Question : Classify drugs on the basis of sources?

The classification of drug on the basis of their source as following i. Natural sources: It include drugs from
plant , animal , microbial and mineral sources. ii. Semi synthetic sources ( Natural + Laboratory)iii: Synthetic (
Laboratory)

Question : What are semi synthetic drugs?

Semi synthetic drugs are the group of drugs/ medicines that are synthesized by using combine sources of
natural and synthetic world.

Question : How many types of books are there in pharmacy?

There are fundamentally two types of books in pharmacy 1. Official Books2. Non Official Books

Question : Define Pharmacopoeia and Give example ?

The books containing the standards for drugs and other related substances are known as pharmacopoeias
and formularies. They contain a list of drugs and other related substances regarding their source, tests,
formulas for preparation, action and uses, doses, storage conditions. Literally it means that it is a list of
medicinal substances, crude drugs and formula for making preparations from them. There are
fundamentally two types of books in pharmacy 1. Official Books 2. Non Official Books

Question : Define pharmacopoeia ?

The books containing the standards for drugs and other related substances are known as pharmacopoeias
and formularies. They contain a list of drugs and other related substances regarding their source, tests,
formulas for preparation, action and uses, doses, storage conditions.

Question : Write short note on history of pharmacy

History of pharmacy:The wort Pharmacy is derived form a Greek word "Pharmakon" which means drug or
medicine. In the beginning ancient people were using the extract or juice of plants (juice of succulent leaves)
to stop bleeding and for healing purpose. Around 600 BC the Greeks integrated science into mythological
thinking and began thinking logically about diseases rather than spiritual explanation. In ancient period
treatment of diseases were done by concept of trial and errors base and the sources of drugs were of plants,
animals and minerals origin. These drugs/ medicine were prepared by few experienced persons. The people
called them apothecary nowadays known as pharmacist. The physician-priests of Egypt were divided into two
classes: those who vised the sick and those who remained in the temple and prepared remedies for the
patients. In ancient Greece and Rome and during the middle Ages in Europe, the art of healing recognized a
separation between the duties of the physician and those of the herbalist, who supplied the physician with the
raw materials from which to make medicines. The Arabian influence in Europe during the 8th century AD,
however, brought about the practice of separate duties for the pharmacist and physician. The first pharmacy
shop in the world was established in Baghdad 792 AD. The trend toward specialization was later reinforced by
a law enacted by the city council of Bruges in 1683, forbidding physicians to prepare medications for their
patients. In America, Benjamin Franklin took a pivotal step in keeping the two professions separate when he
appointed an apothecary (Pharmacist) to the Pennsylvania Hospital.

Question : What is role of Jabir Bin Hayan ( 721-815):

Jabber Bin Hayan was one of the greatest scientist chemist and Geologist of his time. He was born in Iran. He
was the first scientist who introduced experimentation in chemistry. He was the person who first time
introduce the experimentation in chemistry. He was the person who first time introduce the practical
importance of chemistry which than lead to the era of industrialization. He invented more than 20 laboratory
equipment. He discover many chemical substance e.g. Nitric acid, hydrochloride acid, Acetic acid. He
described the purification process of gold

Question : Name the ingredients which are used for Enteric coating
The ingredients which are used in enteric coating are listed below:a) Shellac and Shellac derivativesb)
Hydroxypropyl methylcellulose phthalatec) Polyvinyl acetate phthalated) Cellulose acetate phthalate

Question : Define vehicle.

Vehicle may be described as a medium in which the ingredients of a formulation are dissolved, suspended or
dispersed.

Question : Give Types of surfactants.

Types of surfactants include:1. Anionic surfactants 2. Cationic surfactants 3. Non-ionic surfactants

Question : What is the function of Mounting cap in aerosol?

Used to attach the valve properly to the container, made of tin. Aluminum can also be used.
Question : What is the function of stem in aerosol?
It supports actuator and delivers the product in proper form. Made of nylon, brass and steel.

Question : What is generic name and brand name?

Generic name:The scientific name of a drug is called generic name. It is official name of a drug.Brand or trade
name:The name which is given to drug by a proprietor is called brand name. These names are given to
identify one product from other.

Question : What are different type of Dosage form On the basis of

physical form or formulation?
i. Liquid dosage form:SolutionsSuspensionEmulsionsSyrupTinctureElixirsInjectableMouth washesii. Solid
dosage formTabletCapsulePowderiii. Semi solid dosage form:Creams OintmentsPasteLotionGel

Question : What are the types of capsules?

Types of capsules: Capsules may be classified as either hard or soft, depending on the nature of the shell.
Most capsules of both types are intended to be swallowed whole; however, some soft gelatin capsules are
intended for rectal or vaginal insertion as suppositories.1. Soft gelatin capsule:These capsules are soft and
elastic in nature which are prepared form gelatin and water to which glycerin, sorbitol, or propylene glycol has
been added as a plasticizer which make the capsule flexible. These capsules are used for liquids and semi-
solid preparations. The content of soft capsule may very from 0.1 ml to 30 ml. These capsules are available in
number of shapes like;Spherical OvoidCylindricalTubes 2. Hard gelatin capsule:Hard gelatin capsules have
hard shell of gelatin which encloses medicaments. It can be prepared by gelatin, sugar and water in
appropriate quantity. Hard gelatin capsules are normally used for dry powdered ingredients. These capsules
are available in eight sizes which very from 000-5 size is the largest and 5 size is the smallest size. Hard gelatin
capsules consist of two parts;Cap: The cap is slightly Larger in diameter and shorter in lengthBody: The body is
slightly shorter in diameter and longer in length. the drug is filled in the longer half (body) and the other half is
fitted as a cap.

Question : What are gels?

Gels:Gels are homogeneous, clear, semi-solid systems consisting of dispersions of small or large molecules in
an aqueous liquid vehicle rendered jellylike by the addition of a gelling agent. OR Gels are aqueous colloidal
suspensions of the hydrated forms of insoluble medicament, used for medication, lubrication and carrier for
spermicidal agents to be used intra vaginally with diaphragm.

Question : Define suspension. What are the advantages and

disadvantages of suspension?
Suspension:A biphasic liquid dosage form containing a solid phase (dispersed phase) uniformly dispersed in a
liquid phase ( dispersion phase) is called suspension. The particles size in suspension ranging from 0.5 μm to
5.0 μm.Advantages of suspension:Help in the formation of poor soluble drugs as liquid dosage formDrugs in
suspension exhibits high rate of bioavailability than solid dosage formsCan improve the chemical stability of
certain drugsCan mask the unpleasant taste of a drugDisadvantages of suspension:Sedimentation and
compaction problems Uniform drug delivery may not be achieved Less stable as compared to solid dosage
formMeasuring devices are needed for administrationHandling require care

Question : Define emulsion. What are the advantages and

disadvantages of emulsion?
Emulsion:Emulsion may be defined as a thermodynamically unstable system of at lest two immiscible liquid
phases, one of which is dispersed as globules in another liquid phase, stabilized by the presence of an
emulsifying agent. OREmulsion is a dispersion in which the dispersed phase is composed of small globules of
a liquid distributed throughout a vehicle in which it is immiscible. OREmulsion is a liquid dosage form of
medicament, in which, two immiscible liquids are mixed with the help of an emulsifying agent. ( Emulsifying
agent is called emulgent).Advantages of emulsion:Oil soluble drugs can be given parentrally in the form of
O/W emulsionMask the unpleasant taste Sustained release medicationsOdorless and cost
effective Disadvantages of emulsion:Thermodynamically unstable Short shelf life Leads to creaming and
cracking Leads to phase inversion

Question : What are the types of emulsion?

Types of emulsion: There are two types of emulsion which are;1. Oil in water (O/W) type emulsion:The
emulsion in which the oily phase is dispersed as droplets throughout the aqueous phase is called oil in water
emulsion (O/W) 2. Water in oil ( W/O) type emulsion:The emulsion in which the aqueous phase is dispersed as
droplets throughout the oily phase is called oil in water emulsion (W/O)

Question : Define elixirs. What are the types of elixirs?

Elixirs:Elixirs are clear sweetened hydro alcoholic solution intended for oral administration and are usually
flavored to enhance their palatability. The main ingredients of elixirs are ethanol and water but glycerin,
propylenc glycol, sorbitol, sugar flavoring agents and preservatives may be added to the preparation .Types of
elixirs:1. Medicated elixirs:Medicated elixirs contain at least one active ingredient or medicinal agent.
Medicated elixirs are used for the therapeutic effect of the medicinal substance they contain.2. Non -
medicated elixirs:Non-medicated elixirs do not contain any medicinal agent or active ingredient. They are
used as solvents or vehicles for the preparation of medicated elixirs. They also used as flavoring agent.

Question : Define pharmaceutics.

Pharmaceutics is the branch of pharmacy that deals with the conversion of (new chemical entity) NCE to
proper dosage form (drug delivery system) . It is also called the science of dosage form
design. Pharmaceutics converts a d

Question : What is Medicament? Give examples.

This is a pharmacologically active ingredient in a medicine (Which has pharmacological action). e.g. Aspirin,
Insulin, Digoxin

Question : Differentiate between lubricants and glidants also give

examples of each.
Lubricants/Anti-adherents Prevent tablet ingredients from sticking to punches and dies during production and
assist smooth tablet formation. e.g. magnesium stearate, talc.Glidants Used in tablet and capsule
formulations to improve

Question : Write a note on surface active agents.

Surfactants may be defined as the substances which when added to a liquid, lower the interfacial tension
between two phases, thus make them miscible. This phenomenon is commonly used to make two immiscible
liquids miscible with each other.

Question : What are suspending agents?

These are high molecular weight solid substances which when added to water produce high viscous solutions,
suspensions or gels. Viscosity increasing agents used to reduce sedimentation rate of particles in a vehicle.
They are also known as gums and con
Question : Explain what are flavoring agents with the help of
examples.
They impart a pleasant flavor and often odor to a preparation and to mask specific type of taste of the
preparation, thus make them more palatable. e.g. cherry, banana, pine-apple, peppermint, lemon, orange,
rose, vanilla, menthol.

Question : Name various liquid dosage forms.

Various liquid dosage forms are a) Solutions b) Syrups c) Elixirs d) Spirits e) Tinctures f) Liniments

Question : What are solutions? Discuss the various components

of solutions.
Solution may be defined as a mixture of two or more components that form a single phase which is
homogeneous and clear. solutions may be prepared from any combination of solid, liquid, and gas, the three
states of matter. In pharma

Question : Give uses and significance of syrups.

USES AND SIGNIFICANCE: 1.Syrups are used as vehicle for drug substances.
2.Syrups are used as flavouring agents. 3.Syrups are&

Question : What are different colourants used in syrups?

To enhance the appeal of the syrup ,a colouring agent is generally used. Which
correlates with the flavorant employed.i.e .green with mint ,brown wi

Question : What are elixirs? Give their types.

Elixirs are clear, sweetened hydro-alcoholic solutions intended for oral
administration and are usually flavoured to enhance their palatability. The
Question : What are different components of elixirs?
COMPONENTS OF ELIXIRS 1.Alcohol 2. Water

Question : What are tinctures? Give their types.

These are alcoholic or hydro-alcoholic solution of non-volatile drug of vegetable and chemical origin. Tinctures
contain 15-80% alcohol. Tinctures contain one part by weight of drug in four parts of product. These are
mostly us

Question : Define disperse system. Also give examples.

