Bulletin GSM 75

PP3279/05/2013 (032783) RM80.
00 ISSN 0126–6187; e-ISSN 2637-109X
PERSATUAN GEOLOGI MALAYSIA
Editor: Joy Jacqueline Pereira
Bulletin of the
GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF MALAYSIA
May 2023 No. 75
Buletin Persatuan Geologi Malaysia
Bulletin of the Geological Society of Malaysia
The Bulletin of the Geological Society of Malaysia (ISSN Editor

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Joy J. Pereira (Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, Malaysia)
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BULETIN
PP3279/05/2013 (032783) ISSN 0126–6187; e-ISSN 2637-109X

KANDUNGAN / CONTENTS
1 – 2 Editorial Note
Joy Jacqueline Pereira
3 – 12 A valuable approach in a quantitative seawater intrusion interpretation from the
geoelectrical resistivity data for groundwater investigation in Dumai area, Indonesia
Nur Islami, Mitri Irianti, Azhar Azhar, Muhammad Nasir, Muhammad Nor,
Fakhruddin Fakhruddin, Dedi Irawan
13 – 23 Sistem pengelasan jasad batuan untuk jasad batuan dalam penerowongan dan pembinaan
bawah tanah – Pembangunan, kekangan dan keperluan masa hadapan
(Rock mass classification for rock mass in tunnelling and underground excavation -
Development, limitation and way forward)
Hamzah Hussin, Mohd Hariri Arifin
25 – 36 Physical characterization of the weathering profile over a sheared, biotite-muscovite granite
in Peninsular Malaysia
John Kuna Raj
37 – 55 Influence of Alstonia Angustiloba tree water uptake on slope stability: A case study at the
unsaturated slope, Pahang, Malaysia
Muhammad Syamsul Imran Zaini, Muzamir Hasan, Muhammad Farhan Zolkepli
57 – 71 Tin mineralization indicator in Sungai Bahoi-Charok Jawa area, Ulu Muda Forest Reserve,
Kedah
Fakhruddin Afif Fauzi, Hamdan Ariffin
73 – 84 Synopsis of Upper Tukau Deposits along the Sungai Rait Road, Miri District, Sarawak,
Malaysia
Franz L. Kessler, John Jong, Ramasamy Nagarajan
85 – 99 Geochemistry and mineralogy of prehistoric pottery shards found at Gua Kelew, Nenggiri
Valley, Kelantan, Malaysia
Muhamad Shafiq Mohd Ali, Zuliskandar Ramli, Nur Farriehah Azizan
Editor: Joy Jacqueline Pereira
Bulletin of the
May 2023 No. 75
Copyright:
Copyright 2023 by the Authors. Licensee Geological Society of Malaysia.

The articles in the journal are open access articles distributed under the terms and conditions of the
Creative Commons Attribution (CC-BY) License 4.0.

Geological Society of Malaysia
Council 2023/2024
President : Mohd Hariri Arifin
Vice President : Meor Hakif Amir Hassan
Secretary : Ling Nan Ley
Assistant Secretary : Norazianti Asmari
Treasurer : Lim Choun Sian
Editor : Joy Jacqueline Pereira
Immediate Past President : Ahmad Nizam Hasan
Councillors : Abdull Halim bin Abdul
Ahmad Zulqurnain bin Ghazali
Cindy Simba Ngumbang Ak Kadir
Mohd Shafiq Firdauz Abdul Razak
Muhammad Hatta Roselee
Nor Shahidah Mohd Nazer
Siti Nur Fathiyah Jamaludin
Tan Boon Kong

The Geological Society of Malaysia was founded in 1967 with the aim of promoting the
advancement of geoscience, particularly in Malaysia and Southeast Asia. The Society
has a membership of about 700 local and international geoscientists.
Published by
c/o Department of Geology, University of Malaya, 50603 Kuala Lumpur
Tel: 603-79577036 Fax: 603-79563900
Email: geologicalsociety@gmail.com
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This publication
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Printed by
Nets Printwork Sdn. Bhd., No. 56, Jalan PBS 14/4, Taman Perindustrian Bukit Serdang,
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ii
Bulletin of the Geological Society of Malaysia, Volume 75, May 2023, pp. 1 - 2
DOI: https://doi.org/10.7186/bgsm75202301
Editorial Note
MARKING THE 75TH VOLUME OF BULLETIN OF THE GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF MALAYSIA
It is a pleasure to present to you the 75th volume of the Bulletin of the Geological Society of Malaysia. The inaugural
issue of the Bulletin was published in 1967; it carried eight papers by geologists from the colonial era like D.J. Gobbett,
C.S. Hutchison, N.S. Haile and P.H. Stauffer, to name a few. They have left a legacy of knowledge that we are now
building upon. The first paper of the inaugural volume was from the sole Malaysian contributor, T. Suntharalingam.
Over time, the number of Malaysian contributors increased; and the first paper in Malay was published a decade later
authored by T.T. Khoo. The Bulletin has since maintained its bilingual documentation of research findings, publishing
two volumes annually.
Before digital search functions became the norm, bibliography and index publications served as a ready and convenient
reference aid to navigate the vast topics covered in geological sciences. Four such volumes have been published by the
Society. Bulletin 2 released in 1968 comprised citations on the geology of West Malaysia and Singapore; Bulletin 30
issued in 1992 contained an annotated bibliography of the geology of the South China Sea and adjacent parts of Borneo;
Bulletin 34 encompassed the bibliography and index of all scientific papers in the Bulletin and Warta Geologi, the
newsletter of the Society, as well as abstracts of papers presented in the seminars, conferences and symposiums organised
by the Society from its foundation till 1993; and Bulletin 50 in 2007 covered similar information from 1994 to 2004.
The volumes were compiled by D.J. Gobbett, N.S. Haile, T.F. Ng and R.B.Tate respectively. We record our appreciation
to these geologists, who diligently annotated the information for our benefit.
The treasure trove of geological knowledge from Bulletin 1 to 75, and all issues of Warta Geologi is now readily
available on the website of the Society. The Geological Society of Malaysia is proud to maintain open access to all articles
in the Bulletin, which are distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution License 4.0.
Authors can self-archive all versions of their work in their own web pages, institutional web pages, and other repositories.
All papers are subjected to a double-blind review by at least two reviewers. The standards of ethical behaviour is strictly
upheld at all stages of the publication process. Thanks to the leadership of our immediate past Editor, W. H. Abdullah,
both the flagship publications of the Society, Bulletin and Warta Geologi, are indexed by Scopus, AAPG Datapages and
the MyJurnal/MyCite, the national citation indexing system.
Since its establishment, the Society has elected 10 Editors. They are P. H. Stauffer (1967-1971), B. K. Tan (1972-
1973), T.T. Khoo (1974-1976), C.H. Yeap (1977-1978), A. Jantan (1979), G. H. Teh (1980-2004), K. K. Liew (2005),
Y. L. Lau (2006-2011), T. F. Ng (2012-2015) and W. H. Abdullah (2016-2022). Collectively, the Editors have overseen
the issuance of about 1400 articles covering engineering geology, environmental geology, geochemistry, geomorphology,
geophysics, hydrogeology, mining geology, palaeontology, petroleum geology, regional geology, sedimentology, stratigraphy,
structural geology and tectonics, among others. While the primary focus is on Southeast Asia, the geographic coverage of
papers extend beyond the region, to cover trending research areas related to oil and gas exploration, mining, environment,
conservation, geoheritage, geotourism, earthquakes, hazard assessment, disaster risk reduction and climate change. I
stand on the shoulder of giants in continuing this excellent tradition of knowledge advancement in geological sciences.

Volume 75 contains seven articles reflecting the range of geological sciences. The first is on a useful approach for
quantitative seawater intrusion interpretation from geoelectrical resistivity data for groundwater investigation by Islami
et al. (2023) in Dumai, Indonesia. Geoelectrical resistivity data is normally interpreted qualitatively and the amount of
seawater mixture in an aquifer is not estimated. Islami et al. (2023) used the data for predicting the proportion of seawater
mixture in a shallow aquifer that is intruded by seawater. The second article in Malay by Hussin et al. (2023) is a general
review of rock mass classification that has been used intensively for engineering design, specifically for tunnelling. Many
classification systems have limited application for rock mass covered by shotcrete due to the masking of discontinuity
planes. A new investigation approach and rock mass classification is vital to overcome this limitation. A way forward is
to integrate findings from geoelectrical resistivity tomography surveys and engineering geological mapping, to evaluate
and continuously monitor the quality of protected rock mass, to prevent localized or global rock mass failure.
0126-6187; 2637-109X / Published by the Geological Society of Malaysia.

© 2023 by the Author(s). This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC-BY) License 4.0.
The following two articles are outcrop scale case studies. The article on physical characterization of a weathering
profile over sheared, biotite-muscovite granite in Selangor, Malaysia is authored by Raj (2023). Geological description
was combined with the evaluation of mechanical properties, to classify weathered material on a slope cut close to the 10th
milestone of the Kuala Lumpur-Ipoh trunk road. The findings are an addition to previous investigations conducted by the
author on characterizing weathering profiles over porphyritic biotite granite and rhyolite. It contributes to the ongoing
discourse for a suitable classification of weathering of rock mass in the tropics. The case study of Zaini et al. (2023) is
on the efficacy of mature Alstonia Angustiloba trees in promoting slope stability of problematic and unsaturated soils in
Pahang, Malaysia. Changes in climatic conditions caused variations in tree water uptake profiles, particularly when the
tree is at the top of the slope. Results show that the presence of a single mature tree contributes greatly to water extraction
from the residual soil. Higher tree water uptake led to the greatest increase in the factor of safety of the slope. The use
of Alstonia Angustiloba represents an eco-friendly approach to prevent slope failures.
The fifth article is on tin mineralization indicators in Kedah, Malaysia by Fauzi & Ariffin (2023). Detailed field
mapping and geochemical analysis of stream sediments were conducted in the study area, comprising Late Triassic igneous
intrusion and sedimentary rocks of the Carboniferous Kubang Pasu Formation. Findings revealed up to six multi-element
anomaly areas with tin as the major constituent. These areas occur primarily in the granitic – sedimentary contact zone
within the Sungai Bahoi-Charok Jawa area. Further investigation is required to determine the potential of this area for
tin mineralization. The sixth article by Kessler et al. (2013) is a synopsis of Upper Tukau Deposits along the Sungai
Rait Road in Sarawak, Malaysia. The oldest deposit is dominated by black shale, followed by amalgamated sand sheets,
and the youngest lies within a tidal depositional environment. The entire sequence appears to be a shallowing-upwards
cycle, leading from subtidal to intertidal realms. Sharp boundaries between the deposits are inferred to abrupt changes
in climate, tectonics or sea level change; requiring further investigation.
The seventh and final article is on the mineralogy and geochemistry of prehistoric pottery shards from Gua Kelew in
Kelantan, Malaysia authored by Ali et al. (2023). Newly discovered by archaeologists, the caves of Gua Kelew is being
investigated as a significant prehistoric site for the country. Earthenware samples were analysed for mineral content to
determine their provenance. The minerals comprise quartz, calcite and anorthoclase, with a high content of silica and
aluminium. Raw materials from nearby areas contain similar minerals, but graph plot analysis of the data indicates
differences in the elemental content when compared to clay samples from the surroundings. This suggests that earthenware
found in Gua Kelew were not locally produced. This article reflects the ever expanding use of geological methods in
multidisciplinary knowledge domains.
I take this opportunity to acknowledge the immediate past Editor for her tremendous service. I also thank the Editorial
Board, Assistant Editors and Editorial Management Committee Members for their constant and unwavering assistance.
Last but not least, I express my deepest gratitude to all the authors and reviewers of Volume 75 for their contribution. I
look forward to all your continuous support in my tenure as the Editor.
Joy Jacqueline Pereira

Editor
A valuable approach in a quantitative seawater intrusion

interpretation from the geoelectrical resistivity data for groundwater
investigation in Dumai area, Indonesia
Nur Islami*, Mitri Irianti, Azhar Azhar, Muhammad Nasir, Muhammad Nor,
Fakhruddin Fakhruddin, Dedi Irawan
Physics – PMIPA, Universitas Riau, Jl. HR. Soebrantas, Km. 12.5, Pekanbaru, 28293, Indonesia
* Corresponding author email address: nurislami@lecturer.unri.ac.id
Abstract: An improvement of geoelectrical resistivity interpretation has been done through this research. Up to now,
the geoelectrical resistivity data was interpreted qualitatively especially in the case of the aquifer intruded by seawater,
and the percentage of seawater mixture content in the aquifer cannot be predicted. In this research, a valuable approach
was used in the prediction of percentage seawater mixture in the shallow aquifer that is intruded by seawater. The study
was conducted in the coastal area which is mainly covered by peat soil. The research employed the direct soil resistivity
measurement and the ground surface resistivity survey. Geoelectrical resistivity with the Wenner configuration was used
for both measurements. The soil character and the fluid content in the soil were measured to obtain their correlation
to the direct soil resistivity value. The results show that resistivity value is about 2-5 ohm.m for 50% seawater content
mixture in aquifer and it increase to be 5-10 ohm.m for 25% seawater mix to freshwater in the aquifer. The increasing
seawater content in the pore soil caused the decreases in resistivity value drastically. The percentage of seawater mixture
in the fluid pore soil has been successfully predicted through the geoelectrical resistivity measurement on the surface.
Keywords: Seawater intrusion, geoelectrical resistivity, Dumai, groundwater
INTRODUCTION assisted in identifying alternating of silt layers and their

The main groundwater problem faced in coastal areas continuity (Kumar et al., 2022). The use of geoelectrical
is the occurrence of seawater intrusion into groundwater resistivity survey is also common in the exploration of
aquifers. This problem has increased to the point where it seawater intrusion (Islami & Irianti, 2021). In addition,
is difficult to find fresh groundwater for drinking and for hydraulics tests can be used to check the tidal response
daily needs (Panthi et al., 2022). In addition, the problem (Crestani et al., 2022).
will also escalate to the sustainability of the ecosystem in The use of the geoelectrical resistivity method has also
the area (Basack et al., 2022). The occurrence of seawater been successfully used to map shallow aquifers in the coastal
intrusion towards land may be caused by overexploitation of area (Thapa et al., 2019; Azizah et al., 2019). Abdulameer et
groundwater (Alfarrah & Walraevens, 2018; Erostate et al., al. (2018) reported that the geoelectrical resistivity method
2020; Armanuos et al., 2022) so that the hydrostatic pressure has been successful in mapping the possibility of seawater
of the aquifer will decrease drastically. This will cause the intrusion in southern Iraq. In general, research results that
entry of seawater into the groundwater aquifer (Prusty & have been published to this day state that geoelectrical
Farooq, 2020). Apart from that, the presence of seawater in resistivity has been able to show the presence of brackish
the aquifer can also be caused by the trapping of seawater water and saltwater in the aquifer. However, there are no
during the sedimentation process in the past geological research results using geoelectrical resistivity that provide
time interval (Baharuddin et al., 2013). Larsen et al. (2017) direct information on the prediction of the percentage
reported that the salinity of groundwater is influenced by content of seawater mixed with fresh water in the aquifer
the presence of Holocene seawater trapped in the aquifer. that is intruded by seawater. In this study, a correlation
In order to monitor seawater intrusion, several approach was used to determine the possible percentage
methods have been reported. Martínez-Pérez et al. of the presence of seawater mixed with fresh water in the
(2022) monitored the saltwater intrusion in the aquifer aquifer. Thus, it is possible that the percentage of seawater
using integrated approach including the use of physical mixed with fresh water can be predicted directly using the
and chemical water analysis. The geophysics method geoelectrical resistivity method.

Nur Islami, Mitri Irianti, Azhar Azhar, Muhammad Nasir, Muhammad Nor, Fakhruddin Fakhruddin, Dedi Irawan
STUDY AREA from soil characterization, followed by sea-fresh water

This research is a case study conducted in the coastal chemical analysis, resistivity measurement of seawater
area around Dumai City, Indonesia. The locations chosen mixed with freshwater variations, measurement of soil
for field data collection were in several randomly selected resistivity saturated with various mixtures of sea-fresh
sites in peat areas and also non-peat areas around the city water, and finally, measurements of geoelectrical resistivity
of Dumai. Dumai is located in the coastal area which and percentage of seawater in the intruded aquifer were
is directly adjacent to the Rupat Strait which is part of conducted in the field.
the Malacca Strait. It is precisely located in the Central
Sumatra Basin where almost thirty percent of the land Soil characterization
surface is covered by peat soil. The thickness of the Soil samples were taken from a number of locations
peat soil in the Sumatran basin varies from about half as shown in Figure 1. For each location, two packets of
a meter to about 7 m. The aquifer system in the Dumai weight about 1 kg of soil samples were taken. All soil
area consisted of alternating of sand layer form the near samples were measured with standard method (Teixeira
surface to about 200 m depth (Anda et al., 2021). In & Martins, 2003). The first package was used to find
the area around the Dumai, peat soils dominate in the the grain size of the soil that was referred to Hamlin
coastal areas, especially in the eastern part of the Dumai (1991). They consist of clay, fine sand, medium sand,
up to about a few kilometers to the south of the Dumai coarse sand, and gravel. The second portion of the soil
city. However, in some places in the Southwest, the soil was used for the purposes of measuring soil resistivity
surface is dominated by clastic sediments. Figure 1 is data which was saturated with a mixture of seawater and
a map of the research area. On this map, the elevation freshwater later on.
contours are presented with colored line. The white line
is the resistivity survey line, while the yellow box is the Water sample analysis
location of the soil sampling, and the turquoise circle is All water samples were analyzed using standard
the water sample location. methods (Clesceri et al., 1999). A number of three water
samples with 500 ml each have been collected using water
METHODOLOGY mineral bottle to analyze their in situ physical character
In this study, several procedures were carried out to analysis such as temperature, conductivity, total dissolved
acquire the final target. The research was commenced solids, pH, and conductivity. Besides, the water samples were
Figure 1: Map of the study area. The white line is the location of the geoelectrical resistivity
survey. The yellow is the location of soil sample. The turquoise circle is the location of the
water sample.
4 Bulletin of the Geological Society of Malaysia, Volume 75, May 2023

A valuable approach in a quantitative seawater intrusion interpretation
analyzed using Ion Chromatography (IC) and Inductively Geoelectrical resistivity survey
Coupled Plasma (ICP) to obtain their major anion and In the field, 1D and 2D geoelectrical resistivity surveys
cation content such as Cl, SO4, K, Ca, Mg, and Na. These were conducted using the Wenner configuration due to it
chemical water sample data will be used to calibrate the give more signal strength (Telford et al., 1990) and less time
geoelectrical resistivity survey later on. for data acquisition (Loke, 2013). The homemade resistivity
meter equipment was used with a maximum output current
Sea-fresh water chemical analysis and voltage of 1 Ampere and 1000 Volt DC. Geoelectrical
The seawater and sea-fresh water mixture were resistivity surveys were carried out at several sites. It started
measured to obtain their major chemical content. The at about 300 m from the coastline to 10 km landwards.
freshwater sample was obtained from the existing well Thus, changes in the subsurface resistivity character can
which was located about 15 km from the beach line. The be clearly observed later. Both the 1D and 2D geoelectrical
well is elevated 16 m above mean sea level while it's resistivity data were processed using Res1D and Res2DInv
depth is 12 m from the ground surface. This well was software by Loke (Loke et al., 1996; Loke, 2001; Loke,
chosen because it should be impossible to be intruded 2013), respectively. The geoelectrical resistivity data were
by seawater. In the laboratory, the analysis of sea-fresh then interpreted based on direct soil measurements of data of
water mixture with 0%, 5%, 10%, 25%, 50%, 75%, and the saturated sea-fresh water mixture. Thus, the percentage
100% of seawater content was measured for their major of seawater content in the aquifer can be known through
chemical content. resistivity measurements on the surface.
Direct resistivity measurement of soil saturated RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

with sea-fresh water mixture Soil grain size sample
The soil samples were saturated with the sea-fresh The grain size distributions of the soil samples obtained
water mixture. The direct resistivity measurements were from the study area are given in Table 1. The grain size
carried out in the laboratory on the entire saturated soil data in the table is from the soil of clastic sediment samples
samples using the Wenner configuration with 0.05 m only. For tpeat, particle size measurements were not carried
electrode spacing. These resistivity values obtained from out. In the table, it can be observed that no gravel was
the measurements were used as a reference in interpreting found in the soil sample. Soil samples for S01 to S04 were
the geoelectrical resistivity data later so that the percentage dominated by silt and clay which were taken from a depth
of seawater content mixed with freshwater in the aquifer of 1 m. While samples S05 and S06 are dominated by
can be predicted through interpretation of geoelectrical fine sand and medium-size sand taken from the new wells
resistivity survey data. drilled in this study.
Geological and resistivity calibration Chemical content of seawater freshwater

A new well was drilled to obtain the real geological mixtures
data in the research area. These well data were used as Table 2 shows the main chemical content of seawater
calibration between geological and resistivity data. The mixtures. In the table, the standard chemical content of
well location was chosen in the community area. The soil seawater was placed in the last row of the table. These values
samples were collected at every meter during the drilling were obtained from Hounslow (1995). Cl is the highest
process. The soil samples obtained from this well were also concentration in each of the water samples, followed by
used to measure the resistivity value of soil saturated with sodium and SO4. In a water sample of 5% seawater mixture
sea-fresh water mixture. (AL05), the Cl concentration is detected as much as 498
Table 1: Grain size of the soil in the selected locations of the study area.
Silt and Medium Coarse
Sample Sampling Fine Sand Gravel
Clay Sand Sand
No Depth (m) (%) (%)
(%) (%) (%)
S01 1 94.7 2.3 3.0 0.0 0
S02 1 94.7 2.3 2.9 0.0 0
S03 1 96.0 1.0 2.9 0.1 0
S04 1 91.5 1.0 7.1 0.4 0
S05 16 0.4 52.0 40.2 7.4 0
S06 20 0.3 16.5 59.7 23.3 0
Bulletin of the Geological Society of Malaysia, Volume 75, May 2023 5

Table 2: Chemical analysis of water sample. The water sample is varied with the seawater content. The standard value
of seawater content derived from Hounslow (1995) is placed at the last row of the table.
Seawater Cl SO4 K Ca Mg Na
Sample ID
(%) (mg/L) (mg/L) (mg/L) (mg/L) (mg/L) (mg/L)
AL00 0 11 5 2.3 11.3 0.7 2.3

AL05 5 498 79 29.0 25.2 50.2 Sat
AL10 10 1185 162 57.9 37.6 87.6 Sat
AL25 25 4057 227 115.5 88.4 264.3 2487.1
AL50 50 7444 868 192.2 186.5 654.4 4882.3
AL75 75 10616 1184 298.4 284.3 995.9 7944.0
AL100 100 16712 1938 378.3 398.8 1272.0 10687.5
Hounslow Seawater 19000 2700 390 410 1350 10500
Figure 2: Water chemical content varies with the percentage of seawater, (a). Cl and 192 SO4, (b). Ca
and Mg (c). K and Na.

mg/L. Whilst the concentration of Cl is 16712 mg/L in the Resistivity and soil property correlation
seawater (AL100). Figure 2 is the scatter plot of data in Direct resistivity measurements on soils saturated
Table 2 that shows a correlation between the percentages with seawater and a combination of a mixture of seawater
of seawater content and the chemical content. It is obvious and freshwater can be seen in Table 3. Whilst, Figure 3
that the Cl concentration upsurges linearly in line when the is the data in Table 3 plotted using bar chart (Figure 3A).
percentage of seawater content increase (AL00-AL100). The In Figure 3A it can be seen that the resistivity of the soil
other major seawater chemical components (SO4, K, Ca, Mg which is only saturated with freshwater shows a relatively
and Na) too have the same linear trend with the Cl. All the high compared to all soil samples. The soils dominated by
chemical concentrations have a high correlation (R2 value) sand have relatively high resistivity value compared to soils
with a value near 1. This suggests that the measurement dominated by silt and clay. For soils that are dominated by
of the chemical and the trend of seawater percentage are silt and clay, the amount of resistivity does not show too
precise and accurate. much difference. This is because each soil has relatively the
Table 3: Direct resistivity measurement of the seawater variation saturated soil.

Sea-
S01 St. S02 St. S03 St. S04 St. S05 St. S06 St. Peat St.
water
(ohm.m) dev (ohm.m) dev (ohm.m) dev (ohm.m) dev (ohm.m) dev (ohm.m) dev (ohm.m) dev
(%)
0 49.2 0.5 47.1 0.4 44.4 0.3 45.7 0.4 108.6 0.02 113.4 0.04 136.1 2.3
5 11.8 0.28 11.5 0.02 10.9 0.02 11.1 0.02 19.9 0.01 20.0 0.01 22.4 0.8
10 6.9 0.03 7.0 0.02 6.7 0.02 6.8 0.02 11.5 0.02 12.1 0.03 12.9 0.03
25 5.4 0.03 5.1 0.02 4.9 0.02 4.9 0.02 9.1 0.01 9.4 0.08 9.9 0.04
50 2.9 0.06 2.5 0.01 2.4 0.01 2.4 0.01 4.8 0.01 4.9 0.01 5.1 0.06
75 1.3 0.07 1.2 0.02 1.2 0.03 1.2 0.01 2.3 0.01 2.4 0.03 2.6 0.01
100 0.9 0.04 0.8 0.01 0.8 0.01 0.6 0.01 1.7 0.01 1.8 0.03 1.9 0.2
Figure 3: Resistivity and percentage of seawater in the

soil sample (Figure 3A). Total anion 227 and resistivity of
saturated soil with different seawater content (Figure 3B).
In Figure 3B, the 228 resistivity value decreases drastically
when increasing a little bit of seawater content.

same grain character, except for peat soil, the resistivity of Figure 3(B) is showing the total anions in the water
peat soil containing freshwater has the highest resistivity sample that is used to saturate the soil sample. It can be
value (136 ohm.m) compared to other soils. In the soil seen that the addition of 5% seawater into freshwater causes
sample filled with a mixture of 25% sea-fresh water, it is the resistivity value to drop drastically. This is because the
seen that the overall resistivity drops drastically to around anion content in the water will increase the conductivity
10-22 ohm.m. It is also seen that the peat sample also has the value of a material drastically. Thus the resistivity value
highest resistivity value (22 ohm.m) as in the soil saturated will drop drastically as well. However, the decrease in the
with fresh water. This is because the soil has organic content resistivity value is not linear but is exponential until the
from trees that have been destroyed. seawater content becomes 100%.
The same trend of resistivity value is also observed for
50% of the sea-fresh water mixture, as in soil of 25% and Calibration and geoelectrical resistivity survey
10% seawater content. In general, the resistivity value in To calibrate the interpretation of 1D and 2D geoelectrical
the sample with 50% seawater content is slightly lower than resistivity data against geological data, a new well was
the previous 25% resistivity. Likewise, it is also observed in drilled near the housing of one of the residents, and the
the resistivity value of the sample with a seawater content well can be used by the community in the future for daily
of 75% and also 100%. uses. Figure 4 is the drilling process and also the lithology
Figure 4: Drilling process in WS2 (left) and lithology log of the well WS2 (right).
Figure 5: 2D Geoelectrical resistivity model.

log obtained from the collection of soil samples during the The geoelectrical model of resistivity RS01 can be
drilling process. During drilling, soil samples were collected seen in Figure 5. The geoelectrical resistivity survey of
and observed for every 1 m. In this well, from the surface RS01 was conducted on the grass field of farm animals
to a depth of 90 cm is embankment soil, then peat soil with such as cows and goats. The resistivity model shows that
dark brown color was found to a depth of 5 m. After that, the resistivity value is about 15 ohm.m on the surface. This
clay soil with a dark gray color was found to a depth of value correlates to the wet zone soil contaminated with the
13 m. From a depth of 13 m to 18 m, it is dominated by farm animal’s manure. The next layer shows the resistivity
fine gray sand then coarse sand to a depth of 24 m. The value of about 70 ohm.m correlating to the clay layer. The
depth zone ranging from 13 m to 24 m is the first aquifer shallow aquifer appears from a depth of 7 m downward.
zone that is often used for groundwater extraction by the The resistivity value of this layer is less than about 5
community. During the soil collection, at a depth of about ohm.m. The resistivity extraction also gave information at
18-24 m, when collecting this coarse-grained sand, the this zone the lowest resistivity value is 3 ohm.m. Based on
sand is slightly reddish when it was exposed to the surface the resistivity value and the data in Table 3, the percentage
after a few hours. After a layer of coarse sand, followed by of seawater mixed with the freshwater here is about 25%
a layer of gray clay from a depth of 24 m to 50 m, there until 50%. This quantitative interpretation is also supported
were several color changes but were not too pronounced. by the well WS1 (50 m from the survey line) which the Cl
The last layer is fine gray sand from a depth of 50 to the content of the groundwater is 1798.5 mg/l (Table 4). The
end of the maximum depth of the well (60 m). resistivity value of seawater intrusion in the aquifer is also
Figure 5 is a geoelectrical resistivity model that was appeared about 5-10 ohm.m as reported in Sun et at. (2022)
carried out at about 100 m next to the new drilled well. It and Niculescu et al. (2021).
was conducted exactly at the mark of 84 m on the RS02. In The results of the 1D modeling of the geoelectrical
this model, it can be seen that on the X-axis is the position resistivity survey data in this study can be seen in Figure
of the electrode while on the Y-axis is the depth of the data 6. In this 1D model, the observed data and calculated data
inversion model results. The model was generated in the as well as the resistivity model with depth prediction can
inversion process using the Res2DInv software. It shows be seen in the given model. The geoelectrical resistivity
that the upper surface is dominated by yellow color with model RS06 was deliberately carried out at the same
a resistivity value of around 180 ohm.m. This value is location as RS02 (2D geoelectrical resistivity data) to view
associated with peat in the vadose zone. While at the next and calibrate 1D data with 2D data controlled by well
depth of about 5 m to about 12 m, the resistivity value is lithology log data. In the RS06 geoelectrical model, it can
dominated by around 70 ohm.m. This value is interpreted as be seen that they are 4 layers of resistivity zones. From
a clay zone that is dark gray in color. Next, the resistivity the surface to a depth of approximately 5 m, the resistivity
value is around 40 ohm.m (turquoise color). This color value is around 180 ohm.m. This zone is interpreted as a
can be observed from a depth of 12 m to about 25 m. This vadose zone. The next resistivity layer is a zone that has
zone is correlating to an aquifer zone. The aquifer consists a resistivity value of about 110 ohm.m w hich correlates
of sand containing freshwater that has been slightly mixed to the clay zone. Then at a depth of about 11 m to 25 m,
(less than 5%) of seawater. This interpretation is based another layer is observed that has a resistivity value of
on the data in Table 3 that for sandy soils saturated with about 23 ohm.m. This zone is a shallow aquifer zone.
5% seawater, the resistivity value is about 20 ohm.m. In This aquifer zone like RS02 is also confirmed from the
addition, this interpretation is also supported by the water lithology log data of the wells made in this study (Figure
chemical data at W2 (Table 4) which is about 100 m from 4), which shows that this depth range is dominated by fine
the line of the geoelectrical resistivity survey. In the table, sand and coarse sand. From the results of 1D geoelectrical
the Cl content of the groundwater for W2 is 276 mg/l resistivity (RS06) and 2D geoelectrical resistivity (RS02)
with the salinity of 0.2%. This value is indicating that the data which were carried out at the same place, it is seen
aquifer contains less than of 5% seawater content mixed that both of them show almost the same resistivity pattern
with freshwater. at a certain depth.
Table 4: Wells physical in-situ data, major anion and cation data.
Well ID Depth pH Salinity TDS Cl SO4 K Ca Mg Na Fe
(meter) 0/00 mg/l mg/l mg/l mg/l mg/l mg/l mg/l mg/l
WS1 15 7.4 1.1 3260 1798.5 470.2 2.3 73.6 48.8 67.4 0.3
WS2 18 6.9 0.2 792 276.9 69.6 1.5 44.5 21.4 10.2 3.8
WS3 12 6.7 0 163 63.9 12.6 1.3 15.2 3.2 22.2 0.7

