Syllabus https://nptel.ac.

in/courses/108103009

UNIT - I

Introduction Fundamentals of vehicle - components of conventional vehicle and

propulsion load; Drive cycles and drive terrain; Concept of electric vehicle and

hybrid electric vehicle; History of hybrid vehicles - advantages and applications

of Electric and Hybrid Electric Vehicles.

UNIT - II

Hybridization of Automobile Architectures of HEVs - series and parallel HEVs -

complex HEVs. Plug-in hybrid vehicle (PHEV) - constituents of PHEV - comparison

of HEV and PHEV; Extended range hybrid electric vehicles (EREVs) - blended

PHEVs - Fuel Cell vehicles and its constituents.

UNIT - III

Special Machines for EV and HEVs Characteristics of traction drive - requirement

of electric motors for EV/HEVs. Induction Motor drives - their control and

applications in EV/HEVs. Permanent magnet Synchronous motor: configuration -

control and applications in EV/HEVs. Brushless DC Motors: Advantages - control

of application in EV/HEVs. Switch reluctance motors: Merits limitations -

converter configuration - control of SRM for EV/HEVs.

UNIT - IV

Power Electronics in HEVs Boost and Buck-Boost converters - Multi Quadrant

DC-DC converters - DC-AC Inverter for EV and HEV applications - Three Phase

DC-AC inverters - Voltage control of DC-AC inverters using PWM - EV and PHEV

battery chargers.

UNIT - V
Energy Sources for HEVs Energy Storage - Battery based energy storage and

simplified models of battery - fuel cells – their characteristics and simplified

models - super capacitor based energy storage - its analysis and simplified

models - flywheels and their modeling for energy storage in EV/HEV -

Hybridization of various energy storage devices.

 Unit-1

INTRODUCTION

What is a hybrid? A hybrid vehicle combines any two power (energy) sources.

Possible combinations include diesel/electric, gasoline/fly wheel, and fuel cell

(FC)/battery. Typically, one energy source is storage, and the other is conversion

of a fuel to energy. The combination of two power sources may support two

separate propulsion systems. Thus, to be a True hybrid, the vehicle must have at

least two modes of propulsion.

For example, a truck that uses a diesel to drive a generator, which in turn drives

several electrical motors for all-wheel drive, is not a hybrid. But if the truck has

electrical energy storage to provide a second mode, which is electrical assists,

then it is a hybrid Vehicle. These two power sources may be paired in series,

meaning that the gas engine charges the batteries of an electric motor that

powers the car, or in parallel, with both mechanisms driving the car directly.

Acceleration, braking, turning, and ride are among the most fundamental

properties of a motor vehicle. The vehicle dynamics is the motion of the vehicle

generated by the steering action, through which the vehicle is capable of

independent motion

The fundamentals of vehicle design involve the basic principles of physics,

specially the Newton's second law of motion. According to Newton's second law

the acceleration of an object is proportional to the net force exerted on it.

Hence, an object accelerates when the net force acting on it is not zero. In a

vehicle several forces act on it and the net or resultant force governs the motion

according to the Newton's second law. The propulsion unit of the vehicle

delivers the force necessary to move the vehicle forward. This force of the
propulsion unit helps the vehicle to overcome the resisting forces due to gravity,

air and tire resistance. The acceleration of the vehicle depends on:

• the power delivered by the propulsion unit

• the road conditions

• the aerodynamics of the vehicle

• the composite mass of the vehicle

The mathematical framework required for the analysis of vehicle mechanics

based on Newton's second law of motion.

The vehicle motion can be completely determined by analysing the forces acting

on it in the direction of motion. The forces acting on a vehicle, moving up a

grade, are shown in Figure 1. The tractive force (Ft) in the contact area between

the tires of the driven wheels and the road surface propels the vehicle forward.

The tractive force (Ft) is produced by the power plant and transferred to the

driving wheels via the transmission and the final drive. When the vehicle moves,

it encounters a resistive force that tries to retard its motion. The resistive forces

are

• Rolling resistance

• Aerodynamic drag

• Uphill resistance
 Figure 1: Forces acting on a vehicle going uphill

Where Frol is rolling friction, Faer is aero dynamic drag, Fclimb is accelerating force in

inclined surface and Fwind is force due to wind gust.

Using the Newton's second law of motion, the vehicle acceleration can be
expressed as

                  (1)
Rolling resistance

The rolling resistance of tires on hard surfaces is due to hysteresis in th

Components of Conventional vehicle:

An automobile has several numbers of parts. But there are four essential

components of automobile. These are:

1. The Chassis.
2. The Engine.
3. The Transmission System.
4. The Body.
Apart from these four essential parts of automobile, there are controls and
auxiliaries.

