Number 39

12/2017

Published by

The Indonesian Sedimentologists Forum (FOSI)

The Sedimentology Commission - The Indonesian Association of Geologists
(IAGI)
Berita Sedimentologi [Pick the date]

Editorial Board Advisory Board

Minarwan Prof. Yahdi Zaim

Chief Editor Quaternary Geology
Bangkok, Thailand Institute of Technology, Bandung
E-mail: minarwanx@gmail.com

Herman Darman
Prof. R. P. Koesoemadinata
Deputy Chief Editor Emeritus Professor
PT. Eksindo Pratama Institute of Technology, Bandung
Jakarta, Indonesia
E-mail: herman_darman@yahoo.com Wartono Rahardjo
University of Gajah Mada, Yogyakarta, Indonesia
Fatrial Bahesti
IAGI Link Coordinator & Reviewer
PT. Pertamina E&P, N AD-North Sumatra Assets Mohammad Syaiful
Jakarta, Indonesia Exploration Think Tank Indonesia
E-mail: fatrial.bahesti@pertamina.com

Mohamad Amin Ahlun Nazar F. Hasan Sidi

University Link Coordinator Woodside, Perth, Australia
Jakarta, Indonesia
E-mail: m.amin.an@gmail.com Prof. Dr. Harry Doust
Faculty of Earth and Life Sciences, Vrije
Indra Gunawan
University Link Coordinator & Reviewer
Universiteit
Program Studi Teknik Geologi, ITB De Boelelaan 1085
Bandung, Indonesia 1081 HV Amsterdam, The Netherlands
Email: igun@gc.itb.ac.id E-mails: harry.doust@falw.vu.nl;
harrydoust@gmail.com
Rina Rudd
Reviewer Dr. J.T. (Han) van Gorsel
Husky Energy, Jakarta, Indonesia 6516 Minola St., HOUSTON, TX 77007, USA
E-mail: asharinar@gmail.com www.vangorselslist.com
Visitasi Femant
E-mail: jtvangorsel@gmail.com
Treasurer, Membership & Social Media Coordinator
Pertamina Hulu Energi, Jakarta, Indonesia Dr. T.J.A. Reijers
E-mail: fvisitasi@yahoo.com Geo-Training & Travel
Gevelakkers 11, 9465TV Anderen, The Netherlands
Sarah Sausan E-mail: tjareijers@hetnet.nl
Halliburton Landmark, Tangerang, Indonesia
E-mail: sausan.sarah@gmail.com Dr. Andy Wight
formerly IIAPCO-Maxus-Repsol, latterly consultant
Yan Bachtiar Muslih
Pertamina University, Jakarta, Indonesia
for Mitra Energy Ltd, KL
E-mail: bachtiarmuslih@yahoo.co.id E-mail: yah1wight@yahoo.co.uk

Rahmat Utomo Cover

Bangkok, Thailand
E-mail: tomi_geologi04@yahoo.com Photograph:
Outcrop of
Ricky Andrian Tampubolon Miocene Sangatta
Lemigas, Jakarta Delta, East
E-mail: rickyandriantampubolon@gmail.com Kalimantan.
Photo courtesy of
Purnama Suandhi
(2017).

• Published 3 times a year by the Indonesian Sedimentologists Forum (Forum Sedimentologiwan Indonesia, FOSI), a commission of the
Indonesian Association of Geologists (Ikatan Ahli Geologi Indonesia, IAGI).
• Cover topics related to sedimentary geology, includes their depositional processes, deformation, minerals, basin fill, etc.

Number 39 – December 2017 Page 2 of 36

Berita Sedimentologi [Pick the date]

Berita Sedimentologi
A sedimentological Journal of the Indonesia Sedimentologists Forum
(FOSI), a commission of the Indonesian Association of Geologist (IAGI)

From the Editor

Dear Readers, sedimentary outcrop in Miri Sedimentologi No. 40 is going
area, Sarawak. The other to be on structural geology
We are very pleased to deliver manuscript discusses about and sedimentation. If you are
Berita Sedimentologi No. 39 to an update in Miocene interested to submit your
you after delaying its paleogeography of the manuscripts for publication in
publication for several Sangatta Delta in East Berita Sedimentologi, please
months. This is the last Kalimantan province of contact one of our editors.
volume of Berita Indonesia.
Sedimentologi in 2017. This We hope you will enjoy
year, it has been quite On organizational update, reading this current issue and
challenging to get manuscripts there has been a change in finally we would like to wish
that can satisfy the minimum our Advisory Board, where Dr. you a Happy New Year. Best
standard for inclusion into our Ukat Sukanta has retired and wishes from all of us and see
scientific journal. In this is no longer part of FOSI. We you again in 2018.
current issue, we managed to are grateful to have him on
include two manuscripts only board until now and would
and both them are about like to thank him for his
Borneo Island. contribution to FOSI.

The first manuscript is about We plan to publish Berita Best regards,

an attempt to calibrate clay Sedimentologi No. 40 in March
gouge in outcrop and shallow 2018 and have started to Minarwan
subsurface borehole, with a invite potential contributors. Chief Editor
case study from Neogene The main theme for Berita

INSIDE THIS ISSUE

A Study of Neogene Sedimentary

Outcrops of The Greater Miri Area -
Can Clay Gouging be Calibrated in
5
Outcrops and Shallow Subsurface
Boreholes? – F.Kessler &
J. Jong

Sangatta Delta Evolution with an

Updated Miocene Paleogeography - 25
P.Suandhi et al.

Call for paper BS #40 –

to be published in March 2018

Number 39 – December 2017 Page 3 of 36

Berita Sedimentologi [Pick the date]

About FOSI

T he forum was founded in

1995 as the Indonesian
Sedimentologists Forum
FOSI has close international
relations with the Society of
Sedimentary Geology (SEPM) and
team. IAGI office in Jakarta will
help if necessary.

(FOSI). This organization is a the International Association of

communication and discussion
forum for geologists, especially for
those dealing with sedimentology
and sedimentary geology in
Indonesia.
The forum was accepted as the
sedimentological commission of
the Indonesian Association of
Geologists (IAGI) in 1996. About
300 members were registered in
1999, including industrial and
academic fellows, as well as
students.
Sedimentologists (IAS).
Fellowship is open to those
holding a recognized degree in
geology or a cognate subject and
non-graduates who have at least
two years relevant experience.
FOSI has organized 2
international conferences in 1999 The official website of FOSI is:
and 2001, attended by more than
150 inter-national participants.
http://www.iagi.or.id/fosi/
Most of FOSI administrative work
will be handled by the editorial

FOSI Membership
Any person who has a background in geoscience and/or is engaged in the practising or teaching of
geoscience or its related business may apply for general membership. As the organization has just been
restarted, we use LinkedIn (www.linkedin.com) as the main data base platform. We realize that it is not
the ideal solution, and we may look for other alternative in the near future. Having said that, for the
current situation, LinkedIn is fit for purpose. International members and students are welcome to join the
organization.

FOSI Group Member

as of DECEMBER 2017:
986 members

Number 39 – December 2017 Page 4 of 36

Berita Sedimentologi [Pick the date]

A STUDY OF NEOGENE SEDIMENTARY OUTCROPS OF THE

GREATER MIRI AREA - CAN CLAY GOUGING BE CALIBRATED
IN OUTCROPS AND SHALLOW SUBSURFACE BOREHOLES?

Franz L. Kessler1,* and John Jong2

1
Goldbach Geoconsultants O&G and Lithium Exploration, Germany
2
JX Nippon Oil and Gas Exploration (Deepwater Sabah) Limited

* Corresponding Author: franzlkessler32@gmail.com

ABSTRACT

The greater Miri area offers particularly well-exposed world-class examples of fault geometry and
clay gouging. Such information offers good material for studying fault architecture and clay smear
morphology, and help to understand fault seal mechanisms in the subsurface. Recent studies on
fault and clay gouging in the Neogene sedimentary rocks of greater Miri area show a variety of fault
geometries of both abrasive-type and shear-type. In a Nippon Oil-sponsored study carried out in
Curtin University, fifteen (15) core holes were drilled through clay-gouged fault planes at three
outcrop locations. Cores of the formation were taken, and the drilled holes were then pressurized by
water injection for packer testing. The performed leak-off test results were somewhat surprising -
weathered Neogene sediments of the Miri and Tukau formations offered little or no pressure
retention in fault zones and host rock alike, and leak-off fracturing occurs already at 1.25 bar. The
rock mechanics of weathered rock might be very different from fresh rock, and may offer little or no
insight into those of virgin rocks. Therefore, weathered rock properties may not be suitable for
subsurface fault seal simulation studies.