These are the types of preparations containing undissolved or immiscible drug distributed throughout a
vehicle. In these preparations, the substance distributed is referred to as the dispersed phase(discontinuous p

Question : What is disperse phase and dispersion medium?

In these preparations, the substance distributed is referred to as the dispersed phase(discontinuous phase),
and the vehicle is termed the dispersing phase or dispersion medium(continuous phase). Together,

Question : Write a note on extemporaneous suspensions.

Extemporaneous suspensions Such suspensions are prepared just before dispensing to the patients i.e.
infants who are unable to swallow solid dosage forms (tab&cap) and no other liquid dosage form is available.

Question : Explain continental method for preparation of emulsion?

The emulsifying agent (usually acacia) is mixed with the oil before the addition of water, that is, dry gum. The
continental method is also referred to as the 4:2:1 method because for every 4 parts by volume of oil, 2 parts
of water

Question : What is wet gum method?

The emulsifying agent is added to the water (in which it is soluble) to form a mucilage, and then the oil is
slowly incorporated to form the primary emulsion, that is wet gum. Should the mixture become too thick,
additional water may be blended

Question : What are liniments?

These are alcoholic or oleaginous preparations of various medicinal substances intended for external
application to the skin generally with friction and rubbing. These are liquid or semi-liquid preparations and
can be solution, suspension or emulsion.

Question : What are the uses of liniments?

They are used for their rubefacient action: Produce congestion or redness to the area to which they are
applied.Irritant: not directly affect the tissues but cause inflammation of area to which applied.Counter-
irritant: Irritate intact skin thus reducing or relieving another irritation or deep seated pain.Penetrating action

Question : Write a note on Inhalers.

Inhalations are drugs or solutions of drugs administered by the nasal or oral respiratory route. OR
Inhalations are liquid preparations containing volatile ingredients and are used for local or systemic action
(Absorption from the lungs) on the nasal or respiratory tract. Inhalations are used to relieve nasal congestion
and inflammation of the respiratory tract. Inhalations are used in various ways: ? If the ingredients are volatile
at room temperature, they may be placed on an absorbent pad and inhaled thereof. ? In other cases they may
be added to warm water, the vapours are inhaled for five to ten minutes. ? Another group of products known
as inhalants are drugs or combination of drugs that carried into nasal passages by their high vapour pressure.
The device in which drug is contained and by which inhalants are administered is known as inhaler.

Question : Write a note on hard gelatin capsule.

Hard Gelatin Capsules These are the capsules that have hard shell of Gelatin around its medicaments this
Gelatin can be prepared by reacting sugar ,water and gelatin . There are two halves of hard Capsule shells:
? Cap (slightly large in diameter but shorter in length) ? Body (shorter in diameter and
longer in length) The drug is filled in the longer half (body) and other half is fitted as a cap. Hard gelatin
capsules intended for human medicine are manufactured in eight sizes.
Question : Write a note on suppository bass.
These play very important role in release of medication. They remain solid at room temperature but melt at
body temperature and made drug available. Commonly employed bases are cocoa butter (Theobroma oil),
glycerogelatin base, polyethylene glycols. 1. Fatty or oleaginous bases: Cocoa butter It is a fat obtained
from the roasted seed of theobroma cocoa. Its melting point is 30-350C. it melts at body temperature and
release the medicament. It?s a very good base for rectal suppositories. It is not suitable for pessaries, urethral
or nasal bougies because immiscible with mucous secretions and after melting leaks out of the
cavities. 2. Water miscible bases: 1.Glycero-gelatin base It is a mixture of glycerin and water which is made
stiff by addition of gelatin. The base being hydrophilic slowly dissolves in aqueous secretions and slow release
of medicament. It may be used to prepare all types of suppositories particularly vaginal suppositories. 3.
Polyethylene glycols These are polymers of ethylene oxide and water. They are commonly known as
carbowaxes. They don?t melt but dissolve in body fluids and release medicament.

Question : Write a note on creams.

Creams are non-greasy viscous liquid or semi-solid preparations (emulsions) intended for the application on
skin and mucous membrane. Creams may be: i.Medicated creams (for specific action) ii. Non -Medicated
creams (as emollients: to soften the skin) Creams contain a water soluble base due to which they can be
easily removed from skin. They are of softer consistency TYPES Water in oil (oily creams) Oil in
water (aqueous creams)

Question : Name the ingredients which are used for Enteric coating
The ingredients which are used in enteric coating are listed below:a) Shellac and Shellac derivativesb)
Hydroxypropyl methylcellulose phthalatec) Polyvinyl acetate phthalated) Cellulose acetate phthalate

Question : Define vehicle.

Vehicle may be described as a medium in which the ingredients of a formulation are dissolved, suspended or
dispersed.

Question : Give Types of surfactants.

Types of surfactants include:1. Anionic surfactants 2. Cationic surfactants 3. Non-ionic surfactants
Question : What is the function of Mounting cap in aerosol?
Used to attach the valve properly to the container, made of tin. Aluminum can also be used.

Question : What is the function of stem in aerosol?

It supports actuator and delivers the product in proper form. Made of nylon, brass and steel.

Question : What is generic name and brand name?

Generic name:The scientific name of a drug is called generic name. It is official name of a drug.Brand or trade
name:The name which is given to drug by a proprietor is called brand name. These names are given to
identify one product from other.

Question : What are different type of Dosage form On the basis of

physical form or formulation?
i. Liquid dosage form:SolutionsSuspensionEmulsionsSyrupTinctureElixirsInjectableMouth washesii. Solid
dosage formTabletCapsulePowderiii. Semi solid dosage form:Creams OintmentsPasteLotionGel

Question : What are the types of capsules?

Types of capsules: Capsules may be classified as either hard or soft, depending on the nature of the shell.
Most capsules of both types are intended to be swallowed whole; however, some soft gelatin capsules are
intended for rectal or vaginal insertion as suppositories.1. Soft gelatin capsule:These capsules are soft and
elastic in nature which are prepared form gelatin and water to which glycerin, sorbitol, or propylene glycol has
been added as a plasticizer which make the capsule flexible. These capsules are used for liquids and semi-
solid preparations. The content of soft capsule may very from 0.1 ml to 30 ml. These capsules are available in
number of shapes like;Spherical OvoidCylindricalTubes 2. Hard gelatin capsule:Hard gelatin capsules have
hard shell of gelatin which encloses medicaments. It can be prepared by gelatin, sugar and water in
appropriate quantity. Hard gelatin capsules are normally used for dry powdered ingredients. These capsules
are available in eight sizes which very from 000-5 size is the largest and 5 size is the smallest size. Hard gelatin
capsules consist of two parts;Cap: The cap is slightly Larger in diameter and shorter in lengthBody: The body is
slightly shorter in diameter and longer in length. the drug is filled in the longer half (body) and the other half is
fitted as a cap.
Question : What are gels?
Gels:Gels are homogeneous, clear, semi-solid systems consisting of dispersions of small or large molecules in
an aqueous liquid vehicle rendered jellylike by the addition of a gelling agent. OR Gels are aqueous colloidal
suspensions of the hydrated forms of insoluble medicament, used for medication, lubrication and carrier for
spermicidal agents to be used intra vaginally with diaphragm.

Question : Define suspension. What are the advantages and

disadvantages of suspension?
Suspension:A biphasic liquid dosage form containing a solid phase (dispersed phase) uniformly dispersed in a
liquid phase ( dispersion phase) is called suspension. The particles size in suspension ranging from 0.5 μm to
5.0 μm.Advantages of suspension:Help in the formation of poor soluble drugs as liquid dosage formDrugs in
suspension exhibits high rate of bioavailability than solid dosage formsCan improve the chemical stability of
certain drugsCan mask the unpleasant taste of a drugDisadvantages of suspension:Sedimentation and
compaction problems Uniform drug delivery may not be achieved Less stable as compared to solid dosage
formMeasuring devices are needed for administrationHandling require care

Question : Define emulsion. What are the advantages and

disadvantages of emulsion?
Emulsion:Emulsion may be defined as a thermodynamically unstable system of at lest two immiscible liquid
phases, one of which is dispersed as globules in another liquid phase, stabilized by the presence of an
emulsifying agent. OREmulsion is a dispersion in which the dispersed phase is composed of small globules of
a liquid distributed throughout a vehicle in which it is immiscible. OREmulsion is a liquid dosage form of
medicament, in which, two immiscible liquids are mixed with the help of an emulsifying agent. ( Emulsifying
agent is called emulgent).Advantages of emulsion:Oil soluble drugs can be given parentrally in the form of
O/W emulsionMask the unpleasant taste Sustained release medicationsOdorless and cost
effective Disadvantages of emulsion:Thermodynamically unstable Short shelf life Leads to creaming and
cracking Leads to phase inversion

Question : What are the types of emulsion?

Types of emulsion: There are two types of emulsion which are;1. Oil in water (O/W) type emulsion:The
emulsion in which the oily phase is dispersed as droplets throughout the aqueous phase is called oil in water
emulsion (O/W) 2. Water in oil ( W/O) type emulsion:The emulsion in which the aqueous phase is dispersed as
droplets throughout the oily phase is called oil in water emulsion (W/O)
Question : Define elixirs. What are the types of elixirs?
Elixirs:Elixirs are clear sweetened hydro alcoholic solution intended for oral administration and are usually
flavored to enhance their palatability. The main ingredients of elixirs are ethanol and water but glycerin,
propylenc glycol, sorbitol, sugar flavoring agents and preservatives may be added to the preparation .Types of
elixirs:1. Medicated elixirs:Medicated elixirs contain at least one active ingredient or medicinal agent.
Medicated elixirs are used for the therapeutic effect of the medicinal substance they contain.2. Non -
medicated elixirs:Non-medicated elixirs do not contain any medicinal agent or active ingredient. They are
used as solvents or vehicles for the preparation of medicated elixirs. They also used as flavoring agent.

Question : Explain different containers according to their use.

According to method of closure and use 1. Well closed containers To protect the preparation from
contamination and to prevent the loss of potency of active constitue

Question : What materials are used for closures?

Materials used for closures 1. Cork It is wood obtained from bark of oak tree. Used as stoppers for narrow
mouth bottles. 2. Glass: As compared to cork glass is ideal material for making the
stoppers.Plastic: closures are more popular than other closure materials. They are unbreakable and easily
moulded into various sizes and shapesRubber: Rubber closures are mainly used for vials, multi-dose
containers and IVfluid bottles, because it can withstand sterilization temperatures.

Question : Briefly describe the parts of prescription.

1) Name , age, sex and addressThis part of prescription is helpful for pharmacist in determining the patient
information and to check the medication and its dose especially for children. Address of patient is helpul as a
refernce at any stage.2) Date Prescribed:Certain medicine should be filled in suitable time. Date on which a
medicine is prescribed is helps pharmacist in deciding whether a prescribed medicine should be filled or
not.3) Superscription:Superscription is the Rx part of a prescription and it must be written in the start of a
prsecription. Supercription is an abbreviation for Latin word ' recipe' which means you
take.4) Inscription:inscription is the main part of prescription which contains the names and quantities of the
prescribed ingredients or medicines. It contains the directions for pharmacist.5) Signatura:It is represented as
'Sig'. it conatins directions for the patients regarding administration, quantity of medicine, number or dosage
units to be taken how many times a day.6) Refill status:Prescription can be used to refill or not.

Question : Describe administration of TPN.