Figure 6: 1D geoelectrical resistivity model.
The 1D geoelectrical resistivity model for RS03, RS04, By knowing the soil character and also the amount of soil
and RS05 can be seen in Figure 6. In RS03 no zone has resistivity that is saturated with various types of seawater
a low resistivity value. In this model, a shallow aquifer is mixtures in freshwater, thus a quantitative interpretation
seen at a depth of approximately 11 m until approximately of the percentage of seawater content mixed in the aquifer
22 m with a resistivity of about 80 ohm.m. This means can be predicted from geoelectrical resistivity data, both
that the shallow aquifer at this location does not indicate 1D and 2D.
of the presence of seawater. This is also proven by the
groundwater samples in this site (W3) which have 0% CONCLUSION
salinity and relatively low Cl (63.9 mg/l). For RS04, This research has successfully shown how to interpret
in the aquifer zone, there is also no visible presence of geoelectrical resistivity data quantitatively, especially in
seawater in the aquifer. This interpretation is based on the coastal area with seawater intrusion problems in the
the fact that in the aquifer zone, the resistivity value is aquifer. Comprehensive investigations of soil characteristics,
about 60 ohm.m, this means that according to Table 3, chemical analysis, and direct resistivity measurement have
the aquifer is filled with freshwater without any mixture been done in the Dumai area. The main conclusion can be
with seawater. While in RS05, the presence of seawater stated as the followings:
is around 25% very clearly visible. It can be seen in the 1. The grain size of the soil is affecting the resistivity
aquifer zone that the resistivity value is about 8 ohm.m. reading of the soil. Increasing the sand content in the

soil will have a positive correlation with the reading geoderma.2021.115235.

of soil resistivity value. Armanuos, A.M., Moghazy, H.E., Zeleňáková, M. & Yaseen, Z.
2. The geoelectrical resistivity value of the soil saturated M., 2022. Assessing the impact of groundwater extraction
with a different salt-fresh water mixture has a good on the performance of fractured concrete subsurface dam
in controlling seawater intrusion in coastal aquifers. Water,
correlation with the pore soil content in the aquifer.
14(13), 2139. https://doi.org/10.3390/w14132139.
Resistivity value decreases drastically with increasing Azizah, N., Pratiwi, N.H., Islami, A.P. & Islami, N., 2019. Application
a little bit of seawater content. The anion content of of geoelectrical resistivity methods for mapping of seawater
the water in the pore soil is the main factor affecting intrusion. Journal of Physics: Conference Series (Vol. 1351, No.
in the lowering of the resistivity reading of the soil. 1, p. 012094). IOP Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1088/1742-
3. The decreasing of resistivity value in the soil saturated 6596/1351/1/012094.
by the salt-fresh water mixture shows an exponential Baharuddin, M.F.T., Taib, S., Hashim, R., Abidin, M.H.Z. & Rahman,
shape as increasing seawater content in the pore soil. N.I., 2013. Assessment of seawater intrusion to the agricultural
The quantitative interpretation of seawater intrusion in sustainability at the coastal area of Carey Island, Selangor,
Malaysia. Arabian Journal of Geosciences, 6(10), 3909-3928.
the aquifer can be done through the resistivity data.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s12517-012-0651-1.
4. The groundwater in the shallow aquifer of the study Basack, S., Loganathan, M. K., Goswami, G. & Khabbaz, H., 2022.
area has variation in the percentage of seawater content. Saltwater intrusion into coastal aquifers and associated risk
It was found that 50% of saltwater mixed with the management: Critical review and research directives. Journal
fresh water in the aquifer around 500 m from the of Coastal Research, 38(3), 654-672. https://doi.org/10.2112/
coastal line. Whilst, in the landward of about 5 km JCOASTRES-D-21-00116.1.
from the coastal line, the saltwater is about 25% in Clesceri, L.S., Greenberg, A.E. & Eaton, A.D., 1999. Standard
the aquifer. methods for the examination of water and wastewater. American
5. The limitation of study should be imposed that the Public Health Association, AWWA and Wat. Environ. Fed.,
1134 p.
study valid in sand and gravel medium compared to
Crestani, E., Camporese, M., Belluco, E., Bouchedda, A., Gloaguen,
clay due to soil chargebility. E., & Salandin, P., 2022. Large-scale physical modeling of salt-
water intrusion. Water, 14(8), 1183. https://doi.org/10.3390/
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS w1408118.
Thank you to the DRPM through the LPPM Universitas Erostate, M., Huneau, F., Garel, E., Ghiotti, S., Vystavna, Y., Garrido,
Riau for the research funding number: 1609/UN19.5.1.3/ M. & Pasqualini, V., 2020. Groundwater dependent ecosystems
PT.01.03/2022. We are also very grateful to the reviewers in coastal Mediterranean regions: Characterization, challenges
and editor for valuable comments. and management for their protection. Water Research, 172,
115461. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.watres.2019.115461.
Hamlin, W.K., 1991. Earth Dynamic Systems (6th ed.). Bringham
AUTHOR CONTRIBUTIONS
Young University, Provo, Utah. 924 p.
NI: designing the research, coordinating the team, Hounslow, A.W., 1995. Water quality data: Analysis and
data interpretation, writing the article. MI: Analyzing the interpretation. Lewis Publishers. U.S. 397 p.
groundwater samples. AA: Collecting ID resistivity data. Islami, N., & Irianti, M., 2021. Resistivity characteristics of soil
MN: 1D resistivity processing. MN: Collecting 2D resistivity saturated with variation of salt water-fresh water mixture.
data. FF: 2D resistivity processing. DI: Compiling files and Journal of Physics: Conference Series (Vol. 2049, No. 1, p.
helped in writing article. 012029). IOP Publishing.
Kumar, P., Tiwari, P., Biswas, A. & Acharya, T., 2022. Geophysical
CONFLICT OF INTEREST investigation for seawater intrusion in the high-quality coastal
aquifers of India: A review. Environmental Science and
The authors declare that there is no conflict of interest
Pollution Research, 1-37. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-
regarding the publication of this article 022-24233-9.
Larsen, F., Tran, L.V., Van Hoang, H., Tran, L.T., Christiansen,
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Received in revised form 23 February 2023;
Accepted 7 March 2023
Available online 26 May 2023

Sistem pengelasan jasad batuan untuk jasad batuan dalam

penerowongan dan pembinaan bawah tanah – Pembangunan,
kekangan dan keperluan masa hadapan
(Rock mass classification for rock mass in tunnelling and underground excavation -
Development, limitation and way forward)
Hamzah Hussin1,3,4,*, Mohd Hariri Arifin2
1
Jabatan Geosains, Fakulti Sains Bumi, Universiti Malaysia Kelantan, 17600 Jeli, Kelantan, Malaysia
2
Jabatan Sains Bumi dan Alam Sekitar, Fakulti Sains dan Teknologi, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, 43600 Bangi,
Selangor, Malaysia
3
Geohazard Research Group, Fakulti Sains Bumi, Universiti Malaysia Kelantan, 17600 Jeli, Kelantan, Malaysia
4
UMK-Tropical Reseach Center (UMK-TRaCe), Fakulti Sains Bumi, Universiti Malaysia Kelantan, 17600 Jeli,
Kelantan, Malaysia
* Corresponding author email address: hamzah.h@umk.edu.my
Abstrak: Dalam dekad terakhir ini, penggunaan sistem pengelasan jasad batuan dalam rekabentuk kejuruteraan
telah digunakan secara intensif. Kebimbangan mengenai potensi kegagalan yang boleh berlaku secara tempatan atau
global pada sesebuah jasad batuan yang boleh berlaku disebabkan oleh pengaruh geologi (contoh; ketakselanjaran,
air, luluhawa) dan bukan geologi (contoh; beban binaan, gegaran) perlu diberi perhatian serius. Kemampuan sistem
pengelasan untuk menunjukkan keadaan jasad batuan secara ringkas dan efektif sangat membantu dalam kerja-
kerja kejuruteraan. Terdapat dua keadaan sistem pengelasan digunakan untuk pembinaan bawah tanah iaitu aktiviti
penerowongan dan perlombongan. Bagi pembinaan terowong, sistem seperti Rock Mass Rating / Perkadaran Jasad
Batuan (RMR), Sistem Q, Kaedah Japanese Highway (JH), Geological Strength Index / Indeks Kekuatan Geologi
(GSI) dan Rock Mass Quality Rating / Perkadaran Kualiti Jasad Batuan (RMQR) merupakan sistem yang biasa
digunakan. Walau bagaimanapun, kelemahan sistem tersebut ialah ketidaksesuaian digunakan untuk jasad batuan
yang terlindung akibat litupan shotcrete kerana kekangan untuk mendapatkan maklumat satah ketakselanjaran.
Kelemahan ini menyebabkan perlunya satu kaedah kajian dan sistem pengelasan jasad batuan yang baru untuk
mengatasi kekurangan tersebut.
Kata Kunci: Pengelasan jasad batuan, penerowongan, pembinaan bawah tanah, shotcrete
Abstract: In the last few decades, rock mass classification had been used intensively in engineering design. The
concern arises for the potential occurrence of localized or global rock mass failure due to geological (such as
discontinuities, water, weathering) and non-geological (such as construction load, vibration) factors should be taken
into consideration. The ability of a classification system to represent the rock mass condition in a straightforward and
effective way can assist in engineering works. Two classification systems can be applied in underground construction
such as tunneling and mining. In tunnel construction, the Rock Mass Rating (RMR), Q System, Japanese Highway
(JH) Method, Geological Strength Index (GSI) and Rock Mass Quality Rating (RMQR) are commonly used. However,
these systems cannot be applied for rock mass covered by shotcrete due to difficulty in observing the discontinuity
planes. Therefore, a new investigation method and rock mass classification for rock mass covered by shotcrete is
vital to overcome this limitation.
Keywords: Rock mass classification, tunneling, underground excavation, shotcrete

PENGENALAN KEJURUTERAAN BATUAN DAN SISTEM

Sistem pengelasan jasad batuan merupakan tulang PENGELASAN KUALITI JASAD BATUAN
belakang dalam kaedah rekabentuk emperikal. Dalam Jasad batuan biasanya mempunyai beberapa set
kebanyakan projek pembinaan bawah tanah pada zaman ketakselanjaran yang menyebabkan jasad batuan bersifat
sekarang, sistem pengelasan berfungsi sebagai salah satu anisotropik. Keadaan ini menyebabkan satu sistem rujukan
komponen utama memberi maklumat tentang keadaan diperlukan untuk mengelas jasad batuan. Sistem pengelasan
jasad batuan bagi memastikan sebuah projek pembinaan menjadi tulang belakang dalam projek kejuruteraan yang
mampu dihasilkan dengan jayanya. Dalam tempoh masa kompleks seperti terowong atau bukaan bawah tanah.
70 tahun, banyak sistem pengelasan jasad batuan telah Kebanyakan terowong yang dibina sekarang menggunakan
dicadangkan. Walau bagaimanapun, catatan secara tidak pelbagai jenis sistem pengelasan yang sedia ada. Walau
formal menunjukkan sistem pengelasan telah digunakan bagaimanapun, sistem pengelasan jasad batuan mempunyai
lebih awal berbanding sistem yang sedia ada berdasarkan kekangan yang tersendiri (Stille & Palmström, 2003):
binaan infrastruktur seperti kuari bawah tanah di Bada i. Konsep pengelasan jasad batuan yang kurang jelas
(Tumir Laut Turki) dan Qurna (Mesir) dan bandar bawah menjadi perdebatan mengenai kegunaannya sebagai
tanah di Cappadocia dan Gua Buddha Bezeklik, Timur sumber maklumat dalam reka bentuk kejuruteraan.
Turkistan (Aydan et al., 2014). ii. Pengguna (ahli geologi dan jurutera) perlu tahu limitasi
Penggunaan sistem pengelasan jasad batuan sangat untuk setiap sistem pengelasan dan kesesuaianya untuk
berguna semasa peringkat perancangan awal pembangunan, diaplikasi berdasarkan keadaan tapak projek.
di mana data atau maklumat mengenai jasad batuan sangat Sistem pengelasan jasad batuan untuk projek pembinaan
terhad. Penggunaan sistem pengelasan jasad batuan boleh bawah tanah sangat diperlukan kerana wujud ketidakpastian
membantu mengelaskan kualiti dan kestabilan jasad batuan tinggi semasa pembinaan berbanding dengan pembinaan di
(Ghani et al., 2016; Goh et al., 2016). Empat kaedah asas bahagian permukaan. Pengetahuan tentang keadaan jasad
digunakan untuk menentukan kekuatan jasad batuan iaitu batuan pada peringkat awal pembinaan boleh memberi
menggunakan model matematik, sistem pengelasan jasad pilihan yang terbaik dalam projek kejuruteraan samada dari
batuan, ujian berskala besar dan back analysis (Krauland et segi kos, masa dan keselamatan.
al., 1989; Aydan et al., 1997; Rahimi et al., 2014).
Penggunaan satu atau lebih sistem pengelasan dapat TUJUAN SISTEM PENGELASAN KUALITI
memberikan gambaran yang jelas tentang komposisi JASAD BATUAN
dan ciri-ciri jasad batuan bagi memberi maklumat awal Kualiti jasad batuan boleh dinilai pada peringkat
sistem sokongan yang diperlukan, anggaran kekuatan dan sebelum, semasa dan selepas pembinaan. Penilaian yang
perubahan sifat jasad batuan (Hoek et al., 1995). Sistem dilakukan pada peringkat berbeza boleh memberikan kelas
pengelasan digunakan untuk mengelaskan satu kawasan kualiti jasad batuan yang berbeza. Perbezaan kualiti ini
atau singkapan yang mempunyai sifat geomekanikal yang boleh disebabkan oleh perubahan saiz cerapan singkapan
sama bagi menilai keupayaan kestabilan dan memilih dan jumlah data yang boleh diukur. Kebanyakan sistem
sistem sokongan yang sesuai (Chen & Liu, 2007; A’ssim pengelasan sedia ada seperti RMR, Sistem Q, RMQR dan
& Xing, 2010), selain dapat memastikan interaksi antara Kaedah JH merupakan sistem yang selalu diaplikasikan
pelbagai bidang (cth jurutera, arkitek, kontraktor) dapat pada peringkat semasa pembinaan.
dilakukan dengan berkesan dan saling memahami antara Sistem pengelasan jasad batuan bertujuan membolehkan
satu sama lain berkenaan pencirian, pengelasan dan maklumat keadaan dan kualiti jasad batuan sentiasa
pengetahuan sifat jasad (Stille & Palmström, 2003; Tomás dikemaskini supaya perancangan dan tindakan susulan
et al., 2012). boleh dirangka dengan lebih mudah, cepat dan sistematik
Dalam tahun 1970-an, beberapa sistem pengelasan jika keadaan memerlukan. Secara umum, sistem penilaian
jasad batuan diperkenalkan untuk pembinaan terowong, kualiti jasad batuan menilai kualiti dan kestabilan struktur
pengorekan bawah tanah dan pembinaan cerun. Sistem terowong dan mengenalpasti potensi geobencana selepas
pengelasan ini telah digunakan secara meluas dan intensif satu tempoh masa penggunaannya yang panjang. Sistem
dalam rekabentuk kejuruteraan dan pembinaan untuk pengelasan jasad batuan mengariskan tiga matlamat utama
menentukan sifat jasad batuan berskala besar. Kaedah iaitu:
pengelasan digunakan apabila maklumat untuk menghasilkan i. Untuk mengenalpasti kawasan yang bermasalah atau
model secara eksplisit/jelas tidak lengkap dan cukup tidak selamat di sepanjang terowong
atau akibat kekangan masa dan kos dalam pengendalian ii. Untuk mengelaskan keadaan dan potensi geobencana
pembinaan. Antara sistem pengelasan jasad batuan yang jasad batuan mengikut keutamaan berdasarkan
banyak digunakan adalah Rock Structure Rating / Perkadaran menggunakan pendekatan kuantitatif
Struktur Batuan (RSR) (Wickham et al., 1972), RMR iii. Untuk memberikan satu maklumat yang lengkap bagi
(Bieniawski, 1973; 1975; 1979; 1989) dan Sistem Q (Barton membolehkan pemantauan, penilaian lanjutan dan/atau
et al., 1974). langkah mitigasi dilakukan terhadap jasad batuan

Sistem Pengelasan Jasad Batuan - Pembangunan, Kekangan dan Keperluan Masa Hadapan
KEGUNAAN SISTEM PENGELASAN DALAM masa sekarang boleh digunakan untuk satu atau lebih
KEJURUTERAAN BATUAN aplikasi. Sebagai contohnya, sistem pengelasan RMR,
Penggunaan sistem pengelasan jasad batuan bertujuan MRMR dan Sistem Q telah terbukti sesuai digunakan
untuk menilai dan memilih sistem sokongan yang sesuai untuk pembinaan terowong dan perlombongan bawah
supaya struktur binaan dapat bertahan/stabil untuk jangka tanah. Terdapat sistem yang direka bentuk untuk pembinaan
masa panjang. Sistem pengelasan jasad batuan digunakan bawah tanah (contoh; RMR dan Sistem Q) telah digunakan
untuk mengelaskan satu kawasan atau singkapan yang untuk cerun batuan dan ada sistem yang telah diubah suai
mempunyai sifat geomekanikal yang sama, bertujuan untuk bagi kegunaan cerun batuan (contoh; Rock Mass Strength
menilai kestabilan dan memilih sistem sokongan yang / Kekuatan Jasad Batuan (RMS), Slope Mass Rating /
sesuai (Milne et al., 1999; Chen & Liu, 2007; A’ssim & Perkadaran Jasad Cerun (SMR), Slope Rock Mass Rating
Xing, 2010). Bieniawski (1976) menyatakan tujuan sistem / Perkadaran Jasad Batuan Cerun (SRMR) dan Continuous
pengelasan jasad batuan adalah: Slope Mass Rating / Perkadaran Jasad Batuan Berterusan
i. Untuk membahagikan jasad batuan dalam kumpulan (CSMR) merupakan ubah suai daripada sistem RMR)
yang mempunyai sifat yang sama (Pantelidis, 2009).
ii. Untuk memahami sifat untuk setiap kumpulan jasad Terdapat dua jenis sistem pengelasan iaitu yang bersifat
batuan kuantitatif dan kualitatif. Sistem kualitatif merupakan
iii. Untuk memudahkan perancangan dan reka bentuk kaedah penerangan berdasarkan cerapan bagi memberi
penggalian batuan berdasarkan data kuantitatif yang maklumat sifat atau keadaan jasad batuan tersebut. Antara
diperlukan bagi menyelesaikan masalah kejuruteraan sistem yang menggunakan pendekatan ini ialah GSI dan
iv. Untuk menyediakan maklumat dalam bentuk yang teori beban batuan (rock load theory). Sistem pengelasan
mudah bagi komunikasi berkesan di kalangan semua seperti RMR, Sistem Q dan RSR pula merupakan sistem
orang yang terlibat dalam projek kejuruteraan jenis kualitatif iaitu menggunakan maklumat daripada
beberapa parameter yang diberi perkadaran tertentu. Jumlah
Pandangan oleh Stille & Palmström (2003) dan Tomás akhir daripada setiap parameter akan menentukan kelas
et al. (2012) menyatakan sistem pengelasan dihasilkan bagi jasad batuan tersebut. Jadual 1 menunjukkan ringkasan
memenuhi beberapa aspek seperti berikut: sistem pengelasan jasad batuan yang telah dihasilkan oleh
i. Bagi memastikan komunikasi antara pelbagai bidang pengkaji-pengkaji terdahulu, bermula dari tahun 40-an
(contoh; jurutera, arkitek, kontraktor) dapat dilakukan sehingga sekarang.
dengan berkesan dan saling memahami antara satu sama
lain berkenaan pencirian, pengelasan dan pengetahuan SISTEM PENGELASAN JASAD BATUAN
sifat jasad batuan. Perkara ini penting bagi memastikan UNTUK PENEROWONGAN
keputusan yang dicapai merupakan satu keputusan Proses pembangunan yang pesat serta penggunaan
terbaik. teknologi baru menyebabkan permintaan bagi membangunkan
ii. Jasad batuan bukan hanya dikelaskan dalam satu- sistem perhubungan yang baik seperti keretapi atau jalan
satu sistem, tetapi juga bertujuan untuk mendapatkan raya, pembinaan empangan, tempat perlindungan bencana,
maklumat keberkesanan sistem pengelasan dan sebarang kawasan strategik tentera atau tempat pelupusan sisa
kemungkinan ianya telah disalah tafsir. radioaktif meningkat (Da-Ming, 2010; Chen et al., 2015;
Merkin & Konyukhov, 2016; Vähäaho, 2016). Pembinaan
Dalam dekad ini, sistem pengelasan jasad batuan infrastruktur terowong bagi kegunaan awam atau industri
diaplikasikan secara intensif dalam rekabentuk kejuruteraan. agak berbeza berbanding untuk perlombongan. Salah satu
Potensi kegagalan jasad batuan berskala kecil atau besar asas yang membezakan keduanya ialah geometri terowong
yang disebabkan pengaruh geologi (contoh; ketakselanjaran, (orientasi terowong, kedalaman serta kecerunan) dan keadaan
air, luluhawa) dan bukan geologi (contoh; beban binaan, tekanan biasanya tidak mengalami perubahan yang ketara
gegaran) perlu diberi perhatian serius. Kemampuan sistem bergantung kepada kegunaannya berbanding perlombongan
pengelasan untuk menyampaikan keadaan jasad batuan yang sentiasa berubah-ubah disebabkan pengaruh lokasi dan
secara tepat dan efektif sangat membantu dalam kerja-kerja saiz longgokan bijih (Milne et al., 1999). Sistem pengelasan
kejuruteraan. RSR, RMi, GSI, RMR dan Sistem Q merupakan antara
yang biasa digunakan untuk pembinaan terowong (Tuǧrul,
SISTEM PENGELASAN JASAD BATUAN 1998; Milne et al., 1999; Chen & Liu, 2007; Hajiazizi &
UNTUK PEMBINAAN BAWAH TANAH Khatami, 2013; Rahmati et al., 2014).
Sistem pengelasan yang dihasilkan oleh Terzaghi (1946) Sistem pengelasan RSR yang diperkenalkan oleh
merupakan permulaan kepada penghasilan dan penggunaan Wickham et al. (1972; 1974) bertujuan untuk menjelaskan
sistem pengelasan moden seperti RSR (Wickham et al., kaedah kuantitatif kualiti jasad batuan dan memilih kaedah
1972), RMR (Bieniawski, 1974; 1989) dan sistem Q (Barton penstabilan yang paling berkesan. Hasil pengelasan RSR
et al., 1974). Kewujudan pelbagai sistem pengelasan pada digunakan untuk merekabentuk sistem sokongan untuk

Jadual 1: Ringkasan sistem pengelasan jasad batuan bawah tanah.

Nama sistem
Singkatan Aplikasi Sumber Catatan
pengelasan
Teori beban batuan Sistem pengelasan terawal yang menggunakan sistem pengelasan jasad
Terowong Terzaghi (1946)
(rock load teory) batuan untuk sokongan terowong
Sistem pertama yang menggunakan perkadaran untuk pengelasan jasad
Rock Structure Terowong
RSR Wickham et al. (1972) batuan serta boleh digunakan untuk merekabentuk sistem penstabilan
Rating bersaiz kecil
dalam terowong
Terowong, Bieniawski (1974),
Bieniawski (1989), Sistem yang paling banyak digunakan dalam pengelasan jasad batuan.
Perkadaran Jasad lombong,
RMR Mengandungi enam parameter, antaranya keadaan ketakselanjaran, air
Batuan pendasaran, Şen & Sadagah (2003), bawah tanah, kekuatan batuan utuh.
cerun Romana (2015)
Terowong dan Digunakan untuk merekabentuk sistem sokongan untuk pembinaan
Barton et al. (1974),
Sistem Q Q bukaan bawah bawah tanah. Sering menjadi rujukan dalam industri pembinaan
Barton (2002).
tanah terowong.
Laubscher (1977),
Mining Rock Mass Sistem yang menjadikan RMR sebagai asas dengan pertambahan
MRMR Perlombongan Laubscher & Jakubec
Rating parameter air dalam perkadaran
(2001)
Modified basic Cummings et al. (1982), Sistem pengelasan yang diubah suai daripada RMR bersandarkan
MBR Perlombongan
RMR Kendorski et al. (1983) kepada 6 parameter yang hampir sama dengan RMR
Surface Rock Pengelasan yang menggunakan data dari permukaan bagi menentukan
SRC Perlombongan De Vallejo (1983)
Classification keadaan jasad di bahagian bawah permukaan
Ubahsauai dari RMR dan MRMR dengan tidak mengambil kira
Simplified Rock Perlombongan, Brook & Dharmaratne
SRMR pengaruh RQD. Tiga komponen utama ialah kekuatan baha batuan,
Mass Rating cerun (1985)
jarak dan jenis ketakselanjaran.
Central Mining
Research Institute-
CMRI- Venkateswarlu et al. Sistem yang diuabhsuai daripada RMR dengan mengambil kira lima
Indian School of Perlombongan
ISM RMR (1989) parameter bagi menilai keadaan bahagian bumbung.
Mines rock mass
rating
Ünal et al. (1992), Sesuai digunakan untuk jasad batuan yang lemah, anisotropic dan
Modified RMR M-RMR Perlombongan
Unal (1996) mempunyai lempung
Hoek & Brown (1997),
Sonmez & Ulusay
Perlombongan,
Index Kekuatan (1999), Marinos & Dihasilkan untuk mementukan kekuatan jasad batuan berdasarkan
GSI terowong,
Geologi Hoek, (2000), cerapan lapangan dengan pelbagai keadaan jasad batuan
cerun
Marinos, 2010),
Hoek et al. (2013)
Coal Mine Roof Sistem yang menekankan keperluan untuk penstabilan di bahagian
CMRR Perlombongan Mark et al. (1994)
Rating bumbung lombong bawah tanah
Sistem digunakan untuk mencirikan kekuatan jasad batuan sebagai
Index Jasad Batuan RMi Terowong Palmstrøm (1995)
bahan pembinaan.
Direka khusus untuk penggunaan TBM dalam industri pembinaan
QTBM QTBM Terowong Barton (1999)
terowong
JH Empat parameter asas digunakan iaitu kekuatan bahan batuan, luluhawa,
JH Method Terowong Akagi et al. (2001)
Method jarak antara ketakselanjaran dan keadaan ketakselanjaran
Hierarchical Rock Miranda (2007), Menggunakan RMR sebagai asas, sistem ini hanya sesuai digunakan
HRMR Terowong
Mass Rating Miranda et al. (2014) jasad batuan granit yang mempunyai jumlah ketakselanjaran sedikit
Tunnel Electrical
Kaedah keberintangan elektrik digunakan untuk mendapatkan anomali
resistivity TEPS Terowong Ryu et al. (2010)
jasad batuan di bahagian depan terowong semasa pembinaan berjalan
Prospecting System
Mine Improvement
Sistem yang dihasilkan khusus untuk perlombongan bawah laut bagi
of Rock Mass M-IRMR Perlombongan Liu & Dang (2014)
menentukan kestabilan lombong
Rating
Rock Mass Quality Digunakan untuk menganggar sifat geomekanikal jasad batuan dengan
RMQR Terowong Aydan et al. (2014)
Rating System menggunakan lima parameter
Terowong / Diguna secara khusus untuk pembinaan tempat pembuangan sisa
QHLW QHLW Chen et al. (2015)
cavern radioaktif bawah tanah
Weak Rock Mass Korelasi antara USCS-RMR khusus bagi bahan bumi yang lemah/
W-RMR Perlombongan Warren et al. (2016)
Rating sangat lemah

Jadual 2: Perubahan perkadaran RMR (Milne et al., 1999).

Parameter 1973 1974 1975 1976 1989
Kekuatan bahan batuan 10 10 15 15 15
RQD 16 20 20 20 20
Bukaan ketakselanjaran 30 30 30 30 20
Separation of joints 5
Keterusan ketakselanjaran 5
Air bawah tanah 10 10 10 10 15
Luluhawa 9
Keadaan ketakselanjaran 15 30 25 30
Orientasi ketakselanjaran 15
Orientasi jurus dan kemiringan binaan 3-15 0-12 0-12 0-12
Jadual 3: Pembahagian sub-kelas pengelasan RMR (Romana, 2015).