The controls are meant for controlling the movement of the vehicle. The
auxiliaries are additional components meant for providing comfort to the user of
the automobile.

1. The Chassis.
The chassis of an automobile has the frame, suspension system, axles, and
wheel as the main components.

It joins all the major assemblies such as an engine, components of transmission

system such as clutch, gearbox, propeller shaft, axles, a control system such as
brakes and steering, and suspension system of the vehicle. In other words, it is
the vehicle without its body.
The frame could be in the form of conventional chassis or unit construction may
be adopted.

In a conventional chassis frame, the frame forms the main skeleton of vehicle.
It supports engine, power transmission, and car body.

The frame is supported on wheels and axles through springs. The frame carries
the weight of the vehicle and passengers, withstands engine, transmission,
accelerating, and braking torques. It also withstands the centrifugal forces while
cornering and takes up stresses due to the rise and fall of axles.

In the unit construction type, there is no frame. The structure of the body of
the automobile is first formed, and then different components such as the
engine, transmission system, and other parts are placed at suitable places in the
body structure.

The other parts of the chassis are suspension system, axles, and wheel. The
suspension system absorbs the vibrations due to up and down movement of
wheels.

The axle may be ‘live’ if power from the engine is transmitted to it. It may be a
‘dead’ axle if no power is supplied to it and it is just supporting the weight of the
vehicle.

In ‘four-wheel drive,’ the power is supplied to both the axles and therefore both
the axles are ‘live.’

In addition to providing support to the weight of the vehicle, the axle also resists
the stresses due to braking and driving torque.

2. The Engine.
The power of the engine determines the working of the automobile. In the same
manner, the efficiency of the engine determines the efficiency of an automobile.

The engine, nowadays, is invariably an internal combustion engine. This may be

a spark-ignition engine consuming petrol as fuel.

Alternatively, it could be a compression ignition engine using diesel as fuel.

The engines used are multi-cylinder engines. A single-cylinder engine, though

capable of providing the desired power may become very heavy and therefore
may be unsuitable. In a multi-cylinder engine, each cylinder handling a smaller
amount of power may keep engine light in weight.

In an internal combustion engine, total heat produced by the burning of fuel is

not converted into work. Part of it causes over-all heating of engine which is
undesirable. This heat is to be dissipated properly. Coolant in the form of air or
water may be used to take away this heat. So, an engine can be air-cooled or
water-cooled. These days some chemicals have been developed which have a
cooling property, and these remain unaffected for a longer period of time. The
moving parts in an engine need regular lubrication to reduce unwanted friction.

3. The Transmission System.

The transmission system transmits power developed by the engine to the road
wheels. The power available as output from the engine is in the form of rotation
of the crankshaft.

The transmission system consists of different parts. These include clutch,

gearbox, propeller shaft, differential and axle, live axle.

i. Clutch.
The clutch, part of the transmission system is next to the crankshaft. It is a
mechanism enabling the rotary motion of one shaft transmitted to the second
shaft ‘at will.’

When the engine starts, it should not be connected to road wheels, i.e., these
should not start moving as soon as the engine starts. Secondly, this motion
should be smoothly transferred so that passengers in the car do not feel
discomfort, and its mechanism is not spoiled.

ii. Gearbox.
The gearbox is the component of the transmission system next to the clutch. It
has got a gear train, and it provides different gear ratios. These ratios determine
the rotary speed of output shaft from the gearbox.
The torque transmitted to the road wheels gives rise to a propulsive force or
(tractive effort) between these and the road. When starting from rest, a large
tractive effort is required.

This makes essential the introduction of considerable ‘leverage’ mechanism

between the engine and the wheels so that torque from the engine, which is
almost constant, produces the large tractive effort.

This ‘leverage’ is provided by the gearbox.

Propeller shaft transmits the output from the gearbox to the axle. This axle may
be in the rear or in the front or in some cases both the rear and front axle may
receive output from the gearbox.

iii. Differential.
The differential is the next component of the transmission system. The motion
of propeller shaft is fed to the differential which turns it through 90 degrees.
This is essential as the axle is at 90 degrees to the propeller shaft.

