SEMINARS - Roof Collapse

UNIVERSITAT POLITÈCNICA DE CATALUNYA
Cases of roof collapse
Daniel Alarcón
daniel.alarcon-fernandez@upc.edu
Index 2
1. Introduction
2. Roof typologies
3. Roof elements
4. Supported loads & Collapses
5. Bibliography
Structures Technology Seminars - Cases of roof collapse Daniel Alarcón

1. Introduction 3
Building:
Construction composed by three different subsystems:
• Structural subsystem: Stability, resistance and

rigidity.
• Building systems: Electrical and fluids supply,

fire extinction systems, people transportation,
etc.
• Protective subsystem: Protection against

climatic and anthropogenic factors (wind, snow,
ice, heat, cold, light, fire, vision, noise, impact,
vandalism, …)

1. Introduction 4
Elements of the Protective System:
• Partitions: Compartmentalization and

protection of the inner spaces.
• Cladding: Protection of the structural

and non structural building elements
(Plaster, floor, false ceiling, etc.)
• Accessory elements: Operation, control

and regulation (Doors and windows,
carpentry, glass, etc.)
• Closures: Protection of the inside from

the outside.
• Façades: vertical closure walls.
• Roofs: system employed to
cover the top of a building.
2. Roof typologies 5
Different roof typologies:
Dome Roof Vaulted Roof

Butterfly Roof Hipped Roof
(Spherical) (Cylindrical)

Double-Pitched Single-Pitched
Roof Roof

Flat Roof Parapet Roof

Saw-Tooth Roof M-Shaped Roof

3. Roof elements 9
Roof elements:
• Substructure.
• Waterproofing / Thermal
isolation elements.
• Cover elements / Shingles.

3. Roof elements 10
Roof substructure:
• Support the roof loads: Dead / Live loads.
• Different materials and typologies → Self-weight huge variability.
Concrete substructures:
Reinforced concrete Precast concrete

(Reinforced/Prestressed)

3. Roof elements 11
Trussed / Beam substructures:

• Multiple configurations.
Timber
Steel
Hybrid Timber-steel

3. Roof elements 12
Masonry substructures:
Honeycomb brick wall Vaults
Masonry segmental vault Masonry catenary vault

3. Roof elements 13
Masonry substructures: mNACTEC – Museu Nacional de la Ciència i de

la Tècnica de Catalunya (Terrassa – 1909)

3. Roof elements 14
Waterproofing and thermal

isolation elements:
• Desirable.
• Common in new
constructions.
• Not always employed in old
constructions (depending
on the cover elements).

3. Roof elements 15
Cover elements / Shingles:

• Huge variability, depending on climate, natural resources,
installation cost and building type.
Asphaltic Concrete PVC/PET
Timber Ceramic Slate

3. Roof elements 16
Fiber cement Metal Panels Glass roof
Built-Up System Sandwich Panels Green roof

3. Roof elements 17

• High self-weight variability. Need to be consistent with the
substructure.
Cover element / Shingle type Weight (kN/m2)
Metal panels 0.03-0.1
Sandwich panels 0.09-0.15
Asphaltic 0.1-0.2
Timber 0.1-0.2
Fiber cement 0.2
Glass roof 0.1-0.3
Built-Up system 0.15-0.3
PVC 0.2-0.3
Concrete 0.3-0.5
Ceramic 0.3-0.8
Slate 0.3-1.5
Green roof 0.1-5

4. Supported loads & Collapses 18
Roof supported loads and collapse causes:

• Dead loads: Permanent loads which result from the weight
of the structure itself or from other permanent attachments.
• Self-weight.
• Dead loads associated to special uses.
• Live loads: loads produced by environmental factors or
temporary situations.
• Overload.
• Wind.
• Rain water.
• Snow.
• Earthquake.
• Other collapse causes:
• Lightening strikes.
• Fire.
Safety partial factors at Ultimate Limit States:

• Actions:
Eurocode EN 1990:
Verification Action type Unfavorable Favorable
Permanent (𝛾𝛾𝐺𝐺 ) 1.35 1.00
Resistance
Variable (𝛾𝛾𝑄𝑄 ) 1.50 0.00
Permanent (𝛾𝛾𝐺𝐺 ) 1.10 0.90
Equilibrium
Variable (𝛾𝛾𝑄𝑄 ) 1.50 0.00
CTE: Código Técnico de la Edificación