Ubahasuai Bieniawski asal
RMR
Sub-kelas Penerangan Penerangan Kelas
90-100 Ia Tersangat bagus
Sangat bagus I
80-90 Ib Sangat bagus
70-80 IIa Bagus ke sangat bagus
Bagus II
60-70 IIb Bagus ke sederhana
50-60 IIIa sederhana ke bagus
Sederhana III
40-50 IIIb Sederhana ke lemah
30-40 IVa lemah ke sederhana
Lemah IV
20-30 IVb Lemah ke sangat lemah
10-20 Va Sangat lemah
Sangat lemah V
0-10 Vb Tersangat lemah
terowong berdasarkan cadangan dalam sistem Terzaghi. Satu perkadaran baru untuk sistem RMR khusus untuk
Sistem RMR oleh Bieniawski (1973) merupakan salah pembinaan terowong yang bersaiz besar dengan bukaan
satu sistem yang paling banyak digunakan. Sistem ini telah antara 10 - 14m lebar telah dicadangkan oleh Romana
mengalami evolusi pada tahun 1974, 1975, 1976, 1989 dan (2015). Penggunaan teknik mekanikal moden seperti Tunnel
2014 berdasarkan pemahaman yang lebih baik berkenaan Boring Machine / mesin pengorekan terowong (TBM),
kepentingan setiap parameter dalam sistem dan pengalaman roadheaders dan pemotongan batuan membolehkan saiz
semasa proses pembinaan (Milne et al., 1999; Celada et al., binaan infrastruktur menjadi semakin besar. Terowong
2014). Secara keseluruhan, sebanyak 351 kajian kes telah bersaiz 14m lebar merupakan binaan bersaiz normal bagi
menggunakan sistem pengelasan ini sehingga tahun 1989 kegunaan pengangkutan sekarang. Perkadaran jasad batuan
(Bieniawski, 1989). bersaiz besar dibahagikan kepada lima kelas utama dan 10
Jadual 2 menunjukkan evolusi dalam sistem RMR sub-kelas dengan perbezaan perkadaran antara kelas berjulat
dan perubahan perkadaran untuk setiap parameter. Enam 10 seperti ditunjukkan dalam Jadual 3.
parameter digunakan dalam pengelasan iaitu kekuatan Penggunaan sistem RMR yang intensif di dalam industri
batuan utuh (ujian mampatan sepaksi atau ujian beban titik), telah menghasilkan beberapa sistem pengelasan baru yang
nilai rock quality designation / penanda mutu batuan (RQD), diadaptasi dari sistem asal bagi digunakan dalam industri
jarak antara ketakselanjaran, keadaan ketakselanjaran, perlombongan bawah permukaan. Antara sistem yang
keadaan air bawah tanah, dan orientasi ketakselanjaran. diperkenalkan ialah MRMR, RMS, MBR, SRMR, SMR,
Nilai RMR ditentukan dengan menjumlahkan perkadaran HRMR dan CMRI-ISM RMR. Walaupun pengenalan banyak
setiap parameter. Kualiti jasad batuan yang dinilai kelaskan sistem baru, kebanyakan penggunaan dalam industri masih
kepada lima iaitu jasad batuan sangat baik hingga sangat menggunakan sistem RMR kerana sifatnya yang mudah
lemah. Kualiti jasad batuan yang berbeza memerlukan diaplikasikan di lapangan. Walau bagaimanapun, terdapat
sistem sokongan yang berbeza. kelemahan yang ketara pada sistem ini iaitu pengunaannya

tidak sesuai untuk jasad batuan yang sangat lemah serta Seperti RMR, penghasilan sistem baru berdasarkan
tidak sensitif kepada perubahan kecil pada kualiti jasad Sistem Q telah mewujudkan QTBM dan QHLW. Keperluan
batuan (Milne et al., 1999; Liu & Dang, 2014). Keadaan penghasilan dua sistem ini disebabkan kekurangan yang
ini menyumbang kepada penghasilan sistem pengelasan wujud dalam Sistem Q sedia ada disamping tidak sesuai
W-RMR khusus untuk jasad batuan yang sangat lemah digunakan dalam keadaan tertentu. QTBM terhasil daripada
yang mengintegrasikan dua sistem pengelasan berbeza perkembangan penggunaan mesin TBM untuk pembinaan
iaitu RMR dan USCS (United Soil Classification System) terowong. Sistem ini menggunakan parameter seperti nilai
(Warren et al., 2016). RQD, keadaan ketakselanjaran, keadaan tekanan, kekuatan
Sistem Q diperkenalkan oleh Barton et al. (1974) dan bahan batuan, kandungan mineral kuarza dan daya tolakan
mengalami evolusi sehingga tahun 2002 juga merupakan TBM bagi mengukur kadar penembusan pengorekan (Barton,
sistem yang banyak digunapakai untuk pembinaan terowong. 1999). Sistem QHLW pula khusus digunakan bagi pembinaan
Sistem Q yang asal menggunakan enam parameter utama tempat pelupusan sisa radioaktif. Pentambahan parameter
iaitu nilai RQD, jumlah set ketakselanjaran, kekasaran seperti zon retakan, kimia air dan kesan terma diambilkira
ketakselanjaran, alterasi ketakselanjaran, keadaan air pada untuk pembinaan ini bagi mengelak kebocoran radioaktif
ketakselanjaran dan faktor tekanan. Sistem Q diringkaskan dari kawasan simpanan (Chen et al., 2015).
berdasarkan Persamaan 1: GSI merupakan sistem pencirian jasad batuan yang
dibangunkan bagi memenuhi maklumat data yang tepat dan
Q = RQD/Jn*Jr/Ja* Jw/SRF Persamaan 1 boleh dipercayai, terutamanya yang berkait dengan sifat
jasad batuan yang digunakan dalam analisis numerikal bagi
Dimana: membina terowong, cerun dan pendasaran (Marinos et al.,
RQD = penanda mutu batuan 2005). Sistem GSI merupakan sistem yang menggabungkan
Jn = bilangan set ketakselanjaran dua elemen iaitu cerapan jasad batuan di lapangan dan
Jr = bilangan/keadaan kekasaran pengalaman penggunaan sistem Q dan RMR (Singh &
ketakselanjaran Goel, 1999). Sistem Q dan RMR yang bersifat kualitatif
Ja = bilangan/keadaaan perubahan didapati tidak sesuai digunakan untuk jasad batuan yang
ketakselanjaran lemah akibat canggaan tektonik yang hebat dan heterogenous
Jw = faktor penurunan kehadiran air pada kerana memberi nilai pengelasan yang tidak menyakinkan.
ketakselanjaran Penggunaan sistem GSI untuk menganggarkan sifat
SRF = faktor penurunan tegasan sesebuah jasad batuan berdasarkan cerapan ciri jasad batuan
Nilai numerikal dalam sistem Q berbeza-beza bagi menggambarkan bahan, keadaan struktur dan sejarah
bergantung kepada skala logaritma daripada 0.001 sehingga geologinya. Sistem awal dibangunkan oleh?? pada 1994
1000. Nilai tersebut dikelaskan kepada sembilan kategori dan berkembang sehingga 2010 boleh digunakan untuk
seperti yang ditunjukkan dalam Jadual 4. Kelebihan utama pelbagai keadaan geologi, termasuklah jasad batuan yang
Sistem Q ialah secara relatif sensitif kepada perubahan berfoliasi dan tericih serta jasad batuan yang heterogenous
kecil yang berlaku pada jasad batuan dan kelemahannya seperti flysch (Marinos, 2010).
ialah sukar untuk digunapakai bagi pengguna yang tidak Sistem GSI mengalami proses evolusi oleh penyelidik
mempunyai cukup pengalaman. Sistem Q mengalami dua seperti Hoek & Brown (1997), Sonmez & Ulusay (1999),
kali tempoh penambahbaikan major iaitu pada 1993 dan Marinos & Hoek (2000), Marinos (2010), dan Hoek et al.
2002 (Barton, 2002; Palmstrom & Broch, 2006). (2013) berdasarkan cabaran yang dihadapi semasa proses
pembinaan serta tujuan penggunaanya. Pada peringkat awal,
sistem GSI bersifat kualitatif sepenuhnya, tetapi penyelidikan
Jadual 4: Pengelasan jasad batuan berdasarkan Sistem Q (Barton seterusnya telah menukarnya ke sistem kauntitatif (Cai et
et al., 1974). al., 2004). Walaupun GSI direka untuk digunakan dalam
Nilai Q Kelas batuan Pengelasan pelbagai keadaan jasad batuan, terdapat situasi dimana sistem
400-1000 Tersangat bagus GSI tidak sesuai digunakan seperti pada jasad batuan yang
100-400 A Terlalu bagus mempunyai orientasi dan corak ketakselanjaran yang jelas
(Marinos, 2010).
40-100 Sangat bagus
10-40 B Bagus PARAMETER DALAM SISTEM PENGELASAN
4-10 C Sederhana JASAD BATUAN PENEROWONGAN DAN
1-4 D Lemah PEMBINAAN BAWAH TANAH
0.1-1.0 E Sangat lemah Setiap sistem pengelasan secara kuantitatif menggunakan
gabungan beberapa parameter bagi menghasilkan satu
0.01-0.1 F Terlalu lemah
sistem yang lengkap. Setiap parameter diberi perkadaran
0.001-0.01 G Tersangat lemah masing-masing mengikut keutamaan atau potensi pengaruh

Jadual 5: Parameter yang digunakan dalam sistem pengelasan jasad batuan untuk pembinaan terowong.
Parameter RSR RMR89 Sistem Q QHLW GSI RMi HRMR JH Method RMQR TEPS
Size blok ˗ ˗ ˗ - ˗ X ˗ - - -
Orientasi kekar membentuk blok ˗ ˗ ˗ - ˗ X ˗ X - -
Bil. set ketakselanjaran ˗ ˗ X - ˗ X ˗ - X -
Panjang ketakselanjaran ˗ ˗ ˗ - ˗ X ˗ - -
Jarak antara ketakselanjaran X X X - X X X X X -
Kekuatan ketakselanjaran X X X - X X X X X -
Jenis batuan X ˗ ˗ - ˗ ˗ ˗ X - -
Keadaan tegasan ˗ ˗ X X ˗ ˗ ˗ - - -
Air bawah tanah X X X X ˗ ˗ X X X -
Kekuatan batuan utuh ˗ X X - X X X - - -
Luluhawa - - - - - - - X X -
Kesan letupan ˗ ˗ ˗ - X ˗ ˗ - - -
Keberintangan elektrik - - - - - - - - - X
Zon retakan - - - X - - - - - -
Kesan terma - - - X - - - - - -
Kebolehbinaan - - - X - - - - - -
kepada kualiti jasad batuan. Parameter yang biasa digunakan Kekangan mula timbul apabila penilaian semula jasad
dalam pengelasan kualiti jasad batuan ialah kekuatan bahan batuan perlu dilakukan selepas satu tempoh masa yang
batuan, ciri, sifat dan orientasi ketakselanjaran, luluhawa, lama (contoh; selepas 15-20 tahun) di mana infrastuktur
dan keadaan air bawah tanah (Bieniawski, 1989; Stille & telah siap dibina dan menghadapi halangan bagi menilai
Palmström, 2003; Pantelidis, 2009; Liu & Dang, 2014). kembali sebarang perubahan kualiti atau sebarang potensi
Perbandingan parameter yang digunakan dalam setiap sistem masalah yang boleh timbul. Permasalahan yang paling
pengelasan ditunjukkan dalam Jadual 5. jelas untuk menilai kualiti jasad batuan ialah ketiadaan
singkapan untuk dicerap dan diukur kerana telah diliputi
KESESUAIAN SISTEM PENGELASAN oleh shotcrete. Keadaan ini menyebabkan sistem pengelasan
JASAD BATUAN SEDIA ADA UNTUK JASAD yang sedia ada tidak mampu untuk digunapakai. Jika
BATUAN TERLINDUNG penilaian tidak dapat dilakukan, sebarang perubahan
Singkapan terlindung merujuk kepada singkapan yang berlaku pada jasad batuan tidak dapat dinilai dan ini
yang ditutup atau diselaputi oleh shotcrete bagi bertujuan boleh melemahkan cerun batuan kerana perubahan pada
untuk melindungi atau menstabilkan jasad batuan tersebut. kualiti jasad batuan boleh berlaku akibat pengaruh seperti
Berdasarkan analisis sistem pengelasan jasad batuan khusus luluhawa, perubahan regim aliran air, perubahan tegasan dan
untuk pembinaan terowong, sistem Q dan RMR paling lain-lain. Penghasilan satu sistem baru yang boleh menilai
banyak digunakan di samping penggunaan beberapa sistem jasad batuan yang terlindung akibat tutupan shotcrete perlu
pengelasan jasad batuan lain seperti Kaedah JH, RMQR, dihasilkan. Justeru itu, penilaian berkala pada setiap jasad
QHLW dan lain-lain (Barton, 2002; Aksoy, 2008; Azit & batuan dapat dilakukan walaupun wujud halangan pada
Ismail, 2014; Aydan & Tokashiki, 2015; Chen et al., 2015). bahagian permukaannya.
Sistem pengelasan jasad batuan tersebut secara umumnya
hanya boleh diaplikasikan apabila ada singkapan yang boleh KEPERLUAN SISTEM PENGELASAN JASAD
dicerap secara terus terutamnya sebelum, semasa dan selepas BATUAN BAHARU
pembinaan. Satu parameter utama yang digunapakai oleh Isu yang perlu diambil kira ialah bagi menghasilkan
semua sistem ialah satah ketakselanjaran. Dua ciri utama sistem pengelasan baru khusus untuk singkapan terlindung
yang dilihat pada satah ketakselanjaran ialah keadaan dan oleh shotcrete pada bahagian permukaan. Kaedah yang perlu
geometri satah ketakselanjaran. dipilih perlu mempunyai kemampuan untuk menembusi

halangan tersebut disamping boleh memberikan maklumat- jasad batuan secara komprehensif. Ini kerana kualiti jasad
maklumat geologi seperti kewujudan dan ketumpatan batuan juga dikawal oleh faktor lain seperti kekuatan
satah ketakselanjaran, kehadiran air bawah tanah, atau bahan batuan dan aliran air bawah tanah seperti yang
mengesan zon-zon geologi yang lemah. Berdasarkan ciri dicadangkan dalam sistem RMR. Parameter ini tidak
yang ditekankan, kemungkinan penggunaan teknik geofizik dapat diperolehi daripada analisis tomografi keberintangan
merupakan kaedah yang paling sesuai. Walaupun wujud geoelektrik, tetapi memerlukan pemetaan dan cerapan di
pelbagai kaedah dalam geofizik, dua teknik yang boleh lapangan. Kecelaan struktur sistem sokongan terowong
ditekankan ialah survei keberintangan geoelektrik. seperti pengaratan bolt batuan, rekahan dan jatuhan
Survei keberintangan geoelektrik boleh memberikan shotcrete juga boleh dijadikan petunjuk keadaan jasad
maklumat berharga untuk pengelasan jisim batuan, batuan disebalik lapisan shotcrete.
terutamanya dalam mengenal pasti struktur geologi
dan ketakselanjaran yang boleh menjejaskan kestabilan KESIMPULAN
jasad batuan. Survei keberintangan geoelektrik adalah Kesimpulannya, intergrasi kaedah survei tomografi
berdasarkan prinsip bahawa jenis batuan yang berbeza keberintangan geoelektrik dan pemetaan geologi kejuruteraan
mempunyai kerintangan elektrik yang berbeza. Oleh itu, merupakan pendekatan terbaik bagi menghasilkan sistem
dengan mengukur kerintangan elektrik batuan, adalah pengelasan baharu yang boleh menilai kualiti jasad batuan
mungkin untuk membezakan antara jenis batu yang berbeza terlindung. Penghasilan sistem baharu ini membolehkan
dan membuat kesimpulan sifatnya. Beberapa kajian telah jasad batuan dinilai secara berterusan tanpa sebarang
menunjukkan keberkesanan survei keberintangan geoelektrik halangan atau kekangan. Sebarang perubahan yang berlaku
dalam mengenal pasti struktur geologi, zon lemah, dan pada jasad batuan boleh dikesan pada peringkat awal dan
ketakselanjaran dalam jisim batuan, yang penting untuk membolehkan baik pulih dapat dilakukan pada kadar segera.
menentukan kestabilan dan kelakuannya jasad batuan yang Langkah ini penting bagi mengelakkan geobencana yang
berbeza. Oleh itu survei keberintangan geoelektrik boleh lebih besar berlaku pada masa akan datang.
menjadi alat yang berguna untuk jurutera dan ahli geologi
dalam mereka bentuk sistem sokongan yang sesuai untuk PENGHARGAAN
projek kejuruteraan batuan. Penulis ingin mengucapkan terima kasih kepada pihak
Beberapa kajian telah menunjukkan kegunaan survei editor jurnal dan para pewasit yang telah memberikan
keberintangan geoelektrik dalam pengelasan jisim batuan. komen penambahbaikan yang berharga dalam penulisan
Sebagai contoh, Shamsabadi et al. (2016) menggunakan artikel ini. Penghargaan juga diberikan kepada Universiti
survei keberintangan geoelektrik untuk menilai kestabilan Malaysia Kelantan dan Kementerian Pengajian Tinggi yang
cerun batu di Iran. Mereka mendapati bahawa survei menyokong kajian ini melalui geran penyelidikan bernombor
keberintangan geoelektrik dapat mengenal pasti kehadiran FRGS/1/2020/WAB07/UMK/03/1.
ketakselanjaran dalam jisim batuan dan orientasinya,
yang membantu menentukan mekanisme kegagalan yang SUMBANGAN PENGARANG
berpotensi dan mereka bentuk langkah penstabilan yang Idea penulisan, metadologi dan analisis, penulisan
sesuai. Penggunaan survei keberintangan geolektrik oleh jurnal, penyedian dana: HH; penulisan dan penyuntingan
Kong et al. (2015), Dong et al. (2016) dan Mahmoud & jurnal: MHA.
Sadek (2017) menunjukkan keberkesanan dalam mengesan
darjah keretakan jasad bbatuan dan kehadiran air bawah tanah. KONFLIK KEPENTINGAN
Begitu juga, Wu et al. (2017) menggunakan survei Kami dengan tulus menyatakan bahawa tidak ada
keberintangan geoelektrik untuk menyiasat struktur geologi konflik kepentingan yang dapat mempengaruhi hasil
dan sifat jasad batuan terowong di China. Mereka mendapati dapatan dan tafsiran data dalam penulisan jurnal ini. Kami
bahawa survei keberintangan geoelektrik dapat mengenal tidak memiliki hubungan kewangan, kepemilikan saham,
pasti kehadiran zon lemah dan patah tulang dalam jisim atau kepentingan lain yang dapat menyebabkan konflik
batuan, yang penting untuk menentukan kestabilan terowong kepentingan dengan pihak manapun yang terkait dengan
dan mereka bentuk langkah sokongan yang sesuai. Dalam penelitian ini. Semua sumber maklumat dan rujukan yang
kajian lain, Wang et al. (2018) menggunakan survei digunakan dalam penulisan jurnal ini juga disertakan dengan
keberintangan geoelektrik untuk menyiasat sifat jasad batuan lengkap.
dalam lombong arang batu di China. Mereka mendapati
bahawa survei keberintangan geoelektrik dapat mengenal RUJUKAN / REFERENCES
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Manuscript received 4 October 2021;

Received in revised form 6 April 2023;
Accepted 28 April 2023

Physical characterization of the weathering profile over a sheared,

biotite-muscovite granite in Peninsular Malaysia
John Kuna Raj
No. 83, Jalan Burhanuddin Helmi 2, Taman Tun Dr. Ismail, 60000 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
Author email address: jkr.ttdi.tmc@gmail.com
Abstract: The weathering profile can be separated into an upper, 11.8 m thick pedological soil (zone I) comprising gravelly
clayey sands and a lower, >31.9 m thick saprock (zone II) consisting of gravelly silty sands with distinct preservation of
the minerals, textures and structures of the original granitic bedrock material and mass. Zone I can be separated into A,
B and C soil horizons, whilst zone II can be differentiated into sub-zones IIA, IIB, IIC and IID based on differences in
preservation of relict structures and content of core-boulders. The earth materials of zone I represent rock mass weathering
grade VI, whilst those of sub-zones IIA and IIB represent grade V, and those of sub-zones IIC and IID represent grades
IV and III respectively. Constant volume samples show the earth materials to have variable dry unit weights (11.98 to
17.66 kN/m3), but a limited range in specific gravity (2.62 to 2.70) due to similar primary and secondary minerals. The
zone I earth materials have relatively large clay contents (>19%) and are more porous (33% to 55%) than those of zone
II (36% to 44%) which have large silt contents (>23%). Sand contents are more variable (23% to 44%) though relatively
large total sand and gravel contents (37% to 68%) point to the original, coarse grained granitic bedrock. Increasing
clay contents (of kaolinite and illite) up the profile, and a corresponding decrease in silt contents (of mainly sericite),
reflect increasing alteration of the bedrock; a feature also shown by increasing values of the textural weathering index
(Iw). Distinct preservation of granitic textures and structures in saprock (zone II) indicate in situ alteration of bedrock;
weathering resulting from gradual lowering of an unconfined groundwater table.
Keywords: Sheared biotite-muscovite granite, weathering profile characterization, pedological soil, saprock
INTRODUCTION material (Dearman, 1974). Stages of weathering of granitic

Several classification schemes have been proposed for rock material were then differentiated and used to define
the weathering of rock mass; one of the earliest by Moye weathering grades in weathering profiles; the grades, in
(1955) who used seven recognition factors, as staining of reality, applied to weathering zones (Dearman, 1974; 1976;
joints and absence of original texture, to distinguish six Irfan & Dearman, 1978). The assignment of weathering
grades or degrees of weathering of granite in Australia. grades is somewhat problematical for different stages of
Closely similar recognition factors were also applied weathering of rock material are present at similar levels
to differentiating six grades of weathering of granite in in weathering profiles, as in the concentrically developed
the Batang Padang Hydro-electric Scheme in Cameron stages of weathering of rock material around core-stones and
Highlands in Malaysia (CEB, 1962). In Hong Kong, Ruxton core-boulders (Dearman, 1974). It was thus noted that the
& Berry (1957) differentiated four weathering zones within assignment of rock mass weathering grades is an averaging
an idealized weathering profile over granite on the basis process dependent upon mapping scale; the resultant grades
of the absence of original texture, staining of fractures being proportions of different materials (ie. rock materials
and percentage occurrence of core-stones. Several other at different stages of weathering) (Baynes et al., 1978).
characterizations of weathering profiles over granite, as In a review of the classifications of weathering of
those by Little (1969), Deere & Patton (1971), Lan et al. rock mass proposed by IAEG (1981) and ISRM (1981),
(2003) and Rahardjo et al. (2004) have also involved the Martin & Hencher (1986) noted the lack of definition or
differentiation of weathering zones based on essentially guidance for the description of rock material grades; in
morphological criteria. particular, the inadequate definition of the terms ‘rock’ and
Some criticism has been levelled at the use of weathering ‘soil’ and pointed out that not all rocks are characterized
zones for geotechnical purposes as their recognition is by the presence of core-stones when they weather. Martin
said to be based on criteria that are not quantitative nor & Hencher (1986) were also critical of the way in which
related to mechanical properties or engineering behavior of the term ‘grade’ was used to describe a stage of weathering

John Kuna Raj
of rock material as well as classify a zone of weathered GEOLOGICAL SETTING OF INVESTIGATED

heterogeneous rock mass. Lee & de Freitas (1989) then WEATHERING PROFILE
proposed that the term ‘weathering zone’ be used to The profile is located at a slope cut close to milestone
distinguish the character of material en-masse, while the 10 (Km 16) of the Kuala Lumpur - Ipoh trunk road (Federal
term ‘weathering grade’ is used to describe material from Route 1) and was exposed during excavation work for its
which the mass is formed. Lee & de Freitas (1989) also widening (Figure 1 and 2). The cut, at an elevation of 120
concluded from a study of weathered granite in Korea that m above sea-level, is located in a fluvially dissected hilly
it is necessary to combine geological descriptions with terrain of moderate to steep ground slopes with narrow to
mechanical evaluation to describe weathered materials; broad, flat-bottomed valleys, some 3.5 km to the northwest
this necessity being especially important in identification of of Batu Caves in Kuala Lumpur (Figure 1). Granitic and
relict geological structures as joint and fault planes (Aydin, meta-sedimentary rocks are present in the general area; the
2006; Raj, 2009). meta-sediments mapped as the Dinding Schist, Hawthornden
In the humid tropics, as Peninsular Malaysia, deep Schist, and Kuala Lumpur Limestone (Gobbett, 1965). The
weathering profiles are found over a variety of bedrock and granites are part of the Kuala Lumpur Pluton which is a large
have developed as a result of prolonged sub-aerial exposure body of irregular shape comprising two lobes located on
throughout a larger part of the Cenozoic era (Thomas, 1974; the western side of the Main Range of Peninsular Malaysia
Raj, 2009). These deep profiles have thick saprolites (C soil (Cobbing et al., 1992). The Pluton has considerable textural
horizons) that are relatively poor in nutrients and thus only and mineralogical variations and mapping of the different
marginally suitable or even unsuitable for the cultivation lithological variants is difficult (Cobbing et al., 1992).
of perennial crops (Hamdan & Burnham, 1997). Physical Core-boulders at the cut and nearby outcrops show
characterization of two of these weathering profiles has the bedrock to be a biotite-muscovite granite that has been
already been described; the first over a porphyritic biotite sheared and strongly fractured as it is located within the
granite (Raj, 1985), and the second over rhyolite (Raj, Kuala Lumpur Fault Zone. The Kuala Lumpur Fault Zone
2018). In this paper is described the characterization of a is some 15 km wide and extends in a general southeast-
deep weathering profile over a biotite-muscovite granite. northwest direction over some 100 km (Ng, 1992). The
granite is characterized by mega-crysts of coarse rounded
quartz and feldspars set in a groundmass of dark grey,
medium to coarse grained, equigranular mosaic of quartz
and feldspars and fine biotite and muscovite flakes (Ng et al.,
2013). Minor late phase differentiates such as microgranite,
aplite and pegmatites are sometimes seen as dykes and small
Figure 1: Geological sketch map of the Batu Caves area, Kuala

Lumpur (after Gobbett, 1965; Yusari, 1993). Figure 2: View of exposed weathering profile.

Physical characterization of the weathering profile over a sheared, biotite-muscovite granite in P. Malaysia
Table 1: Modal analysis of biotite-muscovite granite (Yusari, 1993).
Alkali Recalculate to 100%

Plagio- Total
Quartz feldspar Mafics (P1/TF) x Alkali Plagio- (AF2/TF) *
clase feldspar
(%) (AF1) (%) 100 (%) Quartz feldspar clase 100 (%)
(P1) (%) (TF) (%)
(%) (AF2) (P2)
27.82 57.14 14.29 0.75 71.43 20 28.03 57.53 14.39 80
lenticular bodies (Yusari, 1993). A modal analysis based on Inclusions of zircon occur as euhedral to subhedral grains
the counting of 1,000 points of a stained rock slab confirms in the biotite and feldspars, whilst apatite is sometimes seen
the biotite-muscovite granite classification (Table 1). in quartz, feldspars and biotite (Yusari, 1993).
In thin-sections, the granite is holocrystalline with Seepage was seen at the foot of the slope cut during
hypidiomorphic to allotriomorphic grains; the primary excavation works and indicated the presence of an unconfined
minerals being quartz, alkali feldspar, plagioclase, muscovite groundwater table.
and biotite (Yusari, 1993). The accessory minerals include
tourmaline, apatite and opaques, whilst chlorite and METHODOLOGY
epidote are seen as secondary minerals. Quartz occurs as Field mapping was first carried out to differentiate
anhedral to subhedral crystals, both as phenocrysts and weathering zones, i.e. zones of earth materials with similar
in the groundmass, and often shows a wavy extinction. morphological features as color, relict bedrock minerals,
Inclusions present include zircon, apatite and muscovite. textures and structures as well as litho-relicts (core-stones
The alkali feldspars include orthoclase and microcline and core-boulders). In order to better describe the earth
and are found as euhedral to subhedral crystals, both as materials present, constant volume samples were collected
phenocrysts and in the groundmass. Plagioclase feldspars at various depths (Figure 3) to determine their physical and
generally occur as euhedral to subhedral, tabular crystals soil index properties. Brass tubes of 4 cm length and 7.6
that exhibit lamellar albite twins. Extensive sericitization cm internal diameter were used to collect the samples; the
has occurred in the plagioclases as well as in some of the tubes having a constant wall thickness of 0.3 cm except at
alkali feldspars (Yusari, 1993). one end where the lower half tapered to 0.15 cm thick to
Both primary and secondary muscovite is present; provide a cutting edge.
the primary variety occurring as individual, anhedral to The sampling tubes were taken to the laboratory
subhedral grains, or as aggregates, whilst the secondary where the moisture contents, unit weights and densities
variety occurs as fine grains in feldspars due to sericitization. of the samples were first determined before the specific
Biotite occurs as anhedral to euhedral individual flakes gravity of the constituent mineral grains was measured
or as aggregates; some of them having been chloritized. using a pycnometer (ASTM, 1970). Porosities, void
Figure 3: Sample locations and weathering sub-zones within

the weathering profile.