Keywords: coring, clay gouging, faults, leak-off, Neogene, sealing, weathering

INTRODUCTION • The Mid-Late Miocene Lambir and Miri

Figure 1 shows the regional structural elements of
NW Sarawak. The greater Miri area is
characterised by moderately folded siliciclastics of
Neogene age: the Late Miocene Miri and Lambir
formations, and the Pliocene Tukau Formation, as
illustrated in Figure 2. The latter forms the subject
of the majority of clay gouging studies and
pressure testing discussed in this paper. In a
recent study, outcrops of the Tukau and Lambir
formations were investigated by Curtin University
Malaysia (2017). A simplified litho-stratigraphy
scheme of the study area is shown in Figure 3
(Jong and Kessler, 2017a):
• The Tukau Formation unconformably overlies
the Lambir/Miri formations and is formed by
intertidal clastics, in particular tidal channel
deposits, which appear strongly amalgamated,
and are interbedded with silty parallel layers.
Individual channel beds are often characterised
by ‘side-stepping’ and asymptotic foresets, in
which laminae can consist of thin, gray claystone
or of lignite (Kessler and Jong, 2015 & 2016).
formations form the crestal area of the Bukit
Lambir and Miri Hills (Figure 2). These
formations contain about equal amounts of
claystone and sandstone, the latter mainly
formed by (sometimes nested) tidal channels and
beach bars. Most channels are ‘reworked’ and
strongly amalgamated (Kessler and Jong, 2015 &
2016)
• Clay gouging is seen both in the Pliocene Tukau
beds, and the slightly older (Late Miocene)
Lambir and Miri formations
This paper summarizes work carried out in Curtin
University of Malaysia, Miri. Data were acquired
from 2009 to 2013 by the authors, and a later
complimentary study was carried out by Curtin
students. Furthermore, Geo-Services Kuching
performed a shallow drilling campaign on a Nippon
Oil-sponsored study, in which a total of fifteen (15)
sedimentary cores were taken at three outcrop
locations from the Lopeng, Tanjung and Bekenu
sites (Figure 4 and Table 1).

Number 39 – December 2017 Page 5 of 36

Berita Sedimentologi [Pick the date]

Figure 1: Schematic block diagram of NW Sarawak with a regional perspective of Late Miocene/Pliocene
times. Luconia/Tinjar Block constitutes the footwall, the Baram Delta the hanging-wall NW of the Baram
Hinge Zone. The orange Baram/West Baram Line shown in the inset map constitutes an important facies
boundary, with carbonates prevailing in Luconia/Tinjar and clastics in the Baram Delta Block. Given the
folding of areas such as the Belait-Badas Syncline, Bukit Lambir, Miri etc., NW Sarawak serves as an
example of relief-inversion (from Kessler, 2010; Jong et al., 2016).

Figure 2: Tectono-stratigraphic cross-section showing folded Neogene sediments. See Figure 1 inset map for
line location. The black triangles indicate the approximate positions of old exploration wells. From Kessler
and Jong (2016).

Number 39 – December 2017 Page 6 of 36

Berita Sedimentologi [Pick the date]

Figure 3: Simplified litho-stratigraphy scheme of the study area. The term Miri Formation is generally used
in the greater Miri area and is age-equivalent to the upper section of the Lambir Formation, Sandal (1996)
however, placed the formation partially age-equivalent to the lower Tukau Formation. Likewise, the mid
Early Miocene Sibuti Formation is more locally confined with the Subis Limestone Member deposited in the
lower part of the Gray Upper Setap Shale (Banda and Honza, 1997). Carbonates are also widespread in the
Palaeogene section, and are seen in a number of outcrops and wells (e.g., Batu Niah, Engkabang-1; Jong et
al., 2016). The observed unconformity events as annotated are established by Kessler and Jong (2017a),
and modified after Kessler and Jong (2015).

Number 39 – December 2017 Page 7 of 36

Berita Sedimentologi
RECENT CLAY GOUGING STUDIES OF THE
GREATER MIRI OUTCROPS
In a study of fault geometry and clay gouging of
Miri outcrops by Kessler and Jong (2017b), the
authors observed a good correlation between
normal fault throw, and gouge thickness. It was
recommended that the studied outcrops might offer
research potential in the areas of gouge mineralogy,
gouge stratification and pressure retention.
In 2017, a group of students under the guidance of
A/Professors Dr. Ramasamy Nagarajan and Dr.
Prasanna Mohan Viswanathan reviewed some fifty
(50) faults in and south of the greater Miri area
(Curtin University Malaysia, 2017). These faults are
near-surface and are located in the Neogene
Lambir and Tukau formations. The following
methodology was adopted to measure fault
morphology and gouging properties:
Bukit Lambir National Park
Lopeng Tanjung
(BHCU1-6) (BHCU7-10)
Figure 4: Location map of investigated and cored outcrops at Lopeng (BHCU1-6), Tanjung (BHCU7-10) and
Bekenu (BHCU11-15) sites of the Tukau Formation in greater Miri area.
Number 39 – December 2017
[Pick the date]
• Analyzing the sealing capacity and seal-failure
envelope of smeared faults.
• Mapping major faults based on geomorphic
evidence using satellite imagery.
• Correlating individual faults to determine the
stress regime.
• Determining the significance of stress regime on
topography of the study area.
The study area covers an approximate area of 143
km2. Faults were found at several locations; along
Jalan Bakam, Jalan Miri-Bintulu, Jalan Coastal
Miri-Bintulu, Tusan Beach and Peliau Beach. They
were concentrated at the southwest of the mapped
area, specifically along Tusan to Peliau Beach, and
along Jalan Bakam (Figure 5).
Bekenu
(BHCU11-15)
5km
Page 8 of 36
Berita Sedimentologi [Pick the date]

Figure 5: Basemap of study area with approximate illustration of mapped boundary for Lambir Formation
after Liechti et al. (1960) using ArcGIS. The contours as shown are topographic elevations in metres. From
Curtin University Malaysia (2017).

Table 1: List of diamond drill holes taken in Lopeng, Tanjung and Bekenu outcrop locations in greater Miri
area

