5.3.7.

13      Wind Load

Wind calculations shall be done using 10 minutes mean wind speed according to EN 1991-1-4.
Sri Lanka national annex(SLS NA EN 1991-1-4 : 2019) describe 10 minutes mean wind speed 23m/s (vb,zone)
(Zone Ⅲ) and 25m/s (vb,0**) for railway bridge structures with traffic load.

a)   Wind Velocity

Wind velocity and velocity pressure SLS NA EN 1991-1-4 Table NA.1
ρ is the density of air = 1.25 kg/m 3

1) Without Traffic load

vb is the basic wind speed (See 4.2 (2))
= (cprob) x cdir x cseason x vb,0 =
= 1.04 x 1.0 x 1.0 x 23 m/s ≒ 24.0 m/s
cprob is the probability factor
As per EN 1991-1-4 & SLS NA EN 1991-1-4, Probability factor can be
calculated based on the annual probability of exceedence p= 0.01 ,
the shape factor K= 0.2 and exponent n= 0.5
1 - K x ln{-ln(1-p)} 1.92
cprob = [ ]n = [ ]n = 1.04
1 - K x ln{-ln(0.98)} 1.78
cdir is the directional factor 1.0
cseason is the season factor 1.0
vb,0 is the fundamental value of the basic wind velocity, see 4.2 (1)
& SLS EN 1991-1-4 : 2019
= vb,zone x calt = 23 x 1.0 = 23.0 m/sec
vb,zone is the 10 minutes mean wind speed of Zone Ⅲ (= 23 ) m/sec
calt is the altitude factor(= 1.0 )
Zone : Zone Ⅲ (See Appendix 1 Wind Loading Map for Sri Lanka)

2) With Traffic load

vb,0** is the fundamental value of the basic wind velocity with railway traffic load
The recommended value is 25 m/s (See SLS EN 1991-1-4 : 2019)
vb** is the basic wind speed (See 4.2 (2))
= (cprob) x cdir x cseason x vb,0** =
= 1.04 x 1.0 x 1.0 x 25 m/sec = 26.0 m/sec
※ vb,0* is the fundamental value of the basic wind velocity with road traffic load
The recommended value is 23 m/s (See SLS EN 1991-1-4 : 2019)
vb* is the basic wind speed (See 4.2 (2))
vb* = (cprob) x cdir x cseason x vb,0* =
= 1.04 x 1.0 x 1.0 x 23 m/sec = 24.0 m/sec

b)   Wind Force on Bridge : PSC Girder

Force in x-direction - Simplified Method EN 1991-1-4 clause 8.3.2
Fw = 1/2 x ρ x v b
2
x C x Aref,x
Aref,x is the reference area given in 8.3.1
C is the wind load factor. C = ce x cf,x , where cf,x is given in 8.3.1 (1)
ce is the exposure factor given in 4.5
cfx,0 is the force coefficient without free-end flow (see 8.3.1 (1))
 C is the wind load factor. Refer to SLS NA EN 1991-1-4, Table NA.1 8.3.2 (1)
b/dtot ze ≤ 20 m ze = 50 m a C at ze
≤ 0.5 7.4 9.1 0.056666667 7.4
≥ 4.0 4.0 4.9 0.03 4.0
ze is the reference height. This value may be taken as the distance
from the lowest ground level to the centre of the bridge deck structure.
Assume the Reference height (ze) of 15 m.
& Assume the bridge of PSC Girder type which the deck width(b) equal to 10.9 m.

1) Bridge Decks without Railway traffic load

① Force in x-direction (Transversal direction)
Fw /L = 1/2 x ρ x vb2 x C x Aref,x / L
= 1/2 x 1.25 x 24.0 2
x 4.9 x 3.59 / L
= 6.33 kN/m or 1.8 kN/m2
For PSC Girder, Deck height is 2.69 m. ∴ dtot = 2.69 + 0.6 + 0.3 = 3.59 m
b/dtot = 10.9 / 3.59 = 3.04
b/dtot b/dtot ≤ 0.5 b/dtot ≥ 4.0 a C
3.04 7.4 4.0 -0.97142857 4.9
② Force in y-direction (Longitudinal direction)
For bridges, 25% of the wind force in transversal direction shall be taken into account
Fw,l /L = 6.33 x 0.25 / L = 1.58 kN/m or 0.45 kN/m2
③ Force in z-direction (Vertical direction)
Fw,v /L = cf,z·q·Aref,z /L
cf,z = Lift (or force) coefficient ± 0.9
q = 1/2 x ρ x v b
2
= 1/2 x 1.25 x 24.0 2
= 0.360
Fw,v /L = 0.9 x 0.360 x 10.9 / L = 3.53 kN/m or 0.32 kN/m2