John Kuna Raj
ratios and degrees of saturation of the samples were then

calculated before the plastic and liquid limits of the fine
fractions (<0.42 mm size) were determined (ASTM, 1970).
The particle size distributions of the samples were next
determined using the sieving, and sedimentation, methods
for the coarse (>0.0625 mm diameter), and fine, grained
fractions respectively (ASTM, 1970). The main minerals
present in the gravel, sand and silt sized fractions were then
identified with the aid of a binocular microscope, whilst
X-ray diffractograms of the clay fractions were prepared
under normal, glycolated, and 500oC heated, conditions
to identify the minerals present (Thorez, 1975; Poppe et
al., 2001). It is to be noted that in view of a geological
background, the definitions of size limits for particles
follow the Wentworth (1922) Scale where gravel refers
to particles with diameters between 2 and 64 mm, sand to
particles with diameters between 0.0625 and 2 mm, silt to
particles with diameters between 0.0039 and 0.0625 mm,
and clay to particles less than 0.0039 mm in diameter.
WEATHERING ZONES AND ROCK MASS

WEATHERING GRADES
Vertical and lateral variations in preservation of the Figure 4: Schematic sketch of morphological features at the
minerals, textures and structures of the original granitic weathering profile.
Table 2: Morphological features of weathering sub-zones.
Sub- Vertical depth

Morphological features
zone (m)
Yellowish brown, firm, sandy clay. Sub-angular blocky, moist. Friable dry, porous. Some roots & burrows.
IA 0.0-0.7
Boundary irregular, diffuse.
Strong brown, gravelly clayey sand. Firm, sub-angular blocky, moist. Friable dry. Some roots. Boundary
IB 0.7-1.6
irregular, diffuse.
Yellowish red to reddish yellow, stiff, gravelly clayey sand. Sub-angular blocky, moist. Friable dry.
IC1 1.6-6.4
Boundary irregular, diffuse.
Yellowish red with red & yellow mottles. Stiff, gravelly clayey sand. Sub-angular blocky, moist. Distinct
IC2 6.4-11.8
relict granite texture. Indistinct relict quartz veins. Boundary irregular, diffuse.
Friable, gravelly silty sands of yellow & red colors with yellow mottles. Sub-angular blocky, moist.
IIA 11.8-17.5 Distinct relict bedrock texture & quartz veins. Indistinct relict joint planes. Some thin bands & wedges
of yellowish red gravelly clayey sand. Boundary irregular, diffuse.
Friable, gravelly silty sands of mainly white & yellow colors with some red mottles. Distinct relict
IIB 17.5-25.9 bedrock texture, quartz veins & joint planes. Indistinct relict fault planes. Some weathered core-stones.
Boundary, irregular, diffuse.
Friable, gravelly silty sands of mainly white & yellow colors. Distinct relict bedrock texture, quartz veins,
IIC 25.9-32.8
joint & fault planes. Some core-boulders with weathered rims (<30% by area). Boundary irregular, diffuse.
Friable, gravelly silty sands of mainly white & yellow colours. Distinct relict bedrock texture, quartz
IID 32.8-43.7
veins, joint & fault planes. Many core-boulders with weathered rims (>50% by area).

bedrock material and mass allowed differentiation of RESULTS

the pedological soil, and saprock, zones of the pedo- Variations in physical properties
weathering profile concept of Tandarich et al. (2002) Variations with depth in physical properties are seen,
(Figure 4 and Table 2). The zones are developed though no distinct pattern can be differentiated for most
approximately parallel to the overlying ground surface of them. The dry density of zone I earth materials ranges
and are of maximum thickness below the ridge crest but from 1,222 to 1,801 kg/m3 and those of zone II from 1,450
thin towards the valley sides. to 1,742 kg/m3 (Table 3). No distinct variation of density
The pedological soil (zone I) is some 11.8 m thick with depth can be identified; sub-zone IA being the least
and can be separated into A, B and C soil horizons; the A dense, and sub-zone IC1 the densest.
and B horizons representing the solum, and the C horizon, Dry unit weights mirror those of dry density; the zone
the saprolite (Table 2). The solum is relatively thin (1.6 I earth materials with values of 11.98 to 17.66 kN/m3 and
m) and consists of brown, friable to firm, gravelly sandy those from zone II with values of 14.22 to 17.09 kN/m3
clay, whilst the saprolite is some 10.2 thick and comprises (Table 3). No distinct variation of unit weight with depth
yellowish red, stiff, gravelly clayey sands with indistinct can be differentiated; sub-zone IA having the minimum
relict granite textures. The saprolite can be separated into value, and sub-zone IC1 the largest value.
upper (IC1), and lower (IC2), sub-zones characterized by The specific gravity of soil particles is of limited
the absence, or presence, of indistinct relict quartz veins, variation; zone I earth materials with values of 2.62 to
respectively (Table 2). 2.70, and those from zone II of 2.63 to 2.65 (Table 3). This
The saprock (zone II) is some 31.9 m thick and limited variation is not unexpected for the main primary
consists of gravelly silty sands that indistinctly to distinctly and secondary minerals present have closely similar values
preserve the minerals, textures and structures of the of specific gravity. Quartz has a specific gravity of 2.65,
original granite; the degree of preservation increasing kaolinite, a specific gravity between 2.61 and 2.68, and sericite
with depth. This zone can be subdivided into four sub- a specific gravity between 2.77 and 2.88 (Deer et al., 1977).
zones; the upper two sub-zones IIA and IIB consisting Porosity is variable with depth; sub-zone IA being the
of white to yellow and red, friable, gravelly silty sands most porous (55%) and sub-zone IC1 the least porous (33%)
with distinct relict granite textures and quartz veins, but (Table 3). The zone II earth materials have a more restricted
indistinct to distinct, relict joint and fault planes. The range in porosity; sub-zone IID with values of 37% to 44%,
top IIA sub-zone with indistinct relict joint planes is 5.7 and the other sub-zones with values of 36% to 41% (Table
m thick and devoid of litho-relicts, whilst the lower IIB 3). Values of void ratio mirror those of porosity; sub-zone IA
sub-zone with distinct relict joint planes, is 8.4 m thick with the largest value (1.21), and sub-zone IC1 the minimum
and contains a few weathered core-stones. In the lower value (0.50). The earth materials of zone II show a more
sub-zones IIC and IID, small to large core-boulders restricted range in void ratio from 0.56 to 0.73 (Table 3).
(litho-relicts) are prominent and separated by thin to Moisture contents are variable with depth; the zone I
broad, bands of white to yellow, friable, gravelly silty earth materials with 13.1% to 24.2%, and those from zone
sands with distinct relict textures, quartz veins, fracture II with 10.0% to 20.4% (Table 3). Variations in moisture
and fault planes. Core-boulders form less than 30% by content give rise to differences in the degree of saturation;
area of sub-zone IIC (6.9 m thick), but more than 50% the zone I earth materials with values of 54% to 71% and
of the lower IID sub-zone (10.9 m thick). those of zone II with values of 50% to 68% (Table 3).
Several schemes have been proposed for assigning Distinct differences in the degree of saturation with depth
rock mass weathering grades (or classes) to weathering are seen; the largest values shown by samples from the
zones; the more widely known ones being those by IAEG clayey sub-zones IC1 and IC2 (62% to 71%) and those from
(1981), ISRM (1981), GCO (1988) and ISRM (2015). In the bottom sub-zone IID (66% to 68%).
terms of these published schemes, the pedological soil
(zone I) would constitute rock mass weathering grade Variations in soil index properties
VI, whilst the bottom sub-zone IID with its’ many core- Distinct variations with depth in particle size
boulders would be classified as grade III. Sub-zone IIC distributions are present; the zone I earth materials with large
would then constitute rock mass weathering grade IV, and clay fractions (>19%) and those of zone II with large silt
sub-zones IIA and IIB, constitute rock mass weathering fractions (>22%) (Table 4). Sand contents are more variable;
grade V (Figure 4). the zone I earth materials with 28% to 37%, and those of
It is to be noted that the earth materials constituting zone II with 23% to 44% (Table 4). Total sand and gravel
the weathering profile can be classified as “residual soil” contents range from 37% to 68% (Table 4) and reflect the
in terms of the Earth Manual (USBR, 1974) for their inherent, coarse texture of the granitic bedrock material.
excavation only involved scraping and ripping or “common Silt contents are variable with depth; the zone I earth
excavation” according to the Public Works Department of materials with 7% to 27%, and those of zone II with 22%
Malaysia (JKR, 2007). to 38% (Table 4). Although variable in detail, there is a

John Kuna Raj
Table 3: Physical properties of earth materials in the weathering profile.

Dry Dry Unit Specific Degree
Sub- Sample Vertical Porosity Void Water
Density Weight Gravity Saturate
zone No. Depth (m) (%) Ratio Content (%)
(kg/m3) (kN/m3) Particles (%)
IA 1 0.53 1,222 11.98 2.70 55 1.21 24.2 54
IB 2 1.06 1,609 15.78 2.65 39 0.65 15.5 64
IC1 3 2.11 1,635 16.04 2.66 39 0.63 17.4 74
IC1 4 3.17 1,654 16.23 2.70 39 0.63 14.9 63
IC1 5 4.22 1,667 16.35 2.63 37 0.58 13.8 63
IC1 6 5.81 1,801 17.66 2.70 33 0.50 13.2 71
IC2 7 7.39 1,700 16.68 2.65 36 0.56 13.1 62
IC2 8 9.31 1,553 15.24 2.62 41 0.69 17.5 67
IC2 9 10.60 1,648 16.17 2.70 39 0.64 16.3 69
IIA 10 12.33 1,677 16.45 2.65 37 0.58 12.4 56
IIA 11 14.05 1,617 15.86 2.66 39 0.65 12.1 50
IIA 12 16.50 1,640 16.09 2.65 38 0.62 11.6 50
IIB 13 18.08 1,742 17.09 2.65 34 0.52 10.0 51
IIB 14 20.20 1,660 16.29 2.63 37 0.58 14.8 67
IIB 15 22.84 1,609 15.78 2.64 39 0.64 12.0 49
IIB 16 24.42 1,553 15.23 2.64 41 0.70 16.4 62
IIC 17 26.53 1,677 16.45 2.65 37 0.58 14.7 67
IIC 18 29.17 1,704 16.72 2.65 36 0.56 13.6 65
IIC 19 31.29 1,626 15.96 2.60 37 0.60 14.5 63
IID 20 33.40 1,500 14.71 2.60 42 0.73 15.4 55
IID 21 35.86 1,491 14.63 2.65 44 0.78 20.0 68
IID 22 37.26 1,553 15.23 2.60 40 0.67 17.1 66
IID 23 38.89 1,607 15.76 2.65 39 0.65 16.7 68
IID 24 40.76 1,504 14.76 2.60 42 0.73 18.7 67
IID 25 41.93 1,450 14.22 2.60 44 0.79 20.4 67
IID 26 42.86 1,660 16.28 2.65 37 0.60 13.8 61
general increase of silt contents with depth; this increase increasing clay contents due to increasing disaggregation
reflecting an increase in content of primary and secondary of silt sized particles.
sericites (Table 5). Consistency limits are of limited variation with the
Clay contents are also variable with depth; the zone plastic limits of zone I earth materials ranging from 23.6%
I earth materials with 19% to 55%, and those of zone II to 31.5%, and those of zone II from 20.5% to 34.9% (Table
with 9% to 20% (Table 4). There is a distinct increase in 4). Liquid limits furthermore, could only be determined
clay contents up the profile; an increase that coincides for samples from zone I and sub-zone IIA; the large silt
with a corresponding decrease in silt contents. Increasing contents (>21%) of the other samples preventing the proper
effects of weathering up the profile are thus reflected by excavation of grooves when employing the Atterberg device.

Table 4: Soil index properties of earth materials in the weathering profile.

Textural
Sub- Sample Vertical Gravel Sand Clay Plastic Liquid
Silt (%) Weathering
zone Number Depth (m) (%) (%) (%) Limit Limit
Index (Iw)
IA 1 0.53 2 35 8 55 31.5 74.0 0.87
IB 2 1.06 23 37 7 33 30.9 79.7 0.83
IC1 3 2.11 22 28 18 32 29.7 74.0 0.64
IC1 4 3.17 19 34 21 26 28.3 67.3 0.55
IC1 5 4.22 27 36 14 23 26.9 59.5 0.62
IC2 6 5.81 31 29 20 20 25.0 57.2 0.50
IC2 7 7.39 20 43 18 19 23.6 51.8 0.51
IC2 8 9.31 19 39 23 19 25.1 51.7 0.45
IC2 9 10.60 27 36 18 19 23.8 45.7 0.51
IIA 10 12.33 26 31 30 13 21.9 44.0 0.30
IIA 11 14.05 26 42 22 10 21.6 36.5 0.31
IIA 12 16.50 21 38 28 13 27.3 ind 0.32
IIB 13 18.08 30 35 23 12 25.3 ind 0.34
IIB 14 20.20 15 40 29 16 24.5 ind 0.36
IIB 15 22.84 24 39 28 9 23.8 ind 0.24
IIB 16 24.42 25 44 21 10 20.5 ind 0.32
IIC 17 26.53 33 27 22 18 21.8 ind 0.45
IIC 18 29.17 34 23 32 11 22.1 ind 0.26
IIC 19 31.29 31 24 25 20 21.6 ind 0.44
IID 20 33.40 28 25 37 11 22.6 ind 0.23
IID 21 35.86 21 37 30 12 28.1 ind 0.29
IID 22 37.26 28 27 36 9 30.0 ind 0.20
IID 23 38.89 33 25 23 19 30.9 ind 0.45
IID 24 40.76 23 35 32 10 32.0 ind 0.24
IID 25 41.93 24 28 38 10 34.9 ind 0.21
IID 26 42.86 31 26 34 9 30.7 ind 0.21

Note: Textural Weathering Index (Iw) = (% clay)/(% clay + % silt)
Variations in mineralogy The sand fractions of zone I mainly comprise pink to

Binocular microscope examination of the silt, sand and red stained quartz grains, whilst those of the lower sub-zones
gravel fractions show differences in mineral compositions that IIC and IID consist of vitreous quartz grains and some white
point to the increasing effects of weathering processes up the (kaolinized) to cloudy (fresh) feldspar grains (Table 5). The
profile (Table 5). The silt sized fractions all consist of sericite sand fractions of sub-zones IIA and IIB, however, consist of
flakes with samples from zone II also containing some larger both stained and vitreous quartz grains as well as some, white
muscovite flakes (Table 5). The absence of larger muscovite (kaolinized) feldspar grains. The absence of fresh feldspar
flakes in the zone I samples, and the decrease in silt contents grains in sub-zones IIA and IIB indicates their decomposition
up the profile, indicates their continued disaggregation due to sericite and kaolinite; a feature marked by the increase
to increasing effects of weathering processes. in silt and clay contents. The stained quartz grains of zone

John Kuna Raj
Table 5: Minerals in different size fractions in the weathering profile.

Gravel Sand Silt Clay
Sub-zone
(2.00-6.00 mm) (0.0625-2.00 mm) (0.0039-0.0625 mm) (<0.0039 mm)
IA None Angular, vitreous quartz grains; some stained red Sericite flakes Kaolinite & Illite
Angular, quartz
IB Angular, vitreous quartz grains; many stained red Sericite flakes Kaolinite & Illite
grains.
Angular, quartz Angular, vitreous quartz grains; mostly stained
IC1 Sericite flakes Kaolinite & Illite
grains. pink to red
Angular, quartz Angular, vitreous quartz grains; mostly stained
IC2 Sericite flakes Kaolinite & Illite
grains. pink to red
Angular, quartz Angular, vitreous quartz grains (some stained Sericite & muscovite
IIA Kaolinite & illite
grains red) with a few white (kaolinized) feldspar grains flakes
Angular, quartz Angular, vitreous quartz grains with some white Sericite & muscovite
IIB Kaolinite & Illite
grains (kaolinized) feldspar grains flakes
Angular, vitreous quartz grains with many, white

Angular, quartz Sericite & muscovite
IIC (kaolinized) & a few cloudy (fresh) feldspar Kaolinite & Illite
grains flakes
grains.
Angular, quartz Angular, vitreous quartz grains with many, cloudy Sericite & muscovite
IID Kaolinite & Illite
grains (fresh) & rare white (kaolinized) feldspar grains flakes
I and upper zone II furthermore, indicate the downward planes are indistinctly preserved in sub-zone IIB and
movement of secondary iron hydroxides by pedological distinctly preserved in sub-zones IIC and IID (Figure 4
processes. The sand and gravel sized quartz grains do not and Table 2). Relict joint and fault planes, however, are
appear to show any alteration (or decomposition), though not observed within the earth materials of the pedological
they have experienced physical disaggregation as indicated soil (Table 2).
by variable sand and gravel contents. The indistinctly preserved joint planes are seen as
X-ray diffractograms show kaolinite and illite to be vague planar surfaces of limited extents that demarcate
the only clay minerals present (Table 5). Kaolinite is the blocks of in situ ‘highly’ to ‘very highly’ weathered
predominant clay mineral and identified by the 7.20 Å and granite, whilst the indistinctly preserved fault planes are
3.59 Å peaks on the untreated diffractograms; the 7.20 Å similar in appearance but of longer extent and bordered
peak still present on the glycolated diffractograms, but by blocks of in situ ‘moderately’ to ‘highly’ weathered
absent in the 500oC heated diffractograms (Figure 5). Illite granite. The distinctly preserved joint and fault planes,
is present in limited amounts and identified by the 10.05 Å, however, are definite planes of separation demarcating
4.90 Å and 3.35 Å peaks on the untreated diffractograms; blocks of in situ ‘slightly’ to ‘moderately’ weathered
the 10.05 Å peak still present in the glycolated, and 500oC granite. Preservation of the discontinuity planes is thus
heated, diffractograms (Figure 5). Increasing heights of the dependent on the extent of in situ alteration of the
7.20 Å and 3.59 Å peaks up the profile furthermore, indicate bounding granite blocks; the less weathered granite
increasing kaolinite contents due to increasing effects of allowing distinct preservation and the more weathered
weathering (Figure 5). granite allowing indistinct preservation.
Variations in preservation of joint and fault Variations in degree of weathering of rock

planes material
Field observations show variations with depth in Application of physical criteria to define the degree
preservation of the joint and fault planes inherent in the of weathering of ‘rock’ material at the present weathering
original granitic bedrock mass. Joint planes are seen profile is not practical as they predominantly comprise
indistinctly preserved in sub-zone IIA, but distinctly friable, gravelly silty sands (Table 2). Application of
preserved in sub-zones IIB, IIC and IID, whilst fault chemical weathering indices to define the degree of

Figure 5: X-ray diffractograms of clay fractions in the weathering profile.
weathering is also not practical as they have been leached DISCUSSION

by the downward migration of an unconfined groundwater Comparison with published literature
table (that is now present at the bottom of the slope cut). Variations with depth in physical properties of earth
A study of three deep weathering profiles over basalt, materials at the present profile are very similar to those
granite and schist in Peninsular Malaysia has furthermore, in the weathering profiles over porphyritic biotite granite
concluded that they had remarkably similar physico- (Raj, 1985) and rhyolite (Raj, 2018). Ranges in values of
chemical properties despite differences in parent material dry density as well as dry unit weights are similar for all
(Hamdan & Burnham, 1996). three profiles, though the present profile does not show
In view of these limitations, a textural weathering index the distinct upward decrease in density and unit weight
(Iw) was proposed to describe the degree of weathering of seen in the other two profiles. This difference is due to
rock material in earth materials at a weathering profile over the biotite-muscovite granite having more variable textures
rhyolite in Peninsular Malaysia (Raj, 2018). This Index, due to its location within the Kuala Lumpur Fault Zone.
based on the ratio of the clay to total silt and clay contents, The specific gravity of soil particles in all three profile is
was proposed as there was an increase in clay contents closely similar in view of the similarity of primary and
(of illite and kaolinite) up the profile, but a corresponding secondary minerals. The zone II earth materials of all three
decrease in silt contents (of mainly sericite). profiles also show a general increase in porosity and void
A similar pattern of increasing clay contents upwards, ratio upwards; a feature indicating the increasing effects
and a corresponding decrease in silt contents is also seen of weathering processes.
at the present profile; the textural weathering index clearly Variations with depth in particle size distributions of
differentiating the earth materials of the pedological soil earth materials at the present profile are generally similar
(Iw >0.50) from saprock (Iw <0.40) (Table 4). A general to those in the weathering profiles over porphyritic biotite
increase in the textural weathering index up the profile granite (Raj, 1985) and rhyolite (Raj, 2018). Gravel
furthermore, quantitatively describes an increasing degree contents (15% to 34%), however, are greater than those
of weathering (or alteration) of the granitic rock material. at the other two profiles (<17%), whilst the sand contents
Abrupt variations in the index, however, are present and (23% to 44%) are relatively lower (33% to 66%). These
reflect inherent textural differences within the original differences are considered to reflect inherent textural
granitic rock material and mass. variations between the present, coarse grained, biotite-

John Kuna Raj
muscovite granite, the medium grained, porphyritic biotite litho-relicts of the original bedrock mass finally are seen
granite and the fine grained, rhyolite. Silt contents (7% as core-stones and core-boulders surrounded by gravelly
to 38%) and their zonal variations are similar in all three silty sands in sub-zones IIC and IID of the weathering
profiles; there also being the same upward decrease in profile (Figure 4).
silt contents due to their continued disaggregation. Clay The presently exposed weathering profile is thus
contents (9% to 32%) and their zonal variations are also considered to result from in situ weathering of a coarse
quite similar in all three profiles; the same upward increase grained, biotite-muscovite granitic rock mass; the earth
in clay contents reflecting increasing disaggregation of materials of saprock (zone II) reflecting alteration of
silt sized particles. granitic rock material by geochemical processes, and
The main minerals (quartz and sericite) in the gravel, those of the pedological soil (zone I) by both geochemical
sand and silt sized fractions of earth materials at the present and pedological processes. In situ weathering of the
profile are exactly similar to those in the weathering granitic bedrock material and mass has occurred due to
profiles over porphyritic biotite granite (Raj, 1985) and a long continued, downward migration of an unconfined
rhyolite (Raj, 2018). This similarity is expected in view groundwater table (now seen at the bottom of the profile).
of the same primary minerals present in all three acidic
igneous bedrock varieties. Variations with depth in the CONCLUSIONS
textural weathering index (Iw) at the present profile are The weathering profile can be separated into an upper,
similar to those in the profile over rhyolite (Raj, 2018) 11.8 m thick pedological soil (zone I) comprising gravelly
with similar distinct differences between the pedological clayey sands and a lower, 31.9 m thick saprock (zone
soil (Iw >0.50) and saprock (Iw <0.40). Within saprock, II) consisting of gravelly silty sands that indistinctly to
however, the weathering index shows some abrupt changes distinctly preserve the minerals, textures and structures
due to textural variations in the biotite-muscovite granite of the original granitic (rock) material and mass. Zone
which is located within the Kuala Lumpur Fault Zone. I can be separated into A, B and C soil horizons, whilst
Location within the fault zone has led to much shearing zone II can be differentiated into sub-zones IIA, IIB,
and fracturing of the granite; a feature that results in its’ IIC and IID, based on differences in preservation of
limited content of litho-relicts (core-boulders) as compared relict structures and content of core-boulders. The earth
with the profiles over porphyritic biotite granite (Raj, 1985) materials of zone I represent rock mass weathering grade
and rhyolite (Raj, 2018). VI, whilst those of sub-zones IIA and IIB represent grade
V, and those of sub-zones IIC and IID represent grades
In situ weathering of bedrock material and mass IV and III respectively.
The presence of the pedological soil, and saprock, Constant volume samples show the earth materials
zones of the pedo-weathering profile concept of Tandarich of zones I and II to have variable dry densities as well as
et al. (2002) substantiates the view of Carroll (1970) that variable dry unit weights. Soil particles have a limited range
chemical weathering at the outer part of the lithosphere takes in specific gravity (2.62 to 2.70) due to common primary
place in two stages; the first stage being the production of and secondary minerals. The zone I earth materials are also
decomposed rocks, on which the second stage, soil formation, more porous (33% to 55%) than those of zone II (36% to
takes place. The pedological soil thus results from alteration 44%) and have large clay contents (>19%) whilst those
of bedrock by both geochemical and pedological processes, of zone II have large silt contents (>23%). Sand contents
whilst the saprock results from alteration of bedrock by are more variable (23% to 44%); the relatively large total
geochemical processes. sand and gravel contents (37% to 68%) reflecting the
Indistinct preservation of granitic texture in the inherent, coarse grained granitic rock material. Increasing
gravelly clayey sands of saprolite (sub-zone IC2), and its clay contents (of kaolinite and illite) up the profile, and a
distinct preservation in the gravelly silty sands of saprock corresponding decrease in silt contents (of mainly sericite),
(zone II) clearly point to in situ development of the earth reflect increasing alteration of granitic rock material; a
materials at the present weathering profile (Table 2 and feature also shown by increasing values of the textural
Figure 4). In situ weathering is furthermore, amplified by weathering index (Iw).
the indistinct to distinct preservation of joint and fault The presently exposed weathering profile results
planes of the original bedrock mass in the gravelly silty from in situ weathering of a sheared, coarse grained,
sands of saprock (Figure 4). Increasing in situ alteration biotite-muscovite granite (rock) mass; the earth materials
of granitic rock material up the profile is also marked of saprock (zone II) reflecting alteration of granitic
by an increase in clay contents (of secondary kaolinite rock material by geochemical processes, and those of
and illite) and a corresponding decrease in silt contents the pedological soil (zone I) by both geochemical and
(of mainly primary and secondary sericite). Remnants or pedological processes.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ISRM, International Society for Rock Mechanics, 1981. Rock

Grateful thanks are extended to the University of Characterization, Testing and Monitoring: ISRM Suggested
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Technical Note (Roads) 24/05, Road Division Jabatan Kerja
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Manuscript received 7 September 2022;

Accepted 15 April 2023

Influence of Alstonia Angustiloba tree water uptake on slope

stability: A case study at the unsaturated slope, Pahang, Malaysia
Muhammad Syamsul Imran Zaini1, Muzamir Hasan1,*, Muhammad Farhan Zolkepli2
1
Faculty of Civil Engineering Technology, Universiti Malaysia Pahang, Lebuh Persiaran Tun Khalil Yaakob,
26300 Kuantan, Pahang, Malaysia
2
Faculty of Civil Engineering, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, Jalan Iman, 81310 Johor Bahru, Johor, Malaysia
*Corresponding author email address: muzamir@ump.edu.my
Abstract: Although previous research has significantly enhanced our understanding of problematic and unsaturated soil
behaviour and interaction with structures, there is still an urgent need to address the difficult scenarios that are met with
problematic and unsaturated soils. This study examines the effects of tree water uptake at different depths and distances
on the improvement of induced water uptakes caused by transpiration via mature Alstonia Angustiloba tree. This study is
performed to examine the tree water uptake profile in a vegetated slope with the existence of mature Alstonia Angustiloba
tree at the top and the stability of the slope during various precipitation penetration events by which the data of the
tree water uptake produced within this section of the slope is recorded and implemented to evaluate the factor of safety
(FOS). Slope stability analysis is further conducted to explore how plant transpiration affects slope stability. The results
indicate that higher tree water uptake lead to the greatest increase of FOS of the slope up to 53% (from 2.17 to 4.57).
The highest tree water uptake recorded was at the slope station with Alstonia Angustiloba tree with a depth of 0.25 m
and a distance of 1.1 m from the tree. The tree water uptake utilized in this study can contribute to a carbon-free and
eco-friendly approach which can be implemented globally to prevent slope failures.
Keywords: Tropical residual soil, slope stability, tree induced suction, shear strength, engineering properties
INTRODUCTION inhibits economic development, and degenerates the

In most nations around the globe, residual soil environment (Chen et al., 2013; Awang et al., 2021; Zaini et
exists commonly in equatorial locations, where frequent al., 2022b). Regional populations, visitors and pilgrims are
precipitation and mild climate are beneficial to erosion, under continuous risk of different environmental disasters,
which culminates in profound residual soil profiles (Schiavon for instance, seismic activity, avalanches, overflows, deluges,
et al., 2019; Zaini et al., 2019, 2020a). Mineralogical and forest fires (Ishak & Zaini, 2018; Pradhan & Siddique,
composition and microstructure (Hasan et al., 2021a; 2020; Zolkepli et al., 2021a). In both the geological
Zaini et al., 2022a; Zaini et al., 2023) are the two key engineering profession and academia, the topic of slope
factors that might contribute to the distinctive properties of stability (Zolkepli et al., 2019) has been a focus of inquiry
residuals. In this type of soil, geological disasters such for the last seventy years. Numerous approaches suggested in
as landslides are highly to occur. Avalanche is one of the compliance with the existing computational techniques have
greatest catastrophic geological disasters found in steep been refined to attain matureness and acquired the support
places, that has drawn significant interest in geological of the engineering field (Bastola et al., 2020; Zolkepli et al.,
and geotechnical engineering investigations (Goh et al., 2021b; Bouzid, 2022). No universally agreed explanation
2020; Zaini et al., 2020b) due to the considerable economic of the factor of safety (FOS) subsists. For most bearing
repercussions (Hasan et al., 2021b; Hasan et al., 2021c; capacity problems, the FOS is commonly determined on
Zhang et al., 2022). Landslide encompasses exterior and the premise of the maximum load-bearing capacity (Wang
downward motions of slope particle formation owing et al., 2021). However, for slope stability calculations, it is
to attraction stress via a range of movements such as more convenient that the FOS is connected to the typical
collapsing, slipping, running and any amalgamation of the strength characteristics of the soil (Basahel & Mitri, 2017;
above (Pradhan & Siddique, 2020; Zaini & Hasan, 2023). Oberhollenzer et al., 2018; Yue et al., 2019).
Recurrent slope collapse along biological and Verdure is contemplated useful to slope stability not
constructed slopes is of relevance as it endangers lives, only through mechanized soil fortification (Zolkepli et al.,

2018; Zhu & Zhang, 2019) but also through root water suction of the Alstonia Angustiloba tree may contribute to
uptake (Zhu et al., 2018). Throughout the uptaking manner, enhancing the stability of the tropical residual slope; 2) the
plant roots assimilate dampness via chemical change and moisture variation or the matric suction has been altered via
expiration (Rees & Ali, 2012), which, resulted in desiccating transpiration process in a tropical residual soil slope, and;
the soil encompassing the plant roots (Rees & Ali, 2006) 3) the tree induced suction may affect the factor of safety
and consequently actuating soil suction (Zhu & Zhang, (FOS) projected to different weather conditions. Thereby,
2015; Feng et al., 2020). The fortification impact of plant the goals of the current study were to 1) ascertain soil
roots has been well acknowledged around the world, matric suction at a slope with a mature tree existing at the
whereas root-water uptake has not however been completely top of the slope, 2) establish a soil water intake contour
examined (Ni et al., 2018; Liang et al., 2020). Root-water dispensation at the active root zone of the tree and; 3) analyze
uptake is a vital component that significantly influences the the effect of tree induced suction on factor of safety (FOS)
temporal-spatial water substance conveyance in shallow at the chosen slope.
verdure soil (Nyambayo & Potts, 2010; Ai et al., 2020).
Nevertheless, this process and its intelligence with soil are EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN AND
not so much realized owing to the inalienable changeability MEASUREMENTS
of root engineering and inherent challenges of perceiving Description of study site
below-ground stream forms (Woodman et al., 2020; Zaini Figure 1 illustrated the location of the study conducted.
et al., 2020a). As examined by Ishak et al. (2021a, 2021b) As illustrated in the figure, the tropical residual soil slope
soil states (e.g. water powered conductivity and entrance with the existing Alstonia Angustiloba mature tree is situated
resistance), and sorts of verdure (e.g. root dissemination). in Pahang, Malaysia (3° 48’ 45.36”N, 103° 19’ 32.16”E).
Biddle (2001) has concluded that soil moisture transfer The tropical residual slope studied is uniform and appears
from various species of tree can affect the changes in the to be a cut slope. The area of the slope was about 15 m
pattern of soil deficit contour. He also discovered that wide (measured across the slope) and 3 m height (measured
regardless of soil types, there are significant changes in soil down to the slope) with a single mature tree (Alstonia
moisture contour due to the different type of trees. Malaysia Angustiloba) which was located at the top of the slope
is a tropical country with the tropical monsoon rainfall and
dry period can reflect the patterns of the soil moisture (Hasan
et al., 2021d). The result and analysis that will be gained
is expected to reveal the effect of tree by correlation with
the meteorological data. Root of a tree plays an important
role in preventing landslides event to occur either it is by
modifying the soil moisture regime via evapotranspiration
or providing root reinforcement within the soils (Ishak et
al., 2021b). To prevent the debris flow and landslides from
occurring during an extensive rainy season, the first factor
is very important especially in the tropics and sub-tropics
country where within a year, the evapotranspiration is high.
On the other hand, Ishak et al. (2021a) had conducted the
same research but on different type of tree and tree location
which is at the toe of the slope. He found that through the
tree water uptake process at the toe of the slope, the FOS
of the slope significantly increase up to more than 60%.
Recently, broad exploratory ponders have been
investigated to measure intake enticed by distinctive verdure
species amid the evaporation and transpiration process.
The universality of root geomorphology is fundamental
for evaluating the hydrodynamic execution of stagnated
frameworks. In addition, recognizable proof of the pattern
of root geomorphology that improves soil water intake
viably attracts specific consideration. Thus, this study
aimed to investigate and monitor the soil water intake
dispensation owing to the tree induced suctions created at
the top of the soil slope. The modifications of the soil water
intake were analyzed to gain the soil moisture profiles near
the tree. In addition, we hypothesized that: 1) soil matric Figure 1: Location of field monitoring of the tree water uptake.