Among the faults, smeared faults were reviewed to
identify the sealing capacity and seal-failure
envelope. They were then broken down into two
groups to differentiate between shear- and
abrasion-type smears (Figure 6) in order to simplify
the calculation on shale gouge ratio (SGR) (Fristad
et al., 1997; Yielding, 2002), shale smear factor
(SSF) (Lindsay et al., 1992), and clay smear
Number 39 – December 2017
potential (CSP) (Bouvier et al., 1989). The faults
were also grouped into relatively recent and older
ones to determine the presence of two different
stress regimes. Unobserved faults were shown to
exist within the region with the aid of software,
generating a Digital Elevation Model (DEM) using
Global Mapper, and the application of Open
Topography and Google Maps. The regional fault
Page 9 of 36
Berita Sedimentologi
strike identified was then compared with the
direction of stress regimes determined using
stereographic projections obtained from the two age
groups of investigated faults. The influence of
stress regimes on topography of the area was
estimated to be significant.
Seal-failure envelope and sealing capacity of faults
were calculated using measurements obtained in
the field using measuring tape, such as clay layer
thickness, clay width within fault, vertical slip, and
distance of the clay smeared. It is well-established
that SGR algorithm is widely used to identify the
seal behavior under static pressure conditions
(Fristad et al., 1997; Yielding, 2002).
SGR = shale layer thickness (m)/vertical slip (m) x
100% (1)
The formula above calculates clay/shale gouge
ratio on fault plane surfaces and estimates general
seal-failure envelope if needed (Yielding et al.,
1997). While CSP and SSF were calculated to
compare and highlight the consistency and
accuracy of sealing capacity calculated using SGR.
CSP and SSF were used to calculate for shear-type
smears, whereas only SSF is calculated on
abrasion-type smears.
CSP = C(mud layer thickness) 2 (m2)/distance of
clay smear (m) (2)
With SGR determined, sealing capacity curves can
be used as a guide for geologists conducting oil and
gas exploration in the region. By mapping major
faults based on geomorphic evidence using satellite
imagery, faults not observed in the field can be
interpreted and it can be determined whether they
are associated with the surrounding smeared
faults. The stress regime influences the topography
of the study area, while the paleo-stress regime can
be linked with relatively recent stress regimes to
provide a better understanding of the area’s terrain
and its significance on structural hydrocarbon
trapping.
By calculating amount of clay within its
surrounding sediment, the probability of smearing
of faults can be determined. A calibration constant,
C, is added into the formula only when
discontinuous shear-type smear is present (Vrolijk
et al., 2016; after Bouvier et al., 1989). The
calibration constant, C, depends on the rheology
and competency of a rock at a certain depth. C
values were obtained from Bretan et al. (2003)
where C = 0.5, 0.25 and 0 at burial depths of
shallower than 3 km, 3 to 3.5 km, and deeper than
3.5 km, respectively. The SSF formula determines
the likelihood of continuous smearing by
measuring the slip of the fault and surrounding
mud layer thickness (Lindsay et al., 1992).
Number 39 – December 2017
[Pick the date]
SSF = vertical slip (m) / shale layer thickness (m)
(3)
Only nineteen (19) of the shear- and abrasion-type
faults investigated were found to be smeared in the
area (Table 2). Abrasion-type faults have no value
for distance of clay sheared and hence calculation
of CSP is impossible. Based on Table 2, a cross-
plot of SSF and SGR is generated to illustrate the
seal-failure envelope for the smeared faults in the
area with respect to continuity of clay smears
(Figure 7). As stated by Lindsay et al. (1992), faults
with SSF greater than 7 are considered as faults
with discontinuous smears or faults with failed
seals. Hence, the seal-failure envelope was
determined by plotting SSF equals 7 to find the
corresponding SGR value.
In the Lambir Formation the boundary between
non-sealing and sealing faults for SGR value was
expected to be approximately 15% to 20%, similar
to that in the Niger Delta (Fristad et al., 1997;
Yielding, 2002), albeit comparatively lower than
those estimated for the West Baram Delta fields
with an overall SGR threshold of > 20% for effective
trapping. From the cross-plot (Figure 7), an inverse
relationship between the two algorithms, where
SGR increases with decreasing SSF can be seen.
The SGR found for the seal-failure envelope is 14%,
which is quite close to that from Niger Delta, and
hence faults with SGR of 14% and below is
expected to have discontinuous smears, resulting
in non-sealing faults.
As Bouvier et al. (1989) and Jev et al. (1993) agreed
that CSP data are more qualitative than SSF and
SGR, a cross-plot was plotted with respect to CSP
and SGR (Figure 8). It is noted that no trend,
pattern or relationship between the data can be
determined. This could be due to the fact that a
lack of data for shear-type smears prevents the
construction of a decent cross-plot similar to that
generated by Oyedele and Adeyemi (2009).
However, from Table 3, CSP with values greater
than 30 reflects SSF less than 7. By combining
both theories from Lindsay et al. (1992) and Jev et
al. (1993), faults with CSP greater than 30 are
believed to generate continuous smear along fault
lines.
For the estimation across fault pressure differences
(AFPD; Bertan et al., 2003), fault data with SSF
values less than 7 were disregarded, together with
those of CSP values less than 15, since these
values suggest discontinuous smears and are less
likely to generate smear forming seals. Graphs of
AFPD and hydrocarbon column height (HCH)
versus SGR, CSP and SSF assuming a light oil
were also constructed with HCH calculated using
calibrated fault-seal attributes (Figure 9). From the
graphs, the minimum and maximum amounts of
pressure sustainable for the smeared faults in the
Page 10 of 36
Berita Sedimentologi
Lambir Formation at depths less of than 3 km are
0.32 and 0.46 bar, respectively (Table 4). The
estimated range of HCH of light oil that can be
maintained in those depths and pressures is 13.24
to 18.84 m (Table 4).
In summary, the study found that Lambir
Formation has seal-failure envelope at SGR of 14%,
even though siliciclastic sequences were
determined to have common seal-failure envelopes
for SGR ranging from 15% to 20%, or higher.
Overall, there is no sound correlation between fault
throw and clay gouging thickness. Regional fault
strike and identified stress regimes were
determined to be both parallel and perpendicular to
each other. The Lambir Formation was found to be
dominated by normal faults, with some reverse and
strike-slip faults. However, in an earlier study,
Kessler and Jong (2017b) provided data which
suggest that such a correlation might exist (Figure
10). Nonetheless, this and other studies suffer from
the fact that small faults are more common and
large faults are more rarely found in outcrops. In a
nutshell, although outcrop studies as carried out
here can provide insight into important processes
that shape traps and retention parameters alike, it
is not clear whether such measurements can be
applied for simulation of subsurface fault seal
retention – the jury is still out.
CORING AND PRESSURE TESTING OF
FAULTED NEOGENE SEDIMENTARY ROCKS
Fieldwork and core drilling were carried out from
10th to 22nd June, 2010 at three outcrop locations
from the Lopeng, Tanjung and Bekenu sites (Figure
4 and Table 1). Activities were as follows:
• The preparatory work consisted of a
detailed mapping of the areas surrounding faulted
sequences; this was carried out in distinct phases -
Work by Kessler and Jong (2010) and Kessler et al.
(2010), as well as mapping conducted by Curtin
University Malaysia’s student final semester study
projects for the degree of Bachelor of Science in
Applied Geology. Estimations of fault cut and
measurements of gouging material, thickness were
carried out. Taking account of critical parameters
such as road access and availability of water
supply, the three study locations were selected.
• The contractor Geo-Services mobilized
drilling rig and packer testing equipment from
Kuching and drilled shallow core holes (less than 8
m) through the previously flagged faulted and clay-
gouged sequences. The cores were pulled,
described and packed and sent to Curtin University
Malaysia for further analysis.
Number 39 – December 2017
[Pick the date]
• Packers were set above and below the
faulted and gouged zone. The contractor injected
water, pressured up the formation and monitored
the flow rates and pressures. In such way the leak-
off pressures could be established.
• Procedures and results were documented in
a report.
Figure 11 shows the outcrop views of the three
locations.
FIELD INVESTIGATION METHOD
One unit of a hydraulic drilling machine YBM –
YS01 was used to carried out the rotary boring and
rock coring tasks. Advancement of the open holes
were achieved by loosening the soil using a roller –
bit, drag bit, and flushing out the loose material by
means of circulating water under high pressure.
Casings were used to stabilise the open holes.
NMLC triple tube core barrels were used for coring
the hard formation such as sandstone and
mudstone. Cores are removed from the triple tube
core barrel by the application of steady hydraulic
pressure to the inner tube. Immediately upon
extraction, the cores are placed in the order of
extraction in the core box with increasing depth
from left to right within each partition, and with
increasing depth from top to bottom, when the
observer faces the box from the unhinged long
edge. Details of the rock type, depth, weathering
degree, details of mineralisation, orientation of
fractures and joints are recorded in borehole logs
(Table 5). Shifting of the drilling machines within
the site was supported by the Yanmar steel track
crawler carrier, and the Toyota Carrier.
Fifteen (15) diamond drill holes, namely BHCU1,
BHCU2, BHCU3, BHCU4, BHCU5, BHCU6,
BHCU7, BHCU8, BHCU9, BHCU10, BHCU11,
BHCU12, BHCU13, BHCU14, and BHCU15 were
drilled with six (6) boreholes at Lopeng area, four
(4) boreholes at Tanjung area, and five (5)
boreholes at Bekenu site along Jalan Coastal Miri-
Bintulu (Figure 4 and Table 1). A total of 56 m of
sedimentary rocks were cored from the three
mentioned areas. For all diamond drill holes,
detailed logs and drill core photographs are kept
and recorded (Table 5).
All diamond drill holes were water pressure tested
during the course of drilling. Water pressure tests
(packer test) were carried out on all holes after
every 1.5 m to 2.0 m of rocks had been cored as
drilling progressed. A single Packer Bimber 11 was
used with a high pressure Nitrogen cylinder to
inflate the packer at 11 bars. A total of thirty-six
(36) water pressure tests were carried out at the
sites (Table 6). Ground water levels were recorded
on a regular basis, the readings being taken before
Page 11 of 36
Berita Sedimentologi [Pick the date]

and after drilling. The date and time of readings, ground at the time of reading were also recorded in
borehole depth, and length of casing below the the borehole log (e.g., Table 5).