The function is performed with the help of a pinion and a gear. Another
important function of the differential is to reduce the speed of inner wheels and
at the same time, enhance the speed of outer wheels by the same amount.
This is required when the automobile is moving on a curved path. On a curved
path, the outer wheels are required to traverse a circle of a bigger radius than
the inner wheels. This means that the outer wheels are required to traverse
larger distance as compared to inner wheels.

As the automobile is to move as a single unit, all the four wheels must travel
together. Therefore, the outer wheels should travel larger distance and inner
wheels should travel smaller distance in the same time period.

Hence, the variation in the speed of inner and outer wheels is needed. This is
performed by the differential with the help of sun and planet gear system.

iv. Axle.
The axle is the next component of the transmission system. The axle receiving
power from the engine is termed as ‘live’ axle. It is in two halves.

The ends of the axle have road wheels connected to it. These road wheels are in
direct contact with the road surface. The body of the automobile is above the
axle.

The axle also takes up the various loads including the weight of the automobile.
It also transmits motion to the road wheels.

4. The Body.
Many heavy vehicles now use ‘sub-frames’ of simple construction to which the
engine and gearbox are attached. The sub-frame is supported on the mainframe
and is fixed on it through some suitable rubber connections to isolate the engine
vibrations.
Apart from the four basic components described above, the automobile has the
control systems and auxiliaries.

The control systems are used to control the motion of an automobile and
therefore are essential in an automobile. These include;

i.  The steering system, and

ii.  Braking system or brakes.

i. Steering system.

The automobile, while moving, may be required to traverse a circular path. It has
to be turned through some angle if the path is not straight.

There may be other situations also when the road is turning towards left or
right, and an automobile is required to turn to left or right. This turning of the
automobile towards left or right or on the curved path is provided through
steering mechanism.

The steering system is required to be quite accurate as the automobile should

turn accurately along with the path.

ii. Braking system.

This causes a reduction in speed of the vehicle and brings it to rest when
necessary. Bringing an automobile to rest is as important as its movement.

Obviously, when we have reached our destination, we would like to stop; and
therefore, the vehicle should come to rest.

Also, there may be some kind of emergency and vehicle may be required to slow
down or stop on the way. At that time, also its motion is to be controlled.

This control on the motion is provided with the help of brakes.

5. The Auxiliaries.
These are the components of an automobile which may not be essential, but it
can make the driving more comfortable.

The fact is that with the passage of time, some auxiliaries become essential. A
few years back, the indicators—to indicate the turning vehicle—were not used.
But now these have been made mandatory by the government.
Though air-conditioner is not essential and is just to provide comfort conditions,
now it is provided in every vehicle in developed countries and is being adopted
by more and more people.

The study of automobile engineering involves going through an in-depth study

of all the components and parts of automobile.

These include engine, transmission system, control, and auxiliaries.

The engine used in an automobile is an internal combustion engine. The

transmission system consists of a number of parts, the introduction of which
has already been presented.

Suspension systems, wheels, and tires are also important components, parts of
automobile. Study of steering mechanism and brakes is also important as these
form the control system in an automobile.

History of Hybrid vehicles

In 1900, steam technology was advanced. The advantages of steam-powered

cars included high performance in terms of power and speed. However, the
disadvantages of steam-powered cars included poor fuel economy and the need
to “fire up the boiler” before driving.

Gasoline cars of 1900 were noisy, dirty, smelly, cantankerous, and unreliable. In
comparison, electric cars were comfortable, quiet, clean, and fashionable. Ease
of control was also a desirable feature. Lead acid batteries were used in 1900
and are still used in modern cars. Hence lead acid batteries have a long history
(since 1881) of use as a viable energy storage device. Golden age of Electrical
vehicle marked from 1890 to 1924 with peak production of electric vehicles in
1912. However, the range was limited by energy storage in the battery. After
every trip, the battery required recharging. At the 1924 automobile show, no
electric cars were on display. This announced the end of the Golden Age of
electric-powered cars.

The range of a gasoline car was far superior to that of either a steam or an
electric car and dominated the automobile market from 1924 to 1960.

1839

Robert Anderson of Aberdeen, Scotland built the first electric vehicle.  

1860
In, Jean Joseph Etienne Lenoir, a Frenchman, built the first successful two-stroke
gas driven engine.  

1890

Jacob Lohner, a coach builder in Vienna, Austria, predicted the need for an
electric vehicle that would be less noisy than the new gas-powered cars. He
commissioned a design for an electric vehicle from Austro-Hungarian engineer
Ferdinand Porsche, Porsche's first version of the electric car used a pair of
electric motors mounted in the front wheel hubs of a conventional car. The car
could travel up to 38 miles. To extend the vehicle's range, Porsche added a
gasoline engine that could recharge the batteries, thus giving birth to the first
hybrid, the Lohner-Porsche Elektromobil  .