The formulation is administered via catheter. The solution is administered slowly through a large vein, such as
the superior vena cava(central vein). The superior vena cava is accessed through the subclavian vein
immediately beneath the clavicle and near the heart. This permits rapid dilution of the concentrated fluid and
minimizes the risk of tissue or cellular damage due to the hyper-tonicity of the solution. Generally, final
concentrations of dextrose (not greater than 10%) can be given peripherally. Solutions containing more than
10% dextrose should be given via the superior vena cava. The following abbreviations may be used in
hospitals in describing the desired order for parenteral nutrition: CVTPN (central vein TPN) TPN (total
parenteral nutrition) PPN (peripheral parenteral nutrition) HPN (Home parenteral nutrition)

Question : Describe indications for TPN and role of pharmacist in

TPN administration.
INDICATIONS GIT diseases: ulcerative colitis, pancreatitis, malabsorption syndrome Trauma: severe burn,
acute renal failure Abdominal surgery ROLE OF PHARMACIST ? Pharmacist can provide information on aseptic
techniques ? Handling & setting TPN bags ? Formulation requirements ? Stability problems ? Storage
conditions

Question : What you do understand by aseptic dispensing?

Aseptic dispensing is the preparation and supply of sterile medical products, which require some dilution or
other handling before administration. The preparation is carried out in the pharmacy by trained pharmacy
technicians, assistants and pharmacists. The preparations are aseptically dispensed in response to a
prescription/ order for a patient, under the supervision of a pharmacist.

Question : What is sterilization? Describe various approaches for

sterilization.
Sterilization: Sterilization is a process that eliminates (removes) or kills all forms of microbial life such as fungi,
bacteria, viruses, spore forms, etc.Basic Approaches for Sterile Preparation 1.Terminal Sterilization 2.Aseptic
Process (Aseptic: the complete absence of living microorganisms) 1.Terminal Sterilization Terminal
sterilization is a more traditional method of sterilizing products. In terminal sterilization, we fill a container,
seal it and then sterilize it. Whenever possible, products intended to be sterile should preferably be terminally
sterilized by heat in their final container. 2.Aseptic Process Aseptic processing is the process by which a sterile
product is packaged in a sterile container in a way that maintains sterility. Aseptic processing is a simple idea.
Sterilize a container, sterilize its cap, sterilize its contents and put them together.
Question : Give the normal requirements of TPN for an adults .
Water 30-40 ml/kg/day Energy 30-60 kcal/kg/day Amino Acid 1-2
gm/kg/day

Question : Give the normal requirements of child TPN for a child.

Water30- 40 ml/kg/day Energy20 kcal/kg/day Amino Acid2.5-3.5 gm/kg/day

Question : Define Sterilization.

Sterilization is a process that eliminates (removes) or kills all forms of microbial life such as fungi, bacteria,
viruses, spore forms, etc.

Question : What concentration of dextrose must be used for

different route of administration following a TPN?
Peripherally:Generally, final concentrations of dextrose (not greater than 10%) can be given
peripherally.Superior vena cava:Solutions containing more than 10% dextrose should be given via the
superior vena cava.

Question : write note on aseptic techniques.

Aseptic techniques:The methods which are used to prevent the access of microorganism during the
preparation of parenteral products and their testing are called Aseptic Techniques.Aseptic techniques are
used to reduce the risk of postprocedure infections and to minimize the exposure of health care providers to
potentially infectious microorganisms. Aseptic techniques include practices performed just before., during, or
after any invasive procedures. Good aseptic techniques can only be applied if one knows the possible sources
contamination. The various sources of contamination are as follow:Atmosphere, which is contaminated with
dust, droplet and droplet nuclei becomes the breeding ground of microorganism.The hands are a major
means of transmitting infection.Coughing, sneezing and spitting can cause contamination at a considerable
distance.The cloths which absorb dust particles are also a source of contamination. A handkerchief is the
richest source of contamination.The hair, which is constantly exposed to atmospheric dust is source of
contamination.These dust particles are liberated from the hair during brushing and shaking of the head.The
unsterile equipment The working surface
Question : Write Components of TPN
Components of TPNWaterProteinCarbohydratesFatsElectrolytes Na,K,Ca,Ci,Mg)Trace elements (Zinc, Copper,
Manganese)Vitamins/MineralsIndications of TPN:Patients whose GIT tract is inaccessible, nonfunctional,
perforated.Undernorished patients who cannot ingest larger volumes of oral feedings and are being prepared
for surgery, radiation therapy, or chemotherapy. Disorders requiring complete bowl rest e.g ulcerative
colitisPediatric GI disorders e.g prolonged diarrheaTypes of TPN:a) TPN formulation without lipid (2-in-1
solution)Calories from amino acids-20 to 25%Calories from lipids-20%b) TPN formulation with lipid ( 3-in 1
solution)Calories form amino acids-20 to 25%Calories form lipids- 20%Calories from dextrose-55 to 60%

Question : Write note on the compounding and dipenisng of TPN.

Compounding of TPN:Nutrients are mixed just prior to infusions, by breaking the plastic connectors between
the Shelf-life of these bags is at least 12 months, but allow only for standardized formula. The use of three-
compartment TPN bags is less expensive in terms of application costs than separate bottles or hospital
compounded bag systems.Because of the complexity of parenteral nutrition products, safe preparation is a
complicated task.The quality of the final product depends on the facilities, resources, personnel training and
products used in preparation.

Question : Define incompatibility and give its types.

Incompatibility is defined as: ?The change which occur in the quality of a preparation? as a result of
prescribing or mixing the substances which antagonize (opposite) each other and an undesirable product is
formed which may affect the safety, purpose or appearance of the preparation. Incompatibility may be
classified as follows Pharmaceutical incompatibility Therapeutic incompatibility 1. Physical
2. Chemical

Question : Write a note on physical incompatibility.

a) Physical incompatibility It is a result of direct physical interaction between two or more components of a
preparation. It is due toi Insolubility (incomplete solution) When two or more substances are combined they
may not give a homogenous product due to insolubility. ii) Immiscibility (separation of immiscible liquids:
salting out) Separation of a liquid from solution upon addition of another solvent takes place with which
liquid is immiscible. e.g oils dissolved in alcohols separates on addition of water. iii) Precipitation A substance
is precipitated from its solution upon addition of another solvent in which substance is insoluble.
iv) Liquefaction Mixtures of solids sometimes liquefy due to absorption of water or release of water of
hydration. v) Gelatinization Solutions may form a gel when combined with certain substances Physical
incompatibility usually causes non-uniform dosage (difficult to measure accurate dose), unpalatable mixtures.
Question : Describe chemical incompatibility.
a) Chemical incompatibility It may be result of chemical interactions between the ingredients of a
prescription and a harmful or even dangerous product may be formed. These generally result
from: Hydrolysis It is addition of water. Aspirin (acetyl salicylic acid) upon hydrolysis converts into salicylic
acid and acetic acid. Oxidation-reduction reaction ? Sugars are oxidized by Cu++& Ag+ in alkaline PH.
? Oils and fats are oxidized by light to become rancid. All organic compounds are oxidized by oxidizing
agents Fe+3 (ferric) is an oxidizing agent. ? Silver compounds are reduced to metallic silver by light and
reducing agent. Acid-base reactions These may be indicated by: i. Evolution of gas (carbonates react with acid
and release carbon dioxide) ii. change in color (reaction causes change in color indicating change in PH.
iii.precipitation (when soluble compounds react with hydroxyl (OH- ) ion or strong acids they form insoluble
compounds).

Question : How to correct physical incompatibility?

? Change the vehicle ? Modify the mixing order ? Addition of suspending agent, emulsifying agent, solubilizing
agents. ? Add adsorbents ? Remove the troublesome ingredient ? Change the dosage form

Question : How to correct chemical incompatibility?

? Complete the reaction before packaging ? Protect from air, light and moisture. ? Add desiccants. ? Addition of
anti-oxidants, buffering agents and chelating agents.

Question : Define therapeutic incompatibility.

When the effect produced by one or more drugs is different in nature and intensity from that intended by the
prescriber. It is due to administration of: a) Overdose and under dose of a drug( Improper dose)
b) Incorrect drug c) Wrong dosage form d) Contraindicated drugs

Question : How to correct therapeutic incompatibility?

? Review prescription for possible errors ? Educate patient about proper use of drug. (Time, frequency and
dose) ? Inquire patient about other prescription and OTC drugs.

Question : Define contraindicated drugs.

Prescription calls for a drug to which patient is allergic is called contraindicated drug.

Question : Define hydrolysis.

Hydrolysis can be defined as a process of breakdown of a substance in the presence of water.

Question : How evolution of gas occurs?

When carbonates react with acid and release carbon dioxide, this is gas evolution occurs.

Question : Define incompatibility. What are the types of

incompatibility?
Incompatibility:Incompatibility is defined as when tow or more ingredients of a prescription are mixed
together the undesired changes that may takes place in the physical, chemical or therapeutic properties of the
medicament is termed as incompatibility it may affect the safety, efficacy and appearance of the medicament
is termed as incompatibility It may affect the safety, efficacy and appearance of a medicine. ORThe change
which occurs in the quality of a preparation as a result of mixing the substances which antagonize each other
and an undesirable product is formed which may affect the safety, purpose or appearance of the preparation.
OR

Question : What are Types of incompatibility:

1. Physical incompatibility:Physical incompatibility involves interaction between two or more substance which
leads to change in colour, odour, taste, viscosity & morphology. It is due to insolubility & immiscibility,
precipitation, liquefaction, adsorption & complexation of solid materials.2. Chemical incompatibility:Chemical
incompatibility is also called as immediate incompatibility. It occurs due to oxidation-reduction, acid base
hydrolysis or combination reactions & those noticed by effervescence, decomposition, colour change.
Chemical interaction occurs between the ingredients & a toxic & incentive product will be formed.3.
Therapeutic incompatibility:Therapeutic incompatibility is also called as drug interactions. It occurs due to
when drug or excipitents, which are antagonist to one another & are prescribed together. Therapeutic
incompatibility also occurs due to;OverdoseWrong dosage formContraindicated drugDrug interaction

Question : Write note on Physical incompatibility.

Physical incompatibility:Physical incompatibility involves interaction between two or more substance which
leads to change in colour, odoeur, taste, viscosity & morphology. It is due to insolubility & immiscibility,
precipitation, liquefaction, adsorption & complexation of solid materials. This types of incompatibility is also
known as pharmaceutical incompatibility.Manifestations of Physical incompatibility:1. The insolubility of
prescribed agent in a vehicle:When the ingredients or agents are insoluble, Example:Benzalkonium
chloride Sodium laurly sulfateThey are not mixed because benzalkonium chloride is positively charged while
sodium lauryl sulfate has a negative charge. By mixing, a precipitate is formed.2. Immiscibility of two or more
liquids:This manifestation appears clearly in emulsions, creams, lotions, some types of ointments.Separation
in two phases is noticed in these pharmaceutical dosage forms.3. Liquification of solids mixed in a dry state:It
means that when two solid substances are mixed, conversion to a liquid state takes place. Example:Ephedrine
sulfateMentholLiquid paraffinThis prescription is not prescribed because ephedrine sulfate is a salt which is
soluble in water but insoluble in organic solvents, oil and paraffin.

Question : Write note on chemical incompatibility.