• Materials:
• Reinforced / prestressed concrete (EN 1992-1):
Concrete (𝛾𝛾𝑐𝑐 ) Reinforcing steel (𝛾𝛾𝑠𝑠 ) Prestressing steel (𝛾𝛾𝑠𝑠 )
1.50 1.15 1.15
• Steel (EN 1993-2):
Resistance cross sections

Resistance of joints (Bolts, rivets,
(Excessive yielding
pins, welds, plates in bearing)
including local buckling)
1.00 1.25


• Materials:
• Timber (EN 1995-1):
Solid Timber (𝛾𝛾𝑀𝑀 ) 1.30
• Masonry (EN 1996-1):
- Class: related with the execution control.

Dead loads: Self-weight

• High variability due to the typologies and materials employed.
• Collapses usually related with lack of maintenance, construction
defects or structural modifications / uncertainties.
• Timber substructures need higher maintenance.
• Importance of periodically check of joints and connectors in truss/beam
substructures.
Lighter roof Heavier roof

”Inicialmente se
apuntó la
posibilidad de que
la placa fuera muy
fina para aguantar
el peso del tejado.
Los propietarios
indicaron que la
cubierta fue
reparada hace dos
años…”

• Collapse during construction.

• Light roof solution.
• Truss buckling / connectors
failure.
• Analysis of the steel truss
frame substructure after the
incident.


Dead loads: Loads associated to special uses.

• Rooftop pools:
• Water specific weight 𝛾𝛾𝑤𝑤 = 10𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘/𝑚𝑚3 .
• Huge added mass on top of the building structure.
Permanent load Variable load

Might not be considered in
Load previously considered in project
project phase. Should be treated
as a live load

• Rooftop pools:
Structural compatibility!


• Rooftop pools:
“Factory worker Yang Zhongkun, 42, told

Xinhua: 'There was no premonition. I heard
a bang and saw the building collapse'.”


• Roof gardens.


• Roof gardens:
• Specific weight of the soil depending on its nature and
humidity.
• Need good drainage system: reduced permeability of
some soils reduces the drainage capacity of the roof.


• Roof gardens:
• Irrigation and rain episodes vary the load supported by the
structure.
• Typical soil specific weigh: 𝛾𝛾𝑠𝑠 = 20𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘/𝑚𝑚3 (Doubles water)
Dry soil Partially saturated soil Fully saturated soil

𝑊𝑊𝑠𝑠 𝑊𝑊𝑠𝑠 + 𝑊𝑊𝑤𝑤 𝑊𝑊𝑠𝑠 + 𝑊𝑊𝑤𝑤
𝛾𝛾𝑑𝑑 = < 𝛾𝛾𝑝𝑝.𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 = < 𝛾𝛾𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 =
𝑉𝑉 𝑉𝑉 𝑉𝑉
𝑉𝑉𝑎𝑎
Depends on the porosity of the soil: 𝑛𝑛 % = � 100
𝑉𝑉

• Roof gardens: Specific weight variation.
Soil type 𝒏𝒏 % 𝜸𝜸𝒅𝒅 𝒌𝒌𝒌𝒌/𝒎𝒎𝟑𝟑 𝜸𝜸𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔 𝒌𝒌𝒌𝒌/𝒎𝒎𝟑𝟑 Variation %
Loose uniform sand 46 14.4 18.9 +31%

Dense uniform sand 34 17.5 20.8 +19%
Well graded loose sand 40 15.9 19.8 +25%
Well graded dense sand 30 18.6 21.6 +16%
Slightly organic soft clay 66 9.2 15.7 +71%
Very organic soft clay 75 6.8 14.3 +110%
Amorphous peat 91 1.8 10.9 +506%
Fibrous peat 94 0.9 10.3 +1044%
(Terzaghi & Peck, 1967)

• Roof gardens:
“I was eating at canteen near the window and

I suddenly heard something like a bomb
explosion, and I saw [a lot of] smoke coming
out from that building.”


• Roof gardens:
“The cause, although not completely

pinpointed has been blamed on the overall
green roof construction. The additional
weight on the structure by the various green
roof materials and growing media could
have been exacerbated by the recent rain
events.”


• Roof gardens:
“City officials are now

investigating the collapse, it is
unclear whether poorly installed soil
on the building roof garden or a
more integral structural issue was to
blame.”