Figure 6: Field image taken as an example for shear-type smear (left, Fault 40) and abrasion-type smear
(right, Fault 19). The hammer is placed as scale with length of 28 cm. The red oval areas are examples of
shear smear and deformed rock shown in red dashed circle (from Curtin University Malaysia, 2017).

Figure 7: Cross-plot of SSF (shale smear factor) and SGR (shale gouge ratio). for smeared faults in the study
area to determine seal-failure envelope (from Curtin University Malaysia, 2017 and after Oyedele and
Adeyemi, 2009). The plot serves as a model for smeared faults found near and within the region to
determine the continuity of smears based on calculated SSF and SGR.

Number 39 – December 2017 Page 12 of 36

Berita Sedimentologi [Pick the date]

Figure 8: Cross-plot of CSP (clay smear potential) and SGR (shale gouge ratio) for smeared faults in the
study area (from Curtin University Malaysia, 2017 and after Oyedele and Adeyemi, 2009).

Table 2: Statistical data for calculation of SGR, SSF and CSP for smeared faults. It is found that abrasion-
type smears in the area have clay smear width of less than 5 cm, while shear-type smears can range from
centimetre to metre scale. Abrasion smears were identified easily whereby smears along the fault lines
seems to be distorted due to the shear stress generated from faulting (from Curtin University Malaysia,
2017). See Figure 5 for location map of investigated faults.

Number 39 – December 2017 Page 13 of 36

Berita Sedimentologi [Pick the date]

Table 3: Data for shear-type smear faults with respect to increasing CSP value; green values indicate
potential sealing faults modelling by Curtin University Malaysia (2017). See Figure 5 for location map of
faults

Table 4: Statistical data for light oil AFPD and HCH calculation with order of increasing SGR (from Curtin
University Malaysia, 2017). C = calibration constant, AFPD = across fault pressure difference, HCH =
estimated hydrocarbon column height.

Number 39 – December 2017 Page 14 of 36

Berita Sedimentologi [Pick the date]

Figure 9: Graphs of (a) SGR (b) SSF, and (c) CSP against AFPD and HCH in different depth intervals (from
Curtin University Malaysia, 2017 and after Bretan et al., 2003). SGR = shale gouge ratio, SSF = shale
smear factor, CSP = clay smear potential, AFPD = across fault pressure differences, HCH = hydrocarbon
column height.

Number 39 – December 2017 Page 15 of 36

Berita Sedimentologi [Pick the date]

Figure 10: Small fault throws result in thin layers of clay gouging, whereas large fault throws offer thicker
layers of clay smear. Note the lack of data points for fault throws of more than 2000 mm resulted in an
unreliable trend line for throw values of more than 3000 mm. However, this trend may be substantiated
with more data, and may be useful to predict potential hydrocarbon columns in fault-traps. From Kessler and
Jong (2017b) and data from Kessler and Jong (2010).

Number 39 – December 2017 Page 16 of 36

Berita Sedimentologi
RESULTS, DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS
Estimation of SGR - A Reliable Input
Parameter?
The greater Miri area offers many particularly well
exposed fault outcrops and forms an ideal location
to make use of cores to test the gouged fault zones
for pressure retention. The ultimate goal remains to
estimate gouging material thickness in relation to
fault throw, and forecast column height of
hydrocarbons that can be trapped in fault-closed
trap compartments (e.g., Kessler and Jong, 2017b;
Curtin University Malaysia, 2017). Unlike the
mentioned outcrop study conducted by Curtin
University Malaysia (2017), the estimated pre-drill
subsurface SGR threshold for trapping in the
Adong Kecil West oil and gas discovery (located
along the proven Miri-Rasau anticline) was
simulated using the software FaultsealTM, and was
found to be significantly higher, requiring an SGR
in the order > 20% for effective trapping of
hydrocarbons and comparable with the data from
the West Baram Delta fields (Jong and Shimada,
2009).
In a recent case study of the same discovery by
Uchimura et al. (2014), it was noted that the
trapping fault has the largest throw in its central
part and dies out laterally and downward. However,
350m of net hydrocarbon column in six (6)
sandstone horizons was discovered trapped by the
lower part of the fault, where its throw was
minimal (Figure 12). Since the fault throw is
smaller than the sandstone thickness, extensive
sand-to-sand juxtaposition can be expected unless
there is a continuous clay smear. New 3D seismic
data acquired after the discovery was interpreted in
detail around the fault block and careful editing
was made to depth converted maps to establish the
detailed fault framework model. Firstly,
juxtaposition across the fault was identified based
on the 3D model. Secondly, quantitative fault
sealing capacity analyses for SGR and SSF were
performed along individual fault planes using fault
throw and Vsh at each cell using Structural and
Fault Analysis (RDR) module in Petrel. Thirdly, the
SGR model was converted to a maximum potential
HCH.
Despite the fact that the fault throw is much
smaller than the thickness of the entire sand body,
SGR in some areas of sand-to-sand juxtaposition
still showed more than 20%, which is generally
considered to be the minimum number for
continuous clay smear over such an interval. This
is due to a contribution of shaliness from the
sandstone that contains thin, but frequent
intercalations of minor clay/silt. However, potential
HCHs calculated from SGR were only up to 20 m,
while the observed hydrocarbon column in the well
reached more than 80 m. The regional
Number 39 – December 2017
[Pick the date]
characteristic clay extension indicated that the
chance of having good seal in the interval was quite
low.
To explain the abnormally trapped hydrocarbon,
the authors suggested that the sealing capacity of
faults could have been reinforced with additional
lateral and/or vertical clay injection into the fault
plane. Lateral clay injection into normal faults in
the greater Miri area based on outcrop observation
and model experiments has been described by van
der Zee et al. (2003) and van der Zee and Urai
(2005). This may be one of the effective
mechanisms for trapping potentially longer
hydrocarbon columns in the West Baram Delta.
Considering that hydrocarbons were found only
associated with the deeper part of the fault, vertical
clay injection from the underlying mobile Setap
Shale could be another important mechanism. Pro-
delta shale is widely distributed in the West Baram
Delta as muddy distal facies and is widely known
to be over-pressured with mud diapirs and clay
ridges both well-known in the study area (Kessler
and Jong, 2014).
The many uncertainties in respect to the lateral
extent of fault seals and gouging thickness suggest
that one should try to compare simulated results
with empirical findings from proven hydrocarbon
systems. Figure 13 illustrates the fact that clay
smear and gouging may be only one of the many
factors that define a fault-bounded hydrocarbon
trap. It is noted that as dictated by the sandier
nature of deltaic sediments, small hydrocarbon
accumulations are more common in the nearby
offshore West Baram Delta and offshore Brunei
shelf with stacked oil and gas reservoir pays
resulting from small fault throws, while long
hydrocarbon columns appear to be rare. Such
empirical data can be very useful in Montecarlo
simulations. The P50 value may be in the order of
15 m, and hydrocarbon column length significantly
beyond 100 m may be a smaller than P5 probability
only.
Pressure Testing in Shallow Outcrop Boreholes
The pressure testing results, however, yielded valid
yet surprising conclusions:
• Leak-off tests showed, that neither sandy rocks
nor gouged zones offer any significant plumbing,
and that the pressure-tested rock fractures or
faults failed at ca. 1.25 bar or 18.13 psi
irrespective of the material tested; which in
conclusion, suggests that the rock behaved
extremely softly.
Page 17 of 36
Berita Sedimentologi [Pick the date]

Figure 11: View of Tukau Formation outcrops at Lopeng, Tanjung and Bekenu coring sites.

Number 39 – December 2017 Page 18 of 36

Berita Sedimentologi [Pick the date]

Table 5: An example of a core boring report taken from BHCU15 location with interpreted borehole log.

Number 39 – December 2017 Page 19 of 36

Berita Sedimentologi [Pick the date]

Table 6: Examples of leak-off testing reports from PKTCU9-1(left ) and PKTCU15-1 (right).

