensible Input and Why Does It Matter For Language Learning

29/07/2023, 10:01 What Is Comprehensible Input and Why Does It Matter for Language Learning?
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What Is Comprehensible
Input and Why Does It
Matter for Language
Learning?
Published on November 4, 2020 | 📖 13 min read
Written by Ramsay Lewis
Stephen Krashen’s input hypothesis is one

of the most influential theories of second
language acquisition. He argues that
Comprehensible Input is the most important
factor in learning another language. Here’s
why it matters.
T bl f t t
https://www.leonardoenglish.com/blog/comprehensible-input 1/19
Table of contents
What is the Input Hypothesis?
What does all that mean?
What is comprehensible input?
What evidence is there for the input hypothesis?
Evidence in native language learning
Evidence in second language learning
TheClockwork Orangestudy
Comprehensible input matters
“Compelling” input is best
What about output?
What does it all mean?
What does this mean for you—the English learner?
The beginner level
The intermediate level
The advanced level
The take-away: focus on comprehensible input in English that you enjoy
References
There’s a scene in the movie Love Actually where Jamie,

played by Colin Firth, is learning Portuguese. He’s sitting in
a classroom with row after row of other language students
listening to headphones and repeating simple Portuguese
phrases, over and over again.
You might recognise the language learning trend that this

scene was referencing. It is called the “Audiolingual
Method” and became popular throughout the 1940s
through the 1960s, declining after that. The idea was that
if you heard something enough, and you repeated it, you
could memorise it and eventually learn the language.
That is just one of probably hundreds of language learning

theories that have picked up steam at some point in the
last century and then faded away.
There are many others.
When looking at the wide variety of approaches to

learning languages, you might be tempted to ask, “Do we
actually know anything about how people learn
languages?” Especially when so many websites and
services claim that their method is “based on science!”
It turns out that we do know quite a bit about language

learning, and one of the concepts that has particularly
strong support in the research is the input hypothesis
developed by the linguist Stephen Krashen.
So, let’s dive into that.
In this article, I want to outline the input hypothesis and

describe what it proposes about how we learn language.
You’ll learn that, if you want to learn English, you will make
progress fastest by ensuring that you create opportunities
to expose yourself to comprehensible input in English.
What is the Input Hypothesis?

The Input Hypothesis was developed by Stephen Krashen in
the 1970s and 1980s. It’s actually a group of 5
hypotheses. They’re a bit complex, but here’s a very
simplified version of them:
1. The Input Hypothesis states that language learners

improve in a language when they are given language
input that is slightly more advanced than their current
level. Krashen called this “i + 1” where “i” is a
person’s current language level and “+1” represents
language that is slightly more advanced than their
current level.
2. The Acquisition–Learning hypothesis states that
acquisition of language is different to learning
language. Krashen argued that learning—what we do
when we study grammar rules—doesn’t work nearly
as well. Instead, language is acquired and that

happens through an unconscious process when we
are exposed to comprehensible input.
3. The Monitor Hypothesis states that consciously
learning language (like studying grammar rules or
doing vocabulary exercises) can help a person
monitor language output, but it doesn’t result in
improvements to using language. In other words,
learning grammar rules can help you measure your
language ability, but not really improve it.
4. The Natural Order hypothesis states that language
acquisition happens in a natural order, which is pretty
much the same for everyone. It further says that
language instruction doesn’t change this “natural”
order.
5. The Affective Filter hypothesis states that affect—how
you’re feeling—changes language acquisition ability.
Krashen argues that negative emotions, like
embarrassment or fear, make a person less able to
acquire a language.
What does all that mean?

That’s all a bit complex, but, very simply, Krashen is saying
this: the process of “learning a language” is not the same
kind of process as, say, learning geography or philosophy.
We can’t read a book about it and then come to “know”
it.
Instead, language acquisition happens through an

unconscious process. The necessary ingredient—the
critical, essential core—of that unconscious process is
comprehensible input.
What is comprehensible input?