• Roof gardens:

Live loads: Overload

• Different values depending on the standard used.
CTE: Código Técnico de la Edificación
In public access roofs, the

overload value corresponds
to the use of the area from
which it is accessed.


Eurocode 1 (EN 1991-1):


Eurocode 1 (EN 1991-1): Imposed loads on roofs of category I.
Categories of use
A B C D E F G
Areas for Office areas Areas where Shopping areas Storage and Traffic and Traffic and
domestic and people may industrial use parking for light parking for
residential congregate vehicles medium vehicles
activities



Live loads: Overload in balconies


Portable pools:
- Not considered in design phase.
- Covered by overload factors and material
partial safety factors.
- Distributed or concentrated load?
- Depending on its size.
EN 1991-1: Roof class I 𝑞𝑞𝑘𝑘 = 4.0𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘/𝑚𝑚2
POOL SIZE: 260 X 160 X 65 CM
Category A 𝑄𝑄𝑘𝑘 = 3.0𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 DISTRIBUTED LOAD?
Distributed Design load: 𝑞𝑞𝑑𝑑 = 1.5 � 4.0𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘/𝑚𝑚2 = 6𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘/𝑚𝑚2
Material partial safety factor:
Assuming prestressed concrete beams in yielding conditions: 𝛾𝛾𝑠𝑠 = 1.15
Approximated ultimate distributed load: 𝑞𝑞𝑢𝑢 = 𝛾𝛾𝑠𝑠 � 𝑞𝑞𝑑𝑑 =6.9𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘/𝑚𝑚2
𝑞𝑞𝑤𝑤 = 6.5𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘/𝑚𝑚2
Near Collapse!!!


Online Shop product comments:






Small factor portable pool: Distributed or concentrated load?
CTE: Category use F 𝑞𝑞𝑘𝑘 = 1𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘/𝑚𝑚2
Private accessible roofs. 𝑄𝑄𝑘𝑘 = 2𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘
Distributed load:
Design load: 𝑞𝑞𝑑𝑑 = 1.5 � 1𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘/𝑚𝑚2 =1.5𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘/𝑚𝑚2
Material partial safety factor:
Prestressed concrete beams: 𝛾𝛾𝑠𝑠 = 1.15
Approximated ultimate distributed load:
𝑞𝑞𝑢𝑢 = 𝛾𝛾𝑠𝑠 � 𝑞𝑞𝑑𝑑 =1.7𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘/𝑚𝑚2 𝑞𝑞𝑤𝑤 = 2.5𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘/𝑚𝑚2
Collapse!!!
Concentrated load:
𝜋𝜋
Design load: 𝑄𝑄𝑑𝑑 = 1.5 � 2𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘= 3𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 𝐴𝐴 = 𝐷𝐷 2 = 1.02𝑚𝑚2
Approximated ultimate distributed load: 4
𝑄𝑄𝑢𝑢 = 𝛾𝛾𝑠𝑠 � 𝑄𝑄𝑑𝑑 =3.45𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 𝑄𝑄𝑤𝑤 = 𝑞𝑞𝑤𝑤 𝐴𝐴 = 2.55𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘
Safe
Load between concentrated and distributed.
Design loads variation between standards: 𝑞𝑞𝑢𝑢 (EN1991)=6.9𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘/𝑚𝑚2
𝑄𝑄𝑢𝑢 (EN1991)=5.2𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘



Live loads: Wind (EN 1991-1-4)

Pressure exerted by wind over the structures:
𝑤𝑤 = 𝑞𝑞𝑝𝑝 𝑧𝑧 � 𝑐𝑐𝑝𝑝
- Pressure 𝑤𝑤 varies depending on terrain conditions and height.

- 𝑞𝑞𝑝𝑝 : pressure corresponding to peak wind velocity.
𝑞𝑞𝑝𝑝 𝑧𝑧 = 𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑒 𝑧𝑧 � 𝑞𝑞𝑏𝑏
- 𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑒 𝑧𝑧 : Exposure factor. Introduces the terrain conditions and

height variation.
Category 0 Category I Category II
Category III Category IV

- 𝑞𝑞𝑏𝑏 : Basic wind pressure: value corresponding to the mean value

of wind speed 𝑣𝑣𝑏𝑏 .
1
𝑞𝑞𝑏𝑏 = � 𝜌𝜌 � 𝑣𝑣𝑏𝑏2
2

- 𝑐𝑐𝑝𝑝 : pressure coefficient depending on building, roof typology and the position of the
analyzed area.
- Different parameters for inner and external pressure.