Influence of Alstonia Angustiloba tree water uptake on slope stability
with the tree height reaching up to 11 m. There is a total the pycnometer with soil and water, m4 is the mass of the
of thirty (30) tensiometers installed in the study area with pycnometer and water and Gs is the specific gravity. The
thirty (3) gypsum blocks to measure the suction of the tree. experimental setup for the physical properties of tropical
residual soil is shown in Figure 2(a).
Determination of physical properties of the tropical
residual soil Determination of shear strength parameters of the
There are three (3) physical properties investigated tropical residual soil
in this study which comprises of particle size distribution, The calculation of bulk and dry density (ρb & ρd) and
Atterberg limit, and specific gravity. The particle size moisture content (ω) of the soil sample was performed
distribution for fine-graded soil passing sieve size 63 µm before Consolidation Isotropic Undrained (CIU) test. The
was performed according to ASTM D6913-04 for sieve test was conducted based on the techniques described
analysis and ASTM D7928 for hydrometer analysis. Besides, in ASTM D7263-21 to acquire the correlation between
by using the cone penetration or the cone penetrometer moisture content with dry density. Figure 2(b) demonstrates
method, the Atterberg limit test was conducted according to the experimental setup in determining the shear strength of
ASTM D4318-17. The specific gravity of tropical residual the tropical residual soil.
soil was examined by carrying out the small pycnometer Three (3) soil samples (38 mm diameter with 76
test by referring to ASTM D792-20. The specific gravity mm height) using a simple soil splitter were prepared to
is calculated by using Eq. 1. perform the Consolidated Isotropic Undrained (CIU) triaxial
compression test as shown in Figure 2(b). Various confining
Gs = (m2- m1) pressures of 100 kPa, 150 kPa, and 200 kPa to determine
(m4- m1)-(m3- m2) (1) both saturated (c’, φ’) and unsaturated (φb) shear strength
parameters via GDS Fully Automated Triaxial System
Where m1 is the mass of the empty pycnometer, m2 is (GDSTAS) were conducted. The CIU triaxial compression
the mass of the pycnometer with dry soil, m3 is the mass of test was conducted in order to acquire the shear strength
Figure 2: Experimental setup in determining: a) physical properties of tropical residual soil; and, b) shear strength parameter of tropical
residual soil.

under different confining pressure for the tropical residual good evaluation of the alterations in tree water uptake in
soil. Based on Ishak et al. (2021a), in Malaysia, the CIU test the study area.
is more suitable for examining the shear strength parameters At the corner of about 20 m from the tree in the
of the soil owing to most of the soil being in consolidated study area, the bucket of rain gauge was placed on tripod
and undrained condition. The CIU triaxial compression test staph. The model of Rainew (see Figure 3) with a current
was performed according to ASTM D4767. counter-logging rain gauge with a tipping bucket was set
up at the study area to evaluate the continuous real-time
Field monitoring work precipitation rate.
The tensiometers and gypsum moisture block were used
to evaluate the water uptake in soil which is less than 100 Determination of soil suction contour at the
kPa and more than 100 kPa respectively. A combination of active root zone
tensiometers and gypsum moisture blocks was utilized to The 2-Dimensional and 3-Dimensional soil matric
evaluate the tree water uptake in exploration to view the suction contour was developed via GiD software and Surfer
considerable matric suction induced by the transpiration software respectively using the definition of materials,
process. In this study, six (6) stations of tensiometers and geometry, parameter, solution information and conditions.
gypsum moisture blocks were placed at the slope area and The software generates a mesh for finite elements and
at the flat area, namely as Slope Area 1 (SA 1), Slope Area generates details of a mathematical simulation of the
2 (SA 2) and Slope Area 3 (SA 3) together with Flat Area typical geometrical slope of the study area. Hence, the field
1 (FA 1), Flat Area 2 (FA 2) and Flat Area 3 (FA 3) as monitoring data monitored for six (6) months were applied
shown in Figure 1. Each station consists of a top, middle in this software and was presented to visualize the results
and bottom of the root zone to monitor the profle of the and analysis of the tree water uptake.
matric suction changes in both areas (Kardani et al., 2021;
Ishak et al., 2021b). Figure 4 shows the calibration and Assessing the slope stability of the unsaturated
capability of tensiometer and gypsum block. tropical residual soil slope
According to Zaini et al. (2020a), each station of Through the commercial software of SLOPE/W version
tensiometers was located at a distance of 1.1 m (0.1h), 2.2 7.03, 2007, the initial basic checks of the slope stability
m (0.2h) and 4.4 m (0.4h) from the tree. The distance of results were generated and compared to the previous
the tensiometers was set based on the height of the tree (h approach equation. Besides, the critical slip surface found
= 11.0 m). Therefore, the distance from the tree for each by trial and error was also determined using the SLOPE/W
area (Slope Area and Flat Area) were 1.1 m, 2.2 m and 4.4 software. There are 64 possible failure surfaces that were
m from the tree trunk and were embedded vertically in the examined to find the critical slip surface as demonstrated
soil down to the depth of 0.25 m, 0.5 m, 1.0 m, 1.5 m and in Figure 5. In the study, to evaluate the weight of the soil
2.0 m as shown in Figure 3. bounded utilized to Eq. 2 (Ishak et al., 2018; Zolkepli et al.,
The gypsum block (Delmhorst Instrument Co. Model 2018), the critical slip surface was separated into fifteen (15)
5KS-D1 G-Block) was utilized owing to measure the higher slices. The real slope arithmetic completed with the critical
range of suction which is beyond 100 kPa up to 1000 kPa. slip surface moved through the top of the slope, the position
A total of thirty (30) units of the instruments were installed of each slice and slope elevation were shown in Figure 5.
at different depths which were at 0.25 m, 0.5 m, 1.0 m, 1.5
m and 2.0 m at the vicinity of the trees at the top of the F = (∑c'lR+(W cos β)R tan ϕ'+SRl tan ϕb)
slope to measure the in-situ soil matric suction. Each station (∑WR sin β) (2)
(FA 1, FA 2, FA3, SA 1, SA 2 and SA 3) was installed with
five (5) gypsum blocks considered as the top, middle and Where, c’ is the cohesion, l is the slip arc length, R is
bottom of the root zone according to Biddle (2001) and the radius of circular failure surface (m), W is the surcharge
the active root zone were assumed has extended until to a load (kN), β is the angle between the tangent to the centre
depth of 2.0 m. of the base of each slice and the horizontal, ϕ’ is the internal
The Jet-fill Tensiometer Model 2725 with a total number friction angle of the saturated soil and ϕb is the internal
of thirty (30) units were installed at different depths which friction angle of the unsaturated soil.
were at 0.25 m, 0.5 m, 1.0 m, 1.5 m and 2.0 m to measure The lowest FOS of 1.868 was evaluated by using
the in-situ soil matric suction. Biddle (2001) and Rees & SLOPE/W software through the traditional method of slices.
Ali (2012) measured the moisture content and changes of To examine the differences and percentage differences of
moisture content in the tree proximity by using a neutron FOS with other selected methods, the FOS of 1.868 was
probe and found that the influence of the plant root was utilized as a referenced value. This specific slip surface
intensively related to the depth of not more than 2.0 m. coincides with a radius of 3.88 m and origin x = 5.00 m,
Hence, it is assumed that the set-up tensiometers at the y = 7.88 m from the marked point at the studied tropical
greatest deepness of 2.0 m should be adequate to allow a residual soil slope. The result acquired for this specific

Figure 3: Experimental setup in determining the soil matric suction and rainfall intensity.

slip surface were implemented from Eq. 2 in contrast to (ANOVA) was conducted to collate the rainfall intensity and
the multiple approaches accessible in SLOPE/W software. the soil matric suction. Fisher’s least significant difference
Figure 5 shows the variations between various approaches (LSD) was used to identify significant differences between
ranging from 1% to 4% in contrast to the manual evaluation. means separation at a level of p< 0.05. Furthermore,
The difference between the Eq. 2 and the Ordinary method Pearson’s correlation analysis was used to determine the
(Fellenius Method- SLOPE/W) usage was small owing to correlations between the rainfall intensity, distance of
the fact that these two (2) methods were adopted from a tensiometers from the tree, depth of the slope and station
very similar formula in approach and equation. area. The error bars were used to indicate whether the results
obtained are significantly different as discussed in detail in
Statistical analysis the following section.
Numerical interpretations were performed using
Microsoft Excel 2010. One-way analysis of variance RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Physical properties of tropical residual soil
The main physical property performed in this study
comprises sieve analysis, Atterberg limits, and specific
gravity. According to the British Soil Classification System
(BSCS), the tropical residual soil was categorized as having
very high plasticity of sandy SILT (MVS) soil. The result
of sieve analysis from a portion of 100 g soil specimen
comprises 4.2 % greater than 2 mm (gravel), 27.9 % within
the size of 2 mm to 0.063 mm (sand), 45.1 % within 0.063
mm to 0.002 mm (silt), and 22.8 % is lower than 0.002 mm
(clay). Figure 6 demonstrates the particle size distribution of
the tropical residual soil for the unsaturated slope studied.
Besides, the Atterberg Limit of tropical residual soils from
the study area suggested that the liquid limit (LL) of the
soil was 70.0 %, the plastic limit (PL) was 31.0 % and the
Figure 4: Calibration and capability of tensiometer and gypsum block. Plasticity Index, (PI) was 39.0 %. According to the British
Figure 5: Slope geometry of the tropical residual soil with the comparison of FOS by various analysis.

An investigation performed by Fredlund et al. (1996)

explained that the value of the unsaturated friction angle,
f b is lower or equivalent to the saturated friction angle, f’
at a lower or high value of tree water uptake, the value of
Percentage Passing %
the unsaturated friction angle, f b will decrease to a lower

value. More water will expel out from the pores of the
soil with no further increase of net stress when the matric
suction increases (Ishak et al., 2021a). Figure 7 illustrates
the Mohr’s Circle and the effective stress failure envelope
for samples 1, 2 and 3. Based on Figure 7, the effective
friction angle (f’) and the effective cohesion (c’) are 25o
and 9 kPa respectively.
Effects of single respond event to the soil

Grain diameter, mm
suction distribution pattern of the tropical
Figure 6: Particle size distribution graph of tropical residual soil. residual soil slope
Effects of intense rainfall on the soil suction
Soil Classification System (BSCS), the soil at the site study distribution pattern of the tropical residual soil slope
at the field can be categorized as SILT of high plasticity Researchers such as Biddle (1979), Fredlund et al. (1996)
(MHS) with a relative density of 2.74. As stated by Zaini and Ishak & Zaini (2018) investigated the response of tree
et al. (2020a), owing to a wide modification of metallurgy, water uptake dispensation owing to a single rainfall pattern
the relative density of tropical residual soils is commonly on the slope with further diminishing the secular period in the
low or uncommonly high. The physical properties values examination. The central to their investigation was insulating
obtained in this study are coherent with the investigation precipitation patterns during observation time intervals as
performed by Ishak et al. (2021a) and Zolkepli et al. (2018). multiple precipitation patterns were signified by intense
precipitation and prolonged precipitation. Coherent to that,
Unsaturated shear strength of tropical residual the tree water uptake dispensation patterns for the tropical
soil residual slope without the existing mature tree and with the
As reported by Ishak et al. (2021b), the latest criterion existing Alstonia Angustiloba mature tree were displayed as
presented was the unsaturated friction angle, f b which is
always smaller than or equivalent to the saturated friction
angle, f ’. Rees & Ali (2012) deduced the shear strength of
soil is rectilinearly proportionate to the tree water uptake
(where f b=f’), where the tree water uptake is smaller
Shear Stress (kN/m2)
than the air-entry value. Table 1 shows the experimental

shear strength values of unsaturated soil friction angle,
f b at multiple places in Peninsular Malaysia including
the studied unsaturated friction angle, f b of the tropical
residual soil. Based on Table 1, the unsaturated friction
angle, f b was assumed lower than or equivalent to the
saturated friction angle, f ’ (Rahardjo et al., 2004; Huat Normal Effective Stress (kN/m2)
et al., 2005; Zolkepli et al., 2018; Zaini et al., 2020a; Figure 7: Mohr’s Circle and the effective stress failure envelope
and Ishak et al., 2021a). of tropical residual soil.
Table 1: Experimental values of unsaturated friction angle, f b of the tropical residual soil at various locations in Peninsular Malaysia.
Researcher Location f’ (o) f b(o)
Zaini et al. (2022) Pahang 25 21
Ishak et al. (2021a) UTM 23 20
Zaini et al. (2020a) Pahang 25 20
Zolkepli et al. (2018) Pahang 25 17
Huat et al. (2005) Sepang 26 26
Rahardjo et al. (2004) Singapore 25.1 24.3

per findings performed by the previous researcher with a m depth dropped to the minimum value of 14 kPa, 18 kPa,
further comparison of the slope with and without a tree at the 26 kPa, 36 kPa and 45 kPa respectively. For a prolonged dry
top of the slope. The explanation of the precipitation pattern period with sudden intense rainfall events continuously for
of intense rainfall occurred subsequent to a prolonged dry about ten (10) days without any precipitation, the greatest
period. From February 2022 to March 2022, the slope without tree water uptake was observed at the top of the unsaturated
trees faced the driest states throughout the site observation slope with the presence of Alstonia Angustiloba tree at a
period which was without any rainfall for ten (10) days. depth of 0.25 m, 0.5 m, 1.0 m, 1.5m and 2.0 m were 110
The highest suction recorded at the depth of 0.25 m, 0.5 kPa, 96 kPa, 90 kPa, 84 kPa and 66 kPa respectively. The
m, 1.0 m, 1.5 m and 2.0 m were 60 kPa, 62 kPa, 62 kPa, results show that the greatest tree water uptake value of the
64 kPa and 66 kPa respectively. These results show that the soil is 110 kPa. The mechanism of high matric suction was
greatest tree water uptake value by the tropical residual soil identical to the matric suction condition recorded during
is 66 kPa, even during the protracted dry period. However, the prolonged dry period which will be discussed later.
a normal intense and short tropical precipitation that took Eventually, pursued by the intense precipitation event, the
place on 24th February 2022 induced the tree water uptake tree water uptake fell but did not achieve the lowest value
at 0.25 m to 2.0 m depth to dramatically fall to the lowest of tree water uptake at the slope without a tree.
value as demonstrated in Figure 8. The tree water uptake at the deepness of 0.25 m and
Figure 8(a) shows the plotted of mean tree water uptake 0.5 m dropped from 110 kPa to 84 kPa and from 96 kPa to
with profiles at slope without tree, demonstrating that 80 kPa respectively, while it dropped uniformly at the depth
substantial tree water uptake can establish during protracted of 1.0 m from 90 kPa to 88 kPa. Subsequently, the matric
desiccated time intervals even though the tree water uptake suction at 1.5 m and 2.0 m depth dropped to a small value
has been immediately dissipated with the occurrence of only which were from 84 kPa to 79 kPa and from 66 kPa to
short and intense precipitation events. However, the worst 60 kPa respectively. The suction at depths 0.25 m and 0.5
pore-water pressure states did not reach positive pressures m were delicate to intense precipitation events compared
at all deepness. The mean tree water uptake profile with to the depth of 1.0 m, 1.5 m and 2.0 m which were not
depth at slope without tree highlighted that substantial tree greatly affected. Although both of the slopes obtained an
water uptake has been readily dissipated with the events of equal quantity of precipitation but the variation responses
the precipitation with a value of 8.4 mm on 24th February in tree water uptake value can be certainly demonstrated at
2022. The suction pattern at 0.25 m, 0.5 m, 1.5 m and 2.0 a slope with a tree at the top (See Figure 8(b)).
Effects of antecedent rainfall on the soil suction

distribution pattern of the tropical residual soil slope
The tree water uptake demonstrated periodic variation
during desiccated time intervals mainly due to the periodic
variation in solar emission during day and night. The result
insinuates that other than the precipitation penetration, the
earth’s surface surrounding such as the breeze, climate,
dampness and solar emission could alter the tree water uptake
as well. When both of the slopes received moderate rainfall
on 18th April 2022, the suctions at 0.25 m down to 1.5 m
dropped gradually while the suction at 2.0 m dropped not as
greatly as other depths. Figure 9(a) and 9(b) show the tree
water uptake profiles on the tropical residual slope with and
without trees as a result of antecedent precipitation. The tree
water uptake at 2.0 m was only altered by the intense rainfall
that occurred on 20th April 2022. The results suggested that
the arrangement of the rainfall act as a crucial parameter
in the propagation of infiltration of water on both slopes.
Both profiles also revealed that the continuous low intensity
of rainfall that occurred from 17th April 2022 to 18th April
2022 has no significant effect in reducing the matric suction.
In the period of the antecedent rainfall pattern, the lowest
suctions were encountered at 0.25 m, 0.5 m and 1.0 m on
Figure 8: Soil matric suction with respect to the intense rainfall 19th April 2022. Nonetheless, the antecedent rainfall from
precipitation at: a) slope without the tree; b) slope with Alstonia 18th April 2022 to 19th April 2022 on both slopes shows
Angustiloba mature tree. significant effects on the distribution of the suction.

Figure 9: Soil matric suction with respect to the antecedent rainfall Figure 10: Soil matric suction with respect to the prolonged
precipitation at: a) slope without the tree; b) slope with Alstonia antecedent rainfall precipitation at: a) slope without the tree; b)
Angustiloba mature tree. slope with Alstonia Angustiloba mature tree.
Additionally, the comparison of the rainfall pattern quantity of precipitation which allowed rainfall to blow on
illustrated in Figure 9 shows a good agreement of suction the soil under the canopy of the tree (Alstonia Angustiloba).
distribution pattern in the period of rainfall pattern in both During the wet period which was at prolonged and
slopes has been achieved. It can be summarized that a antecedent rainfall, the matric suction decreased due to
canopy interposing was trivial owing to the moderately and the high precipitate of water in the soil. At this condition,
antecedent intense quantity of precipitation that occurred the results show no substantial variations between matric
and there was no significant difference in terms of the tree suction within the proximity of the tree and without the tree
water uptake between the slope with a tree at the top and at the slope. During the no rainfall period, the matric suction
the slope without a tree (Hongde et al., 2021). on the slope without a tree increased slower compared to
the slope with a tree at the top. Moreover, the preserved
Effects of prolonged antecedent rainfall on the soil mature tree (Alstonia Angustiloba) would expedite the tree
suction distribution pattern of the tropical residual soil water uptake and serve as an effective method to reduce
slope soil moisture. During the dry period, the matric suction
In the period of continuous daily rainfall from 20th June within the vicinity of the tree was remarkably higher than
2022 to 26th June 2022 for both of the slopes, owing to the the tree water uptake subjected to the distance of the mature
greater precipitations, the tree water uptake was substantially tree. The dry soil with high matric suction would lead to
diminished as demonstrated in Figures 10(a) and 10(b). Based an increment of soil strength within the proximity of the
on the amalgamation of intense and antecedent precipitation, mature tree.
the lowest tree water uptake at 0.25 m, 0.5 m and 1.0 m were
encountered on 23rd June 2022 due to the highest rainfall Effects of prolonged dry condition on the soil suction
amount on 20th June 2022 (60 mm/day). From the results, it distribution pattern of the tropical residual soil slope
can be summarized that the lowest tree water uptake in the at different stations
soil in both of the tropical residual soil slopes in the study The response of suction distribution of various rainfall
area was controlled by the precipitation intensity jointly with patterns during eight (8) months of field monitoring at the
the antecedent precipitation. At all depths, the worst pore- study area shows that the soil lost its moisture intake regularly
water pressure did not reach the saturated state which was after undergoing normal minor and major precipitation
at 0 kPa value. Therefore, the canopy interposing was trivial events. The intense and short precipitation and precipitation
owing to the event of moderately and antecedent intense amount tend to be one of the leading factors to the water

intake alteration at a slope without a tree but not at a slope

with a tree at the top. The tree canopy can be a component
to effect the tree water uptake alteration at the slope with
the tree as the canopy interposing will diminish the amount
of precipitation infiltration into the soil. The antecedent and
prolonged rainfall were identified as the major dominant
factor to a suction variation on both of the slopes (with and
without trees) in the study area. In the period of this field
monitoring, a period without rainfall was encountered from
13th February 2022 to 22nd February 2022. These conditions
were recorded to represent the tree water uptake profile at
all locations which were at SA 1, SA 2, SA 3, FA 1, FA 2
and FA 3. Coherently, the tree water uptake profiles right
after the antecedent and prolonged precipitation on both
slopes which were at slope without a tree and slope with a
tree at the top were recorded as presented in Figures 11(a)
and 11(b). The data collected on 13th February 2022 was
identified as the lowest matric suction value which was
determined as the initial condition.
Figures 12(a) and 12(b) show the results on 18th February
2020 of the continuing increment value of matric suction
after ten (10) days without rainfall. Due to the exposure to
the dry period, the tree water uptake at the top of 2.0 m
depth has greatly increased. In addition, the highest matric
suction was encountered at SA 1 and FA 1 at the deepness Figure 12: Soil matric suction with respect to the prolonged dry
of 0.25 m and 0.5 m respectively with a value of 66 kPa, condition on 18th February 2022 in: a) slope area; b) flat area.
Figure 11: Soil matric suction with respect to the prolonged dry Figure 13: Soil matric suction with respect to the prolonged dry
condition on 13th February 2022 in: a) slope area; b) flat area. condition on 22nd February 2022 in: a) slope area; b) flat area.

56 kPa; and 56 kPa, 48 kPa respectively compared to the m symmetrical for both right and left from the focal point
slope without a tree. of the tree. The consideration of the root region extends
The data collected on 22nd February 2022 illustrates laterally and beneath the top of the slope. Hence, some drying
in Figures 13(a) and 13(b) show the maximum value of patterns with high matric suction from the top of the tree to
the tree water uptake during the desiccated condition. The the slope crest can be expected from this situation. At 0.25
changes in tree water uptake dispensation arrangements m and 0.5 m depth of antecedent rainfall, the lowest water
were produced in various states. After ten (10) days without uptake recorded were 56 kPa and 60 kPa on 13th February
rainfall, the tree water uptake at the top of 2.0 m increases 2022 respectively. The volume of rainfall penetration on
constantly to the right. Besides, the tree water uptake at the sloping surface was small owing to the water runoff.
1.1 m from the Alstonia Angustiloba mature tree at SA 1 The field monitoring result of 18th February 2022
and FA 1, particularly at the deepness of 0.25 m and 0.5 m showing an increment in tree water uptake produced by the
were higher than at slope without the Alstonia Angustiloba tree water uptake was applied on a mesh model as shown in
mature tree with a matric suction of 110 kPa and 96 kPa Figure 14. Figure 14 also revealed that the changes of the tree
(SA 1) and 90 kPa and 88 kPa respectively (FA 1). water uptake modifications or soil moisture loss proximity
The comparison of the matric suction between the slope of the mature tree within the slope have occurred. The figure
with a tree at the top and the slope without a tree was done also showed the presence of the greatest suction of 80 kPa
by the previous researcher such as Zhu & Zhang (2015) and produced at the bottom of the Alstonia Angustiloba mature
Feng et al. (2020). Based on the investigation performed by tree at the top of the unsaturated slope in the soil matric
the previous researchers, the tree water uptake created in bare suction contour. Figure 15 shows the tree water uptake on
and vegetated soil columns in the site and physical prototype 22nd February 2022 which indicated a rapidly developed
in the soil laboratory yielded a result that proved 100% of tree water uptake compared to 18th February 2022. The
tree water uptake produced in the stagnated pillar was greater greatest water uptake value of 110 kPa was greatest at the
than the barren soil pillars. Coherent to that, the evaluated bottom of the tree at the top of the slope with the lowest
tree water uptake at the slope without a tree was ascribed to water uptake value of 64 kPa. The absence of rainfall for
the evaporation process which was lowered than at the slope ten (10) days has developed the soil suction contour which
with a tree at the top as it was engendered by the transpiration obviously indicated that the matric suction of the observed
process. As clearly shown in Figures 13(a) and 13(b), the slope decreased with the increment of distance from the
dispensation of the tree water uptake at 1.1 m from tree was tree. After several days of the antecedent rainfall event,
significantly greater than the tree water uptake at 4.4 m from the soil matric suction remarkably decreased owing to the
the tree and with the slope without a tree. The comparison high amount of rainfall infiltration. From the cycle, the soil
of the matric suction distribution at SA and FA for both 13th matric suction shows a significant increase owing to tree
February 2022 and 22nd February 2022 demonstrates that water uptake during the dry period. It can be summarized
the tree water uptake at SA was higher than FA owing to the that the existence of the Alstonia Angustiloba tree help to
growth of active roots in a lateral position that the underneath enhance the soil matric suction which increased the level
growth with better focused at SA (Ishak et al., 2021b). of water expelled from the soil through the active root tree
which is coherent with the research conducted by Hongde
Representation of field monitoring at the tropical et al. (2021).
residual soil slope corresponding to the various
rainfall events Effects of soil matric suction on the stabilization
The model of slope illustrated in Figure 14 consists of of the tropical residual soil slope
86 elements of quadrilateral mesh with 90 nodes for the 2D As highlighted in the previous section, ϕb angle was
model generated using GiD software and 120 nodes for the one of the parameters that differ with the tree water uptake
3D model using Surfer software. The matric suction was increment. This parameter is significantly important to
presented according to the mesh and nodes in revealing a influence the overall calculation of the FOS for the slope
typical drying pattern or soil moisture deficit which was as shown in Table 2. From Table 2, it can be analysed that
considered as moisture migration effected by a single mature the magnitude of ϕb angle varies with the matric suction
tree at the top of the slope. By assuming the root region increment. As an example, for soil matric suction from
to an extent of 2.0 m depth and a radiated distance of 4.4 saturated condition range to residual water content matric
Table 2: Non-linear value of ϕb angle at several suction ranges.