Comprehensible input in English is English language that
you can understand. Language inputs are things that you
hear (like podcasts, the radio, conversations, and so on) as

well as things you read (like books, articles, English blog
articles, etc).
Krashen is careful to specify that you can’t just read or

listen to anything and improve your language. You have to
read or listen to things you can understand. Language
acquisition happens best, he says, when the input is just
slightly more advanced than your own level.
Stephen Krashen on Language Acquisition
What evidence is there for the

input hypothesis?
So is Krashen right? Is comprehensible input important? Is
there evidence for the input hypothesis?
There’s a lot of evidence to suggest that he is.
Evidence in native language learning

For one thing, we’ve known for a long time that children
who grow up in richer linguistic environments develop
greater linguistic competence in their own language. We
also know that students who read more outside of school
become better writers. Reading, more than any other

activity, is also the best predictor of vocabulary
development in adults.
It’s not just reading. Researchers have also found that

children who heard more stories in pre-school were judged
to have better linguistic abilities at age 10.
These findings are consistent with the input hypothesis

because each of them suggests a relationship between
exposure to language and language ability.
There also seems to be some experimental evidence that

suggests it is the language input that is driving the
improved language ability. In several studies, researchers
have found evidence that reading is more effective than
practice exercises for improving vocabulary and spelling.
Together, these results suggest that it is exposure to

language, and not language instruction, that results in
better linguistic development.
Evidence in second language learning

This also seems to be the case in acquiring second
languages.
Several studies have found that those language learners

with more exposure to language are more proficient in it.
There’s also significant evidence that second language
learners regularly acquire grammar rules that they have
never been taught, demonstrating that language
acquisition can happen without instruction.
We’ve also seen that approaches to language teaching

that rely on comprehensible input, such as the Natural
Approach or Total Physical Response, can be successful.
Similarly, students can effectively learn a language by
learning other subjects in that language—indeed, these

types of “immersion” programmes have very successful
learning outcomes.
These programmes don’t necessarily teach the language,

but students acquire the language through substantial
input, demonstrating that substantial learning occurs
through exposure to the language, even in the absence of
direct language instruction.
The Clockwork Orange study

Perhaps one of the clearest examples of this was a study
that used the book A Clockwork Orange by Anthony
Burgess.
If you’re familiar with the book, you’ll know that it contains

a number of words from a Russian slang dialect called
nadsat. There are 241 nadsat words in the book, and they
are each repeated throughout the book 15 times on
average.
The researchers asked study participants to read the book.

While most books include a nadsat dictionary, the
researchers provided versions of the books without a
dictionary, so the subjects couldn’t look up the meaning of
the words. After they finished the book, the subjects were
given a vocabulary test on the meaning of 90 of those
nadsat words.
Subject’s scores ranged from 50 to 96 percent correct on

the test, with an average of 76 percent. This demonstrated
that these readers had acquired the meaning of at least 45
foreign language words, simply by reading.
This study demonstrates that significant learning can occur

through comprehensible input, even without direct
instruction.
Comprehensible input matters

Taken together, the research demonstrates that learning
can and often does occur simply from language input—
reading and listening. And, it shows that second language
acquisition can happen even without teaching or explicit
instruction.
Key takeaway: lots of comprehensible input is how to

acquire a language effectively.
“Compelling” input is best

Krashen further suggests that input should not only be
comprehensible but also compelling. That means it should
be interesting to the learner.
Krashen argues that, sure, exposure to comprehensible

input is important. But if the learner isn’t interested in that
input, they won’t pay attention to it. And attention is an
essential component of the learning process.
Krashen says,
“To make sure that language acquirers pay

attention to the input, it should be interesting. But
interest may be not enough for optimal language
acquisition. It may be the case that input needs to
be not just interesting but compelling.”
Compelling input, he says, is input that is so interesting,

you forget it’s in another language.
He gives several examples of this: students who were

startled by their improvement in English after they found
reading material in English they really enjoyed and became
avid readers; or, students who were not interested in
learning Mandarin, but who made vast improvements in it
after they found stories that they liked to read in