Force exerted by wind over the structures:
𝐹𝐹𝑤𝑤 = 𝐹𝐹𝑤𝑤,𝑒𝑒 + 𝐹𝐹𝑤𝑤,𝑖𝑖
𝐹𝐹𝑤𝑤,𝑒𝑒 = 𝑐𝑐𝑠𝑠 𝑐𝑐𝑑𝑑 � 𝑤𝑤𝑒𝑒,𝑗𝑗 � 𝐴𝐴𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟,𝑗𝑗 𝐹𝐹𝑤𝑤,𝑖𝑖 = � 𝑤𝑤𝑖𝑖,𝑗𝑗 � 𝐴𝐴𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟,𝑗𝑗

𝑗𝑗 𝑗𝑗
- 𝐹𝐹𝑤𝑤,𝑒𝑒 : External forces.
- 𝐹𝐹𝑤𝑤,𝑖𝑖 : Internal forces.
- 𝑐𝑐𝑠𝑠 𝑐𝑐𝑑𝑑 : Structural factor that takes into account the non-simultaneous concurrence
of peak winds with the vibrations of the structure due to the turbulence.
- 𝑤𝑤𝑒𝑒,𝑗𝑗 , 𝑤𝑤𝑖𝑖,𝑗𝑗 : Wind pressure over the structure.
- 𝐴𝐴𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 : Reference area.
Notes:
- Suction forces equilibrated with self-weight (Favorable and unfavorable actions
with different partial safety factor depending on the verification and the standard).
- Pressure forces increases the apparent weight of the roof.
- Pressure forces higher over the perimeter or abrupt changes in geometry.
- Static analysis. Not includes dynamic effects due to turbulence.

Live loads: Wind

- Collapses usually affects cover elements, but can also be associated
to substructure failures.
Very lightweight structure
Vulnerable to suction loads

Live loads: Wind

Live loads: Wind

Live loads: Rain water

• Crucial analysis in low-slope/flat roofs or roofs designs with
parapets, typical used on industrial environments.
• Need a specific dimensioning and project. As the roof size

increases, the drainage capacity increases.
• The water velocity over the roof and the drainage time/capacity
depends on its rugosity.


• Drainage system elements:
• Roof drain: Different types depending on its
operating principle.
• Gravity: Water is pulled out by gravity
effect. Less efficient than siphonic.
• Siphonic:
• The system avoids the air suction by
the pipeline, increasing the water flow.
• Allows smaller pipeline diameters.
• The drainage flow increases with the
water column height over the roof
drain. Is desirable the installation of a
perimeter water channel.
• Scupper: Security drainage element used to
limit the water height over the roof.


• Is important to limit the amount of water over the roof, especially on
lightweight and flexible roof solutions:
• Increasing the drainage capacity.
• Increasing the roof slope.


• Industrial buildings usually need diaphanous spaces, leading to
high beam spans.
• Flexible elements can be affected by second order effects, like
water ponding.



Live loads: Snow (CTE)

• Snow load distribution and intensity depends on:
• Climate zone.
• Kind of precipitation.
• Surroundings orography.
• Roof geometry, slope and retention elements (parapets).
• Snow load evaluation:
𝑞𝑞𝑠𝑠 = 𝜇𝜇 � 𝑠𝑠𝑘𝑘
• 𝜇𝜇: Roof form factor.
• 𝑠𝑠𝑘𝑘 : Characteristic value of the snow load over a horizontal
surface.

Live loads: Snow (CTE)

• Roof form factor (𝜇𝜇):
Roof with
Roof without impediments
impediments
0 < Slope < 30° Slope > 60°
1.0
1.0 0.0
(for intermediate values it will be interpolated linearly)
• Characteristic value of the snow load (𝑠𝑠𝑘𝑘 ):

• Defined on standards depending on the location and the
altitude.
• Very variable value:
Fresh snow Compacted or wet Snow mixed with
snow hail
1.2 kN/m3 2.0 kN/m3 4.0 kN/m3
• The snow load can be increased if is assumed that posterior
rainfalls can plug up the drainage system.