Chemical incompatibility Reaction between two or more substances which lead to a change in chemical
properties of the pharmaceutical dosage form is called Chemical Incompatibility.Chemical incompatibility is
also called as immediate incompatibility. Chemical interaction occurs, between the ingredients & a toxic &
inactive product will be formed. It occurs due to oxidation-reduction, acid base hydrolysis or combination
reactions & those noticed by effervescence, decomposition, colour change.Types of chemical changes:1.
Oxidation2. Hydrolysis3. Polymerization4. Isomerization5. Decarboxylation6. Absorption of CO27.
Combination8. Formation of insoluble complexes 1. Oxidation:Oxidation is defined as loss of electrons or gain
of oxygen.Auto-oxidation:It is a reaction with the oxygen of air which occurs spontaneously without other
factors.Pre-oxidants:Pre-oxidants are substances catalyze oxidation process i.e. metals, some
impurities.Chemical groups which undergo oxidation:Phenolic compounds: PhenylephrineCatechol
derivatives: adrenaline and noradrenalineSome antibiotics: TetracyclinesOils( fixed and volatile)Vitamins (lipid
and water - soluble)

Question : Write note on therapeutic incompatibility.

Therapeutic incompatibility:Therapeutic incompatibility is the modification of the therapeutic effect of one
drug by the prior concomitant administration of another. It is also called as drug interactions. It occurs due to
when drug or excipients, which are antagonist to one another & are prescribed together.Mechanisms of
therapeutic incompatibility:They are divided into two groups:1. Pharmacokinetics interactions: These involve
the effect of a drug on another from the point of view that includes absorption, distribution, metabolism and
excretion. These interactions may be at the level of:a. Altered GIT absorption: This happens because of:Altered
pHAltered bacterial floraFormation of drug chelates or complexesDrug-induced mucosal damage and altered
GIT motilityb. Displaced Protein binding:It depends on the affinity of the drug to plasma protein. The most
likely bound drugs are capable to displace others. The free drugs is increased by displacement by another
drug with higher affinityc. Altered Metabolism:The effect of one drug on the metabolism of the other is well
documented. The liver is the major site of drug metabolism but other organs can also do e.g. WBC skin, lung,
and GITExample I:Enzyme induction: Carbamazepine (antiepileptic drug) increases its own
metabolism.Phenytoin increases hepatic metabolism of theophylline leading to decrease its level.Example
II:Enzyme inhibition: Erythromycin inhibits metabolism of astemizole and terfenadine, increases the serum
concentration of the antihistaminic agents leading to increasing the life-threatening cardiotoxicity.d. Altered
renal excretion:Probenecid decreases the tubular secretion of methotrexate. Loop and thiazide
diuretics: indirectly increase proximal tubular reabsorption of Li+ (which is handled in a similar way as Na+)
and this can cause Li+ toxicity in patients treated with lithium carbonate for a mood disorder.2.
Pharmacodynamics interactions: Phamacodynamics interactions means an alteration of the dug action
without a change in its serum concentration by phamacokinetic factors. These interaction are related to the
pharmacological activity of he interacting drugs e.g. pharmacodynamic interactions may be:Additive
interactions Synergistic interactionsPotentiation interactionsAntagonisticExamples:β-adrenoceptor
antagonists diminish the effectiveness of β-receptor agonists, such as salbutamol or terbutalineMany
diuretics lower plasma potassium concentration, and thereby enhance some actions of digoxin and
predispose to glycoside toxicity.

Question : What is adsorption?

When a solid surface is exposed to gas or liquid molecules then gas or liquid molecules accumulate at the
surface it is called adsorption. The substance that deposits at the surface is called adsorbate. And the solid on
whose surface the adsorption occurs is called adsorbent.

Question : Discuss various types of adsorption.

Types of adsorption Adsorption fundamentally divided into two main categories 1. Physical Adsorption It
is the interaction of liquid or gas particles with solid particles surface and there is physical characteristics are
involved Example Many drugs are absorbed from GIT and skin through physical adsorption mechanism.
2. Chemical Adsorption It is the process in which liquid or gas particle binds to solid particle surface
through chemical interaction is known as chemical adsorption Example Accumulation of O2 on the surface of
iron

Question : Write a note on factors affecting adsorption.

Factors affecting adsorption : Surface area Increase in surface area leads to increase in the amount of gas
adsorbed Nature of gas More liquefiable gases adsorbed more readily e.g SO2 Temperature Adsorption
decreases by increasing temperature.

Question : Give applications of adsorption.

1. Adsorption is the mechanism of absorption through skin and GIT. 2. Adsorption is the fundamental
mechanism of antidotes. 3. Removal of access acid from stomach by using weakly basic adsorbents. 4. It
is used in discoloration of different substances. Activated charcoal remove color from solution. 5. It is the
main mechanism to combat with intestinal toxin Example etox-P Removal of poisonous gases from
atmosphere.

Question : What is calcination? Give its Mechanism of action.

Calcination is the process in which the inorganic substances are strongly heated so as to remove their volatile
components and fixed component are preserved. Mechanism of Calcination : On laboratory scale we use
silica or platinum crucibles, china dishes and glass dishes for this process. Firstly we add the chemical
substance to respective apparatus, now heat this chemical substance until volatile components are
evaporated and fixed components remain in apparatus. On industrial scale rotary kilns are used in the
process of calcination.

Question : Write down applications of calcination in pharmacy.

1. Calcination is used in the separation and purification of certain inorganic substances e.g. calcium oxide
Zinc oxide and red mercuric oxide. 2. It is used in the conversion of carbonates to oxides. 3. Calcinations
is used in Gravimetric analysis which is used widely in pharmaceutics and chemical industries

Question : What is centrifugation?

Centrifugation is the process of separating lighter portions of a solution, mixture or suspension from the
heavier portions by centrifugal force. The rate of centrifugation is specified by the angular velocity measured
in revolution per minute (RPM).

Question : What is micro centrifugation?

Microcentrifuges are used to process small volumes of biological molecules, cells, or nuclei. Microcentrifuge
tubes generally hold 0.5 - 2.0 mL of liquid, and are spun at maximum angular speeds of 12,000?13,000 rpm.

Question : What is high speed centrifugation?

High-speed or superspeed centrifuges can handle larger sample volumes, from a few tens of millilitres to
several litres. Additionally, larger centrifuges can also reach higher angular velocities (around 30,000 rpm). The
rotors may come with different adapters to hold various sizes of test tubes, bottles, or microtiter plates.

Question : Define ultracentrifugation.

Ultracentrifugation makes use of high centrifugal force for studying properties of biological particles.
Compared to microcentrifuges or high-speed centrifuges, ultracentrifuges can isolate much smaller particles,
including ribosomes, proteins, and viruses. Ultracentrifuges can reach maximum angular velocities in excess
of 70,000 rpm.

Question : Describe applications of centrifugation in industries.

Industrial centrifuges are used: ? 1) For separating solids from liquids, liquid-liquid separation, and liquid-
solid separation. 2) Removing fat from milk to produce skimmed milk.3) Separation of urine components
and blood components in forensic and research labs. ? 4) In laboratories performing biochemical analyses
on body fluids, centrifuges are routinely used: a) To separate blood cells from serum/plasma.b) To separate
sediment from urinec) To measure the volume fraction of erythrocytes in blood (the hematocrit)

Question : What is crystallization? What are basic steps of

crystallization?
It can be defined as highly specific method which is used to convert liquid into solids by using evaporation,
cooling or precipitation method is known as crystallization. Basic steps of crystallization1) Make
supersaturated solution 2) Formation of crystal nuclei3) Initiation of crystal growth 4) Complete growth
of crystals in mother liquor (liquid left behind after getting crystals is called mother liquor).

Question : Give methods of crystallization.

Methods of crystallization 1. Evaporation In this method the temperature of the liquid raised and the liquid
evaporate so finally we get a solid crystals of compounds. 2. Cooling In this method we use cooling
procedure to form solid crystals it is a very selective method for heat sensitive materials. Supersaturated
solution is cooled and then by filteration of solution, crystals can be obtained on filter paper. The cooling
method is divided into two subclasses I. Slow cooling crystallization : large sized crystals can be
obtained. i. Rapid cooling crystallization: small sized crystals can be obtained. 3. Precipitation In this
method two chemical liquids are mixed together and precipitates are formed and then separate out the solid
material. It is very rarely used method of crystallization
Question : Describe factors affecting crystallization.
Factors affecting Crystallization 1. Temperature 2. Cooling rate 3. Precipitation rate 4. Rate of growth of
crystals 5. Nature of solvent 6. Nature of substance 7. Impurities

Question : Give pharmaceutical applications of crystallization.

i) It is important purification mechanism used in pharmaceutical industries to get pure solid drugs e.g. insulin,
sulphur, cortisone acetate purified by crystallization. ii) Penicillin ?G is solidify by this process
iii) Crystallization process is used to get proteinaceous drugs in solid form. iv) Stability of drug is enhanced by
crystallization. v) It is very simple and less time consuming method to get extremely pure drugs.

Question : Describe the process of decantation.

It is a process used in pharmacy to separate out the impurities from the soluble portion of the
solution Process Decantation involves following steps 1. washing of the Solids 2. Adding the Solids in
solvents and stir it 3. After the Solution formed separate all the impurities After the removal of impurities
we will get a pure solution

Question : Give applications of decantation.

i.This method is used to purify the solids. ii.This process is also used to separate the solids from liquids. iii. It is
also use in the separation of gels and magmas.

Question : What is deliquescence? Give its mechanism.

It is chemical process in which any anhydrous compound catch up the water from its surrounding
environment and convert itself into hydrated form. It is also known as hygroscopicity. The compound have
the tendency to convert itself from anhydrate to hydrated form are known as hygroscopic or deliquescence
compound. Mechanism: In deliquescence the humidity level of product as compare of the humidity level
of atmosphere if this kind of material directly interact with the atmosphere. The humidity from atmosphere
moves inside the product and convert it from anhydrous form to hydrous form.

Question : What are the precautions of deliquescence?

1. These products should not be kept open. 2. These products should be kept in well closed containers.
3. We add silica gel packet to absorb the humidity that is enclosed in container.

Question : Write a note on dessication.

It is drying procedure which is widely used in pharmacy to remove the admixed water from the product. The
term dessicated is applied to those substances or product that have undergone the Dessication procedure.
The admix water is completely remove from the substances or products. These are also termed as dried
products. Mechanism In Dessication the dessicant (silica gel) is used to remove the extra or admixed
water from the substance or product and term dry is usually used for those products that do not have the
noticeable quantity of moisture.

Question : Describe applications of dessication.

1. Aid in preservation Vegetable and animal drugs soon undergo decomposition by the bacteria and fungi due
to the presence of moisture. Desiccation process remove moisture from drugs. It preserves them for longer
period of time. 2. Reduce bulk weight It reduced the bulk weight of drug by removing moisture, in the way
reduce the cost of transportation. 3. Increase the stability of drugs Stability of drugs is increase by
desiccation. 4. To facilitate communition Desiccation process makes the drugs less elastic and more brittle.
Brittle drugs are triturated more easily as compared to elastic drugs. 5. Increase shelf life of crude drugs.
Shelf life of crude drugs is increased by desiccation.

Question : Briefly describe distillation.

It is the method of separating the constituents of a liquid by vaporizng the liquid. The different componenets
separate on the basis of their volatilities. Principle It is a purification as well as
separation process in which a chemical substance is boiled up to their boiling point until it convert into vapors
then these vapors are converted back into liquid and collected in the receiver, it is called distillate.

Question : Write names of various types of distillation.

1. Simple distillation (Distillation under atmospheric pressure) 2. Steam distillation 3. Fractional
distillation 4. Vaccum distillation (Distillation under reduced pressure)

Question : What is steam distillation?