Mandarin.
I’ve written on this myself about Brazilian video gamers

making massive progress in English, not because they were
trying to learn English, but because they loved playing
video games, and those happened to be in English. I’ve
argued playing video games is one very effective way to
learn a language precisely because it offers lots of
comprehensible—and compelling—input.
Krashen argues that these activities that you find so

interesting that you want to keep doing them—even if
they’re challenging—are how you can get the input you
need to really acquire a language. He says,
“An important conjecture is that listening to or

reading compelling stories, watching compelling
movies and having conversations with truly
fascinating people is not simply another route,
another option. It is possible that compelling input
is not just optimal: It may be the only way we truly
acquire language.”
This is the entire thesis behind Leonardo English and the

English Learning for Curious Minds podcast. It was to
provide something compelling and interesting for English
learners to listen to. Most traditional listening activities
aren’t only boring, they simply don’t work very well.
What if, we thought, we could create podcasts that English

learners actually wanted to listen to?
What about output?

Okay great, comprehensible input is very important to
learning a language. That means lots of listening and
reading.
But what about output? Aren't speaking and writing

important, too?
There actually is a comprehensible output hypothesis,

proposed by another linguist named Merrill Swain. She
argues that some language learning occurs when a learner
produces output and notices a gap in their language ability
(How do I say that word again?). They may then change
their output approach, and in so doing, develop their
language ability.
Swain acknowledges that this cannot explain all language

acquisition, but it may explain some language acquisition.
Krashen disagrees and provides several responses. Three

of his arguments are:
1. That output is relatively rare in language learning.

Language learners do not speak and write nearly as
much as they listen or read.
2. He provides evidence that some individuals achieve
significant language acquisition without much output.
3. There is a lack of direct evidence supporting this
hypothesis.
He concludes,
“Given the consistent evidence for comprehensible

input, and the failure of other means of
developing language competence, providing more
comprehensible input seems to be a more
reasonable strategy than increasing output [for
language learning].”
What does it all mean?

Researchers seem to agree that speaking and writing help
language acquisition. Krashen, himself, acknowledges the
utility of writing for improving language development.
But it also seems to be clear that speaking—by itself—is

not an effective way to learn a language. We probably
need both, but we especially need input.
What does this mean for you—

the English learner?
It means a few things:
1. Make sure you give yourself lots of input. Read lots

and listen lots.
2. Make sure your input is appropriate for your level—it
should be “comprehensible”. Aim for materials that
you can already understand about 70% to 90%.
3. Include output activities (speaking and writing), but
focus on them a bit less than input activities.
Here is some more specific advice for you at various levels
of English ability.
The beginner level

If you are a beginner, aim for exposing yourself to lots of
input. Find easy reading activities and listening activities
you can understand.
Choose short listening activities that are easy enough

for you.
Read simple English texts, and read a lot.
Language apps may be useful at this level to you to
build your vocabulary of basic words.
Feel free to use translation tools like Google
Translate.
Put a lower priority on speaking and conversation.
While these are useful, they may not be as useful as
listening or reading. However, speaking activities that
provide lots of input, like shadowing, may be
especially useful.
Put a lower priority on focused grammar study. Look

up grammar rules when you think it will be useful to
you, but don’t spend too much time on this. Most of
the important grammar should come intuitively with
enough input.
The intermediate level

Intermediate learners are best served by consuming as
much comprehensible input as possible. Use native English
texts, but modify them so they are accessible for you. Part
of that should include engaging in conversation.
Do lots of listening activities. English Podcasts are

ideal for this, especially those that come with
transcripts and key vocabulary to help make it more
accessible. English Learning for Curious Minds was
created for learners at exactly this level.
Do lots of reading activities. Read in English every
day if you can. The more reading, the better. But,
read things you like so that you continue even when it
feels challenging.
Engage in speaking activities and, if you can, find a
conversation partner. Conversation provides lots of
input and gives you very useful speaking practice.
Do writing activities, too. These will help you get
better at writing and using language.
Take time to study grammar rules that you notice you
don’t really understand, but do not make this a large
focus.
The advanced level