Number 39 – December 2017 Page 20 of 36

Berita Sedimentologi
In the bigger picture, the following observations
and conclusions are noteworthy:
• We conclude that outcrop studies addressing
morphology, clay gouging with different gouging
materials and textures can be a very powerful
tool to assess faulting processes in the
subsurface, and, perhaps to some extent, provide
useful input for simulation studies.
• When it comes to rock properties and rock
mechanics, it is exactly this where our
conclusions differ. The drilled and pressure-
tested rocks are undoubtedly weathered. While
virgin sandstone appears hard and elastic, the
weathered sandstone appears friable, and Ca and
Mg cations belonging to cement have been partly
removed. Such weathered rocks appear to be
utterly different from fresh rock, and the zone of
weathering in the Miri area may reach 50m deep.
Though fault and gouging properties remain
imaged in the weathered rock, the rock
Figure 12: Cross section showing a Vsh model and faults with potential HCH (hydrocarbon column height,
gas case) in comparison with the actual fluid contacts observed by the well (from Uchimura et al., 2014)
Number 39 – December 2017
[Pick the date]
composition and strength have changed. There is
only one outcrop, formed by a very hard and
dense sandstone in the Miri Formation which
could offer an idea of fresh rock properties; it was
formed after a prominent landslide in 2009 (near
the location of Figure 14).
• Therefore, the authors recommend caution when
weathered rock properties are applied to simulate
subsurface rock properties. Rock property
studies in areas of tropical weathering may yield
invalid results if applied to virgin rocks.
In summary, from a hydrocarbon exploration
standpoint, it makes most sense to consider and
integrate all available data: field measurements,
simulation results and empirical data, embedded
with a sound understanding of the local geology
such that realistic scenarios can be developed to
achieve better predictions of trapped hydrocarbon
accumulations.
Page 21 of 36
Berita Sedimentologi [Pick the date]

Figure 13: Hydrocarbon columns from the West Baram Delta fields (from Jong and Shimada, 2009).

Figure 14: A field photo of the landslide at a petrol station on Canada Hill, Miri in 2009, where a section of
the hill with an elevation of some 50 m collapsed and destroyed houses and the petrol station (credit: Borneo
Post online). Another landslide a little distance away exposed the only known unweathered example of Miri
Formation sandstone.

Number 39 – December 2017 Page 22 of 36

Berita Sedimentologi
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
We thank Mr. Hajime Kusaka, GM Exploration at
JX Nippon in Miri (2009-2011) for sponsoring and
endorsing field studies. This study has benefited
from the discussion with Titus Murray, a fault seal
expert with whom we visited the outcrops and
conducted a field course together. A student group
supervised by A/Professors Dr. Ramasamy
Nagarajan and Dr. Prasanna Mohan Viswanathan
with the following team members: Aaron Lee Chang
Fung, Muhammad Noorasfan Mahmud, William Si
Wee Liang and Wilmer Wong Chen Khai
contributed significantly to the findings and
complimented our earlier work. Our gratitude is
also extended to our reviewers for their
constructive comments that enhanced the quality
of this manuscript.
REFERENCES
Banda, R.M. and Honza, E., 1997. Miocene
stratigraphy of northwest Borneo Basin.
Bulletin of the Geological Society of
Malaysia, 40, p. 1-11.
Bouvier, J.D., Kaars-Sijpesteijn, C.H., Kluesner,
D.F., Onyejekwe, C.C. and van der Pal, R.C.,
1989. Three-dimensional seismic
interpretation and fault sealing
investigations, Nun River Field, Nigeria.
AAPG Bulletin, 73, p. 1397-1414.
Bretan, P., Yielding, G. and Jones, H., 2003. Using
calibrated Shale Gouge Ratio to estimate
hydrocarbon column heights. AAPG Bulletin,
87, p. 397–413.
Curtin University Malaysia, 2017. Fault
Identification and Their Sealing Capacity in
Lambir Formation, Miri, Sarawak, Group
Research Thesis submitted for the degree of
Bachelor of Science in Applied Geology by:
Aaron Lee Chang Fung, Muhammad
Noorasfan Mahmud, William Si Wee Liang
and Wilmer Wong Chen Khai. Department of
Applied Geology (unpublished).
Fristad, T., Groth, A., Yielding, G. and Freeman, B.,
1997. Quantitative fault seal prediction: a
case study from Oseberg Syd. Norwegian
Petroleum Society Special Publication, 7, p.
107–124.
Jev, B.I., Kaars-Sijpesteijn, C.H., Peters, M., Watts,
N.L. and Wilkie, J.T., 1993. Akaso field,
Nigeria: Use of integrated 3-D seismic, fault
slicing, clay smearing, and RFT pressure
data on fault trapping and dynamic leakage.
AAPG Bulletin, 77, p. 1389– 1404.
Number 39 – December 2017
[Pick the date]
Jong. J. and Shimada, M., 2009. Fault Seal
Analysis on Adong Kecil Structure and
Evaluation Report for FaultRiskTM Fault Seal
Analysis Software. Nippon Oil
(unpublished).
Jong, J., Kessler, K.L., Noon, S. and Tan, T.Q.,
2016. Structural development, depositional
Model and petroleum system of Paleogene
carbonate of the Engkabang-Karap Anticline,
onshore Sarawak. Berita Sedimentologi, 34,
p. 5-25.
Kessler, F.L., 2010. The Baram Line in Sarawak:
comments on its anatomy, history and
implications for potential nonconventional
gas deposits. Warta Geologi, 35(3), p. 105-
110.
Kessler, F.L and Jong, J., 2010. How to make a
map from an outcrop? Houston Geological
Society Bulletin, Technical Note, p. 55-59.
Kessler, F.L and Jong, J., 2014. Habitat and C-14
age dating of lignitic terrace sands -
implications for uplift on the Borneo
coastline during the Holocene. Bulletin of the
Geological Society of Malaysia, 60, p. 27-34.
Kessler, F.L. and Jong, J., 2015. Northwest
Sarawak: a complete geologic profile from the
Lower Miocene to the Pliocene covering the
Upper Setap Shale, Lambir and Tukau
Formations. Warta Geologi, 41(3-4), p. 45-
51.
Kessler, F.L. and Jong, J., 2016. Shape Parameters
of clay and quartz clasts in the Neogene
Tukau and Lambir Formations, NW
Sarawak. Warta Geologi, 42(3-4), p. 63-68.
Kessler, F.L. and Jong, J., 2017a. The roles and
implications of several prominent
unconformities in Neogene sediments of the
greater Miri area, NW Sarawak. Warta
Geologi, 43(4), p. 1-8.
Kessler, F.L. and Jong, J., 2017b. Examples of
fault architecture and clay gouging in
Neogene clastics of the Miri area, Sarawak.
Warta Geologi, 43(1), p. 15-20.
Kessler, F.L., Murray, T. and Jong, J., 2010.
Faulting and clay gouging in Neogene
clastics of the Lambir Formation, Sarawak,
Petroleum Geology Conference and
Exhibition, KL Convention Centre,
PGCE2010 Program Book, p. 313-314.
Lindsay, N.G., Murphy, F.C., Walsh, J.J. and
Watterson, J., 1992. Outcrop studies of
shale smears on fault surface, in: The
Page 23 of 36
Berita Sedimentologi
Geological Modelling of Hydrocarbon
Reservoirs and Outcrop Analogues.
Blackwell Publishing Ltd., p. 113–123.
Oyedele, K.F. and Adeyemi, A.S., 2009. Assessment
of fault-zone materials and their impact on
hydrocarbon accumulation using integrated
Exploration techniques. Journal of American
Science, 5, 113–122.
Sandal, T. (ed.), 1996. The geology and
hydrocarbon resources of Negara Brunei
Darussalam, Brunei Shell Petroleum Co.
Sdn. Bhd. and Brunei Museum, 243 p.
Uchimura, R., Yoshikawa, K., Syafiza Adian,
Terabe, K., Yasukochi, T., Chin, P.T. and Yii,
J., 2014. Verification of the hydrocarbon
accumulation in the fault leaned closure
with small fault throw: Case study for the
Late Miocene Deltaic Sandstone Reservoirs
(Sarawak Cycle V) Block D, Sarawak,
Malaysia. International Petroleum
Technology Conference, KLCC, Kuala
Lumpur, DOI: 10.2523/IPTC-18174-MS.
Number 39 – December 2017
[Pick the date]
van der Zee, W., Urai, J.L. and Pascal, D.R., 2003.
Lateral clay injection into normal faults.
GeoArabia, 8(3), p. 501-522.
van der Zee, W. and Urai, J.L., 2005. Processes of
normal fault evolution in a siliciclastic
sequence: a case study from Miri, Sarawak,
Malaysia. Journal of Structural Geology, 27,
p. 2281–2300.
Vrolijk, P.J., Urai, J.L. and Kettermann, M., 2016.
Clay smear: Review of mechanisms and
applications. Journal of Structural Geology,
86, p. 95–152.
Yielding, G., 2002. Shale gouge ratio - Calibration
by geohistory. Norwegian Petroleum Society
Special Publication, 11, p. 1–15.
Yielding, G., Freeman, B. and Needham, T., 1997.
Quantitative fault seal prediction: AAPG
Bulletin, 81, p. 897-917.
Page 24 of 36
Berita Sedimentologi [Pick the date]