2) Bridge Decks with Railway traffic load

① Force in x-direction (Transversal direction)
Fw** /L = 1/2 x ρ x vb**2 x C x Aref,x / L
= 1/2 x 1.25 x 26.0 2
x 6.4 x 7.36
= 19.9 kN/m or 2.7 kN/m2
For PSC Girder, Deck height is 2.69 m. ∴ dtot = 2.69 + 0.67 + 4.0 = 7.36 m
b/dtot = 10.9 / 7.36 = 1.48
b/dtot b/dtot ≤ 0.5 b/dtot ≥ 4.0 a C
1.48 7.4 4.0 -0.97142857 6.4

② Force in y-direction (Longitudinal direction)

For bridges, 25% of the wind force in transversal direction shall be taken into account
Fw,l** /L = 19.9 x 0.25 = 4.98 kN/m or 0.68 kN/m2
③ Force in z-direction (Vertical direction)
Fw,v** /L = cf,z·q·Aref,z /L
cf,z = Lift (or force) coefficient ± 0.9
q = 1/2 x ρ x vb** = 2
1/2 x 1.25 x 26.0 2
= 0.423
Fw,v** /L = 0.9 x 0.423 x 10.9 = 4.14 kN/m or 0.38 kN/m2
3) Bridge Piers ( Pier diameter b = 2.60 m ) EN 1991-1-4 clause 8.4
Pier hight, z (m) = 13.2 m (Reference height of Deck -Deck height/2 - Bearing height 0.5m)
① Mean wind velocity ( vm(z) )
- Variation with height vm(z) = cr (z) ⋅co(z) ⋅vb
cr(z) : the roughness factor
co(z) : the orography factor, taken as 1.0
- Terrain roughness
cr(z) = kr·ln(z/z0) for zmin ≤ z ≤ zmax (=200m)
cr(z) = cr(zmin) for z ≤ zmin
kr = 0.19·(z0 / z0, Ⅱ )0.07
z0,Ⅱ = 0.05 (terrain category Ⅱ, Table 4.1)

For terrain category : Ⅱ , z0 = 0.05 and zmin = 2 m < 13.2 m

, thus kr = 0.19·(z0 / z0, Ⅱ) 0.07
= 0.19 x ( 0.05 / 0.05 )0.07
= 0.19
and cr( 13.2 ) = 0.19 × ln( 13.2 / 0.05 ) = 1.06
[ if(z<=zmin) then cr(z) = 0.19 × ln( 2 / 0.05 ) = 0.70 ]
co( 13.2 ) = 1.0
vm(z) = cr (z) ⋅co(z) ⋅vb = 1.06 × 1.0 × 26.0 = 27.5 m/sec

② Force coefficient of structures without free-end flow ( c f,0 )

The turbulence intensity is:
Iv(z) = σv / vm(z) = kI / {co(z)·ln(z/z0)} for zmin ≤ z ≤ zmax
Iv(z) = Iv (zmin) for z ≤ zmin
kI : the turbulence factor 1.0
Iv(z) = 1.0 /{ 1.0 × ln( 13.2 / 0.05 )}= 0.2
[ if(z<=zmin) then Iv(z) = 1.0 /{ 1.0 × ln( 2 / 0.05 )}= 0.3 ]
Peak wind velocity at heigt ze (reference height for pier) ze = 13.2 m
v(ze) = vm(ze) {1+7Iv(z)} 0.5

v( 13.2 ) = 27.5 × { 1 + 7 × 0.2 }0.5

= 27.5 × 1.50 = 41.3 m/s
Reynold number is
Re = b·v (ze)/ν = 2.60 × 41.3 / 0.000015 = 7.2E+06
ν : the kinematic viscosity of the air (ν = 15·10 m /s) -6 2