At this level, you should consume native texts. Continue to
find texts that are challenging for you, but not too difficult.
Consume texts in a variety of genres.
Listen widely. Listen to lots of different kinds of audios

in English.
Read widely. Continue to read things you’re interested
in, but also search out things that are maybe a bit
outside your comfort zone.
Speak regularly. Try to seek out new people to speak
with.
Write when you like. Unless you’re specifically aiming
to improve your writing, you can make this a lower
priority.
Don’t actively study grammar, but look up grammar
rules if you’re not sure. But remember, you don’t have
to follow every grammar rule—native speakers
certainly don’t!
The take-away: focus on

comprehensible input in English
that you enjoy
This article was more scientific than you might have been
expecting. But, while sifting through the specifics of the
Input Hypothesis is a bit complicated, the takeaway is
actually quite simple:
We learn language through an unconscious process

that happens when we’re exposed to it.
We’ll learn language the fastest when we’re given lots
of language input at a level that we can understand.
And, we’re more likely to give ourselves lots of input
when we like that input—when we’re listening to or
reading material that is interesting to us.
These days, there are lots of people on the Internet trying
to convince you to take English lessons. Sure, language
lessons may be appropriate for some people. But I am a
language teacher, and I can tell you that not everyone

should learn English in the classroom.
You don’t need English lessons or tutoring. You can learn

English on your own.
And your English learning programme doesn’t have to be

complicated.
If you do just this one thing, you’ll see improvement in your

English ability: make sure that you listen to English and
read in it.
References
Anderson, R. C., Wilson, P. T., & Fielding, L. G. (1988).
Growth in reading and how children spend their time
outside of school. Reading Research Quarterly, 23(3),
285-303.
Chomsky, C. (1972). Stages in language development and

reading exposure. Harvard Educational Review, 42(1), 1-
33.
Cook, V., & Newson, M. (2014). Chomsky's universal

grammar. John Wiley & Sons.
Edwards, H., Wesche, M., Krashen, S., Clement, R., &

Kruidenier, B. (1984). Second-language acquisition
through subject-matter learning: A study of sheltered
psychology classes at the University of Ottawa. Canadian
Modern Language Review, 41(2), 268-282.
Ellis, R., Tanaka, Y., & Yamazaki, A. (1994). Classroom

interaction, comprehension, and the acquisition of L2 word
meanings. Language learning, 44(3), 449-491.
Greaney, V. (1980). Factors related to amount and type of

leisure time reading. Reading Research Quarterly, 15(3),
337-357.
Hafiz, F. M., & Tudor, I. (1989). Extensive reading and the

development of language skills. ELT Journal, 43(1), 4-13.
Hammond, R. M. (1988). Fossilization in second language

acquisition: some experimental data from the second
language classroom. Lenguas Modernas, 15, 105-113.
Hauptman, P. C., Wesche, M. B., & Ready, D. (1988).

Second‐language acquisition through subject‐matter
learning: A follow‐up study at the University of Ottawa.
Language Learning, 38(3), 433-475.
Krashen, S. (1998). Comprehensible output? System,

26(2), 175-182.
Krashen, S. (2003). Explorations in Language Acquisition

and Use. Heinemann.
Krashen, S. (1982). Principles and practice in second

language acquisition. Pergamon Press Inc
Krashen, S. (2011). The compelling (not just interesting)

input hypothesis. The English Connection, 15(3), 1.
Krashen, S. (1994). The input hypothesis and its rivals.