Steam distillation is used for the distillation of two immiscible liquids one of which is water. The distillation
apparatus consists of steam generator fitted with a tube which carries the steam to the flask containing the
liquids. When steam is passed through a mixture of these liquids, it boils at a much lower temperature than
the boiling point of pure water. The vapors are allowed to pass through condenser and distillate forms two
layers which are separated from each other as completely as possible. This method is used for distilling heat-
sensitive compounds as volatile oils i.e. clove oil, eucalyptus oil.

Question : What is vacuum distillation?

The liquids which are decomposed at their boiling point under atmospheric pressure can be distilled at a
much lower temperature when pressure is reduced on the surface of liquid. This process is carried
out in claisen flask(has two necks). Through one inserted thermometer and attached to condenser and other
hold fine capillary. Side tube of receiver connected to vaccum pump, a pressure guage(manometer) is inserted
b/w receiver and vaccum pump.

Question : What are the applications of vacuum distillation?

1) Distilled water, rose water and other pharmaceuticaly active ingredients are obtained by distillation. 2)
Steam distillation is used for extraction of volatile oils from their crude drugs i.e. clove, anise,eucalyptus oil.3)
Petrol, kerosene, fuel oil, lubricant oil produced from fractional distillation of crude oil.4) For purification and
separation of miscible and immiscible liquids.

Question : What is exsiccation?

Exsiccation is the process of removing the water of crystallization from the hydrated crystalline substances by
heat and making them anhydrous. After removing water molecules the obtained material is called exsiccated
material.

Question : Describe method of exsiccation.

In the laboratory, exsiccation may be carried out by taking a weighed amount of the substance in a tarred dish
which is heated on water bath, Sand bath as or in an over, with continuous stirring until a constant weight is
obtained or until the calculated loss in weight has taken place.

Question : What are the applications of exsiccation?

To increase the shelf life of drugs and prevent from microbial contamination. It is also carried out to reduce
the bulk and weight of certain drugs so that they can be easily administered. To obtain fine powder of the
substance.

Question : Define elutriation.

This is a process of separating a substance into powders of different degrees of fineness by stirring the
substance with a large volume of liquid in which it insoluble and withdrawing the liquid at different heights.
The upper layers of liquid contain suspension of the finer particles, while the lowers layers contain the coarser
or heavier particles.

Question : Give applications of elutriation.

1. Calamine may be produced in the same manner from native Zinc Carbonate. 2. Kaolin is also prepared
from pharmaceutical purposes by elutriation. 3. Chalk is produced from native CaCO3 by elutriation.

Question : Define evaporation.

Evaporation is a phase transition from the liquid phase to gas phase that occurs at temperature below the
boiling temperature at a given pressure. It is a type of vaporization of a liquid that occurs only on the surface
of a liquid. Evaporation produced cooling effect. In summers when sweat evaporates it produces cooling
effect on skin.

Question : Describe factors influencing on the rate of evaporation.

1. Flow rate of air Higher the flow rate greater will be the rate of evaporation. 2. Inter-molecular forces The
stronger the inter-molecular forces lesser would be the rate of evaporation. 3. Surface area Large the surface
area greater will be the rate of evaporation. 4. Temperature of the substances Greater the temperature
greater will be the rate of evaporation. 5. Density Higher the density slower a liquid will evaporate. 6.
Agitation The process of agitation increases the rate of evaporation. 7. Atmospheric pressure Rate of
evaporation will increase with decrease in atmospheric pressure. 8. Concentration of other substances in air
If the air is already saturated with other substances then substance will evaporation more slowly.

Question : Write a note on evaporating pans.

Evaporating pans On a manufacturing scale, liquid extracts containing water as a menstrum are evaporated in
open pans called evaporating pans. They consist of hemispherical or shallow pans made of copper, stainless
steel, aluminum, enameled iron or other metal and surrounded by a steam jacket. These pans may be fixed or
made to tilt to remove the product.

Question : Briefly describe evaporating stills.

Evaporating stills are quite similar to evaporating pans, it consists of a vessel made from copper condenser so
that the solvent is condensed and collected in a receiver. At the lowest point of the pan, a tube fitted with a
tap is connected for the removal of the product from the pan. The pan is surrounded by a steam jacket. For
cleaning the pan or easy removal of the product the cover of the vessel may be fitted with quick-release
system of clamps.

Question : Give applications of evaporation.

1. Evaporation is one of the most important processes in the manufacture of pharmaceuticals. 2. It is used in
the preparation of liquid extracts, soft extracts and dry extracts and in the concentration of blood plasma and
serum. 3. It is also used in the manufacture of drugs containing antibiotics, enzymes, hormones and many
other substances.

Question : Discuss the process of fusion.

Process of fusion All the substances are melted together and then cooled slowly with constant stirring until a
uniform product is obtained. To avoid overheating substances with higher melting points are heated first to
which substances with lower melting points are added. Heat-labile substances and any volatile components
are added in last when temperature of the mixture is low enough not to cause decomposition or volatilization
of components.

Question : Write applications of fusion.

1. Fusion is done to purify certain solid and semi-solid substances e.g bees wax, wool fat, soft paraffin are
heated to melt and filtered while hot to remove the dissolved impurities. 2. This method is used for
preparation of ointments. 3. It is used in pharmacy for incorporating drug components into base.
4. Creams, pastes and gels are also formulated through fusion process.
Question : What is ignition? Give its applications.
Ignition is also called incineration. Ignition is a process used in pharmacy in which the organic substances are
strongly heated until its carbon part burn and converted into ash. The temperature is maintained at 200oC to
300oC. The temperature is provided by putting platinum crucibles in furnace. Application in
pharmacy 1. Ignition process is used as a standardization test to evaluate the quality and purity of organic
compounds 2. Ignition is also used as sterilization process. 3. This process is used in combustion analysis.

Question : Write a note on levigation.

Levigation also called ?wet grinding? .The incorporation of small quantities of drugs by using spatula is also
known as levigation. Method of Levigation: In levigation solid is first converted into paste. The solvent used
should be somewhat viscous such as mineral oil or glycerin. Levigation is a process of mixing throughly or
grinding to make a smooth paste.

Question : What is Lyophilization?

Freeze drying is the process in which water is removed from liquid prroducts by sublimationThe material is
first frozen to ice then reducing the surrounding pressure(by vaccum) to allow the frozen water in the material
to sublimate directly from solid to gas phase.

Question : Describe applications of lyophilization?

1. This process is used for the manufacture of certain pharmaceutical and biological product which are
thermolabile. It is used for drying blood plasma, enzymes, hormones, antibiotics and vitamins. 2. Freeze dried
products remain protected from spoilage for many years. 3. It increases the shelf life of pharmaceutical
products like vaccines and other injections. 4. It is used to preserve food and resulting products is low and
light weight.

Question : Write a note on sublimation.

Sublimation is the process in which, on heating, a solid directly gets converted to vapours without passing the
liquid state and vapors get converted back to the solid state.The product so obtained is known as sublimate
(sublimed material).
Question : Write a note on trituration?
Word trituration comes from triturate which means rub to pieces? It is a process of reducing the particle size
by grinding. Mechanism of Trituration: In Trituration pestle and motor is used for size reduction of different
organic and inorganic substances. Trituration is the production of a homogenous material through mixing. It
is a dry process and is different from levigation. It is the continous rubbing or grinding of the powder in a
mortar with a pestle. To avoid complication we use only one direction of movement either clockwise or
anticlockwise

Question : What is efflorescence?

Efflorescence is the loss of water of crystallization from hydrated substances into the atmosphere.
Explanation:In hydrated form the water molecules attached to the compound. The surrounding atmosphere
also has vapours and definite vapour pressure due to water vapours present in atmosphere. If the vapour
pressure of hydrated substance is greater than the surrounding atmosphere then hydrated substance loses
water molecules to become less hydrous and finally become anhydrous this phenomenon is known as
efflorescence.

Question : What are collodions?

Collodions are fluid preparations use. They are applied with a brush or rod. The vehicle is volatile and
evaporates on application to the skin, leaving a flexible protective film covering the site. The volatile solvents
are ether and alcohol, the film producing in gradient is pyroxylin (nitrocellulose) and the substance having the
flexibility is castor oil. Unmedicated and medicated forms are available, the former are useful for protecting
small cuts while the later provide prolonged contact between the skin and a medicament

Question : What are Jellies and Linctuses?

Jellies are translucent, non-greasy, semisolid preparations mainly used externally. The gelling agent may be
gelatin, or a carbohydrate such as starch, tragacanth, sodium alginate or cellulose derivative.
Linctuses:Linctuses are viscous, liquid oral preparations that are usually prescribed for the relief of cough.
They are simple solutions or admixtures containing a high proportion of syrup and sometimes, glycerin which
as well as giving a sweet taste, have a demulcent effect on the mucous membranes of the throat. The dose is
small (5 ml).

Question : What are lozenges?

These are solid preparations consisting mainly of sugar and gum, the later giving hardness and cohesiveness
and ensuring slow release of the medicament. They are used to medicate the mouth and throat and for the
slow administration of indigestion and cough remedies.

Question : Define poultices.

Poultices are paste like preparations use externally to reduce inflammation because they retain heat well.
After heated the preparation is spread thickly on a dressing and applied, as hot as the patient can bear it, to
the affected area.

Question : Define crystallization

It can be defined as highly specific method which is used to convert liquid into solids by using evaporation,
cooling or precipitation method is known as crystallization.

Question : Define physico-chemical process. Enlist physiochemical

process used in pharmaceutical preparation.
Physico-chemical process:Physical reactions involved in the formation of or changes in the structure of atoms
and molecules and their interactions are called physioco-chemical process. Physico-chemical process is
related to both physical and chemical properties. Physicochemical is dependent on the joint action of both
physical and chemical processes. Another term is physiochemical which is pertaining to both physiology and
chemistry. Physic-chemical processes used in pharmaceutical preparations are as follow;Adsorption,
Calcification, Centrifugation, Crystallization, Decantation, Deliquescence, Dessication, Distillation,
Efflorescence, Elutriation, Evaporation, Exsication, Fusion, Ignition, Legvigation, Lyophillization, Sublimation,
Trituration, Vaporization,

Question : Write note on adsorption and application of absorption.

Adsorption:Adsorption is a surface phenomenon in which molecules of a substance such as gas or liquid
binds to/collect on the surface of another substance such as solid. Adsorption is fundamentally divided into
two main categoriesi. Physical Adsorption:It is the interaction of liquid or gas particles with solid particles
surface and physical characteristics are involved in it. Example: Many drugs are absorbed form GIT and skin
through physical adsorption mechanismii. Chemical Adsorption:It is the process in which liquid or gas particle
binds to solid particle surface through chemical reaction is known as chemical adsorption. Example:
Accumulation of O2 on the surface of iron (rust).Application of adsorption in pharmacy:Adsorption is the
mechanism of absorption through skin and GITAdsorption is the fundamental mechanism of antidotesIn the
preparation of gas masks using activated charcoal to avoid poisonous gasesSilica gel can be used to remove
moisture and to control humidityAdsorption chromatography is used to purify and separate pigments,
hormones etcIt is the main mechanism to compact with intestinal toxin

Question : Write note on calcination.