SANGATTA DELTA EVOLUTION WITH AN UPDATED

MIOCENE PALEOGEOGRAPHY
Purnama A. Suandhi1, A. Bachtiar1, Prihatin T. Setyobudi1, Endi Nurjadi2, Andi Mardianza2 , B.
Dody Harisasmita1, M. Arifai1, Dwi Hendro H. N1

1GDA Consulting, Jakarta Indonesia

2Pertamina EP, Indonesia

Corresponding author: purnama_suandhi@yahoo.com/p.a.suandhi@gmail.com

ABSTRACT

The Sangatta Delta is one of significant deltas which developed during Miocene in the northern part
of Kutai Basin. Significant hydrocarbons and coals have been produced from Middle – Lower
Miocene fluvio-deltaic sediments along the onshore – offshore parts of the Lower Kutai Basin since
1970 until present. The Sangatta Delta’s architecture was already published since 1994 based on
subsurface data around the Sangatta Field. However, information on stratigraphy and
sedimentological model only covered the Middle – Lower Miocene sections and there were no
publication of its complete stratigraphy succession for more than 15 years.

Recently, many road accesses have been developed, connecting villages and districts around Kutai
Timur Regency. Most of the roads cut across perpendicularly to stratigraphy strikes measured from
surface outcrops, including Miocene Section. Integrated surface geological study by using continuous
measurement sections along the road accesses was used in generating composite, Miocene
stratigraphic columns, which display information of stratigraphy, facies succession and
paleogeography of Miocene deposits. Evolution of Sangatta Delta was interpreted by using
chronostratigraphy built from outcrops observation.

The Sangatta Delta development was controlled by Rantau Pulung – Mangkupa paleohigh (Rantau
Pulung Island), which is bound by NE-SW and N-S strike slip faults system called Bengalon –
Batuampar Slip Faults (NE-SW) and Rantau Pulung – Himba Lestari Slip Faults (N-S). Those faults
represent old basement faults that were reactivated several times during Neogene time and they
controlled the accommodation space and structural development around the Sangatta Delta.

The delta development started in Early Miocene when at least two fluvial deltaic parasequence sets
prograded toward east. During that time, the Rantau Pulung island was an exposed area,
surrounded by marine environment. The delta continued to develop and became larger during Middle
– Late Miocene as regional inversion and uplift took place at Kuching High to the west of the delta.
More than ten stacking fluvial deltaic parasequence sets have been identified from stratigraphic
composite columns and they all show progradation toward east. The stratigraphy deposited by the
Early – Late Miocene progradation cycles could become new exploration targets around the Sangatta
area, especially deep Neogene target or deepwater plays related to deltaic environment in distal
facies area.

Keywords: Sangatta delta, Miocene paleogeography, Kutai Basin

Number 39 – December 2017 Page 25 of 36

Berita Sedimentologi [Pick the date]

INTRODUCTION biostratigraphy analyses, petrography analyses,

and petroleum system component analyses.
The Miocene age Sangatta Delta includes
Balikpapan and Kampung Baru Formations
which are situated approximately 25km to the
north of modern Mahakam Delta, Kabupaten
Kutai Timur, East Kalimantan. Despite having
similar outcrop formation names with those of
the Mahakam Delta, the Sangatta Delta is
completely different especially in its geometry,
vertical succession units and structures.

The Sangatta Delta developed during Early

Miocene, in the same time as several other deltas
in the Lower Kutai Basin as the results of
regional tectonic uplift in the Kutai Basin.
Bachtiar (2004) proposed five major deltas which
developed in the Lower Kutai Basin since Early
Miocene – Present, including (from southernmost)
Longikis Delta in the south of Gulf of Balikpapan,
Wain Delta in Balikpapan area, the Mahakam
Delta, Marangkayu Delta around the Bontang
Area and Sangatta Delta in Sangatta area.

The Sangatta Delta’s architecture was already

published based on subsurface data (wells and
seismic) within the Sangatta Field, which include
eleven parasequence sets from Q to G within the
Balikpapan Formation (Sadirsan et al., 1994).
The deepest well within the field penetrated only
the upper part of Middle Miocene (Fukasawa et
al., 1987), which means the history of Sangatta
Delta development during Miocene time is still
incomplete. This paper focuses on Early – Late
Miocene sedimentology – stratigraphy history of
the Sangatta Delta based on comprehensive
surface outcrop study around the Sangatta Area
(Figure 1).
METHODS
The main data of this research was acquired from
comprehensive surface geological mapping which
could be subdivided into two general methods as
follows:
Continuous Measurement Section / Data
Acquisition (Chaining Geological
Measurement)
Figure 1: Study area (white box) which is situated
around the city of Sangatta, East Kalimantan
STRATIGRAPHIC ANALYSIS
Measurement of stratigraphic cross-section
Measurement of stratigraphic cross-section is
intended to determine the relationship of
stratigraphy and sedimentology in the study
area. Additional detailed measurements will be
used to determine the depositional facies.
Stratigraphic composite generally provides
continued stratigraphic information along a
certain surveyed line, and can be used to
determine the stratigraphic relationship of the
rocks along the line based on their positions,
elevations, locations, lithology analysis and
biostratigraphy. Each rock sample collected along
this line was analyzed to determine the age and
its depositional environment, petrography, and
geochemistry.