Implicit and Explicit Learning of Languages (pp.45-77).
Academic Press.
Krashen, S. (1985). The input hypothesis: Issues and

implications. Longman.
Krashen, S. D. (2004). The power of reading: Insights from

the research. ABC-CLIO.
Krashen, S. (1989). We acquire vocabulary and spelling by

reading: Additional evidence for the input hypothesis. The
Modern Language Journal, 73(4), 440-464.
Krashen, S. D. (1984). Writing, research, theory, and

applications. Pergamon.
Krashen, S. D., & Terrell, T. D. (1983). The natural

approach: Language acquisition in the classroom. The
Alemany Press.
Lafayette, R. C., & Buscaglia, M. (1985). Students learn

language via a civilization course—A comparison of
second language classroom environments. Studies in
Second Language Acquisition, 7(3), 323-342.
Nagy, W. E., Herman, P. A., & Anderson, R. C. (1985).

Learning words from context. Reading Research Quarterly,
20(2), 233-253.
Saragi, T., Nation, I. S. P., & Meister, G. F. (1978).

Vocabulary learning and reading. System, 6(2), 72-78.
Swain, M. (1985). Communicative competence: some

roles of comprehensible input and comprehensible output
in its development. In: Gass, S., Madden, C. (Eds.). Input
in Second Language Acquisition (pp. 235-256). Newbury
House.
Swain, M., & Lapkin, S. (1995). Problems in output and the

cognitive processes they generate: A step towards second
language learning. Applied Linguistics, 16(3), 371-391.
Wells, G. (1986). The meaning makers: Children learning

language and using language to learn. Heinemann
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29/07/2023, 10:01 What Is Comprehensible Input and Why Does It Matter for Language Learning?

Podcasts  About Business English Blog Log in Sign up

Written by Ramsay Lewis

Stephen Krashen’s input hypothesis is one

There’s a scene in the movie Love Actually where Jamie,

You might recognise the language learning trend that this

That is just one of probably hundreds of language learning

There are many others.

When looking at the wide variety of approaches to

It turns out that we do know quite a bit about language

So, let’s dive into that.

In this article, I want to outline the input hypothesis and

What is the Input Hypothesis?

1. The Input Hypothesis states that language learners

as well. Instead, language is acquired and that

What does all that mean?

Instead, language acquisition happens through an

What is comprehensible input?

hear (like podcasts, the radio, conversations, and so on) as

Krashen is careful to specify that you can’t just read or

Stephen Krashen on Language Acquisition

What evidence is there for the

There’s a lot of evidence to suggest that he is.

Evidence in native language learning

become better writers. Reading, more than any other

It’s not just reading. Researchers have also found that

These findings are consistent with the input hypothesis

There also seems to be some experimental evidence that

Together, these results suggest that it is exposure to

Evidence in second language learning

Several studies have found that those language learners

We’ve also seen that approaches to language teaching

learning other subjects in that language—indeed, these

These programmes don’t necessarily teach the language,

The Clockwork Orange study

If you’re familiar with the book, you’ll know that it contains

The researchers asked study participants to read the book.

Subject’s scores ranged from 50 to 96 percent correct on

This study demonstrates that significant learning can occur

Comprehensible input matters

Key takeaway: lots of comprehensible input is how to

“Compelling” input is best

Krashen argues that, sure, exposure to comprehensible

“To make sure that language acquirers pay

Compelling input, he says, is input that is so interesting,

He gives several examples of this: students who were

after they found stories that they liked to read in

I’ve written on this myself about Brazilian video gamers

Krashen argues that these activities that you find so

“An important conjecture is that listening to or

This is the entire thesis behind Leonardo English and the

What if, we thought, we could create podcasts that English

What about output?

But what about output? Aren't speaking and writing

There actually is a comprehensible output hypothesis,

Swain acknowledges that this cannot explain all language

Krashen disagrees and provides several responses. Three

1. That output is relatively rare in language learning.

“Given the consistent evidence for comprehensible

What does it all mean?

But it also seems to be clear that speaking—by itself—is

What does this mean for you—