γ, At suction 0-80 kPa At suction 80-100 kPa At suction 100-300 kPa
Soil Type
(kN/m3) ϕb, (°) ϕb, (°) ϕb, (°)
Sandy SILT 19 20 14 10

Bulletin of the Geological Society of Malaysia, Volume 75, May 2023
Figure 14: Soil matric suction (kPa) contour corresponds to the lowest soil matric suction throughout eight (8) months of field monitoring on the tropical residual soil slope.
48
Bulletin of the Geological Society of Malaysia, Volume 75, May 2023
Figure 15: Soil matric suction (kPa) contour corresponds to the highest soil matric suction throughout eight (8) months of field monitoring on the tropical residual soil slope.
49
suction (0-80 kPa), ϕb= 20°, at residual water content can be clearly seen in Figure 17. These arrangements of
matric suction (80-100 kPa) ϕb= 14° and beyond residual drying were separated in various circumstances, initiating in
water content matric suction (> 100 kPa) ϕb= 10°. Based the month of February 2022 to March 2022, May 2022 to
on the remaining moisture content of matric suction, the June 2022 and July 2022 to September 2022. Within these
soil shear strength envelope shows a constant value beyond time intervals, soil moisture loss has taken place on the
the residual water content of matric suction. Figure 16(a) soil to sustain a high tree water uptake. As the tree water
shows how the FOS responds to various matric suction uptake abruptly dropped due to higher precipitation which
for the values of the ϕb angle. The increment of FOS was reduced the FOS through the one-day infiltration process.
due to the value of matric suction and ϕb angle increased Moreover, the increment in FOS value will gradually
with almost the same pattern as non-linear variation as increase within a time of one (1) to two (2) weeks after the
indicated in Figure 16(a). The FOS was performed using a heavy rain events occurred via the evaporation process as
matric suction profile which corresponds to the maximum demonstrated in Figure 17 (FOS without tree). Coherently,
value encountered from the field monitoring program and the protection of the tropical tree can greatly enhance the
the calculations of the FOS were performed by using the tree water uptake which will affect the stabilization of the
range of the actual value of matric suction obtained from unsaturated slope. On 19th February 2022 the FOS of the
the field monitoring. slope with the Alstonia Angustiloba mature tree at the top
In assessing the actual slope stability in the study achieved up to 53% greater than the FOS of the slope without
area, the matric suction profiles that were presented in the existence of the Alstonia Angustiloba mature tree. The
the previous section are discussed in this section. The tree increment of the tree water uptake on the slope with the
water uptake profiles encountered from the site observation Alstonia Angustiloba mature tree at the top substantially
work were implemented for FOS calculations. The location enhanced the stability of the unsaturated slope compared
of the critical slip surface with slices that were integrated to the slope with the absence of the Alstonia Angustiloba
directly with the soil matric suction coherent to the 2D mature tree. The existence of the tropical mature tree has
contour plot was illustrated (see Figure 16(b)). The effect a great effect in accelerating the tree water uptake after the
of the transpiration process from a tropical mature tree in rainfall event and acts as a practical tool to eliminate water
order to induce the soil matric suction in the vicinity of from the tropical residual soil which can directly poise the
the tree was used to perform the slope stability analysis tropical residual soil slope.
through eight (8) months of field monitoring. The field
data provided useful information on the soil matric suction Statistical analysis via standard error, analysis
changes generated by the drying process of the tropical of variance (ANOVA), Fisher’s Least Significant
mature tree at the base of each slice. Difference (LSD) and Pearson’s Correlation
Figure 17 demonstrates the modifications in values of Coefficient
the FOS against catastrophe during eight (8) months of site The error bars indicate the standard error of the
observations which included the combination of rainfall parameters observed in this study. The error bars were
precipitation and FOS data. The relationship of FOS with the evaluated based on the overlapping bars between the
tree water uptake of the tropical residual soil from February data and the length of the error bars within the same and
2022 to September 2022 was presented in Figure 17. The different groups (at p < 0.05) of studies (see Figure 8 to
primary FOS saturated slope was 1.868 which was lowered Figure 13 and Figure 17) coherent to the investigations
than the unsaturated slope with the nonexistence of Alstonia made by Hasan et al. (2021a) and Zaini et al. (2022). The
Angustiloba mature tree and the FOS differ with time and overlapping error bars indicate the insignificant differences
tree water uptake. The increment in FOS trending owing to between the data while the data that is not overlapped
several shifting upward of the line during the drying period indicates the significant differences in the data. Based on
Figure 8(a), at the unsaturated slope without a tree with
respect to the intense rainfall, the soil matric suction on
25th February 2022 at various depths shows significant
differences with the soil matric suction on 22nd February
2022 to 24th February 2022 as the error bars at different
depth is not overlapped with each other. However, there are
insignificant differences between the soil matric suction on
22nd February 2022 to 24th February 2022 as the error bars
overlapped with each other at the depth of 1.0 m to 2.0 m.
There is a smaller difference between the soil matric suction
Figure 16: Relationship between a) Proportionality of matric between 22nd February 2022 to 24th February 2022 at the
suction with FOS; (b) Matric suction with critical slip surfaces for depth of 0.25 m and 0.50 m. At the unsaturated slope with
FOS calculations. the existence of Alstonia Angustiloba mature tree, the soil

Figure 17: Soil matric suction variations with a critical slip surface and slices on tropical residual soil slope with and without the existence
of Alstonia Angustiloba mature tree.

matric suction on 22nd February 2022 to 25th February 2022 of the mature tree at the distance of 4.4 m with a deepness
shows insignificant differences due to the overlapping of of 1.5 m and 2.0 m. At the flat area (FA), the soil matric
the error bars. However, the soil matric suction recorded at suction without the existence of a mature tree is significant
the slope with the existence of Alstonia Angustiloba mature to the soil matric suction at various depths and a distance
tree is higher collated to the slope without a tree. Based on of 2.2 m and 1.1 m. However, coherent to the overlapping
Figures 9(a) and 9(b), both of the unsaturated slope with or error bars between the soil matric suction at the deepness of
without the existence of Alstonia Angustiloba mature tree 0.5 m to 2.0 m, the soil matric suction of the slope without
coherent to the antecedent rainfall event shows insignificant the tree is not significant to the slope with the presence of
differences in soil matric suction on 16th April 2022 to 20th the tree at the distance of 4.4 m.
April 2022 as the error bars do not overlap with each other. On 22nd February 2022, at the SA and FA, the tree water
However, the soil matric suction value recorded for the slope uptake at the slope without a tree is significantly different
without the tree is slightly lower than the slope with the from the tree water uptake of the slope with the existence
existence of the mature tree. The scenario is the same for of the mature tree at the deepness of 0.25 m to 2.0 m for
the soil matric suction with or without the existence of the all depth except at the deepness of 1.5 m and 2.0 m (1.1
mature tree during the prolonged antecedent rainfall (see m and 4.4 m distance from the mature tree). Based on
Figures 10(a) and 10(b)) that occurred on 20th June 2022 Figure 17, most of the FOS value of the slope without the
to 26th June 2022. existence of the Alstonia Angustiloba mature tree for eight
Based on the soil matric suction recorded during the (8) months of field monitoring shows significant differences
prolonged dry condition (13th February 2022, 18th February with the FOS value of the slope with the existence of the
2022 and 22nd February 2022) presented in Figures 11 to mature tree as most of the data did not overlap with each
13, the data were analyzed based on the various soil matric other except when the rainfall precipitation is high which
suction at a different depth, distance and station with the reduce the FOS of the unsaturated slope.
existence of Alstonia Angustiloba mature tree and without The one-way ANOVA was conducted to examine
the existence of the mature tree. On 13th February 2022 the mathematical significant difference between the four
(Slope Area), there is a significant difference between the (4) independent variables (rainfall precipitation, distance
soil matric suction of the slope without a tree at various of tensiometer from the tree, depth of slope and station
depths with the soil matric suction at different depths and area) observed in this study at various conditions (intense
distances of the slope with the existence of mature trees on rainfall, antecedent rainfall, prolonged antecedent rainfall
the top as the error bars did not overlap with each other. At and prolonged dry condition). Based on the one-way
the flat area (FA), there are no significant differences between ANOVA, there is a significant difference between the four
the tree water uptake due to the overlapping of the error (4) independent variables (at P<0.05, P-value = 2.25x10-70).
bars at various depths and distances. On 18th February 2022 Therefore, to specify which parameters contributed to the
(Slope Area), there is significant differences in tree water difference between the means, the Fisher’s Least Significant
uptake between the slope with or without a tree at the top Difference (LSD) was performed as tabulated in Table 3
at a different distance except at the deepness of 1.5 m and coherent with the one-way ANOVA conducted. There are
2.0 m as the data overlapped with the soil suction of 4.4 m six (6) analyses conducted for the LSD; all of the analyses
distance. At the deepness of 0.25 m to 2.0 m with various accepted the H0 (Accept the H0 claim at Average Difference <
distances from the mature tree, the soil matric suction is LSD, where the LSD = 0.4147). The analysis that contributed
significant, except at the deepness of 1.5 m to 2.0 m as the to the existence of the statistically significant difference
tree water uptake of the slope without the tree is overlapped is tabulated in Table 3. In reference to Table 3, there is a
with the tree water uptake of the slope with the existence significant difference between the rainfall intensity with the
Table 3: Determination of specific parameters that affect the soil matric suction based on Fisher’s Least Significant Difference.
Absolute Mean Difference Remarks
Mean
Mean Diff. Value
x̄ 1 x̄ 1-x̄ 2 5.83
x̄ 1-x̄ 3 7.35
x̄ 1-x̄ 4 7.90 Difference is significant at p = 0.05, LSD =
x̄ 2 x̄ 2-x̄ 3 1.52 0.04147
x̄ 2-x̄ 4 2.07
x̄ 3 x̄ 3-x̄ 4 0.55
Note: x̄ 1, Rainfall Precipitation; x̄ 2, Distance of tensiometers from Tree; x̄ 3, Depth of Slope; x̄ 4, Station Area.

Table 4: Determination of the relationship between four (4) parameters studied according to Pearson’s Correlation Coefficient.
Parameter A B C D
A 1.0 8.63x10-16 6.94x10-17 0
B 8.63x10-16 1.0 -5.1x10-17 0
C 6.94x10-17 -5.1x10-17 1.0 0
D 0 0 0 1.0
Note: A, Rainfall Precipitation; B, Distance of Tensiometers from the Tree; C, Depth of Slope; D, Station Ar
distance of tensiometers from the tree, depth of the slope FUNDING

and the slope station at a mean difference of 5.83, 7.35 and The study leading to these results received funding
7.90 respectively. Moreover, at a mean difference of 1.52 from Universiti Malaysia Pahang (UMP) under Grant
and 2.07, there are also significant differences between the Agreement Number RDU202701, RDU223309 and from
distance of the tensiometers with the depth of the slope and Hokoku Engineering Co. Ltd. under Grant Agreement
the station area respectively. The differences between the Number UIC201503.
depth of the slope and the station area are also proved at a
mean difference of 0.55. The LSD was suggested by Xue ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
et al. (2021) and Ai et al. (2021) for the mean separation. The authors would like to acknowledge the Universiti
Table 4 shows the Pearson’s correlation coefficient Malaysia Pahang (UMP) and Hokoko Engineering Co. Ltd
performed to determine the correlation between the variables for financing this research through the International Grant,
observed in this study. Ai et al. (2022) investigated that Project Number UIC201503, and UMP Matching Grant,
a correlation value which is below 0.4 is considered as Project Number RDU202701, RDU223309. The authors also
weak correlation, above 0.4 is a strong correlation and would like to acknowledge all of the reviewers involved
no correlation exists with the correlation value reaching in reviewing this manuscript. The cooperation given by all
zero. Based on the table, there is a very weak correlation parties involved in this research is greatly acknowledged.
exists among the three (3) independent variables (rainfall
precipitation, distance of tensiometers from the tree and AUTHOR CONTRIBUTIONS
depth of slope) observed in this study as the correlation All authors contributed to the study conception and
value is reaching zero except for the station area showing design. Material preparation, data collection and analysis
no correlation exits with the other variables. were performed by MSIZ, MH and MFZ. The first draft
of the manuscript was written by MSIZ and all authors
CONCLUSIONS commented on previous versions of the manuscript. All
This investigation examined the effect of an Alstonia authors read and approved the final manuscript.
Angustiloba tree at the top of a slope on the tree water
uptake dispersions on tropical residual soil. Results showed CONFLICT OF INTEREST
that changes in climatic conditions resulted in variations in The authors declare that they have no known competing
tree water uptake profiles, especially on a slope with a tree financial interests or personal relationships that could have
at the top. The normal range of cutting slope arithmetic and appeared to inﬂuence the work reported in this paper.
the tree location at the top of the slope were considered, and
the matric suction profiles at a certain depth and distance REFERENCES
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Manuscript received 5 November 2022;

Accepted 3 May 2023

Tin mineralization indicator in Sungai Bahoi-Charok Jawa area,

Ulu Muda Forest Reserve, Kedah
Fakhruddin Afif Fauzi*, Hamdan Ariffin
Department of Mineral and Geoscience Malaysia, Kedah / Perlis / Pulau Pinang, Jalan Perak, off Jalan Putra,
05150 Alor Setar, Kedah, Malaysia
*Corresponding author email address: afif@jmg.gov.my
Abstract: A study on tin (Sn) mineralization indicator in Sungai Bahoi-Charok Jawa area was conducted through detailed
field geological mapping and stream sediment geochemistry analysis. The study area consists mainly of Late Triassic
igneous intrusion and sedimentary rocks of Carboniferous Kubang Pasu Formation. The conducted field mapping has
successfully discovered a band of brecciated phyllites along parts of granite – phyllite contact zone and a limestone hill
with caves in the study area. Based on the geochemical results and interpretations, 6 multielement anomaly areas were
delineated, where Sn exists as the main constituent.
Keywords: Geochemistry, geoheritage, Labua Cave, tin, Ulu Muda
Abstrak: Kajian petunjuk pemineralan timah (Sn) di kawasan Sungai Bahoi-Charok Jawa telah dilaksanakan berdasarkan
pemetaan geologi lapangan terperinci dan analisis geokimia sedimen sungai. Sebahagian besar kawasan kajian terdiri
daripada rejahan granit berusia Trias Akhir dan batuan sedimen Formasi Kubang Pasu berusia Karbon. Hasil pemetaan
lapangan berjaya menemukan jalur filit terbreksi di sepanjang sebahagian zon sentuhan granit – filit dan bukit batu
kapur yang mengandungi gua di kawasan kajian. Berdasarkan keputusan dan pentafsiran keputusan analisis geokimia,
sebanyak 6 kawasan beranomali pelbagai unsur dapat disempadankan, di mana sebahagian besarnya terdiri daripada Sn
sebagai unsur utama.
Kata kunci: Geokimia, geowarisan, Gua Labua, timah, Ulu Muda
INTRODUCTION Casual to small scale tin sluicing and panning activities had
Background also taken place at several main tributaries of upper Muda
Malaysia was once the largest tin producer in the world, River, currently known as Ulu Muda, particularly near Kg.
back in 1883. During that period, tin was mined extensively Teliang, Kg. Siam and Kg. Berhala prior to the construction
in Kinta Valley in Perak, Klang Valley in Selangor and of Muda Dam in 1969. Several tin mines were operated
Sungai Lembing in Pahang. on the Thailand side, in proximity to the Ulu Muda area
However, the tin mining activities in Kedah were (MT-JGSC, 2009).
dated earlier back in the 9th century by Arabic voyagers Nowadays, tin is still regarded as one of the metals that
including Abu Zaid (Winstedt, 1920), Abu Dulaf (Suarez, has high worldwide demands in many industries. In recent
1999) and Al-Mas’udi (1861). Yip (1969) reported that years, it is needed for manufacturing lead-acid batteries
tin trading agreement between Kedah and the Dutch was and lithium-ion batteries for start-stop and microhybrid
signed in the 17th century while Thow (1995) recorded that vehicles, as well as alloys for high technology equipment
tin mining activities in Kulim were monopolized by the (ITRI, 2017).
Chinese immigrants who had immigrated through Penang
since 1880. Semeling area of near the Gunung Jerai foothills Previous study
was probably the source of 4,470 piculs of tin ores exported The distribution of tin in Peninsular Malaysia was
from Kuala Muda district between 1906 and 1908 (Hart, divided into Western, Central and Eastern tin belts (Scrivenor,
1990). The ore, together with associated wolframite had 1931). According to Ishihara et al. (1979), the more-
been mined in the Sintok-Bukit Kachi area later in 1922 mineralized Western and Eastern tin belts are categorized
(Willbourn, 1926). as ilmenite series where divalent tin was enriched towards
In the Sik district, there is one placer tin prospecting ore during late magmatic fractionation, while the less-
activity that commenced in 1958 (Ismail, 1986; JMG, 2019). mineralized Central Tin Belt is categorized as magnetite

series as the trivalent tin was settled as trace composition Both Sungai Bahoi and Charok Jawa are among the main
in the earlier formed minerals. tributaries of Muda River and are regarded as the catchment
The origin of tin is related to granite intrusion events rivers for Muda Lake. They are dominated by subparallel
in the Western Belt which occurred between 230 and 210 to parallel drainage systems except near the downstream
million years ago, while in the Eastern Belt, the events tributary of Sungai Bahoi which shows notable dendritic
occurred between 290 and 270 million years ago (Yang et and centralized drainage systems, based on Howard (1967).
al., 2020). The tin granites were derived from polycyclic
events including metamorphism, anatexis and magmatic- GEOLOGICAL SETTING
tectonic related process (Hutchison & Chakraborty, 1979; The study area lies within the tin-bearing Main Range
Hutchison, 1988). Hosking (1973) divided the main tin Granite of Peninsular Malaysia. The granites are part of the
deposits in both tin belts into 4 types, which are pegmatite, Southeast Asian Magmatic Arc that was triggered during the
aplite, pyrometasomatic and hydrothermal. Chu et al. Early Permian to Triassic subduction-collision event due to
(1988) later reclassified the primary tin occurrences into 4 the closure of Paleo-Tethyan Ocean beneath the Southeast
main types: pneumatolytic-hydrothermal, pyrometasomatic, Asia crust (Robb, 2019).
stanniferous pegmatites and aplites, and stanniferous The tin granites of western Peninsular Malaysia are
polymetallic sulfide bodies. considered as a result of partial melting of the metamorphic
The earliest study on tin in Kedah was conducted as part basement during the collision of Sibumasu and East Malaya
of a Regional Mapping Program by the Geological Survey blocks (Ng et al., 2015; Liu et al., 2020), based on their
Department back in 1970, and later by the Department of ilmenite-series, peraluminous character (Ishihara et al., 1979),
Mineral and Geoscience Malaysia (JMG) starting from 2001. and characteristic of S-type granites (Chappell & White, 2001).
Willbourn (1926) conducted a preliminary field observation The granite body in the study area, namely Rimba
at Ulu Muda, including the Sungai Bahoi-Charok Jawa area Telui granite is porphyritic and leucocratic, with feldspar
in 1922. This was followed by scouting from an airplane by phenocrysts and biotite spots (Abdul Rahman et al., 2008).
Bradford and a reconnaissance field mapping by Bradford The granite intruded Carboniferous areno-argillaceous
and Flinters in 1954 (Bradford, 1955), and a regional field bedrocks of Kubang Pasu Formation.
mapping by Mat Niza Abdul Rahman in years 1994 to 1995 The Gunung Labuah limestone hill is mentioned in
(Abdul Rahman, 1995). Willbourn (1926) to exist within the study area from which
Photogeological interpretations by Lai (1980) has native people collected saltpeter from the cave floor to
divided the study area into units of igneous intrusions, make gunpowder.
argillaceous, arenaceous-argillaceous and metamorphic Apart from the lithological information, at least ten
contact. Structural interpretations of Ulu Muda area were saltlicks including hot springs have been recorded in the
also completed by Mat Akhir & Abdullah (1997) using Ulu Muda area where two of them are located within the
LANDSAT thematic imageries. MT-JGSC (2009) later study area (Bashir Ali, 2014; Hor, n.d.).
conducted a detailed photogeological interpretation to
correlate geological information of Malaysia-Thailand MATERIALS AND METHODOLOGY
border for the Pengkalan Hulu-Betong transect area. Geological mapping and stream sampling
Regional studies on geochemistry and mineral Two series of field mappings and stream sediment
occurrences were also completed by Bradford (1955) and geochemical samplings were commenced simultaneously
Abdul Rahman et al. (2008) simultaneously with field throughout the study area for 35 cumulative days in 2013
mappings. and 2015 via flying camp due to limited accessibility.
Hence, this study aims to gather detailed geological Field mapping included observation of lithologies,
information of the Sungai Bahoi-Charok Jawa area, and to prominent geological structures and possible mineralization
obtain geochemical anomalies of Sn including other heavy and rock alteration occurrences.
elements based on close stream sediment samplings. Stream sediment geochemical samplings were focused
on streams under class 1 to 3 based on Strahler (1978). The
Topography of the study area silt samples were scooped within 50 meters range of one
The Sungai Bahoi-Charok Jawa area is situated in sampling location. Excluding 10 grams of wet samples for
the vicinity of Ulu Muda Forest Reserve in Sik district, Hg analysis, the samples were dried and sieved to remove
Kedah. Its topography is moderately to hilly with elevations any sand-sized grains to get a total weight of 60 grams each.
increasing to nearly 1,000 meters above sea level eastward. Heavy mineral concentrates were also obtained via panning
The study area comprises of about 142 km2 virgin jungles technique using 1 litre sized wooden pan at combined low
and is only accessible by boat from the Muda Jetty at Gubir, and high stream flow energy points per sampling location
and by foot to reach the upstream. The area is currently according to Fletcher et al. (1984) and Che Harun et al. (2009).
strictly prohibited for logging and hunting activities due Samples were dried and those for other element analysis were
to its proximity to Muda Lake (Figure 1). thoroughly cleaned to remove quartz grains before weighted

Tin mineralization indicator in Sungai Bahoi-Charok Jawa area, Ulu Muda Forest Reserve, Kedah
Figure 1: Location of the study area within the Ulu Muda Forest Reserve (top), old prospecting and saltlick or hot spring
locations within the study area (bottom left) and general geology and traverse routes by previous geologists and author in
the study area (bottom right).

Figure 2: Geochemical sampling locations in the study area.
and packed. Suitable rock samples showing mineralization anomaly value respectively while values which fall below
patterns were also taken for geochemical analysis in order to the 50th percentile and greater than the 95th percentile were
get heavy elements background values (Figure 2). respectively treated as background and high anomaly values.
The distributions of high anomaly areas based on elements
Geochemical and statistical analysis were mapped using ArcGIS 10.4.
All samples were sent to the JMG Geochemistry Lab in Lastly, cluster analysis was conducted by which areas
Kuantan for 17 heavy element analysis through Inductively consisting of two or more high anomaly of different elements
Coupled Plasma – Mass Spectrometry (for Ag, As, Ba, Bi, were delineated according to sample types. The analysis
Co, Cu, Fe, Mn, Mo, Ni, Pb, Sb, W and Zn), Fire Assay aimed to provide a possible elemental association that could
(Au), FIMS (Hg) and Atomic Absorption Spectrometry (Sn). lead to particular mineralization patterns.
The geochemical results for silt and heavy mineral
concentrate samples were then statistically analyzed in RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
order to get the elemental distribution histogram patterns Lithology
and basic parameter values including 50th, 85th and 95th The field mappings have successfully recognized 5 main
percentiles through Microsoft Excel. In this study, the ranges different bedrocks which are granites, phyllites, hornfels,
between the percentiles were regarded as low and moderate breccias and limestones (Figure 3).

Figure 3: Field mapping results.
The granites are porphyritic, consisting chiefly of in colour are found enveloping the granitic bedrocks at the
biotite, muscovite, plagioclase feldspar and quartz minerals southeastern part of the study area. Breccias are exposed
underlaying the lower parts of the Sungai Bahoi-Charok Jawa along parts of the boundaries between granites and phyllites
area and the upper part of Charok Pulu area (Figure 4A). within the upper part of Charok Jawa. The bedrocks consist
Joint readings of the bedrocks showed dominantly west to of poorly sorted and randomly oriented blackish to greyish
southwest directions. Aplites cut the bedrocks particularly clasts of angular to subangular phyllite clasts up to 5 cm
at the south part of Sungai Bahoi area, consisting chiefly in size with matrix of similar lithological origins but finer
of fine-grained plagioclase and quartz minerals with biotite grain size (Figure 4E).
as chief accessory minerals (Figure 4B). Limestones are found as a small hill with its diameter
Phyllites found are greyish, blackish or brownish mostly less than 50 meters and height up to 20 meters from
within the middle part of Sungai Bahoi, at the middle part of ground level. The outcrop has massive beddings but poorly
Charok Jawa, and at the upper part of Charok Jawa (Figure distinguished due to high metamorphism into marble with
4C, 4D). There are 3 different dipping plane directions major appearance of quartz veinlet swarms (Figure 4F).
observed; which is towards the southwest and northeast at Speleothems inside the 2 cave chambers found at the upper
the middle of Sungai Bahoi area, and towards the south at part of the hill consist of stalactites, stalagmites, pillars
the middle of Charok Jawa area. Hornfels, mainly brownish and flowstones (Figure 4G). The limestone area also sits

A B
C D
E F
G H
Figure 4: (A) Porphyritic biotite granites with phenocrysts of plagioclase feldspars cut by quartz veins at Sungai Bahoi downstream.
(B) Porphyritic biotite granite (left) borders or cut by aplites (right) found near Charok Pulu upstream. (C) Blackish to greyish phyllite
bedrocks at Charok Jawa upstream. (D) Moderately weathered phyllites with intercalations of calcareous facies found near the limestone
hill area within Sungai Bahoi area. (E) Breccias consisting clasts and matrix of blackish phyllites found within the central part of
Charok Jawa. (F) Limestone showing highly metamorphed to marble with fracture filling veinlets found as hill within Sungai Bahoi
area. (G) Karstic features including flowstones, speleotherms and stalagtites in the limestone hill cave. (H) Vertical granitic bedrock
bank (arrow) found at Charok Pulu indicating displacement due to fault.

on a negative circular feature, observed from aerial photo sedimentation from mechanical weathering in ancient fluvial
interpretation. Development of faults were also observed environment during post-Triassic or Quaternary period, or
at 4 locations where stream banks composed of granitic epizonic intrusion towards brittle phyllite bedrocks, which
bedrocks show displacement with slickensides featured on eventually created tectonic fracture zones along the margins
the surfaces (Figure 4H). of granite – metasedimentary bedrocks in the area, or a
The general descriptions of granites, phyllites and combination of both factors (Twiss & Moores, 2000). The
hornfels during the field mapping are similar but is more existence of large angular clasts in the breccia indicates short
detailed in Abdul Rahman et al. (2008). The phyllite roof distance and fast sedimentation (Surjono et al., 2004). In
pendant is notably a part of the Kubang Pasu Formation as relation to local tectonism, occurrence of the fracture zones
the outcrop has similar lithological features with the exposed is within the timeline of deposition of Saiong Bed (Khoo,
bedrock at upper Charok Jawa, and the descriptions in Abdul 1983) and faulting of Bok Bak (Burton, 1965), which was
Rahman et al. (2008). Based on its argillaceous characteristic, during Cretaceous period (Salmanfarsi et al., 2018) as both
the roof pendant is regarded as part of the lowest facies of geological features are due to major tectonic events and
Kubang Pasu Formation (Yap, 1991). The moderate to steeply closer to the study area.
dipping of beddings measured at the roof pendant suggest The limestone hill is confirmed as the Gunung Labuah
that its near anticlinal feature is caused by granitic intrusion. mentioned in Willbourn (1926). The hill contains 2 main
Similar steeply dipping of the Semanggol Formation bedrock cave chambers at its upper part, complete with stalactites,
near Karangan, Kulim is also reported to be triggered by the stalagmites and flowstones which indicate that there
intrusion of Kulim Granite (Courtier, 1974; Fauzi, 2020). were enough humidity, atmospheric precipitation and
The deposition of brecciated phyllite could possibly temperature to develop the karstic features (Sun et al.,
be due to factors including accumulation of debris or 2018). The karstic features are believed to be wider than
Table 1: Statistical values of geochemical result for silt samples in ppm, except Fe (%) and Hg (ppb).
Maximum
Minimum
Percentile
Percentile
Percentile
Deviation
Standard
Element
Median
Min
50th
90th
Ag 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.01 0.05 0.11 95th 0.14 0.25

As 9.57 5.00 8.53 1.60 5.00 21.97 29.30 42.00
Au 0.005 0.003 0.010 0.003 0 0.003 0 0.103
Ba 66.70 58.50 31.29 17.00 58.50 106.70 124.00 159.10
Bi 1.18 1.00 0.810 0.01 1.00 1.00 1.80 7.00
Co 7.51 5.15 6.25 0.84 5.15 16.00 20.00 30.00
Cu 24.30 16.00 25.19 1.00 16.00 66.99 79.80 104.00
Fe 1.84 1.62 0.95 0.19 1.62 3.17 3.88 5.03
Hg 19 16 14 3 16 37 43 79
Mn 601 366 566 85 366 1258 1672 4000
Mo 1.13 0.70 1.03 0.08 0.70 2.76 2.90 4.40
Ni 16.30 11.26 16.08 1.00 11.30 34.20 41.20 101.00
Pb 42.40 29.00 41.25 2.00 29.00 87.26 135.00 260.00
Sb 0.83 1.00 0.38 0.01 1.00 1.00 1.18 2.42
Sn 69 46 101 1 46 144 242 680
W 6.75 2.00 11.13 0.01 2.00 16.00 32.00 60.00
Zn 57.90 45.00 36.06 11.34 45.00 104.20 124.00 184.30

Table 2: Statistical values of geochemical result for heavy mineral concentrate samples in ppm, except Fe (%) and Hg (ppb).
Maximum
Minimum
Percentile
Percentile
Percentile
Deviation
Standard
Element
Median
Min
50th
90th
95th
Ag 0.19 0.01 0.37 0.01 0.01 0.71 1.04 1.69
As 17.45 10.8 16.53 0.50 10.80 38.67 47.91 77.20
Au 0.003 0.003 0 0.003 0.003 0.003 0.003 0.003
Ba 35.29 26.42 27.34 8.07 26.42 77.20 91.39 144.10
Bi 11.60 0.01 26.80 0.01 0.01 19.94 84.25 124.00
Co 4.55 2.00 5.45 0.84 2.00 10.00 13.34 29.00
Cu 18.52 6.60 24.55 0.68 6.60 53.10 72.20 103.00
Fe 3.18 2.80 2.03 0.47 2.80 5.51 7.68 10.20
Hg 9 7 8 3 7 19 28 33
Mn 2573 2524 1178 404 2524 4231 4377 5783
Mo 1.50 0.01 2.36 0.01 0.01 5.12 7.37 8.40
Ni 9.27 2.52 13.89 0.13 2.51 26.57 43.06 58.99
Pb 241.33 111.00 296.32 14.00 111.00 575.40 794.00 1419.00
Sb 0.01 0.01 0 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01
Sn 61598 28000 82200 1000 28000 187780 236800 424500
W 36.59 3.52 79.99 0.01 3.52 120 222.22 400.00
Zn 93.16 82.16 50.36 18.47 82.16 154.90 191.82 250.00
the hill area as there are very poor vegetations around the also show high concentrations while Ag, Au, Hg and Sb
hill ground and missing stream flow within its proximity, elements do not show significant values in both sample types.
suggesting the occurrence of underground streams due to The elemental distributions according to sample types
either cavities or voids underneath the ground level. This which falls between moderate and high anomaly values are
is also supported by the negative circular feature where plotted accordingly (Figure 5).
the limestone hill sits, by which the negative type is The distributions of moderate (85th to 95th percentile)
commonly interpreted as depressions due to existence of and high anomaly (> 95th percentile) values for all
karstic voids beneath ground level (Gutiérrez & Cooper, elemental concentration in the silt samples appear within
2013) (Figure 6). the sedimentary bedrocks at Charok Jawa- Charok Taroi
area, around hornfels bedrock at Sungai Bahoi and granitic
Stream sediment geochemistry bedrock at the upstream of Charok Pulu while those in
A total of 125 silt and 76 heavy mineral concentrate concentrate samples appear within the limestone bedrock
from stream sediments including 3 fresh rock samples were and Charok Taroi area (Figure 6). The geochemical results
successfully obtained and analyzed. The basic statistical of rock samples show that the limestone contains a high
parameter values and percentiles of elemental geochemical concentration of Au while quartz veins contain prominently
results for silts and heavy mineral concentrates are shown high concentrations of As, Ba, Bi, Co, Cu, Hg, Mn, Pb, Sn,
in Table 1 and Table 2. W and Zn, in either one or both samples (Table 3).
The concentrations of Sn in heavy mineral concentrate The field geological mapping conducted has successfully
samples is significantly high, from 1,000 up to 424,500 updated the geological information of the study area with aids
ppm. Although the Sn values range from 1 to 680 ppm in from different traverse routes. The geological mappings has
the silt samples, the Mn values show higher results which also discovered the occurrence of brecciated phyllite at the
range from 85 to 4,000 ppm. The Cu, Pb and Zn elements contacts between Kubang Pasu Formation and Rimba Telui

Table 3: Geochemical results of rock samples in ppm, except Hg (ppb).
Sample No. R01 R02 R03
Rock type Limestone

Quartz vein Quartz vein
(with veinlets)
Ag 0.04 7.48 0.07
As 5.40 36.50 110.50
Au 0.010 0.003 0.003
Ba 10.38 8.82 22.90
Bi 0.01 805.80 0.42
Co 5.05 52.63 59.10
Cu 1.45 57.73 28.93
Fe 0.01 7,800 7,200
Hg 7.00 42.00 20.00
Mn 48.33 183.10 52.70
Mo 0.01 3.17 2.45
Ni 0.40 2.43 6.51
Pb 0.04 361.20 12.86
Sb 0.22 0.18 0.01
Sn 0.01 17.13 0.01
W 6.63 249.80 194.40
Zn 26.94 74.84 58.69
Granites; while confirming the existence of the limestone circular features could be due to either greisen related deposit
hill mentioned previously by Willbourn (1926). type as reported in Bongsu Granite in Kulim, or skarn-related
Cluster analysis of moderate and high elemental deposit type, due to its proximity to limestone, similar
concentration values have successfully delineated 2 to Bujang Melaka area near Kampar in Perak (Schwartz
multielement anomalies from concentrate samples (C01 & Abdul Kadir, 1989; Fauzi et al., 2019). Multielement
and C02) and 5 multielement anomalies from silt samples combinations also suggest the possible mineralization could
(S01, S02, S03, S04 and S05). All anomaly areas lie on the be either greisen Sn-W, skarn, sulfides Pb-Sn or porphyry-
contact zone between granites and sedimentary bedrocks, Au (Rose et al., 1979; Ridley, 2013). The occurrence of
except S03 and S04 which dominantly sit on granites, gold mineralization in the study area does not appear in
while only S01 and S04 do not contain Sn as a constituent any gold belts in Peninsular Malaysia mentioned in Yeap
element (Figure 7). (1993). Nonetheless, gold was reported to occur in Weng
The stream sediment samples act as secondary sources area, 20 km southeast from the study area (Abdul Rahman
in order to determine ridges and spurs where primary et al., 2008).
mineral deposit exists. Anomalies from fine-sized silt
sample could indicate either the main mineralized zone or CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS
ore lodes located further upstream or deeper beneath the The conducted study on the geology of the Sungai
ground while anomalies from coarser-sized concentrate Bahoi-Charok Jawa area has successfully completed the
samples indicate closer primary source of mineralization geological information with aids from different traverse
(Fauzi, 2018). routes by previous geologists. The brecciated phyllites
Geochemical results of rock samples also generally along the contact zone between granites and Kubang Pasu
confirmed that most elemental anomaly come from quartz Formations and limestone hills near the Sungai Bahoi
vein which contains gold and tin. High anomaly within the downstream were newly discovered.