The equivalent roughness is 0.2 mm for smooth and 1.0 mm for rough concrete
- Smooth concrete surface
k/b = 0.2 / 2.60 = 7.7E-02
From Fig 7.28 of EN 1991-1-4 a value greater than 1.0 is expected.
By using the relevant formula one gets:
cf,0 = 1.2 + {0.18 x log(10 k/b)} / {1 + 0.4 log (Re /106)}
= 1.2 +{ 0.18 × log( 10 × 0.077 )}/{ 1 + 0.4 log( 7.2E+06 /106)}
= 1.2 +( -0.02 / 1.342 ) = 1.185
※ Rough concrete surface
 k/b = 1.0 / 2.60 = 3.8E-01
cf,0 = 1.2 + {0.18 x log(10 k/b)} / {1 + 0.4 log (Re /106)}
= 1.2 +{ 0.18 × log( 10 × 0.385 )}/{ 1 + 0.4 log( 7.2E+06 /106)}
= 1.2 +( 0.11 / 1.342 ) = 1.278
③ Force coefficient for the structures ( c f )
Concerning the evaluation of ψλ one should use interpolation, while using [Tab. 7.16] and [Fig. 7.36]
since 15 m<l= 13.2 m< 50 m. ※ l < 15m
For l = 15 m the effective slenderness λ is given as follows:
λ= min { l/b ; 70} = min { 15.0 / 2.60 ; 70 }= 5.8
For l = 50 m the effective slenderness λ is given as follows:
λ= min { 0.7 l/b ; 70} = min { 0.7 × 50.0 / 2.60 ; 70 }= 13.5
λ ( 13.2 ) = 5.8 ※ l < 15m
cf = cf,0 x ψλ
cf,0 is the force coefficient of circular cylinders without free-end flow (see Figure 7.28)
ψλ is the end-effect factor (see clause 7.13)
By using [Fig. 7.36] with φ = 1.0 one gets ψλ ≈ 0.675 (from Fig. 7.36 of EN 1991-1-4)
cf = 1.18 × 0.675 ≈ 0.80 (for Smooth concrete surface)
④ Wind Force ( Fw )
Aref = lxb = 13.2 × 2.60 = 34.2 m2
cfqp ( 13.2 ) = 0.80 × ( 1/2 × 1.25 × 41.3 2 ) = 853 N/m2 ≈ 0.9 kN/m2
Fw = cf·qp(ze)·Aref = 853 × 34.2 = 29,158 N
= 29.16 kN
- A wind force of 0.9 kN/m2 is applied to the exposed surface of the piers.

c)   Summary : Wind Force for Bridge Deck and Pier

Reference Wind Force for Deck Wind Force for round

Bridge Type Height without Traffic Load with Traffic Load 2.60 m/ 3.50
calaulate use calaulate use calaulate use
PSC Girder 15 m 1.8 N/m2 2.0 N/m2 2.7 N/m2 3.0 N/m2 0.9 N/m2 1.0
PSC BOX Girder 15 m 1.9 N/m2 2.0 N/m2 2.8 N/m2 3.0 N/m2 0.9 N/m2 1.0
5.3.7.13      Wind Load
Wind calculations shall be done using 10 minutes mean wind speed according to EN 1991-1-4.
Sri Lanka national annex(SLS NA EN 1991-1-4 : 2019) describe 10 minutes mean wind speed 23m/s (vb,zone)
(Zone Ⅲ) and 25m/s (vb,0**) for railway bridge structures with traffic load.

a)   Wind Velocity

Wind velocity and velocity pressure SLS NA EN 1991-1-4 Table NA.1
ρ is the density of air = 1.25 kg/m 3

1) Without Traffic load

vb is the basic wind speed (See 4.2 (2))
= (cprob) x cdir x cseason x vb,0 =
= 1.04 x 1.0 x 1.0 x 23 m/s ≒ 24.0 m/s
cprob is the probability factor
As per EN 1991-1-4 & SLS NA EN 1991-1-4, Probability factor can be
calculated based on the annual probability of exceedence p= 0.01 ,
the shape factor K= 0.2 and exponent n= 0.5
1 - K x ln{-ln(1-p)} 1.92
cprob = [ ]n = [ ]n = 1.04
1 - K x ln{-ln(0.98)} 1.78
cdir is the directional factor 1.0
cseason is the season factor 1.0
vb,0 is the fundamental value of the basic wind velocity, see 4.2 (1)
& SLS EN 1991-1-4 : 2019
= vb,zone x calt = 23 x 1.0 = 23.0 m/sec
vb,zone is the 10 minutes mean wind speed of Zone Ⅲ (= 23 ) m/sec
calt is the altitude factor(= 1.0 )
Zone : Zone Ⅲ (See Appendix 1 Wind Loading Map for Sri Lanka)