Calcination:Calcinations are the process in which the inorganic matters are strongly heated the will lose their
volatile component and fixed component are preserved. ORCalcination is the process of heating a substance
to a high temperature but below the melting or fusing point, until they loss their moisture or volatile
components.Application of calcinations in pharmacy:A lot of chemicals are obtained by calcinations, such as
pigmentsCalcinations process is used to get the fixed components of a substanceCalcinations is used in the
separation and purification of Calcium Oxide, Zine oxideCentrifugation:The process in which Solids are
separated form liquids by the centrifugal force or rotation is called centrifugation.(An object traveling in a
circle behaves as if it is experiencing an outward force. This force known as the centrifugal force)Application of
centrifugation in pharmacy:A centrifuge is also used to separate the components of blood in blood
banksRemoving fat from milk to produce skimmed milk The clarification and stabilization of wineSeparation
of urine components and blood components in forensic and research labs

Question : What is crystallization?

Crystallization:A method which is used to convert liquid into solids by using evaporration, cooling or
precipitation is known as crystallization. ORCrystallization is the ( natural or artificial) process of forma tion of
solid crystals.Method of crystallization:There are three methods of crystallization 1. Evaporation method of
crystallization:In this method the temperature of the liquid raised and the liquid evaporate, so finally we get
solid crystals of compounds.2. Cooling method of crystallization:In this method we use cooling procedure to
form solid crystals. It is a very selective method used only for heat sensitive materials.3. Precipitation method
of crystallization:In this method the liquid is converted into precipitates and then separate out the solid
material. It is very rarely used method of crystallization.Application of crystallization in pharmacy:It is
important purification mechanism used in pharmaceutical industries to get pure solid drugsPenicillin-G is
solidify by this processCrystallization process is used to get proteinaceous drugs in solid formDue to
crystallization the stability of product is enhance Crystallization is used for purification purpose

Question : Discuss decantation process brieflty.

Decantation:Probably the simplest method of separating solids from liquids is the process of decantation,
which simply means letting the solids settle to the bottom of the container and pouring off the liquid.
ORDecanting is the careful process of pouring (flow) liquid from one container to another, usually leaving
behind sediment.Application of decantation in pharmacy:A mixture of two immiscible liquids can also be
separated by decantionThis method is used to purify the solidsThis process is also used to separate the solids
form liquidsIt is also used in the separation of gels and magmas.

Question : What is deliquescence?

Deliquescence:The process by which a substance absorbs moisture from the atmosphere until it dissolves in
the absorbed water and forms a solution. ORIt is chemical process in which any anhydrous compound
(compound containing no water) catches up the water from its surrounding environment and converts itself
into hydrated (containing water) form.Difference between deliquescent material and hygroscopic
material:Deliquescent material absorbs water form air enough to form solutions e.g. calcium chloride,
magnesium chloride, zinc chlorideHygroscopic material absorbs water from air but not enough to form
solutions e.g. Sugar, Sodium chloride, Silica gel.Both these terms are used to indicate that a material takes up
water vapors form the atmosphere and is converted to a more hydrated form. In case of hygroscopic
substance, liquid phase i.e, a solution.For Hygroscopic and deliquescent pharmaceutical preparations
specialized storage conditions are required.Application of deliquescence in pharmacy:Deliquescence
compounds are used to preserve different pharmaceuticals.These substances are used to preserve different
pharmaceuticals.

Question : What is desiccation?

Desiccation:Desiccation is the process of removing adhered moisture form liquid or solid substances. The
term desiccated is used for those substances from which the water or moisture has been completely
removed. Desiccation is the state of extreme dryness, or the process of extreme drying.A desiccant is a
hygroscopic substance, that induces or sustains such a state (Dryness) in its local vicinity, in a moderately
sealed container. A desiccator is a heavy glass or plastic container used for making or keeping small amounts
of material very dry. The material is placed on a shelf, and a drying agent or desiccant, such as dry silica gel or
anhydrous sodium hydroxide, is placed below the shelf.Desiccator:A desiccator is a heavy glass or plastic
container used in practical chemistry for keeping small amounts of materials to dry. The material is placed on
a shelf, and a drying agent or desiccant, such as dry silica gel is placed below the shelf.Application of
dessication:In preservation of vegetable and animal drugs that are destroyed in presence of
moisture.Comminution of drugs is difficult when they are wet, but it becomes easy when the are dried.
Desiccation is a famous process of dryingAll the hygroscopic drugs are dried through Desiccation processFor
Desiccation dried silica gel is used in the bottles of hygroscopic medicineTo decrease the bulk and weight of
substances containing moisture to facilitate their easy handling.To increase the stability of drugs.

Question : Write note on distillation.

Distillation:Evaporation followed by condensation is called distillation. It is a purification as well as separation
process in which a chemical substance is boiled into vapors which then condensed into liquid again. It is used
for the extraction of volatile substance from their crude drugs. ORDistillation is the process in which a liquid is
vaporized (turned to vapours), re condensed (turned back into a liquid) and collected in a container. It is the
method which is used to separate different chemical substances on the basis of their volatilities. ORIt is a
purification as well as separation process in which a chemical substance is boiled-up to their boiling point until
it converts into vapors then the condenser is attached the distillation flask which condensed back these
vapors into liquid again. ORDistillation is a commonly used method for purifying liquids and separating
mixtures of liquids into their individual components.Types of distillation:1. Simple distillationSimple distillation
is a process of converting a liquid into its vapors, transferring the vapors to another place, and recovering the
liquid by condensing the vapors, usually by leading contact with a cold surface. The apparatus used consists of
3 parts;Still in which volatile material is vaporized.Condenser in which vapors are condensed.Receiver in which
distillate is collected.Application of Simple DistillationFor purification of organic liquids.Separation of liquids
form non-volatile solids-recovery of alcohol in the preparation of dry extracts.Preparation of different
substances-ether amyl nitrate etc.Preparation of distilled water.2. Fractional distillationFractional Distillation is
a process by which components in a chemical mixture are separated according to their different boiling
points. The closer the boiling points are to each other, the more difficult the separation, hence Fractional
Distillation is used instead of simple distillation.In fractional distillation the compound is heated and, as each
of its constituent components comes to a boil, its vapors are separated and cooled, so it can be removed in its
pure form.Application of fractional distillation:Separation of two immiscible liquids having different boiling
points.Separation of ternary mixtures.Manufacture of Alcohol3. Steam distillationSteam distillation is a special
type of distillation for temperature sensitive materials like natural aromatic compounds. Many organic
compounds tend to decompose at high sustained temperatures. Separation by normal distillation would then
not be an option, so water or steam is introduced into the distillation apparatus. By adding water or stem, the
boiling points of the compounds are depressed, allowing them tho evaporate at lower temperatures,
preferably below the temperatures at which the deterioration of the material becomes appreciableStem
distillation is used for the distillation of water-immiscible liquids of high boiling points, e.g. turpentine, aniline.
By bubbling steam through the liquid, the mixture boils at below the normal boiling point of the either
component. The distillate consists of the tow liquids in the same proportions as in the vapor E.g. Turpentine
has a boiling point of 160 C, when mixed with water it can be distilled at about 95.6C.Applications of steam
distillation:For distillation of water immiscible liquids of high boiling points turpentine, aniline, phenylalanine
etc.For extraction of volatile oils form their crude drugs clove oil, anise oil and Eucalyptus oil form clove, anise
and Eucalyptus.For purification of volatile substances. For purification of volatile substances.In the
manufacture of essential oils, for use in perfumes.To separate intermediate or final products during the
synthesis of complex organic compounds.4.Vacuum distillation Vacuum distillation is also known as
distillation under reduced pressure. Vacuum distillation is used for compounds that have high boiling points.
The vacuum is provided either by a water aspirator (A device for removing liquids or gases by suction) or by a
mechanical pump.Vacuum distillation works on the principle that a liquid boils when its vapor pressure is
equal to the atmospheric pressure or external pressure. From this it is clear that the liquids.Which are
decomposed at their boiling point under atmospheric pressure can be distilled at a much lower temperature
than its boiling point if the pressure is reduced on the surface of the liquids.Applications of vacuum
distillation:For distillation of thermo labile substances.For concentration and drying of extracts which get
destroyed at high temperature.5. Destructive distillationDestructive distillation is the term used to describe
the decomposition of a substance, usually a natural product, by heat followed by the condensation and
collection of the volatile products of decomposition. It is not a pharmaceutical process but is used in the
manufacture of some substances used in medicines.

Question : What do you know about efflorescence?

Efflorescence:Spontaneous ( sudden) loss of water by a hydrated salt is called Efflorescence. OREfflorescence
is the loss of "water of crystallization" ( water that present inside crystals) from a hydrated salt too the
atmosphere on exposure to air.In hydrated form the water molecules attached to the compound. the
surrounded molecules also have vapours and definite vapour pressure due to water vapours present in
atmosphere. If the vapour pressure of the hydrated substance is greater than the surrounding atmosphere,
then the hydrated substance loss water molecules to become less hydrous and finally become less
anhydrous, this phenomenon is known as efflorescence.How to prevent efflorescence?Efflorescence can be
prevented by;Closing container immediately after useFilling the container completely so that no space is left
for air

Question : What is elutriation?

Elutriation:Elutriation is a process of separating particles, based on their size, shape and density, using a
stream of gas or liquid flowing in a direction usually opposite to the direction of sedimentation. It is used in
mineral processing for size classification. ORElutriation is a materials separation method in which smaller and
larger materials are separated by using the liquid or gas.Process:Chalk is produced from native CaCO3 by
elutriation. The CaCO3 is first levigated with water then large volume of water is added to the mixture and is
stirred briskly, after which different layers of liquid with different size of particles can be separated. Upper
layer is decanted containing fine particles while the lower layer remains and containing heavly and large
particles.Applications:Chalk is prepared from native CaCO3 by the process of elutriationCalamine may be
produced by this process from native zinc carbonateVaporization:Conversion of a substance from the liquid
phase into the gaseous (vapor) phase is called vaporization. ORVaporization is the process by which a liquid is
turned into a gas. (Direct conversion from solid to vapor is called sublimation). There are two types of
vaporization.1. Evaporation:Evaporation is a type of vaporization of a liquid that occurs only on the surface of
a liquid. During Evaporation, Liquids changes to gas on the surface of the liquid at below the boiling
temperature at a given pressure.Factors affecting rate of evaporation TemperatureSurface
AreaAgitationAtmospheric Vapor PressureType of Product requiredEconomic Factors2. Boiling:Boiling refers
to heating up a liquid until it releases vapor. Boiling, as opposed to evaporation, does not occur only at the
surface. During Boiling, the liquid changes to gas form above the boiling temperature and occurs below the
surface of the liquid.Applications of vaporization/Evaporation:One of the most important methods used in
manufacture of pharmaceuticals.Coating of Tablets Control of Moisture Content of PowdersDrying of wet
granules, to be used in compression of tablets.Used for preparation of different type of extracts.In the
manufacture of drugs containing antibiotics, hormones, enzymes etc.
Question : Write note on evaporators.
Evaporator:Evaporator is an instrument/device used for the process of evaporation. types of evaporators are
as follow.1. Small Scale EvaporatorsSmall quantity of liquids may be evaporated in porcelain or glass
dish.Direct heat by Bunsen burner or electric hot plate may be applied, but direct heat leads to decomposition
of the substances towards the end of the evaporationA fixed maximum temperature can easily be attained by
employing different types of baths as a source of indirect heatingWater bath is most is table when liquids are
to be heated up to 100oC. These are simple and cheapTo prevent decomposition, whole of the liquid should
not be evaporated to dryness; instead the last traces of the solvent from the concentrated liquid should be
removed under controlled temperature.In case of large quantities of liquids or solutions having costly
solvents, the evaporation should be carried out by distillation under reduced pressure.2. Large Scale
Methodsa) Evaporating PansOn large scale, liquid extracts containing water as a menstruum are evaporated
in large open pans called evaporating pans.They consist of hemispherical or shallow pans, made of copper,
stainless steel, aluminum, enameled iron or other metal and surrounded by a steam jacket.The hemispherical
shape is most suitable because it gives the best surface/volume ratio for heating and the largest area for
disengagement of vapours.The pans may be fixed, or have a mounting, permitting it to be tilted to remove the
product.Advantages They are simple, easy and cheap to construct.Easy to use, clean and maintain.Stirring of
the evaporating liquid can easily be done.DisadvantagesThe whole of the liquid is heated all the time which
may lead to decomposition of the componentsOn the evaporating surface a scum is rapidly formed which
decreases rate of evaporation.Solids may be deposited at the bottom, which makes stirring necessary.Cannot
be used for extracts containing organic solvents like alcohol etc.b) Evaporating StillsThese are similar to pans,
and consist of a vessel made of copper or stainless steel. At the lowest point of the pan, a tube fitted with a
tap is connected for the removal of the product form the pan. The pan is surround by a steam jacket They are
used in large scale pharmaceutical manufacturingAdvantagesSimple to construct and quite easy to clean and
maintainCan be used for evaporation of aqueous and other organic solventsDisadvantagesThe whole of the
liquid is heated all the time which may lead to decomposition/deterioration of the components heating
surface is limited

Question : What is exsiccation?