Figure 5: Distributions of moderate and high anomaly values from silt and concentrate samples according to element type.

Figure 5: Distributions of moderate and high anomaly values from silt and concentrate samples according to element type
(continued).

Figure 6: Geology of the study area, combined with results of field mappings and lineaments from aerial photo
interpretations.
The geochemical result of Sn based on heavy mineral spur sampling and geophysical survey particularly on high
concentrate samples ranges from 1,000 to 424,500 ppm, by anomaly areas, especially within the circular features and
which high anomaly value starts at 236,800 ppm. Cluster within the proximity of already discovered mineralized
analysis based on the results has also successfully determined quartz vein. Besides tin, the occurrence of gold within
multielement anomaly areas within the granite – sedimentary the study area is also interesting and should be further
contact zone, by which Sn appears as the main element in studied. Additional study on the age and geoheritage values
5 out of 7 anomaly areas. The high concentration of Sn and of the limestone hill and its caves is also suggested to be
its anomaly areas which mostly sit on granitic – sedimentary carried out.
contact zone indicates that tin mineralization exist in the
Sungai Bahoi-Charok Jawa area. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Further study on tin metallic mineral potential is also The authors wish to acknowledge the Director of
suggested to be carried out to define its primary resource. Mineral and Geoscience Malaysia for his permission for
Recommended study includes detailed mapping, ridge and this work to be published. The authors would like to thank

Figure 7: Distributions of multielement anomalies in the study area.
the anonymous reviewers for their constructive comments CONFLICT OF INTEREST

and suggestions which helped us to improve the article. The authors declare there is no conflict of interest.
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Manuscript received 6 November 2021;

Received in revised form 10 November 2022;
Accepted 10 January 2023

Synopsis of Upper Tukau Deposits along the Sungai Rait Road,

Miri District, Sarawak, Malaysia
Franz L. Kessler1,*, John Jong2 , Ramasamy Nagarajan3,4
1
Goldbach Geoconsultants O&G and Lithium Exploration, Bommichring 7A 63864 Glattbach, Bavaria, Germany
2
JX Nippon Oil and Gas Exploration (Malaysia) Limited,
Level 17, Menara Prestige, No. 1, Jalan Pinang, 50450 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
3
Department of Applied Sciences (Applied Geology), Curtin University, CDT 250, Miri, Malaysia
4
Curtin Malaysia Research Institute, Curtin University, CDT 250, Miri, Malaysia
* Corresponding author email address: franzlkessler32@gmail.com
Abstract: The Upper Tukau Formation is exposed along the Sungai Rait Road and can be described as follows: the
lowermost member is formed by soft clay and silt, the “Brick Shale”, and contains meandering sandy channels. The clay
is thoroughly excavated in the area and used as raw material for bricks. The second and hilltop-forming layer is built by
relatively hard amalgamated, and partly channelized sandstone layers, often lined with diagenetically precipitated iron
minerals (i.e., pyrite and siderite concretions). The youngest member is characterized by intertidal channels and mud flats.
Geochemical studies point to a polymictic source of already recycled sediments, deposited in predominantly oxic, partly
suboxic environments, with rapid transitions observed from one milieu to the other. In broad terms, the entire sequence
appears to be a shallowing-upwards cycle, leading from subtidal to intertidal realms. The surprising sharp boundaries
between clay and sand packages are discussed and may be related to climate cycles.
Keywords: Tukau, Sungai Rait, Late Miocene, Pliocene, clastic sediments, sedimentology, geochemistry, paleoclimate,
Sarawak, Northwest Borneo
INTRODUCTION (correlation by Artis 1941, in Wannier et al., 2011 and

The Sungai Rait Road is an old trail (Figure 1), Petroleum Museum, Miri, Sarawak).
which provided access to a few isolated settlements, The Tukau Formation outcrops are found in Miri
as well as to isolated farms, clay quarries, and brick (Kpg Lopeng, Ocean Park settlement), exposing at road
factories. In 2022, the road now links the Pan-Borneo cuts along the coastal road between Bakam and the Tusan
Highway with the coastal Miri-Bintulu Road. Over the junctions, also along the Pan-Borneo Highway between
years, several quarries and outcrops were created and, Miri and Sungai Liku, and following the Sungai Rait
unfortunately so, later destroyed, because of the ongoing Road (Figure 1).
construction activity of brick factories and claiming of The (past and present) outcrops in Sungai Rait show
farmlands. Given outcrops in soft formation have in segments of a ca. 120 m thick sequence of claystone and
general a very short lifespan, it is necessary to log fresh sandstone deposits. This study takes record of the now-
outcrops immediately, such that the rock information is and-then outcrops in the period between 2011 and 2023
recorded and not lost. and refers to additional fieldwork (e.g., Kessler & Jong,
The exposed sediments belong to the Tukau Formation, 2015a, 2016, 2017, 2019; Kessler et al., 2019), emphasizing
a relatively soft sequence of sandstone and claystone. The on stratigraphy as well as results of bulk geochemistry.
term Tukau stems from a rural area South of Miri, and These were carried out at Curtin University Malaysia, and
the formation name dates back to the Sarawak Oilfields the University of Malaya between 2011 and 2017, partly
Ltd. (Shell) geologists Braendlin and Trumpy who in ca. in context with undergraduate mapping projects and post-
1925 noticed that the deposits East of Miri’s Canada Hill graduate studies.
were much softer and younger (“Pliocene”) compared to The Sungai Rait Road and its tributaries offer several
the outcropping strata seen outcropping on the crest of very nice outcrops, that are easily accessed. Therefore, it is
the Canada Hill, the so-called Miri Formation. During the important to summarize the results of current and previous
1920’s correlations between Seria and Brunei were carried studies for the sake of further developing the catalog of
out, suggesting Tukau and Seria formations were coeval geological study sites in the surroundings of Miri.

Franz L. Kessler, John Jong , Ramasamy Nagarajan
Figure 1: Index map of the Tukau outcrops South of Miri. Outcrop locations along the Sungai Rait lace the
northern boundary of the Bukit Lambir National Park Road are marked by blue pointers, Sg-1 to -5. The orange
markers refer to road junctions on the main roads, which can easily be overlooked. The bold black line in the
inset map shows the approximate line location of Figure 2.
GEOLOGICAL AND STRATIGRAPHIC SETTING The Upper Tukau sequence is the southern leg of a
The term “Tukau” refers to an area of small hamlets prominent syncline South of Miri. The strata strike SW-NE and
South of Miri airport, and in the foothills of Bukit Lambir. dip with an angle of some 15 ° in the north-western direction.
The clastic sequence of up to 2800 m was first mapped by The Tukau Formation overlies the Middle-Late Miocene Belait-
a Shell geologist (Sarawak Oilfields Ltd), as well as later Miri and Belait-Lambir formations, and is therefore without
by the Geological Survey of Sarawak. The term “Tukau question of younger age (Figure 2). The exposed cliff sections
Formation” is used for a sequence of gently dipping clastic of this study are the youngest of the folded sequences. Folding
sediments between Miri and the Sungai Liku water intake occurred, judging from the context of better-dated neighboring
along the Miri-Bintulu trunk road, now transformed by the rocks, during the Early (?) Pliocene time.
Pan-Borneo Highway construction. The early geological It may be related to a Pliocene-Holocene reactivation
works were summarized by Liechti et al. (1960) and of the Baram Line System leading to strike-slip movements
Hutchison (1996; 2005). Liechti et al. (1960) also produced and the rise of pop-up structures such as Bukit Lambir, and
a very reliable geological map of the area. Wilford (1961) the Canada Hill in Miri. The movement affected the coastal
reviewed the mostly brackish microfauna, but clear age area between Bekenu and Miri, and also Miri to Seria and
boundaries could not be established. the proximal offshore delta.
Figure 2: Geological section through Bukit Lambir, the Miri Hill and the Badas Syncline with the
Tukau Formation at its center. The red bar indicates the area of outcrops. See Figure 1 inset map for
line location. After Kessler & Jong (2016).

Synopsis of Upper Tukau Deposits along the Sungai Rait Road, Miri District, Sarawak, Malaysia
The Tukau Formation in Sungai Rait can be divided sedimentologists (Sarawak Shell, JX Nippon), and no
into three members (Figure 3): alternative interpretation has ever been proposed to
1. The oldest member (Member 1), the “Brick Shale”, date.
consists of some 50 meters of laminated dark-grey to At Sg-2, Brick Shale Member 1 is seen intersected
black silty claystones, the dark color being caused by by canyons with sandy fill, above transition to the
the presence of pyrite in the rock (Figure 4). These amalgamated sand sheet Member 2. The described
are extensively mined in the area and burned in brick point bar of Sg-4 may be coeval with the channel fill
factories (Figure 5). The sequence is transected by a few outcrop (Figure 7).
channelized sandstone bodies, which were meandering 2. The middle member, (= Member 2), the amalgamated
through a low-energy subtidal shelf area. A world-class sand sheet is formed by a 30-60 m thick and compact
point bar section of one channelized body is exposed sandstone sheet composed of amalgamated channelized
in outcrop Sg-4 (Figures 6a and b). The pictures sandstone, and exposed in outcrops Sg-2, Sg-3, and
show gently dipping accretional laminae of lenticular Sg-5. The sequence forms hilltops (Figures 8a and b),
sandstone bodies, which appear to be overlain by a thin and the contemporary morphology is a remnant from
planar sandstone bed, and a silty abandonment unit a continuous layer, which later became incised during
above. A point bar is a depositional feature composed the Pleistocene (?). There is hardly any clay in this
of alluvial sediments that develop on the inside bend of sequence. The sands appear to have been deposited in
streams and rivers below the slip-off slope. Point bars a mostly oxic, high-energy shelf environment, and the
are found in most mature or meandering streams, and sequence is mainly composed of fine- and mid-grain
the flow direction of the stream is perpendicular to the sand, in places, one can see aggradation and herring-
dip of the accretional laminae. The shown sequence of bone structures.
Sg-4 in Figures 6a and 6b is very sand-rich and contains 3. The deltaic tidally influenced sequence of Member 3
hardly any clay. forms a (no-longer accessible) cliff of some 10 meters
Unfortunately, the shown point bar section is an isolated in height (see Figure 9). The “Chicken Farm Cliff” is
outcrop, given that the updip and downdip continuations formed by an assembly of smaller, partly amalgamated
of the channel deposits are no longer preserved. channels, as well as silty patches and discontinuous clay
Accordingly, the interpretation of the feature as a layers (Figure 10). In this one can observe coal clasts
point bar could be judged interpretative. However, the and amber. Sandy layers contain well preserved trace
feature has been examined extensively by oil company fossils of Ophiomorpha labuanensis and Teichichnus
Figure 3: (Left) Simplified litho-stratigraphy scheme of the Sarawak foreland. The nomenclature of the Miri Formation is generally
used in the greater Miri area and is age-equivalent to the upper section of the Lambir Formation. The observed unconformity
events as annotated are established by Kessler & Jong (2017), and modified after Kessler & Jong (2015a). (Right) Sketch of the
Tukau Formation at Sungai Rait Valley area with relevant stratigraphic locations of Outcrops 1-5 (Sg-1 to Sg-5) annotated, where
Member 1 is dominated by “Brick Shale” black shale, Member 2 is formed by amalgamated sand sheets, while Member 3 lies
within a tidal depositional environment.

Figure 4a: Laminated black Brick Shale (= Member 1) overlain by the channelized
sand-sheet member (=Member 2), Sg-5. Picture ca. 2012. A very sharp boundary
between sand and clay is noted.
Figure 4b: Outcrop Sg-5 area. Member 1 Brick Shale forms the
bottom section, with the crest of Member 2 above. The latter forms
a relatively hard, competent plateau. It was later incised by the
Sungai Rait River and its tributaries. The picture was taken in 2022.
Figure 5: The brick factory in the Sungai Rait Valley. Bricks are manufactured from
the local clay pits and burned with waste wood.

Figure 6a: Sg-4. Isolated channel located within Member 1. The meandering channel formed a point bar
sequence, the flow was in an NE-SW direction (or in other words, parallel to the adjacent Sungai Rait Road).
Picture ca. 2022.
Figure 6b: Sg-4 point bar with interpretation overlay showing migrating accretionary system of the point bar,
which was later covered by a flat-lying younger sequence on top.

Figure 7: Sg-2 Brick Shale Member 1 intersected by canyons with sandy fill, above transition to
the amalgamated sand sheet Member 2. Photo from 2019. The point bar of Sg-4 may be coeval
with the channel fill outcrop in the center of the picture.
Figure 8a: Sg-2 in 2011. The hill-top forming Member 2 above Brick Shale with channel fill.
(Figure 11), which might point towards varying salinity Organic chemistry aspects. Sampling and analysis of
conditions. organic-rich deposits, mainly mudstones, are reported by
some researchers from the Neogene Formations (Togunwa
GEOCHEMICAL RESEARCH EFFORTS, et al., 2015; Togunwa & Abdullah, 2017; Adepehin et al.,
2011-2020 2019). The sampled formation is slightly older than Member
Since 2011, several mapping campaigns, bio-stratigraphic 1 in Sungai Rait, and located at the Pan-Borneo Highway
logging, geochemical sampling, and analysis projects, as well some 4 km away from the junction point with the Sungai
as several field visits were carried out. During such visits and Rait Road, and in the direction of Bintulu. The study results
mapping classes, a better understanding of the stratigraphic indicated the presence of organic-rich layers with a total
setting was achieved. Besides these general field studies, organic carbon (TOC) content of more than 1.0 wt.%. The
rock samples were taken for the determination of reservoir investigated biomarker parameters of acyclic isoprenoids,
properties and facies in dedicated programs. terpanes and steranes, and also saturated hydrocarbons

Figure 8b: The relatively hard amalgamated sandstone of Member 2 forms hilltop crests in the Sungai Rait
area. In the background, Bukit Lambir is seen, as a pop-up structure, and driven by wrench-fault tectonics.
Figure 9: Sg-1. The “Chicken-Farm” Cliff displaying the deltaic Member 3 in this previous world-class outcrop
is unfortunately no longer accessible since ca. 2018. This picture was taken in 2013.

Figure 10: Detail of the deltaic assembly in the Chicken Farm Cliff, Sg-1, picture was taken in 2012. The vertical section
shown is about 1 meter high.
Figure 11: Sg-1. Trace fossils of Ophiomorpha labuanensis and Teichichnus on a sandy
layer at the base of Member 3, with a satellite phone for scale. The abundant presence of
crab trace fossils might point toward varying salinity conditions.

pointed to a high contribution of land plants with minor the crystals in the Tukau samples were of Cretaceous and
marine organic matter input in the sediment. The sediments Triassic origin. Zircons of similar age and aspect are found
were deposited and preserved under generally oxic to suboxic in-situ within the granitoids of the Schwaner Mountains
conditions. This is further supported by low total sulphur (southern Borneo) and Tin Belt of the Malaysia Peninsular
(TS), high TOC/TN ratios, source- and redox-sensitive (Van Hattum et al., 2003, 2006, 2013; Nagarajan et al.,
trace elements, (V, Ni, Cr, Co, U and Mo) concentrations 2017b). Therefore, it was suggested that the principal area
and their ratios. Measured vitrinite and biomarker analysis of provenance, the Rajang Group, was again uplifted and
describe the marginal source rock facies as immature, in a eroded during the Neogene. The presence of chrome spinels
range of VRE values from 0.42 to 0.45. and their chemistry composition pointed to a minor share
Inorganic chemistry aspects. In parallel, further of mafic and ultramafic rocks present in the Rajang Group.
mapping campaigns and inorganic chemical research projects The redox-sensitive trace elements, (V, Ni, Cr, Co, U, and
were carried out at Curtin University Malaysia (Nagarajan Mo) concentrations and their ratios (i.e., V/Cr, Ni/Co, U/Th,
et al., 2014; 2017 a, b), both in the clay section of Member Authigenic Uranium, etc.; Jones & Manning, 1994) further
1, the basal sand section of Member 2, and in the cliff of the support that the sediments deposited majorly under oxic
Chicken Farm outcrop (Member 3). The rocks of the Member conditions. In addition, the bi-plots of these ratios (Figure
3 unit were chemically classified as shale, wacke, arkose, 12) suggest that the mudstones of the Tukau Formation
litharenite, and quartz arenite and consist of quartz, illite, are deposited under oxic conditions. The mudstones of the
feldspar, rutile and anatase, zircon, tourmaline, chromite, Tukau Formation are characterized by the low abundances
and monazite. Illite is the dominant clay type compared to of VEF, CuEF, ZnEF, NiEF, UEF and CrEF, which are in the range
others and are rich in silty rock layers (Nagarajan et al., of 0.30-0.99 (avg. 0.81), 0.24-2.01 (avg. 0.93), 0.36-1.38
2017a, b). All the minerals are highly matured and were (avg.0.67), 0.40-0.92 (avg. 0.67), 0.36-1.42 (avg.1.07)
derived from a moderate to intensively weathered source and 0.44-2.52 (avg. 0.95), respectively. The low values
area, the metamorphic Rajang Group. Bulk and mineral indicate that the water column during the deposition was
chemistry suggested that these rocks were recycled from well-oxygenated (Algeo & Liu, 2020). In addition, this
sedimentary to metasedimentary source regions with some condition is not supportive to preserve the labile organic
input from granitoid and mafic-ultramafic rocks. The matter (Canfield, 1994).
chondrite normalized REE signature indicated the felsic Diagenetic phenomena. Kessler & Jong (2019)
nature of source rocks, which have undergone multiple documented the presence of iron and pyrite minerals at
cycles of recycling. Zircon geochronology showed that the interface between claystone and sandstone. The pyrite
Figure 12: Biplots of redox-sensitive elements ratios show the redox conditions for
the Tukau Formation mudstones. Redox proxies range from Hatch & Leventhal (1992)
and Jones & Manning (1994).

concretions are formed in different shapes and sizes and In a nutshell, the studied Tukau deposits derive from
mainly consist of quartz and pyrite minerals with the trace of uplifted, eroded, and recycled Rajang Group materials, and
cattierite, goethite, berlinite, and arsenopyrite (Nagarajan et are deposited in predominantly oxic (clay/siltstone/mudstone)
al., 2022). When clay compacts, it releases cation-rich fluids, and occasionally suboxic environments. In addition, the
and again once more when the clay minerals recrystallize reducing conditions that prevailed during diagenesis helped
and eject additional fluids. Iron is also released when pyrite to form pyrite concretions. At the boundaries between
within the clay matrix is oxidized leading to Fe++ irons, sandstone and claystone, fluid circulation has led to crusts
these being mobilized as Fe2SO4. Clay-derived and relatively of iron-rich diagenetic deposits. In the subsurface, the
acidic fluids percolate in the sedimentary deposits, pervade deposits commonly show up as hard layers on wireline
sandstone reservoirs, and interact with the original, relatively logs that form migration barriers and are challenging for
alkaline reservoir fluids. These contain Ca++ and Mg++ ions hydrocarbon production (Kessler & Jong, 2019).
in the form of calcium and magnesium carbonate (CaHCO3,
CaMgCO3). The reaction leads to precipitation of siderite DISCUSSION
(FeCO3) and dolomite (MgCa(CO3)2), accumulating in The available data are suggestive of a deposition
laminar deposits at the sandstone/claystone interface. In the environment under marginal marine conditions. The
studied outcrops, we observed siderite (mostly transformed substantial outflow of several rivers may have led to brackish
to hematite) lacing the sandstone to clay boundaries. In environments like contemporaneous shoreface areas adjacent
the outcrops, the iron deposits reach a typical thickness to the Baram Delta, particularly in the uppermost Member 3.
of some 10 cm, forming an observed migration barrier for The entire sequence appears to be a shallowing-upward cycle
fluid mobility and reducing permeability (Kessler & Jong, leading from a low-energy subtidal realm to amalgamated
2019). Interestingly, the layers are of laterally constant subtidal channels and sand sheets to an intertidal sequence.
thickness suggesting that the observed diagenetic deposits The rapid changes of water energy from clay/silt to
originated on a regional scale and are not a local process. sand and back, the sharp boundary between the lower
Iron-rich crusts are a common phenomenon in Baram Delta and the middle unit is somewhat surprising (Figure 13).
reservoirs as well. Even more so, given there is hardly any evidence of
Figure 13: Rhythmic changes from all-shale to all-sand are typical for the entire Tukau sequence. This example
(we call it the pyramid) is in the Lower Tukau near Sungai Liku and exposed at the Pan-Borneo Highway.
(Picture taken in 2022).

incision or scouring at the base of sand sheets. Such rapid AUTHOR CONTRIBUTIONS
changes from clay/silt sedimentation to massive sheet FLK - paper conceptualization, literature review,
sand deposits and back are characteristic for the entire data analysis and interpretation, writing and editing,
Tukau sequence with exception of the uppermost folded figure drafting; JJ – literature review, data analysis and
tidally influenced layers such as the Chicken-Farm Cliff interpretation, writing and editing, figure drafting. JJ and
sequence of Member 3. Although the sedimentary pattern RN – literature review, data analysis and interpretation,
is clearly a rhythmical feature, the reasons for the sharp writing and editing, figure drafting.
sediment boundaries are poorly understood. Could they
be caused by climatic patterns such as the intensity of CONFLICT OF INTEREST
the monsoon rain? The authors have no conflicts of interest to declare in
Alternatively, one might consider an interplay between connection with this article.
sea level changes and a slowly rising Sarawak Foreland
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Manuscript received 23 March 2023;

Received in revised form 8 May 2023;
Accepted 10 May 2023

Geochemistry and mineralogy of prehistoric pottery shards found

at Gua Kelew, Nenggiri Valley, Kelantan, Malaysia
Muhamad Shafiq Mohd Ali*, Zuliskandar Ramli, Nur Farriehah Azizan
Laboratory of Archaeology and Archaeometry, Institute of the Malay World and Civilization,
Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, 43600 UKM Bangi, Selangor
* Corresponding author email address: muhdshafiq@ukm.edu.my
Abstract: Gua Kelew is one of the newly discovered caves by archaeological researchers in Malaysia. This cave has
the potential to become one of Malaysia’s prehistoric sites from the findings from site surveys and archaeological
excavations. Among the artifacts that were found are stone tools, earthenware, ceramics, snail shells, cave paintings and
animal bones. The discovered earthenwares were analyzed for their mineral content in order to determine whether they
were made locally around the cave or brought from elsewhere. The outcome of this analysis is vital as the data would
provide proof that the community living in the cave or the surrounding area had its own technology for manufacturing
the earthenwares. However, if the earthenwares were brought from elsewhere, it is believed that trade or the exchange
of goods between communities living inland and near the coast had occurred. Composition of the earthenware samples
was obtained by X-Ray Diffraction (XRD) analysis for mineral content and also X-Ray Flouresence (XRF) analysis
for major, minor and trace elements. Findings from the XRD analysis show that the mineral content in the earthenware
samples are quartz, calcite and anorthoclase, while the XRF analysis shows a high content of silica and aluminium. The
analysis also discovered that all of the earthenwares found in Gua Kelew used the same raw materials obtained from
the same area. Based on the graph plot analysis, the data exhibits differences in the elements between the earthenware
samples and the surrounding area’s clay samples. Hence, it is suggested that the earthenwares found in Gua Kelew were
not produced in the Hulu Kelantan area. This also indicates that the earthenwares may have been brought from another
location to the area through trade deal between the local and foreign communities.
Keywords: Gua Kelew, Nenggiri Valley, Kelantan, earthenware, prehistoric, XRD, XRF
INTRODUCTION 1947), Gua Batu Cincin (Zuliskandar, 2019), Gua Chawan

The cave is one of the favoured places for shelter (Peacock, 1964; Ahkemal Ismail et al., 2018), Gua Jaya
amongst prehistoric people. There is also evidence that (Peacock, 1964: Supian et al., 2018), Gua Kecil Batu Tambah
caves were still in use until the historical era, particularly (Azhar et al., 2018), Gua Gemalah (Muhamad Fazrullah
by indigenous people. However, the discussion of whether et al., 2019) and also a survey of the prehistoric sites and
it was occupied for an extended period or seasonal is limestones caves around the Nenggiri River by Zuliskandar
still debatable. The word ‘Gua’ was originally from the (2019). Research on limestone or protected caves in Hulu
Sanskrit word ‘Guha’, while ‘Cave’ comes from the Latin Kelantan is no longer unfamiliar to archaeologists. After
word ‘Cavus’, which means hole. Most of the caves found several continuous discoveries, the limestone sites inhabited
in Malaysia are on limestone hills, in which most of the by prehistoric communities has made Hulu Kelantan unique
prehistoric settlements in Malaysia are found. in terms of its history.
Since 1939, there have been several studies conducted Among the new sites that have never been mentioned
by foreign and local researchers regarding the limestone or surveyed before by researchers is Gua Kelew. Gua
caves habited by prehistoric communities. Among the sites Kelew is one of the caves near the Neggiri River in
that were subjected to research by scholars are Gua Cha Kelantan. The coordinate of Gua Kelew is 105.03976° N
(Noone, 1939; Sieveking, 1954, 1954-1955, 1987; Hooijer, and 101.54564° E. This cave is 62 meters above sea level.
1962; Adi Taha, 1985; Endicott & Bellwood, 1991; Bullbeck, It is also situated near Kampung Kledong (Nur Farriehah
2005), Gua Musang (Peacock, 1959), Gua Chawas (Adi et al., 2019), where the path shares the same route to an
Taha, 1998 & 2007), Gua Peraling (William-Hunt, 1951; aboriginal village, Pos Pulat. The distance between Gua
Adi Taha, 1998 & 2007), Gua Tampaq (Peacock & Dunn, Kelew and the Neggiri River is only 700 meters in a
1968), Gua Madu (Tweedie, 1940), Bukit Pulai (Rentse, straight line (Figure 2).

Based on the preliminary research and survey These findings indirectly prove that prehistoric societies
conducted by Nur Farriehah et al. (2019), they assume once inhabited the area until historical era societies,
that Gua Kelew may have been a settlement or stopover especially the indigenous people.
for prehistoric society and lasted until the historical The discovered stone tools consist of hammers, axes
era of society, particularly the indigenous people. This and even smoothing stones. These items are tools used by
opinion is based on several exciting discoveries in Gua prehistoric societies for various functions ranging from
Kelew. Among the findings discovered from surveying the cutting, chopping and hunting (Wan Noor Shamimi et
surface around the cave is some artefacts removed from al., 2018). Axes were produced in different shapes and
the ground. These include stone tools, earthenware and sizes with tapered sides to suit their function and use. In
ceramics. Other than artefacts, cave paintings are plastered addition, several ceramics were also found on the surface.
on several cave wall panels (Zuliskandar et al., 2020). This includes blue and white bowl fragments from the
Ching Dynasty of the 19th century, blue and white ceramic
fragments from the Ming Dynasty of 16th century that has
a Sanskrit inscription that reads ‘sacred symbol’; and a red
and white ceramic fragment dated in the 19th century A.D.
from the Netherlands.
Besides stone tools and ceramics, several cave drawings
can also be seen on the cave walls. The cave drawings
inside Gua Kelew are pictographs that used monochromatic
black as charcoal was the medium used. The several forms
identified by Nur Farriehah et al. (2019) and Zuliskandar
et al. (2020) are of anthropomorphic (human), zoomorphic
(animal), geometric and even abstract unidentifiable shapes.
The discovery of the cave drawings shows that the people
who inhabited Gua Kelew had left marks to indicate their
presence. Cave drawings that were drawn using black
charcoal as medium are usually made by the indigenous
people, as many researchers believe that the prehistoric
society preferred using hematite material that has a darker
red colour to draw on the cave walls; where hematite is an
older drawing medium compared to charcoal (Zuliskandar,
2020). Zuliskandar (2020) also believes that the drawings
found in Gua Kelew were drawn by the Temiar indigenous
people from the Senoi ethnic group from the nearby areas
Figure 1: Map showing the location of Gua Kelew. Source: Modified
surrounding the cave.
from Zuliskandar (2019).
Figure 2: Map showing the location of Gua Kelew and the Neggiri River. Source: Google Earth (2022).