2) With Traffic load

vb,0** is the fundamental value of the basic wind velocity with railway traffic load
The recommended value is 25 m/s (See SLS EN 1991-1-4 : 2019)
vb** is the basic wind speed (See 4.2 (2))
= (cprob) x cdir x cseason x vb,0** =
= 1.04 x 1.0 x 1.0 x 25 m/sec = 26.0 m/sec
※ vb,0* is the fundamental value of the basic wind velocity with road traffic load
The recommended value is 23 m/s (See SLS EN 1991-1-4 : 2019)
vb* is the basic wind speed (See 4.2 (2))
vb* = (cprob) x cdir x cseason x vb,0* =
= 1.04 x 1.0 x 1.0 x 23 m/sec = 24.0 m/sec

b)   Wind Force on Bridge : PSC Girder

Force in x-direction - Simplified Method EN 1991-1-4 clause 8.3.2
Fw = 1/2 x ρ x v b
2
x C x Aref,x
Aref,x is the reference area given in 8.3.1
C is the wind load factor. C = ce x cf,x , where cf,x is given in 8.3.1 (1)
ce is the exposure factor given in 4.5
cfx,0 is the force coefficient without free-end flow (see 8.3.1 (1))
 C is the wind load factor. Refer to SLS NA EN 1991-1-4, Table NA.1 8.3.2 (1)
b/dtot ze ≤ 20 m ze = 50 m a C at ze
≤ 0.5 7.4 9.1 0.056666667 7.4
≥ 4.0 4.0 4.9 0.03 4.0
ze is the reference height. This value may be taken as the distance
from the lowest ground level to the centre of the bridge deck structure.
Assume the Reference height (ze) of 15 m.
& Assume the bridge of PSC Girder type which the deck width(b) equal to 10.9 m.

1) Bridge Decks without Railway traffic load

① Force in x-direction (Transversal direction)
Fw /L = 1/2 x ρ x vb2 x C x Aref,x / L
= 1/2 x 1.25 x 24.0 2
x 4.9 x 3.59 / L
= 6.33 kN/m or 1.8 kN/m2
For PSC Girder, Deck height is 2.69 m. ∴ dtot = 2.69 + 0.6 + 0.3 = 3.59 m
b/dtot = 10.9 / 3.59 = 3.04
b/dtot b/dtot ≤ 0.5 b/dtot ≥ 4.0 a C
3.04 7.4 4.0 -0.97142857 4.9
② Force in y-direction (Longitudinal direction)
For bridges, 25% of the wind force in transversal direction shall be taken into account
Fw,l /L = 6.33 x 0.25 / L = 1.58 kN/m or 0.45 kN/m2
③ Force in z-direction (Vertical direction)
Fw,v /L = cf,z·q·Aref,z /L
cf,z = Lift (or force) coefficient ± 0.9
q = 1/2 x ρ x v b
2
= 1/2 x 1.25 x 24.0 2
= 0.360
Fw,v /L = 0.9 x 0.360 x 10.9 / L = 3.53 kN/m or 0.32 kN/m2

2) Bridge Decks with Railway traffic load

① Force in x-direction (Transversal direction)
Fw** /L = 1/2 x ρ x vb**2 x C x Aref,x / L
= 1/2 x 1.25 x 26.0 2
x 6.4 x 7.36
= 19.9 kN/m or 2.7 kN/m2
For PSC Girder, Deck height is 2.69 m. ∴ dtot = 2.69 + 0.67 + 4.0 = 7.36 m
b/dtot = 10.9 / 7.36 = 1.48
b/dtot b/dtot ≤ 0.5 b/dtot ≥ 4.0 a C
1.48 7.4 4.0 -0.97142857 6.4

② Force in y-direction (Longitudinal direction)

For bridges, 25% of the wind force in transversal direction shall be taken into account
Fw,l** /L = 19.9 x 0.25 = 4.98 kN/m or 0.68 kN/m2
③ Force in z-direction (Vertical direction)
Fw,v** /L = cf,z·q·Aref,z /L
cf,z = Lift (or force) coefficient ± 0.9
q = 1/2 x ρ x vb** = 2
1/2 x 1.25 x 26.0 2
= 0.423
Fw,v** /L = 0.9 x 0.423 x 10.9 = 4.14 kN/m or 0.38 kN/m2
3) Bridge Piers ( Pier diameter b = 2.60 m ) EN 1991-1-4 clause 8.4
Pier hight, z (m) = 13.2 m (Reference height of Deck -Deck height/2 - Bearing height 0.5m)
① Mean wind velocity ( vm(z) )
- Variation with height vm(z) = cr (z) ⋅co(z) ⋅vb
cr(z) : the roughness factor
co(z) : the orography factor, taken as 1.0
- Terrain roughness
cr(z) = kr·ln(z/z0) for zmin ≤ z ≤ zmax (=200m)
cr(z) = cr(zmin) for z ≤ zmin
kr = 0.19·(z0 / z0, Ⅱ )0.07
z0,Ⅱ = 0.05 (terrain category Ⅱ, Table 4.1)