Chaining geological measurements is a method of REGIONAL TECTONIC, STRUCTURE AND

correlating and joining various measured
STRATIGRAPHY
stratigraphic sections into each other and tying
them to the wells in the survey area. The
Regional Tectonic and Structure
objective of the chaining method is to determine
the true thickness of rock formation thus
Previous publications from the basin generally
understanding the sedimentology and
dealt with a small and restricted area, discussing
stratigraphy. Data collected for this purpose are
exclusively the petroleum geology with very little
rock unit and sedimentology description, strike
reference of the regional tectonic or the
and dip measurement, (structural data), traverse
sedimentation history of the area. Among the
slope, azimuth, distance, and rock samples for
Number 39 – December 2017 Page 26 of 36
Berita Sedimentologi
regional geologists who worked on basin scale
paleogeography are Samuel and Muchsin (1975),
Pieters et al. (1987), Wilson and Moss (1999),
Moss and Chambers (1999), and Bachtiar et al.
(2013). The regional studies share a general
perception on Kutai Basin’s history during the
Eocene to Oligocene of both Upper and Lower
Kutai sub-basins. Both Upper and Lower Kutai
show similar sedimentation styles during the
Eocene to Oligocene, whereas during the
Miocene, the Upper Kutai sub-basin was uplifted
and became the provenance for the Lower Kutai
sub-basin. Several attempts to reconstruct the
Kutai Basin paleogeography in the sub-basin
level were carried out by Wain and Berod (1989),
Cloke (1999) in the Upper Kutai Sub-basin,
Bachtiar (2004) in the Lower Kutai Sub-basin,
and Sunaryo et al. (1988) in Bungalun Area,
which is the northern part of the Lower Kutai
Sub-basin.
The structural folds and faults in Kutai Basin
generally trend NE-SE. In the western part, it
consists of strongly folded anticlines that
experienced reverse faulting, whereas to the east
in the offshore area it becomes gently folded
anticlines. The series of anticlines are known as
the Samarinda Anticlinorium, which dominates
the middle part of the Lower Kutai Basin. To the
north and the south of the basin’s edge,
structural features trending WNW-ESE in the
form of anticlines and normal faults affect
existing regional structures (Biantoro et al.,
1992; Pertamina BPPKA, 1997).
In the beginning, such structural pattern was
interpreted as a result of gravity sliding due to
the uplifting of the Kuching High in the
northwestern part of the Kutai Basin (Ott, 1987).
During the last decade, related studies infer that
the formation of present structural features is
also caused by inversion due to compression of
thick deltaic Tertiary sediment package underlain
abnormally pressured prodelta clay deposits
(Jones, 1990; Van de Weerd and Armin, 1992;
Biantoro et al., 1992; Chambers and Daley,
1995; Ferguson and Mc Clay, 1997; Ferguson,
1999; Moss and Chambers, 1999). Structural
features associated with the above mentioned
mechanism include the following: mud diapirism,
clay dominated cores of anticlines (Pertamina
BKKA, 1997), and thinning of sediment layers
toward the anticline and thickening in synclines.
The structural configuration of Kutai Basin is
also controlled by series of NW-SE strike slip
faults (major shear zone) which are old Pre-
Tertiary faults. The faults were subjected to
several reactivations during the Tertiary to
develop new younger structural pattern (Bachtiar
et al., 2013). The major strike slip fault was part
of a major shear zone which was developed due
Number 39 – December 2017
[Pick the date]
to “tectonic escape” of India docking to Asia
during the late Cretaceous – Paleocene in South
East Asia including Sundaland (Molnar and
Tapponnier, 1975). Starting from the northern
part, major strike slip faults in the Kutai Basin
are the Sangkulirang Fault, Bengalon Fault, Batu
Ampar – Santan Fault, Belayan Fault,
Balikpapan Fault and Adang Fault (Figure 2;
Bachtiar et al., 2013).
On top of the NW-SE trending strike slip faults,
other old structural features which are also
observed in the Upper Kutai Basin are the NE-
SW/NNE-SSW trending lineaments which are
associated with the Paleogene-pre- Tertiary. The
Paleogene-pre-Tertiary outcropped with some
evidence of volcanic material and act as the
boundary of low gravity anomaly (Bachtiar et al.,
2013).
Basin Architecture
Regional gravity data show several NE-SW
isolated highs which are prominent in the Upper
Kutai sub-basin and less prominent in the Lower
Kutai sub-basin (Bachtiar, 2013). Several
isolated highs were discussed in publications of
the Upper Kutai sub-basin such as the Teweh,
Muyup, Kutai Lake, Kahala, and the Kedang-
Kepala Highs. Moreover, isolated highs located
onshore of the Lower Kutai sub-basin such as
(from north) Mangkupa – Rantau Pulung,
Jonggon, Samarinda, and the Balikpapan Highs
were also discussed in several publications
(Figure 2; Bachtiar et al., 2013).
The isolated highs were interpreted from
‘basement rift structure map’ of Chambers et al.
(2004). The structural highs may also be the
cause of the early Middle Miocene fluvial
sediment outcrops “provenance of chert pebbles”
problem in Samarinda delineated by Bachtiar
(2002).
This study also indicates that the isolated high
became inverted blocks during inversion in Early
Miocene and played a significant role in the
development of Miocene deltas along the Lower
Kutai Basin, including the Sangatta Delta.
Structural Configuration of the Sangatta Area
Topography lineament analyses around Sangatta
area shows four trends; North/Northeast -
South/Southwest, North – South, Northwest –
Southeast and West – East trends. There are also
boundaries of topographic lineaments trend
which can be observed on topographic
lineaments maps that are mostly related to faults
in the study area.
Page 27 of 36
Berita Sedimentologi
Formline pattern integrates surface structural
data (fold and fault), strike line outcrops,
topography map and general facies information.
Six different patterns could be determined
around the study area. Every pattern zone is
bounded by regional strike slip fault which is a
part of an old reactivated fault and controlled the
sedimentation. Those six formline patterns are:
transpresional-related to Eocene sediment
system, stable platform, transtensional-diapirism
related to deltaic environment, transpresional
related to deltaic environment, transpresional –
transtensional related to deltaic environment,
and transpresional – toe thrust related to marine
environment (Figure 3). Sangatta Delta was
developed along the transpressional – extensional
related to deltaic environment zone. The delta
was bounded to the west by Rantau Pulung -
Mangkupa High and Rantau Pulung Fault, to the
north by Bengalon Fault and to the south by
Batu Ampar Fault.
STRATIGRAPHY AND SEDIMENTOLOGY
Stratigraphy analysis in the study area was
carried out by integrating well data within the
study area, correlating composite stratigraphy
section, results of biostratigraphy, palynology
analyses and other supporting data such as
vitrinite reflectance and provenance analysis.
There are three stratigraphic composite columns
which were developed from a total of 351 km
traverse’ length and intersect all formations in
the Sangatta Area (Figure 1). The Miocene section
is covered by 250 km of traverse length with
more than 200 key outcrops, each being
connected systematically.
Sangatta Delta development is a part of Miocene
succession represented by the regional inversion
event along the Kutai Basin. Miocene succession
in the Sangatta area could be subdivided into
three sequence set markers; Top of Early Miocene
Marker, Top of Middle Miocene Marker and Top
of Late Miocene Marker (Figure 4). Surface
marker distribution is younger toward the east.
Early Miocene Succession
Regional nomenclature for the Early Miocene
sediment units are Maau and Pamaluan
Formations. Maau Formation refers to marine
shale sediment while Pamaluan Formation refers
to the fluvial – transition. Sedimentological
character and depositional environment
association of Early Miocene sediment consist of
alluvial fan, fluvial, tidal flat, delta plain, delta
front and outer shelf bathyal. The depositional
environments could be grouped in to three
Number 39 – December 2017
[Pick the date]
sequences with total thickness of up to 2.2 km
(calculated from chaining and geological cross
section). The top of Early Miocene succession is
marked by regional flooding surface related to
reefal carbonate buildup of delta front – prodelta
and outer shelf marine shale which is also
evidenced by the presence of forams (Figure 4).
The paleogeography of Early Miocene in the
Sangatta area was controlled by the presence of
Rantau Pulung paleohigh (Figure 5). The
paleohigh is bounded by Batuampar Fault to the
south, Himba Lestari Fault to the west, Rantau
Pulung Fault to the east and Bengalon Fault to
the north. The faults were reactivated faults that
formed the accommodation space and signify the
depositional environment boundary in the Early
Miocene. Geometry of Rantau Pulung High is
approximately 18-30 km and it was overlain by
the fluvial deposition thus forming an island
during the Early Miocene. The presences of faults
around the paleohighs significantly changed the
depositional environment laterally to the north,
east, south and west. The surrounding area
became transitional - marine.
The Proto Sangatta Delta developed toward the
east of the Early Miocene Rantau Pulung Island.
The delta is characterized by two parasequences;
fluvial – delta plain – delta front – prodelta and
carbonate buildup around the delta front –
prodelta.
Middle Miocene Succession
The Middle Miocene succession was marked by
regional uplift of most of the Upper Kutai Basin.
In the study area, this regional event is marked
by the absence of the Middle Miocene or younger
sediment to the west of Rantau Pulung Fault or
previously Rantau Pulung Island. Another
supporting evidence for the Early Middle Miocene
sequence boundary is the presence of braided
fluvial channel with abundant fossilized tree
trunks and chert fragments as the base of Middle
Miocene marker (Figure 4)
Middle Miocene succession in the study area
could be generalized in three sequences;
continuing previously prograding cycles of fluvial
– delta plain – delta front and prodelta facies of
the Sangatta Delta. Total thickness calculated
from chaining and geological cross section is up
to 800m.
Page 28 of 36
Berita Sedimentologi [Pick the date]

Figure 2: Kutai Basin architecture shows isolated highs and lows, exploration wells, regional strike slip faults and the Pre-Tertiary – Earliest Tertiary rocks
distribution (Bachtiar et al., 2013). Black box within the map is focus study location.