Geochemistry & mineralogy of prehistoric pottery shards found at Gua Kelew, Nenggiri Valley, Kelantan
that can be identified, while some are difficult to identify

due to the fragments being too small.
The earthenware found at archaeological sites must
be examined to determine whether they were locally made
or brought in from elsewhere. If it was made by the local
community, the earthenware is then a proof of the local
community’s wisdom in pottery-making technology in the
past. However, if proven otherwise, this indicates that the
local community at that time had a relationship with other
communities outside of their circle. This can attest to the
local wisdom of prehistoric societies of the past. The origin
of the earthernware can be known by analyzing the source
of the raw material i.e., clay, that was used to make the
pottery. Karina (1990) states that a potter will only take
Figure 3: Cave drawings found in Gua Kelew.
clay within a seven kilometre radius from his location.
Mohd Kamaruzzaman (1991) noted that the clay in Pulau
EARTHENWARE Kalumpang was taken between 7 and 14 kilometres radius,
Earthenware is among the findings that were obtained which considers the distance between Pulau Kalumpang
during the surface survey. The earthenware found is entirely with Kuala Sepetang and Kuala Gula. However, boats were
in the form of fragments as not many complete earthenware used in Pulau Kalumpang to take clay from a remote area.
was found in the preliminary research and studies conducted In order to identify the source of clay used to make the
by the archaeological teams in Kelantan, Kedah and Pahang. earthenwares, a chemical analysis can be done to obtain the
Earthenware is one of the tools used by the prehistoric most critical chemical and morphological content (Mohd
society in their daily life. In addition, earthenware is also Anuar, 1991; Chia, 1997; Ertem & Demirci, 1999; Bishop
believed to have been first used and made by the Neolithic et al., 1982; Moradi et al., 2013; Sarhaddi-Dadian et al.,
community. Therefore, it can be said that the remains of 2015; 2017; 2021; Ramli, 2011; 2012; 2013a; 2013b; 2014a;
earthenware fragments and several complete ones can 2014b; 2017; 2018; Ali et al., 2015). This can be done by
be found at every Neolithic site in Malaysia. However, comparing the chemical content of the earthenware with
according to Rivka (1973), humans had began to recognize the clay around the discovery area. If the chemical content
the use of clay in the Mesolithic period, about 12,000 years is similar, it can be postulated that the earthenware were
ago, when humans at that time were good at shaping animal made around the area. However, if proven otherwise, it
sculptures and human bodies using unburned clay. can be ascertained that the earthenware were brought from
Asyaari (2002) stated that prehistoric society had begun outside the area, due to an exchange of goods between the
to treat clay as one of the essential tools in their daily lives coastal and inland communities. Past researchers favoured
as it could be used as food storage containers and tools or chemical analysis to determine the mineral or element
utensils to prepare food. Its importance was recognized by content of earthenwares.
prehistoric society when they needed utensils for cooking Among the earthenwares that had been studied are the
and storing cooked food. The use of pottery as a daily tool ones found in Kota Melawati, Selangor (Zuliskandar et
began when prehistoric culture understood the nature of al., 2011), Pulau Kalumpang (Mohd Kamaruzzaman et al.,
clay which is easy to form when wet and hardens when dry 1991), Gua Angin, Kota Gelanggi, Pahang (Zuliskandar et
after burning. This knowledge was then further developed al., 2001), Gua Peraling, Kelantan (Zuliskandar et al., 2006),
with the production of various types of earthenware used Gua Bukit Chawas (Zuliskandar et al., 2007), Gua Cha,
as tools in daily life for different purposes such as cooking, Kelantan (Asyaari, 1998; Zuliskandar et al., 2006), Bukit
storing food and drinking water (Asyaari, 2010). Menteri, Selangor (Asyaari, 1998), Kodiang, Kedah (Asyaari,
Several decorative shapes or motifs can be physically 1998), Gua Harimau, Gua Tukang, Gua Gelok and Gol Bait in
seen on the earthenware fragments. Among the patterns or Perak (Asyaari, 1998), and also Gua Jaya (Muhamad Shafiq
decorative motifs identified on the fragments is the parallel et al., 2021). Past researchers on prehistoric earthenwares
line motif, and a parallel notching motif better known as had done numerous tests, while this study would provide
the comb pattern. The parallel lines or comb patterns are additional information on the chemical content analysis of
typically created using the incising technique with tools prehistoric clay earthenware found during excavations and
such as sharp wood, bone or animal tooth (Muhammad Afiq, surveys conducted in Gua Kelew, Ulu Kelantan.
2017). In addition, a small number of decorative motifs in
the form of cord marks were also found, while some other RESEARCH METHODS
earthenware fragments do not have any pattern or motif. This study was conducted by taking 15 samples of
There are also some fragments of the earthenware with parts earthenware found during the survey and archaeological

excavations conducted at Gua Kelew. Each sample was the physical characteristic i.e., its colour, was recorded. The
named T.G.K. in conjunction with the Gua Kelew pottery, colour information on the outside, middle and inside of the
namely TGK1, TGK2, TGK3, TGK4, TGK5, TGK6, TGK7, samples can be seen in Table 1 below. Once crushed, the
TGK8, TGK9, TGK10, TGK11, TGK12, TGK13, TGK14 colour of the sample was again retrieved, as seen in Table 2.
and TGK15, as can be seen in Table 1. Other earthenware The earthenware samples were washed with clean
finds were only analyzed physically because their size is too water and dried under the sun for several days to ensure
small to be taken as a sample. Before a sample is crushed, the samples were completely dehydrated. Two analyses
Table 1: The name and colour of the Gua Kelew earthenware shard samples.
Sample name Sample colour
Outside: HUE 10YR 8/1 White

Middle: HUE 10YR 8/3 Very Pale Brown
Inside: HUE 10YR 8/3 Very Pale Brown
TGK1
Outside: HUE 10YR 3/3 Dark Brown

Middle: HUE 10YR 4/3 Dark Brown
Inside: HUE 10YR 3/1 Very Dark Gray
TGK2
Outside: HUE 10YR 3/2 Very Dark Grayish Brown

Middle: HUE 10YR 5/2 Grayish Brown
TGK3

Outside: HUE 10YR 8/3 Very Pale Brown

Middle: HUE 10YR 8/4 Very Pale Brown
Inside: HUE 10YR 6/4 Light Yellowish Brown
TGK4
Outside: HUE 10YR 3/1 Very Dark Gray

Middle: HUE 10YR 3/1 Very Dark Gray
Inside: HUE 10YR 3/3 Dark Brown
TGK5
Outside: HUE 10YR 4/1 Dark Gray

Middle: HUE 10YR 5/1 Gray
TGK6
Outside: HUE 10YR 3/2 Very Dark Grayish Brown

Middle: HUE 10YR 4/3 Dark Brown
Inside: HUE 10YR 3/2 Very Dark Grayish Brown
TGK7


Middle: HUE 10YR 5/1 Gray
Inside: HUE 10YR 3/2 Very Dark Brown
TGK8

Middle: HUE 10YR 4/4 Dark Yellowish Brown
Inside: HUE 10YR 2/2 Very Dark Brown
TGK9
Outside: HUE 10YR 4/4 Dark Yellowish Brown

Middle: HUE 10YR 3/1 Very Dark Gray
Inside: HUE 10YR 4/3 Dark Brown
TGK10

Middle: HUE 10YR 4/1 Dark Gray
TGK11

Outside: HUE 10YR 3/1 Very Dark Gray

Middle: HUE 10YR 4/3 Brown
TGK12
Outside: HUE 10YR 6/6 Brownish Yellow

Middle: HUE 10YR 6/4 Light Yelowish Brown
Inside: HUE 10YR 6/4 Light Yellowish Brown
TGK13

Middle: HUE 10YR
Inside: HUE 10YR 4/4 Dark Yellowish Brown
TGK14

Middle: HUE 10YR 4/1 Dark Gray
Inside: HUE 10YR 3/2 Very Dark Grayish Brown
TGK15

Table 2: Description of the physical color of the samples after crushing.
Sample Sample description

TGK1 Dark grey coarse powder
TGK2 Light grey coarse powder
TGK4 Brown coarse powder
TGK7 Dark brown coarse powder
TGK11 Light grey coarse powder
TGK15 Dark brown coarse powder
were conducted on the Gua Kelew earthenware samples, heated up for one hour at a temperature of 105°C. The
physical exmination and chemical content analysis. A first method is where the sample was made into a fused
physical study of the earthenware samples was conducted to glass to obtain major elements, while the second method
obtain information regarding the colour, decorative motifs, is to prepare the samples in the form of a pressured pallet
thickness and even the size of the pottery. This physical to obtain minor elements and trace elements. For the fused
analysis was performed on all earthenware found during glass samples, 0.5 g of the sample was mixed with 5.0 g
the survey and excavation activities. of spectroflux and baked at 1100 °C for 20 minutes before
On the other hand, the chemical content analysis only being placed in a glass mould measuring 32 mm in diameter.
involved 15 samples. Each sample represents the earthenware These samples were then further analysed to obtain ten main
findings in this study. These samples were crushed for elements using the Axios Max (Holland) XRF PanAlytical
chemical content analysis. Each sample was pounded until spectrometer with standard element preparation. Calibrations
fine using a ceramic mortar, until it passed a 500 µm filter. was carried out to ensure that the apparatus and methods
This was to ensure that each powder sample is homogeneous provide accurate and precise readings. Ten element curve
and that the data obtained are accurate and precise. graphs were constructed using 30 high quality international
Two chemical content analysis were performed on the standard reference materials.
samples; the X-Ray Diffraction and X-Ray Fluorescent The samples were prepared as pressed powder pallets to
analysis. The XRD analysis was conducted to obtain the obtain the minor and trace elements. The pallets measured
mineral content of each sample, while the XRF analysis was 32 mm in diameter in the shape of a round disc, using 1
to determine the major and trace elements in each sample. g of sample and 6 g of boric acid as a binder. The sample
For the XRD analysis, the apparatus used was a Bruker was placed in the middle with boric acid around the sample
D8 Advance, available at the Physical Characterization as a binder. The samples were pressed with a 15-ton
Laboratory, U.K.M. Research Management and hydraulic press machine for 2 minutes. The XRF analysis
Instrumentation Center. The samples in the form of finely was performed by scanning the presence of elements peaks
pounded powder were placed in a sample holder and using the Omnian software.
flattened several times to ensure that the X-rays applied to The earthenware samples analysed with the XRD and
the sample are uniform before being inserted into the XRD XRF apparatus then were compared with the clay samples
device. Each sample was subjected to X-ray exposure for 15 found around the Sungai Nenggiri basin (Zuliskandar,
minutes. Upon completion, the spectral graph was analysed 1999). The purpose of the comparison is to identify the
using the E.V.A. software to obtain the mineral content for origin of the earthenware; whether the earthenware samples
each peak visible on the spectral graph for each sample. were made using raw materials i.e., clay located in the
As for the XRF analysis, there are two methods for surrounding area of Gua Kelew or brought from outside
preparing the samples. The samples were powdered and of the site.

Figure 3: The XRD pattern for earthenware samples in Gua Kelew.

q=quartz; c= calcite; ant=anorthoclase
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Table 3: Mineral content of the earthenware discovered in Gua Kelew.
The XRD test results of the 15 earthenware samples
found during the excavation in Gua Kelew are shown Sample Mineral content
in Table 3. The mineral content obtained from the Gua TGK1 Quartz, SiO2
Kelew earthenware shows that the presence of minerals
are limited to quartz, anorthoclase and calcite. The XRD Quartz, SiO2
patterns of the earthenware samples can be seen in Figure TGK2 \
Calcite, CaCO3
4. Four earthenware samples, namely TGK2, TGK6, TGK12 Anorthoclase, (Na,K)AlSi3O8
and TGK14, show the presence of anorthoclase. TGK2
sample only exhibits the presence of calcite. Furthermore, TGK3 Quartz, SiO2
earthenware samples such as TGK1, TGK3, TGK4, TGK5, TGK4 Quartz, SiO2
TGK7, TGK8, TGK9, TGK10, TGK11, TGK13 and TGK15
only contain quartz, which indicates that these earthenware TGK5 Quartz, SiO2
were fired at a high temperature during their manufacturing Quartz, SiO2
process. The high temperature caused most of the minerals TGK6
Anorthoclase, (Na,K)AlSi3O8
to decompose, leaving only quartz. Quartz also probably
came from the sand temper used by the potters (Suresh et TGK7 Quartz, SiO2
al., 2022). TGK8 Quartz, SiO2
Comparative analysis was performed on soil sample
in Gua Kelew with soil samples studied by Zuliskandar TGK9 Quartz, SiO2
(1999) which were from several areas around Hulu Kelantan, TGK10 Quartz, SiO2
including near Sungai Nenggiri (S.N.), Sungai Betis (S.B.),
Sungai Perias (S.S.), Sungai Chai (S.C.), Sungai Jenera (S.J.) TGK11 Quartz, SiO2
and Sungai Peralon (S.P.). The comparison was conducted Quartz, SiO2
based on the mineral and main element content found in TGK12
the earthenware samples and river clay samples around
Hulu Kelantan. The mineral content of the clay samples TGK13 Quartz, SiO2
can be seen in Table 4. Quartz, SiO2
Based on the mineral content data of the clay samples TGK14
taken from rivers in Hulu Kelantan, the data shows that
the samples only contain quartz and muscovite, except TGK15 Quartz, SiO2
for the clay samples of Sungai Perias which also contain

orthoclase besides quartz and muscovite. These clay samples brought in by the coastal communities; as they have a more
were baked at a temperature of 600°C to 700°C in the developed life and higher culture (Zuliskandar et al., 2011).
laboratory. Therefore, the content of typical clay minerals Trade activities through barter had taken place in the area
such as kaolinite, illite and montmorillonite was not present. around Hulu Kelantan, where the coastal community would
The data was compared with the mineral content of the supply goods from the coast, such as earthenwares or goods
earthenware samples; and it is discovered that the mineral from foreign trade to the inland community which in turn
content of the earthenware samples from Gua Kelew does supplied forest products consisting of resin, rattan and so
not have the same mineral content as the clay samples from forth to be traded by the coastal community.
the rivers around Hulu Kelantan area. Previous research in Scientific analysis using the XRF method was conducted
Hulu Kelantan show that the earthenwares in the area were on 15 samples of the earthenware obtained from excavations
in Gua Kelew. Based on the XRF test, the dry weight content
of the main element in the earthenware samples in Gua Kelew
Table 4: Mineral content of the clay in Hulu Kelantan area. can be refered to in Table 5. The analysis results indicate
that silica and aluminium are the highest elements, between
Location Sample Mineral 60.02% to 72.19% and 12.62% to 17.58%. This shows that
the community at that time was skilled in choosing the
Quartz
Sungai Nenggiri SN appropriate raw materials to produce earthenwares, that was
Muscovite mainly clay, to create clay pottery. The iron content was
Quartz also high in the samples, where the dry weight percentage
Sungai Betis SB of iron (Fe2O3) ranged from 3.16% to 6.24%. The potassium
Muscovite
and calcium content in the earthenware samples ranged from
Quartz 1.6% to 3.07% and 1.44% to 5.58%, respectively.
Sungai Perias SS Muscovite The dry weight percentages for sodium, magnesium
Orthoclase and titanium elements showed readings ranging from
0.17%, to 0.49%, 0.47% to 1.42% and 0.5% to 0.83%. The
Quartz
Sungai Chai SC phosphorus content in the earthenware samples showed a
Muscovite dry weight percentage between 0.11% to 3.7%. Among
Quartz the samples that recorded the highest phosphorus reading
Sungai Jenera SJ are TGK6 and TGK12. The high phosphorus content in
Muscovite
the two earthenware samples indicates that these pottery
Quartz utensils were used for cooking, while other samples were
Sungai Peralon SP
Muscovite for storing food. Phosphorus is a mineral that results from
Source: Zuliskandar, 1999 the decomposition of cooked food. These data are in line
Table 5: Dry weight percentage of the main elements found in earthenware samples from Gua Kelew.
Main element (%)
Sample
SiO2 TiO2 Al2O3 Fe2O3 MnO MgO CaO Na2O K2O P2O5 LOI Total
TGK1 60.02 0.66 17.58 6.24 0.18 1.04 2.81 0.20 1.93 0.87 8.45 99.98
TGK2 65.78 0.50 12.71 3.18 0.06 0.49 5.88 0.28 2.15 0.33 8.63 99.99
TGK3 71.91 0.51 12.78 3.16 0.11 0.47 1.85 0.38 2.40 0.14 6.28 99.99
TGK4 67.12 0.64 15.61 5.46 0.11 1.11 1.72 0.23 1.74 0.36 5.88 99.98
TGK5 71.19 0.55 12.79 3.18 0.08 0.55 1.44 0.33 2.87 0.11 6.90 99.99
TGK6 60.22 0.61 16.10 5.54 0.06 1.22 3.18 0.18 1.76 3.70 7.41 99.98
TGK7 63.25 0.66 16.41 5.70 0.08 0.95 2.55 0.18 1.74 0.80 7.65 99.97
TGK8 65.14 0.63 16.61 5.72 0.12 0.94 2.45 0.27 2.02 0.80 5.27 99.97
TGK9 63.78 0.83 16.46 4.87 0.11 0.81 1.97 0.38 2.46 0.24 8.07 99.98
TGK10 63.72 0.63 16.35 5.68 0.10 0.88 2.54 0.21 1.73 0.78 7.37 99.99
TGK11 67.83 0.59 15.99 5.39 0.14 0.99 1.78 0.31 1.83 0.21 4.92 99.98
TGK12 62.47 0.61 16.09 5.43 0.12 1.24 3.37 0.17 1.62 1.85 7.02 99.99
TGK13 63.01 0.60 16.09 5.59 0.10 0.88 2.58 0.20 1.60 0.78 8.56 99.99
TGK14 72.19 0.60 12.62 3.31 0.05 0.55 1.54 0.4 3.07 0.35 5.31 99.99
TGK15 62.20 0.72 17.32 5.74 0.22 1.42 2.12 0.49 2.08 0.59 7.09 99.99

Figure 4: Graph of the percentage distribution of dry weight (%) of potassium

and calcium elements in earthenware samples in Gua Kelew, Hulu Kelantan.
Figure 5: Graph of the percentage distribution of dry weight (%) of aluminium

and iron elements in earthenware samples in Gua Kelew, Hulu Kelantan.
Figure 6: Graph of the distribution of dry weight percentage (%) of potassium

and calcium elements in earthenware samples in Gua Kelew and clay samples
in Hulu Kelantan.

Figure 7: Graph of the percentage distribution of dry weight (%) of the

aluminium and iron elements in earthenware samples in Gua Kelew and clay
samples in Hulu Kelantan.
Table 6: Dry weight content of minor element and trace elements of earthenware samples from Gua Kelew (µg/g).
TGK1 TGK2 TGK3 TGK4 TGK5 TGK6 TGK7 TGK8 TGK9 TGK10 TGK11 TGK12 TGK13 TGK14 TGK15
Ba 2292 2523 608 1463 2754 1658 863 1340 2924 1282 BDL 1375 BDL 1450 1590
Br 51 36 31 BDL BDL BDL BDL BDL BDL BDL BDL BDL BDL 53 BDL
Ce 402 BDL BDL 433 BDL 494 BDL 512 BDL 446 653 BDL 457 504 BDL
Cl 696 1023 1570 418 1070 618 276 270 443 345 545 389 426 2354 532
Cr 179 BDL BDL 244 123 276 96 222 230 89 161 BDL 144 150 189
Cu 151 205 103 169 199 165 117 98 152 82 147 132 113 154 BDL
Ni 163 191 51 161 109 BDL 93 125 125 129 105 115 116 150 132
Pb 182 272 118 167 251 197 BDL 121 278 152 145 141 206 345 191
Rb 676 741 377 705 810 452 457 695 606 522 524 507 439 787 653
S 287 458 2547 149 621 481 1327 552 801 468 206 232 242 650 296
Sc 76 BDL BDL 355 BDL BDL BDL BDL BDL BDL BDL BDL BDL BDL BDL
Sr 534 627 245 BDL 534 399 346 500 600 495 365 452 407 471 630
Y 319 85 63 251 159 194 206 275 189 263 180 182 219 87 166
Zn 378 299 222 387 269 490 321 294 445 418 293 470 328 321 618
Zr 865 1245 634 949 1864 760 618 751 2990 838 797 891 757 1627 795
Ga BDL 53 BDL 54 65 72 190 43 40 266 60 BDL 61 38 42
Nb BDL 80 50 94 112 BDL 78 BDL 113 BDL BDL BDL BDL 149 155
Th BDL BDL 90 BDL 309 BDL BDL BDL 232 BDL BDL BDL BDL 125 BDL
F BDL BDL BDL 545 BDL 675 BDL 468 BDL 398 BDL 702 BDL BDL BDL
Tl BDL BDL BDL 60 BDL BDL BDL BDL BDL BDL BDL 82 BDL BDL BDL
Bi BDL BDL BDL BDL 83 BDL BDL BDL BDL BDL BDL BDL BDL BDL BDL
Co BDL BDL BDL BDL BDL BDL 1794 BDL BDL BDL BDL BDL BDL BDL BDL

with the findings of burning ash in excavation plots which the area and made by the local community, or it was brought
indirectly indicates that the prehistoric communities actively from outside through trade routes between the interior and
used Gua Kelew as a suitable shelter during the dry or rainy the coastal community. Based on the results of mineral
season when river water levels during the monsoon or rainy content analysis, it is believed that the earthenware found
season are higher. at the prehistoric site of Gua Kelew was burned at high
Figure 4 shows the dry weight percentage distribution temperature as most of the samples had only quartz mineral,
of the calcium and potassium elements. Based on the while other minerals were probably lost or destroyed due to
graph, it was found that the composition of calcium and the high burning temperature. In addition to this, based on the
potassium did not show significant differences between comparison of the main elements between the earthenware
the earthenware samples that were analysed. Figure samples with the clay samples found around the Gua Kelew
5 shows a graph of aluminium and iron’s dry weight area indicates that there are significant differences between
percentage distribution. Based on the graph, it is found the two groups. This shows that the earthenware found in
that most of these earthenware samples have almost the Gua Kelew was not produced using clay available in the
same composition. Therefore, the findings of each analysis surrounding area, which proves that the earthenwares were
suggests that most of the clay earthenware in Gua Kelew brought from elsewhere. The presence of earthenware from
used the same raw material and were obtained from the other places is likely the result of trade activities and the
same area. exchange of goods between the communities living inland
Futhermore, Figure 6 displays a graph of the dry with coastal communities. Inland communities needed
weight percentage distribution of the calcium and potassium earthenwares for cooking and storing food, while coastal
elements in the clay and earthenware samples around Hulu communities required forest resources for foreign trade.
Kelantan. Based on the graph plots obtained, it is discovered
that the dry weight percentage of calcium and potassium ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
for the earthenware and clay samples from Hulu Kelantan We would like to express our highest gratitude to
area differed from each other, where two groups are present. Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia (U.K.M.) which funded
While the graph in Figure 7 shows the dry weight percentage this study through the grant GGPP-2019-005, Chemical
distribution of aluminium and iron elements contained in the Content Study of Prehistoric Earthenwares Artifacts in Ulu
earthenware and clay samples in Hulu Kelantan. Based on Kelantan (Kajian Kandungan Kimia Artifak Tembikar Tanah
the graph plot, it is found that the dry weight percentage of Prasejarah di Ulu Kelantan). We would also like to extend
aluminium and iron elements for the earthenware samples our sincere appreciation to Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia
and clay samples are also different, where two large groups through the Physical Characterization Laboratory (Makmal
exist. Concerning this, it is suggested that the earthernwares Pencirian Fizikal), iCRIM for the use of the XRD and XRF
in Gua Kelew were not produced in the area around Hulu apparatus. Useful comments and suggestions received from
Kelantan. the two anonymous reviewers for GSM helped to improve
Other than the main elements, the content of minor and the paper.
trace elements can also be seen in Table 6. By referring to
Table 6, there are several elements found in each sample AUTHOR CONTRIBUTIONS
and there are also some elements that are only found in MSMA carried out all scientific analysis and drafted the
a few samples. Among the elements that can be seen in manuscript, ZR carried out XRD analysis and NFA carried
each sample are chlorine, rubidium, sulphur, yirium, zinc out the physical analysis.
and even zirconium. In addition to this, there are also
elements that are simply not present in one or two samples, CONFLICT OF INTEREST
that is barium, chromium, copper, nickel, lead, strontium We declare that we do not have any conflict of interest
and gallium. Furthermore, there are several elements that with regard to the contents of this paper.
can only be seen in a few samples where the value of the
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Hassan Shuhaimi Nik Abdul Rahman, 2013. Compositional Doi:10.19026/rjaset.6.3796.
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Ramli, Z., Abdul Rahman, N.H.S.N., Samian, A.L., Sauman, Y., & Engineering and Technology, 9(13), 998–100.
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zenodo.800835. A., 2018. Lithic technology and material culture of Haobinhian
Ramli, Z., Nasir, M.N.M., Samian, A.L., Harun, N.Z., Hadi, and Neolithic Settlement in the Lubang Kelawar Batu Tambah
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Rivka, G., 1973. Ancient Pottery. Cassell & Co. Ltd., Britain. 95 p. archaeological sites. Tesis Sarjana Muda, UPM.
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Interdisciplinaria Archaeologica, 8(1), 35–42. Doi:10.24916/ Preliminary analysis of prehistoric pottery sherds excavated at
iansa.2017.1.3. Gua Peraling and Gua Cha, Ulu Kelantan, Malaysia. Journal
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Compositional analysis analysis of the pottery shards from kuh-i Zuliskandar, R., Mohd Zobir, H., Asmah, Y., Kamaruddin, Z., &
khawja historical site, sistan, east of Iran. Journal of Ancient Mahfuz, N., 2007. A study of the chemical composition of
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Manuscript received 18 August 2022;

Received in revised form 23 March 2023;
Accepted 12 May 2023

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PP3279/05/2013 (032783) RM80.

00 ISSN 0126–6187; e-ISSN 2637-109X

PERSATUAN GEOLOGI MALAYSIA

Editor: Joy Jacqueline Pereira

The Bulletin of the Geological Society of Malaysia (ISSN Editor

PERSATUAN GEOLOGI MALAYSIA

Editor: Joy Jacqueline Pereira

Copyright 2023 by the Authors. Licensee Geological Society of Malaysia.

PERSATUAN GEOLOGI MALAYSIA

0126-6187; 2637-109X / Published by the Geological Society of Malaysia.

Joy Jacqueline Pereira

A valuable approach in a quantitative seawater intrusion

Keywords: Seawater intrusion, geoelectrical resistivity, Dumai, groundwater

INTRODUCTION assisted in identifying alternating of silt layers and their

0126-6187; 2637-109X / Published by the Geological Society of Malaysia.

STUDY AREA from soil characterization, followed by sea-fresh water

4 Bulletin of the Geological Society of Malaysia, Volume 75, May 2023

Direct resistivity measurement of soil saturated RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Geological and resistivity calibration Chemical content of seawater freshwater

Bulletin of the Geological Society of Malaysia, Volume 75, May 2023 5

AL00 0 11 5 2.3 11.3 0.7 2.3

6 Bulletin of the Geological Society of Malaysia, Volume 75, May 2023

Table 3: Direct resistivity measurement of the seawater variation saturated soil.

Figure 3: Resistivity and percentage of seawater in the

Bulletin of the Geological Society of Malaysia, Volume 75, May 2023 7

Figure 5: 2D Geoelectrical resistivity model.

8 Bulletin of the Geological Society of Malaysia, Volume 75, May 2023

Bulletin of the Geological Society of Malaysia, Volume 75, May 2023 9

Figure 6: 1D geoelectrical resistivity model.

10 Bulletin of the Geological Society of Malaysia, Volume 75, May 2023

soil will have a positive correlation with the reading geoderma.2021.115235.

Bulletin of the Geological Society of Malaysia, Volume 75, May 2023 11

Manuscript received 9 June 2022;

12 Bulletin of the Geological Society of Malaysia, Volume 75, May 2023

Sistem pengelasan jasad batuan untuk jasad batuan dalam

Hamzah Hussin1,3,4,*, Mohd Hariri Arifin2

Keywords: Rock mass classification, tunneling, underground excavation, shotcrete

0126-6187; 2637-109X / Published by the Geological Society of Malaysia.

PENGENALAN KEJURUTERAAN BATUAN DAN SISTEM

14 Bulletin of the Geological Society of Malaysia, Volume 75, May 2023

Bulletin of the Geological Society of Malaysia, Volume 75, May 2023 15

Jadual 1: Ringkasan sistem pengelasan jasad batuan bawah tanah.

16 Bulletin of the Geological Society of Malaysia, Volume 75, May 2023

Jadual 2: Perubahan perkadaran RMR (Milne et al., 1999).

Jadual 3: Pembahagian sub-kelas pengelasan RMR (Romana, 2015).

Bulletin of the Geological Society of Malaysia, Volume 75, May 2023 17

18 Bulletin of the Geological Society of Malaysia, Volume 75, May 2023

Orientasi kekar membentuk blok ˗ ˗ ˗ - ˗ X ˗ X - -

Bil. set ketakselanjaran ˗ ˗ X - ˗ X ˗ - X -

Jarak antara ketakselanjaran X X X - X X X X X -

Air bawah tanah X X X X ˗ ˗ X X X -

Kekuatan batuan utuh ˗ X X - X X X - - -

Bulletin of the Geological Society of Malaysia, Volume 75, May 2023 19

20 Bulletin of the Geological Society of Malaysia, Volume 75, May 2023

Bulletin of the Geological Society of Malaysia, Volume 75, May 2023 21

22 Bulletin of the Geological Society of Malaysia, Volume 75, May 2023

Manuscript received 4 October 2021;

Bulletin of the Geological Society of Malaysia, Volume 75, May 2023 23

Physical characterization of the weathering profile over a sheared,

John Kuna Raj

INTRODUCTION material (Dearman, 1974). Stages of weathering of granitic

0126-6187; 2637-109X / Published by the Geological Society of Malaysia.

of rock material as well as classify a zone of weathered GEOLOGICAL SETTING OF INVESTIGATED

Figure 1: Geological sketch map of the Batu Caves area, Kuala