Live loads: Snow

Live loads: Snow
(Madrid 2021 – Filomena)

Live loads: Snow (Madrid 2021 – Filomena)

Live loads: Snow (Madrid 2021 – Filomena)

Live loads: Earthquake

• Induces vertical and horizontal accelerations.
• Unsecured elements might fall.
• Rooftop pools and green roofs add huge masses at the top of
the building, inducing inertial loads.
• Lightweight solutions are less affected.
• Special design requirements.

Live loads: Earthquake

Other collapse causes: Lightening

• Difficult to evaluate the impact load.
• Electrical protection by lightning rod. Avoids direct impact over
the roof.

Other collapse causes: Lightening

Other collapse causes: Fire

• Timber structures are more exposed.
• Heat from fire can also affect metallic
substructures.


5. Bibliography 76
• Eurocode:
- EN 1990:2002
- EN 1991-1-1:2002
- EN 1992-1-1:2004
- EN 1993-2:2006
- EN 1995-1-1:2004
- EN 1996-1-1:2005
• CTE: Código Técnico de la Edificación (April 2009).
• Dr. Stephen L. Patterson, Dr. Madan Mehta.(2018) Roof drainage

design, roof collapses and the codes. 33rd RCI International convention
and trade show proceedings.

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UNIVERSITAT POLITÈCNICA DE CATALUNYA

Cases of roof collapse

Structures Technology Seminars - Cases of roof collapse Daniel Alarcón

Construction composed by three different subsystems:

• Structural subsystem: Stability, resistance and

• Building systems: Electrical and fluids supply,

• Protective subsystem: Protection against

Structures Technology Seminars - Cases of roof collapse Daniel Alarcón

Elements of the Protective System:

• Partitions: Compartmentalization and

• Cladding: Protection of the structural

• Accessory elements: Operation, control

• Closures: Protection of the inside from

Different roof typologies:

Dome Roof Vaulted Roof

Structures Technology Seminars - Cases of roof collapse Daniel Alarcón

Different roof typologies:

Structures Technology Seminars - Cases of roof collapse Daniel Alarcón

Different roof typologies:

Flat Roof Parapet Roof

Structures Technology Seminars - Cases of roof collapse Daniel Alarcón

Different roof typologies:

Saw-Tooth Roof M-Shaped Roof

Structures Technology Seminars - Cases of roof collapse Daniel Alarcón

Structures Technology Seminars - Cases of roof collapse Daniel Alarcón

Reinforced concrete Precast concrete

Structures Technology Seminars - Cases of roof collapse Daniel Alarcón

Trussed / Beam substructures:

Structures Technology Seminars - Cases of roof collapse Daniel Alarcón

Honeycomb brick wall Vaults

Masonry segmental vault Masonry catenary vault

Structures Technology Seminars - Cases of roof collapse Daniel Alarcón

Masonry substructures: mNACTEC – Museu Nacional de la Ciència i de

Structures Technology Seminars - Cases of roof collapse Daniel Alarcón

Waterproofing and thermal

Structures Technology Seminars - Cases of roof collapse Daniel Alarcón

Cover elements / Shingles:

Asphaltic Concrete PVC/PET

Timber Ceramic Slate

Structures Technology Seminars - Cases of roof collapse Daniel Alarcón

Cover elements / Shingles:

Fiber cement Metal Panels Glass roof

Built-Up System Sandwich Panels Green roof

Structures Technology Seminars - Cases of roof collapse Daniel Alarcón

Cover elements / Shingles:

Structures Technology Seminars - Cases of roof collapse Daniel Alarcón

Roof supported loads and collapse causes:

Safety partial factors at Ultimate Limit States:

CTE: Código Técnico de la Edificación

Structures Technology Seminars - Cases of roof collapse Daniel Alarcón

Safety partial factors at Ultimate Limit States:

• Reinforced / prestressed concrete (EN 1992-1):

Concrete (𝛾𝛾𝑐𝑐 ) Reinforcing steel (𝛾𝛾𝑠𝑠 ) Prestressing steel (𝛾𝛾𝑠𝑠 )

1.50 1.15 1.15

• Steel (EN 1993-2):

Resistance cross sections

Structures Technology Seminars - Cases of roof collapse Daniel Alarcón

Safety partial factors at Ultimate Limit States:

Solid Timber (𝛾𝛾𝑀𝑀 ) 1.30

• Masonry (EN 1996-1):

- Class: related with the execution control.

Structures Technology Seminars - Cases of roof collapse Daniel Alarcón

Dead loads: Self-weight