For terrain category : Ⅱ , z0 = 0.05 and zmin = 2 m < 13.2 m

, thus kr = 0.19·(z0 / z0, Ⅱ) 0.07
= 0.19 x ( 0.05 / 0.05 )0.07
= 0.19
and cr( 13.2 ) = 0.19 × ln( 13.2 / 0.05 ) = 1.06
[ if(z<=zmin) then cr(z) = 0.19 × ln( 2 / 0.05 ) = 0.70 ]
co( 13.2 ) = 1.0
vm(z) = cr (z) ⋅co(z) ⋅vb = 1.06 × 1.0 × 26.0 = 27.5 m/sec

② Force coefficient of structures without free-end flow ( c f,0 )

The turbulence intensity is:
Iv(z) = σv / vm(z) = kI / {co(z)·ln(z/z0)} for zmin ≤ z ≤ zmax
Iv(z) = Iv (zmin) for z ≤ zmin
kI : the turbulence factor 1.0
Iv(z) = 1.0 /{ 1.0 × ln( 13.2 / 0.05 )}= 0.2
[ if(z<=zmin) then Iv(z) = 1.0 /{ 1.0 × ln( 2 / 0.05 )}= 0.3 ]
Peak wind velocity at heigt ze (reference height for pier) ze = 13.2 m
v(ze) = vm(ze) {1+7Iv(z)} 0.5

v( 13.2 ) = 27.5 × { 1 + 7 × 0.2 }0.5

= 27.5 × 1.50 = 41.3 m/s
Reynold number is
Re = b·v (ze)/ν = 2.60 × 41.3 / 0.000015 = 7.2E+06
ν : the kinematic viscosity of the air (ν = 15·10 m /s) -6 2

The equivalent roughness is 0.2 mm for smooth and 1.0 mm for rough concrete
- Smooth concrete surface
k/b = 0.2 / 2.60 = 7.7E-02
From Fig 7.28 of EN 1991-1-4 a value greater than 1.0 is expected.
By using the relevant formula one gets:
cf,0 = 1.2 + {0.18 x log(10 k/b)} / {1 + 0.4 log (Re /106)}
= 1.2 +{ 0.18 × log( 10 × 0.077 )}/{ 1 + 0.4 log( 7.2E+06 /106)}
= 1.2 +( -0.02 / 1.342 ) = 1.185
※ Rough concrete surface
 k/b = 1.0 / 2.60 = 3.8E-01
cf,0 = 1.2 + {0.18 x log(10 k/b)} / {1 + 0.4 log (Re /106)}
= 1.2 +{ 0.18 × log( 10 × 0.385 )}/{ 1 + 0.4 log( 7.2E+06 /106)}
= 1.2 +( 0.11 / 1.342 ) = 1.278
③ Force coefficient for the structures ( c f )
Concerning the evaluation of ψλ one should use interpolation, while using [Tab. 7.16] and [Fig. 7.36]
since 15 m<l= 13.2 m< 50 m. ※ l < 15m
For l = 15 m the effective slenderness λ is given as follows:
λ= min { l/b ; 70} = min { 15.0 / 2.60 ; 70 }= 5.8
For l = 50 m the effective slenderness λ is given as follows:
λ= min { 0.7 l/b ; 70} = min { 0.7 × 50.0 / 2.60 ; 70 }= 13.5
λ ( 13.2 ) = 5.8 ※ l < 15m
cf = cf,0 x ψλ
cf,0 is the force coefficient of circular cylinders without free-end flow (see Figure 7.28)
ψλ is the end-effect factor (see clause 7.13)
By using [Fig. 7.36] with φ = 1.0 one gets ψλ ≈ 0.675 (from Fig. 7.36)
cf = 1.18 × 0.675 ≈ 0.80 (for Smooth concrete surface)
④ Wind Force ( Fw )
Aref = lxb = 13.2 × 2.60 = 34.2 m2
cfqp ( 13.2 ) = 0.80 × ( 1/2 × 1.25 × 41.3 2 ) = 853 N/m2 ≈ 0.9
Fw = cf·qp(ze)·Aref = 853 × 34.2 = 29,158 N
= 29.16 kN
- A wind force of 0.9 kN/m2 is applied to the exposed surface of the piers.

c)   Summary : Wind Force for Bridge Deck and Pier

Reference Wind Force for Deck Wind Force for round

Bridge Type Height without Traffic Load with Traffic Load 2.60 m/ 3.50
calaulate use calaulate use calaulate use
PSC Girder 15 m 1.8 N/m2 2.0 N/m2 2.7 N/m2 3.0 N/m2 0.9 N/m2 1.0
PSC BOX Girder 15 m 1.9 N/m2 2.0 N/m2 2.8 N/m2 3.0 N/m2 0.9 N/m2 1.0