Number 39 – December 2017 Page 29 of 36

Berita Sedimentologi [Pick the date]

Figure 3: Structural map of the surrounding Sangatta area showing structural distribution and tectonic style zonation constructed from surface structural
mapping. The Sangatta Delta developed in transtensional – diapirism related to deltaic tectonic style zone which was controlled by a stable platform in the
western part and NW-SE and N-S strike slip faults system

Number 39 – December 2017 Page 30 of 36

Berita Sedimentologi [Pick the date]

Figure 4: Stratigraphic column and correlation

Number 39 – December 2017 Page 31 of 36

Berita Sedimentologi [Pick the date]

Figure 5: Miocene paleogeography and the evolution of Sangatta Delta

Number 39 – December 2017 Page 32 of 36
Berita Sedimentologi
The delta during the Middle Miocene prograded
toward the east of the previous Early Miocene
delta (Figure 5). The depocenter during that time
was situated around Rantau Pulung –
Margomulyo – Sangatta area, characterized by
stacked fluvial deltaic parasequences cycles.
Especially in the northern part of study area,
mud volcanoes are observed along the fault zone
or sequence boundary (formation boundary).
Biostratigraphy analyses of the mud revealed
mixed of Early – Middle Miocene forams.
Late Miocene Succession
The Late Miocene succession outcrops are
situated in the eastern most part of the study
area, especially around the open pit of
Kalimantan Prima Coal, the largest coal mining
in Indonesia.
There are three sequences of deltaic cycles
identified. The total thickness calculated from
chaining and geological cross section is up to
1800m (Figure 4). The Late Miocene sequence set
is also known as the coal units. The depositional
environment identified from the stratigraphic
composite column is stacking cycles of fluvial –
delta plain – delta front which could be group in
to 8 parasequences set (each parasequences set
thickness is up to 150m). The vertical succession
and lateral surface distribution of facies indicated
that the Late Miocene succession was possibly
the peak of the Sangatta Delta development
(Figure 5).
CONCLUSION
1. The Sangatta Delta development was
controlled by Mangkupa – Rantau Pulung paleo-
high and Northwest – Southeast and North –
South strike slip faults system.
2. The proto Sangatta Delta developed
during the Early Miocene and consisted of two
fluvial deltaic parasequences toward the east of
the Rantau Pulung paleohigh. Middle Miocene
succession was evidenced by the regional
sequence boundary event along the Sangatta
area; continued stacking cycles of fluvial deltaic
toward the east. During the Middle Miocene, the
geometry of the Sangatta Delta increased in size.
The Late Miocene succession showed a
continuation of stacking prograding cycles
toward the east, which could be grouped in to
three sequence cycles and up to eight
parasequences (from surface chaining
reconstruction). The vertical succession and
lateral facies distribution indicated that the Late
Number 39 – December 2017
[Pick the date]
Miocene succession was the peak of the Sangatta
Delta development.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors wish to thank the managements of
PERTAMINA EP and GDA Consulting for the
permission to publish this paper.
Thanks also go to Dr. Andang Bachtiar for
reviewing this manuscript, and the North Kutai
Basin research team in GDA Consulting who has
been helpful during the field and the studio
research.
REFERENCES
Bachtiar, A., 2004. Kerangka Stratigrafi Sekuen
dan Karakter Batuan Induk Miosen Awal
di Cekungan Kutai Hilir, Kalimantan
Timur. Doctoral Dissertation, Institut
Teknologi Bandung, unpublished.
Bachtiar, A., Purnama, Y.S., Suandhi, P.A., et al.,
2013. Tertiary paleogeography of the Kutai
Basin and its unexplored hydrocarbon
plays. Proceedings of 37th Annual
Convention Indonesian Petroleum
Association (IPA).
Bachtiar, A., Apriadi, D., Suleiman, A., 1999.
Semberah Surface Mapping Project, VICO
Indonesia, unpublished.
Biantoro, E., Muritno, B.P., and Mamuaya,
J.M.B., 1992. Inversion faults as the major
structural control in the northern part of
the Kutei Basin, East Kalimantan,
Proceedings of the IPA 21st Annual
Convention, 45-68.
Chambers, J.L.C. dan Daley, T.E., 1995. A
tectonic model for the onshore Kutei Basin,
East Kalimantan, based on integrated
geological and geophysical interpretation,
Proceedings of the IPA 24th Annual
Convention, p 111-128.
Chambers, J.L.C, Carter, I., Cloke, I.R., Craig, J.,
Moss, S.J. and Paterson, D.W., 2004.
Thin-skinned and thick-skinned inversion-
related thrusting – a structural model for
the Kutai Basin, Kalimantan, Indonesia.
In: K.R. McClay (Ed), Thrust tectonics and
hydrocarbon systems, American
Association of Petroleum Geologists,
Memoir 82, p. 614-634.
Page 33 of 36
Berita Sedimentologi
Ferguson, A. and McClay, K., 1997. Structural
modelling within the Sanga Sanga PSC,
Kutei Basin, Kalimantan: its implication to
paleochannel orientation stdies and timing
of hydrocarbon entrapment. In: J.V.C.
Howes and R.A. Noble (Eds.), Proceeding of
International Conference on Petroleum
Systems of SE Asia and Australia,
Indonesian Petroleum Association (IPA)
Jakarta, p. 727-743.
Ferguson A.J., 1999. Detached Inversion: A new
Structural Style Apllied to the Mahakam
Fold Belt, Kutai Basin, East Kalimantan,
Indonesia, Proc of a “Geology Indonesia”
summary Indonesia Sedimentologi Forum,
Spec. Publ.1, p.60-61.
Fukasawa, H., Sunaryo, R. and Napitupulu, P.H.,
1987. Hydrocarbon generation and
migration in the Sangatta area, Kutai
Basin, Proceedings of IPA 16th Annual
Convention (Vol. I), p. 123-139.
Jones, P.B., 1990. Structure of the Eastern Kutai
Basin, Kalimantan, Indonesia: A Proceedings of 17th Annual Convention
preliminary report. VICO unpublished
report, 18 p.
Molnar, P. and Tapponnier, P., 1975. Cenozoic
tectonics of Asia: Effects of a continental
collision. Science, 189 (4201), 419-426.
Moss, S.J. and Chambers, J.L.C. 1999. Tertiary
facies architecture in the Kutai Basin,
Kalimantan, Indonesia. Journal of Asian
Earth Sciences, 17, 157-181.
Ott, H.L. 1987. The Kutei Basin - A unique
structural history. Proceedings of the IPA
16th Annual Convention, 307-316.
Pertamina BPPKA, 1997. Petroleum geology of
Indonesian Basins, XI: Kutai Basin.
Petroleum geology of Indonesian basins:
principles, methods and application.
Jakarta.
Number 39 – December 2017
[Pick the date]
Pieters, P.E., Trail, D.S. and Supriatna, S., 1987.
Correlation of Early Tertiary rocks across
Kalimantan. Proceedings of 16th Annual
Convention, Indonesian Petroleum
Association, Jakarta, p. 291-306.
Sadirsan, W.S., Imanhardjo, D.N. and Kunto,
T.W., 1994. The Ancient Sangatta Delta:
New Insight to The Middle Miocene
Northern Kutai Nasin Deltaic Systems,
East Kalimantan. Proceedings of 23rd
Annual Convention Indonesian Petroleum
Association, Jakarta, p. 45-55.
Samuel, L. and Muchsin, 1975. Stratigraphy and
sedimentation in the Kutai Basin, East
Kalimantan. Proceeding of 4th Annual
Convention, Indonesian Petroleum
Association (IPA), Jakarta, p. 27-39.
Sunaryo, R., Martodjojo, S. and Wahab, A., 1988.
Detailed geological evaluation of the
possible hydrocarbon prospects in the
Bungalun area, East Kalimantan.
Indonesian Petroleum Association (IPA),
Jakarta, p. 423-446.
Van de Weerd, A. A. and Armin, R.A., 1992.
Origin and evolution of the tertiary
hydrocarbon-bearing basins in Kalimantan
(Borneo), Indonesia. AAPG bulletin vol. 76
no. 11, 1778-1803.
Wain, T. and B. Berod ,1989. The tectonic
framework and paleogeography of the
upper Kutai Basin. Proceedings of the IPA
18th Annual Convention, 55-78.
Wilson, M.E.J. and Moss, S.J., 1999. Cenozoic
palaeogeographic evolution of Sulawesi
and Borneo. Palaeogeography,
Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology, 145,
303-33.
Page 34 of 36
Berita Sedimentologi [Pick the date]

Number 39 – December 2017 Page 35 of 36

Berita Sedimentologi [Pick the date]

Number 39 – December 2017 Page 36 of 36