ExsiccationsThe process of removing water crystallization form hydrated crystalline salt by heat and making
them anhydrous is called exsiccation. the material or substance is known as exiccated material or
substance.Process:In the laboratory, exsiccation can be carried out by taking a weighted amount of the
substance in a tarred dish which is heated on ware bath, sand bath or oven with continuous stirring until a
constant weight is obtained or until the calculated loss in weight has taken place. The exsiccated salts are very
hygroscopic and must be stored in well closed container.Examples:Copper sulphate (CuSO4.5H2O): when this
compound is heated at 30oC losses two molecules of water of crystallization forming CuSO4.3H2Oe at 100oC
it losses more ware molecules and forming CuSO4.H2O and at 200oC the last water molecules is removed
forming CuSO4 and making the substance anhydrous.Applications:To increase the shelf life of a drugTo
prevent microbial contaminationTo reduce the bulk and weight of certain drugs so that can be administered
easilyto obtained fine powders of substance
Question : Write note on fusion.
Fusion:It is the process by which the solids get converted into liquids without the addition of any solvent. In
other words it is defined as the process of heating the solids until they melt.In a pure crystalline solid, this
process occurs at a fixed temperature called the melting pointAn impure solid generally melts over a range of
temperatures below the melting point of the principal component.Amorphous (non-crystalline) substances
such as glass melt by gradually decreasing in viscosity as temperature is raised, with no sharp transition from
solid to liquid.The structure of a liquid is always less ordered than that of the crystalline solid and, therefore,
the liquid commonly occupies a larger volumeThermal fusion of a given mass of a solid requires the addition
of a characteristic amount of heat, the heat of fusion In the reverse process, the freezing of the liquid to form
the solid, the same quantity of heat must be removed.The heat of fusion of ice, the heat required to melt one
gram, is about 80 calories; this amount of heat would raise the temperature of a gram of liquid water from the
freezing point ( 0o,C or 32o F) to 80oC (176o F).Applications of fusion in pharmacy:Fusion is done to purify
certain solid and semisolid substances e.g, substances like Bees wax, hard paraffin, soft paraffin and wool fat
are heated to melt and filtered while hot to remove the dissolved impurities. Then cooling is done to obtain a
product fee from dissolved impurities.This method is also applied for the preparation of ointments when they
contain solids and semisolids in the formulation. All the substances are fist molted and then cooled slowly
with constant stirring until a uniform product is obtained. To avoid overheating, the substances with higher
melting points are melted first to which substances with lower melting points are added.

Question : Write note on ignition.

Ignition:Ignition is a process used in pharmacy in which the chemical substances are strongly heated until its
carboneous part burn and its inorganic residues left in the form of ash. ORIt is the process by which an
organic substance is strongly heated until whole of the corbonaceous matter burns and an inorganic residue
known as Ash is left behind. It is also called as incinerationThis is a process of heating the organic substances
in excess of air, until all the Carbon atoms have burnt as CO2 and residue of inorganic matter (Ash) is left
behind. The residue is called as Ash and the process as Ashing. On laboratory scale ignition is carried out in
silica or platinumcrucibles.Ignition consists of strongly heating ("igniting") a sample of the material at a
specified temperature, allowing volatile substances to escape, until its mass ceases to change. This may be
done in air, or in some other reactive or inert atmosphere.Process:The simple test typically consists of placing
a few grams of the material in a tarred, preignited crucible and determining its mass, placing it in a
temperature-controlled furnace for a set time, cooling it in a controlled ( e.g. water-free, CO2 free)
atmosphere, and predetermining the mass.Application of ignition in pharmacy:Ignition process is used as a
standardization test to evaluate the quality and purity of organic compoundsUsed to determine impurities of
organic salts of alkali metals such as tartarates, citrates, Benzoates and many drugs.Purity of a drug is
determined by its ash contentIgnition is also used as sterilization processIt can be used to separate inorganic
substances
Question : What is levigation?
Levigation:Levigation is the process of grinding or mixing an insoluble substance to a fine powder while wet.
OR The process of levigation is also known as wet grinding and is used to reduce the particle size of a
substance to finer state of subdivision. This process if often used to incorporate solid substances into
dermatological and ophthalmic ointments and suspensions. It is used in dispensing pharmacy to mix up the
medicaments with the fat or water soluble base.Process:Levigation is commonly used in small scale
preparation of ointments to reduce the particle size and grittiness of the added powders.A mortar and pestle
or an ointment title is used for this purpose.A paste is formed by combining the powder and a small amount
of liquid (the levigating agent) in which the powder is insoluble The paste is then triturated in the mortar by
the pestle or on the ointment tile by a spatula to reduce the particle size.The levigated paste is then added to
the ointment base and the mixture is made uniform and smooth by rubbing it together with a spatula on the
ointment tile.The most common levgating agents are mineral oil, water, alcohol and glycerin.Application of
levigation in pharmacy:It is the leading method that is used in dispensing pharmacy to mix up the
medicaments with the fat or water soluble base.Levigation process can be used in the formulation of
ointments, creams, paste and gels. Levigation can also be used to form granules of different mixture of API.

Question : Write short note on Lyophilization (freeze-drying).

Lyophilization (freeze-drying):Lyophilization is also called freeze drying. It a process which extracts the water
from foods and other products so that the foods or products remain stable and are easier to store at room
temperature. Freeze drying is a low temperature dehydration process that involves freezing the product,
lowering pressure, then removing the ice by sublimation. The process of lyophilization of a product consists
of;Freezing the product so that the water in the food becomes iceUnder a vacuum, sublmating the ice directly
into water vaporsDrawing off the water vaporsOnce the ice is sublimated, the products are freeze-
driedApplication of lyophilization (freeze-drying) in pharmacy:Pharmaceutical companies often use freeze-
drying to increase the shelf life of the products, such as vaccines and other injectables. By removing the water
from the material and sealing the material in a vial, the material can be easily preserved, stored and shipped.

Question : Write short note on sublimation.

Sublimation:The process of changing from a solid to a gas without passing through an intermediate liquid
phase is called sublimation. Sublimation is a technique used by chemists to purify compounds. Dry ice is solid
carbon dioxide. At room temperature and pressure, it sublimates into carbon dioxide vapor. Sublimation is
used to create freeze-dried substances.Process:Sublimation may be carried out on laboratory scale by using
the apparatus including china dish, perforated filter paper, funnel and a plug of cotton wool. The material to
be sublimed is put in the china dis which is covered with a perforated filter paper. A glass funnel is placed in
the inverted position over the filter paper. The china dis is heated over sand bath and vapours passed through
the perforation of the filter paper which are collected on the inner surface of the glass funnel which is kept
cool from outside bay wapping a wet filter paper or cotton wool. The vapour on cooling are converted into
solid which is collected afterwards.Application:Used in the purification of many pharmaceuticals substance
like iodine, sublimed sulphur and camphorUsed in the manufacture of iodine, ammonium chloride and
nphthalene

Question : What do you know about trituration?

Trituration:It is process of comminution or milling which we use pestle and mortar to reduce the particle size
of given substances. (Comminution is the reduction of solid materials by crushing, grinding, and other
processes). BY trituration the grinding of a sold substance is done to fine powder by continuous striking or
rubbing the particles in a mortar with a pestle.In titration motor and pestle is used for size reduction of
different organic and inorganic substances. Titration is the production of homogenous materials through
mixing. It is a dry process and is different from levigation. It is the continuous rubbing or grinding of powder in
a mortar with a pestle.Applications of triturationTrituration is used to reduce the size of different
substancesTrituration is used for the mixing of different pharmaceutical components Trituration is used in the
formation of creams, lotion and ointmentsTrituration used in the dispensing of different drugs in pharmacy

Question : 1- Define weight and measures.

Weight It is a measure of the gravitational force acting on a body and is directly proportional to its mass. Or
The weight of an object is usually taken to be the force on the object due to gravity.Measures: Finding out the
size, amount, or degree of (something) by using an instrument or device marked in standard units is called
measures. Or A standard unit used to express the size, amount, or degree of something.

Question : Write a note on system of measurement.

A system of measurement is a set of units of measurement which can be used to specify anything which can
be measured There are two Systems of weights and measures 1. The Imperial System2. The Metric
SystemThe Imperial SystemA system of weights and measures originally developed in England.2: Metric
SystemThe most commonly used system of weights and measures in pharmacy is the metric system.

Question : Describe measurement of temperature.

Centigrade or Celsius temperature scale Celsius temperature scale also called centigrade temperature scale, is
the scale based on 0 for the freezing point of water and 100 for the boiling point of water.

Question : Discuss percentage preparations.

There are three types of percentage preparation 1. Weight in volume (W/V) 2. Weight in weight (W/W)
3. Volume in volume

Question : Calculate the density of liquid having mass of 45kg and

volume 9 m3
Solution:Density = Mass / VolumeDensity = 45 / 9Density = 5 kg/m3

Question : Calculate the mass of a liquid having a density of

55kg/m3 and volume of 75m3
Solution:Mass = Density * VolumePutting the values of density and volumeMass = 55 * 75Mass = 4125 Kg

Question : Calculate the Volume of a liquid having a mass of 10kg

and density of 2 kg/ m3
Solution:Volume = Weight / DensityVolume = 10 / 2Volume = 5 m3

Question : Calculate the percentage of a 50 ml solution containing

five parts of Ciprofloxacin.
Solution:Percentage = number of parts/ 100Percentage = 5/100Percentage = 0.05

Question : Classify drugs on the basis of sale.

On the basis of sale drugs can be classifies as 1. Over The Counter Drugs OTC is the group of drug that
does not required any prescription for their dispensing. This include: Multivitamin NSAIDS (non-steroidal anti-
inflammatory drugs) Aspirin, Paracetamol. Laxatives Oral contraceptivesPrescription Drugs These drugs can
only be dispensed on the physician`s prescription. Following drugs are included: Antibiotics Steroids
Benzodiazepines Barbiturates Hypoglycemic Agents Anti-hypertensive

Question : Name some OTC medicines.