1900

Porsche showed his hybrid car at the Paris Exposition of 1900. A gasoline engine
was used to power a generator which, in turn, drove a small series of motors.
The electric engine was used to give the car a little bit of extra power. This
method of series hybrid engine is still in use today, although obviously with
further scope of performance improvement and greater fuel savings.

1915
Woods Motor Vehicle manufacturers created the Dual Power hybrid vehicle,
second hybrid car in market. Rather than combining the two power sources to
give a single output of power, the Dual Power used an electric battery motor to
power the engine at low speeds (below 25km/h) and used the gasoline engine to
carry the vehicle from these low speeds up to its 55km/h maximum speed. While
Porsche had invented the series hybrid, Woods invented the parallel hybrid.

1918

The Woods Dual Power was the first hybrid to go into mass production. In all,
some 600 models were built by. However, the evolution of the internal
combustion engine left electric power a marginal technology

1960

Victor Wouk worked in helping create numerous hybrid designs earned him the
nickname of the “Godfather of the Hybrid”. In 1976 he even converted a Buick
Skylark from gasoline to hybrid.

1978

Modern hybrid cars rely on the regenerative braking system. When a standard
combustion engine car brakes, a lot of power is lost because it dissipates into
the atmosphere as heat. Regenerative braking means that the electric motor is
used for slowing the car and it essentially collects this power and uses it to help
recharge the electric batteries within the car. This development alone is believed
to have progressed hybrid vehicle manufacture significantly. The Regenerative
Braking System, was first designed and developed in 1978 by David Arthurs.
Using standard car components, he converted an Opel GT to offer 75 miles to
the gallon and many home conversions are done using the plans for this system
that are still widely available on the Internet.

The history of hybrid cars is much longer and more involved than many first
imagine. It is, however, in the last ten years or so that we, as consumers, have
begun to pay more attention to the hybrid vehicle as a viable alternative to ICE
driven cars. Whether looking for a way to save money on spiraling gas costs or in
an attempt to help reduce the negative effects on the environment we are
buying hybrid cars much more frequently.

1990s
Automakers took a renewed interest in the hybrid, seeking a solution to
dwindling energy supplies and environmental concerns and created modern
history of hybrid car

1993

In USA, Bill Clinton's administration recognized the urgency for the mass
production of cars powered by means other than gasoline. Numerous
government agencies, as well as Chrysler, Ford, GM, and USCAR combined forces
in the PNGV (Partnership for a New Generation of Vehicles), to create cars using
alternative power sources, including the development and improvement of
hybrid electric vehicles.

1997

The Audi Duo was the first European hybrid car put into mass production and
hybrid production and consumer take up has continued to go from strength to
strength over the decades.

2000

Toyota Prius and Honda Insight became the first mass market hybrids to go on
sale in the United States, with dozens of models following in the next decade.
The Honda Insight and Toyota Prius were two of the first mainstream Hybrid
Electric Vehicles and both models remain a popular line.

2005

A hybrid Ford Escape, the SUV, was released in 2005. Toyota and Ford essentially
swapped patents with one another, Ford gaining a number of Toyota patents
relating to hybrid technology and Toyota, in return, gaining access to Diesel
engine patents from Ford.

Present of Hybrid Electric vehicle

Toyota is the most prominent of all manufacturers when it comes to hybrid cars.
As well as the specialist hybrid range they have produced hybrid versions of
many of their existing model lines, including several Lexus (now owned and
manufactured by Toyota) vehicles. They have also stated that it is their intention
to release a hybrid version of every single model they release in the coming
decade. As well as cars and SUVs, there are a select number of hybrid
motorcycles, pickups, vans, and other road going vehicles available to the
consumer and the list is continually increasing.
Future of Hybrid electrical vehicle

Since petroleum is limited and will someday run out of supply. In the arbitrary
year 2037, an estimated one billion petroleum-fuelled vehicles will be on the
world's roads. gasoline will become prohibitively expensive. The world needs to
have solutions for the “400 million otherwise useless cars”. So, year 2037
“gasoline runs out year” means, petroleum will no longer be used for personal
mobility. A market may develop for solar-powered EVs of the size of a scooter or
golf cart. Since hybrid technology applies to heavy vehicles, hybrid buses and
hybrid trains will be more significant.

Drive Cycle