OTC is the group of drug that does not required any prescription for their dispensing. This group contains the
following drugs: Multivitamin NSAIDS (non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs) Aspirin, Paracetamol. Laxatives
Oral contraceptives

Question : Name some prescription drugs.

These drugs can only be dispensed on the physician`s prescription. Following drugs are included: Antibiotics
Steroids Benzodiazepines Barbiturates Hypoglycemic Agents Anti-hypertensive

Question : Define drug.

The drug can be defined as "an agent intended for use in the diagnosis, mitigation, treatment, cure or
prevention of disease in humans or in other animals.Example: Paracetamol, Aspirin etc

Question : Name some drugs which are obtain from animal

sources.
Many animals are involved in the production of many important drugs i. Insulin ii. Sex hormones iv.
Thyroxin

Question : Define Natural Source Drugs ?

these are the drugs which are obtained from the living things like plant , Animals and from minerals and
Microorganisms .

Question : Define synthetic drugs.

Synthetic drugs are the group of drugs/ medicines that are totally synthesized in laboratory by using
chemicals or substances.Example : Paracetamol Aspirin Ciprofloxacin Sulphonamide group

Question : Define generic name and give examples.

These are the names of drugs that are given to them on scientific basis. This is the official name of the drug.
Example . Paracetamol Panadol Calpol Disprol 2. Diclofenic sodium Dicloran Voltral 3. Aspirin Dispirin Loprin

Question : What is the generic name? Give example

Generic names the names of drugs that are given to them on scientific basis. This is the official name of the
drug.Example: ParacetamolCiprofloxacinAspirin

Question : What is brand name? Give examples.

These are the names of medicines that are given on the basis of the proprietorship. These names are given to
identify the one product from the other. Example 1. Paracetamol Panadol , Calpol Diclofenic sodium Dicloran
Voltral 3. Aspirin Dispirin Loprin

Question : What is chemical name of a drug? Give examples?

These are the names which are given to the drugs on the basis of presence of different atoms or molecules
and their inter-relationship. This name reveals every part of the compounds molecular
structure.Examples: Acetylsalicylic Acid (Aspirin) Acetyl Para aminophenol (Paracetamol)

Question : What is the strength of a drug?

The strength is the amount of drug in the dosage form or a unit of the dosage form (e.g. 500 mg capsule, 250
mg/5 mL suspension).

Question : What are pharmacopoeias? And what type of

information they contain?
The books containing the standards for drugs and other related substances are known as pharmacopoeias
and formularies.They contain a list of drugs and other related substances regarding their source, tests,
formulas for preparation e.t.c

Question : Name official books in pharmacy?

British Pharmacopoeia (B.P) ? British pharmaceutical codex (BPC) ?

Question : Define official book.

The books that are written compile and publish under the strict supervision of Government agency of
respective countries is known as official book.

Question : What are pharmacopeias or formularies?

Pharmacopeias and Formularies:The books containing the standards for drugs and other related substances
are known as pharmacopoeias or formularies. The word pharmacopoeia is derived from a Greek word
pharmakon which means drugs and poiea which means make. Literally pharmacopoeia means list of
medicinal substances, crude drugs, and formula for making preparation of drugs. These books are collectively
called compendia. They contain a list of drugs and other related substances regarding their sources, tests,
formulas for preparation, uses, doses and storage condition. These books are prepared under the under the
supervision of government and are revised from time to time for addition of latest information. Difference
between pharmacopoeia and formulary Pharmacopoeia:Pharmacopoeia is an official publication describing
medicines or other pharmacological substances, especially their use, preparation and
regulation.Formulary:Formulary is a pharmacopoeia or list of available medicines or drugs (particularly
prescription drugs) containing collection of formulas for their compounding and testing.

Question : What are the official and non-official books of pharmacy?

Official Books:The books which are complied and published under the strict supervision of Government
agency of a country is known as official books. These books are recognized as standards of purity, purity and
strength. These books include British pharmacopoeia, British pharmaceutical codex united state
pharmacopoeia, international pharmacopoeia national formulary and pharmacopoeia of the countries.1.
British Pharmacopoeia (BP):British Pharmacopoeia is the most abundantly used pharmacopoeia in the world
today. BP was written, complied and published under the supervision of a government agency of Untied
Kingdom. BP is the source of official standards for drugs in the Untied Kingdom. Since the medical Act 1858,
the General medical Council has the responsibility of publishing BP. BP contains information
about;Monograph of drugsQuality control and quality assurance of pharmaceutical productsIdentification and
analytical tests of drugsQuality control test of dosage forms.2. British Pharmaceutical Codex:The
British pharmaceutical codex was published in 1907 by pharmaceutical society of Great Britain as a reference
book for medical practitioners and dispensing pharmacist. This book contains information
about;Pharmacological actions of drugsManufacturing and formulation techniques of drugs Dispensing
techniques of drugs3. British National Formulary (BNF):It is the national formulary of medicines that are being
used in United Kingdom. BNF I is compile and published under the co-supervision of GMC (general medical
council) and royal pharmaceutical society of great Britain. This book contains information about;Handling of
prescriptionPrescription policyStandards of drugs, surgical dressings and pharmaceutical preparation not
included in British Pharmacopoeia.Clinical and pharmacological aspects of drugs4. United State
Pharmacopoeia (USP):It is one of the leading and important pharmacopoeias of the world. USP was written,
compiled and published in 1820 under the supervision of a government agency of United States (United
States Pharmacopoeial Convention). USP is used as a reference book for determination the strength, quality,
quantity, purity, packaging and labeling of drug.5. United States National Formulary:The fist National
Formulary of united states was published in 1888 under the supervision of American Pharmaceutical
Association But in 1974 the United States Pharmacopoeial Conversation purchased the National formular and
from 1980 on wards only one official book named The United States Pharmacopoeia and The National
Formulary (USP-NF) was published.6. International Pharmacopoeia (IP):International pharmacopoeia is the
official book that has been written, published and compiled by the WHO (World Health Organization). The
World Health Organization (WHO) is a specialized agency of the United Nations (UN) that is concerned with
international public health. International Pharmacopoeia mainly contains the following
informationPharmaceutical technological techniques for the development of drugsDrug formulation and
manufacturing processesControlling the quality of medicinesNon Official Book:The books which are written,
compiled and published locally and there is no role of any Government Agency in there publication known as
non-official books. These books are used as secondary reference sources for drugs. These books include
Remington Pharmaceutical sciences, applied and clinical pharmacology (Katzung), Tutorial pharmacy, Aulton
pharmaceutical sciences etc.

Question : Name some non-official books in pharmacy?

Remington Pharmaceutical sciences ? Merck Index ? Applied and Clinical pharmacology by Katzung ?

Question : Name and explain some non-official books in pharmacy.

Remington Pharmaceutical Science This book contain a detail knowledge regarding all the aspects of
pharmacy .It is available in two volumes Applied and Clinical Pharmacology by Katzung This book contains a
detail knowledge regarding drug and their actions on humans.Tutorial Pharmacy This book contains a detail
knowledge regarding the physical pharmacy

Question : Define non-official books.

These are the books which are written compile and published locally. Which are used as secondary reference
sources for drugs and other related substances.

Question : Name some non-official books in pharmacy?

Remington Pharmaceutical sciences ? Merck Index ? Applied and Clinical pharmacology by Katzung ?

Question : Name and explain some non-official books in pharmacy.

Remington Pharmaceutical Science This book contain a detail knowledge regarding all the aspects of
pharmacy .It is available in two volumes Applied and Clinical Pharmacology by Katzung This book contains a
detail knowledge regarding drug and their actions on humans.Tutorial Pharmacy This book contains a detail
knowledge regarding the physical pharmacy

Question : Define non-official books.

These are the books which are written compile and published locally. Which are used as secondary reference
sources for drugs and other related substances.

Question : What type of information is given in BP?

This book contains following informationi. Complete monograph of drugs. ii. Quality control and quality
assurance of pharmaceutical production sections of pharmaceutical industries. iii. Quality control test of
dosage forms

Question : Write a note on BPC.

This book contain the knowledge and articles on the following issue of pharmaceutical sciences i. Regarding
the dispensing method of medicines specific to their nature ii.The techniques of dispending e.g. unit dose
dispensing.

Question : What do you know about British Pharmacopoeia (BP).

British Pharmacopoeia is the most abundantly used pharmacopoeia in the world, today it is mostly used
because of their up to date monograph regarding the drug. .The fundamental responsibility of B.P is on the
General Medical Council which was given to it in 1858.

Question : Write a note on USP.

This is an official book of pharmacy. It is one of the leading and important pharmacopoeias of the world.
Firstly written, compiled and published under the supervision of a government agency of United States,
named United State pharmacopoeia.

Question : Briefly describe BNF?

It is the national formulary of medicines that are being use in United Kingdom. It is written compiled and
published under the co supervision of GMC (General Medical Council) and Royal Pharmaceutical society of
Great Britain.

Question : What is UNF?

In 1888 the first National Formulary of United States was published under the supervision of American
Pharmaceutical Association. But in 1974 the right of UNF was given to united state Pharmaceutical Convention
so from 1980 the UNF is published.

Question : What type of information is given in IP?

Mainly IP contain following information i. Pharmaceutical technological techniques for the development of
drugs ii. Drug formulation and manufacturing processes iii. Controlling the quality of medicines
Question : Write a note on contributions of AL KINDI.
His notable work include:Al Kindi was a first person who uses music for the treatment of Psychological
problems.He describes the isolation process of alcohol to form pure wine. He describes how to make
perfumes. He describes in detail regarding cosmetics formulation In his book "Treaties of disease caused by
phlegm "he describes the epilepsy

Question : What is role of Al-Kindi (801-873 A.D):

He was a great Muslim philosopher; scientist, physician and psychologist. He played a significant role in the
development of pharmaceutical chemistry, medicine and cosmetics. He describes the isolation (Separation)
process of alcohol to form pure wine. He describes in detail regarding cosmetics formulation and perfumes.
He also used music for the treatment of physiological problems.

Question : Describe about the work of IBN AL NAFIS.

He was first person who describe the pulmonary circulation. He describe regarding capillary and
coronary circulation.He describes in detail the anatomy and physiology of respiratory system, genitourinary
system and GIT.

Question : What is role of Ibn-Al-Nafis ( 1213-1288 A.D):

Abdul Malik Ibn Zuhr also known as Avenzoar, was the great Muslim scholar, physician, pharmacist and
surgeon of his time. He was born in Seville spain 1091 in some books 1094. He done remarkable work and
contribution to subject psychopharmacology. Ibn-Zuhar was the first person who described the use of inhaled
anesthetics so he was considered being the pioneer of modern anesthesiology. He wrote Kitab al-Aghziya
describing various types of foods and drugs and their effects on a person's health. He developed drug therapy
and medicinal drugs for the treatment of specific diseases. He was the first physician to describe the cause of
scabies. He described procedure for surgery and was known as father of experimental surgery. He wrote
pharmacopoeia which was later published in 1491.

Question : Write down the contributions of IBN ZUHAR.

His scientific work include: He was the first person who describe experimental surgery so he was
consider to be the father of experimental surgery. He firstly describe the procedure for dissection and
autopsy. Ibn-Zuhar was that first person who describe the use of inhaled anesthetics So, he was consider to
be the pioneer of modern anesthesiology He done remarkable work and contribution to subject neuro-
phamacology (Clinical , Neuro, Cardio ,Cancer, Reproduction ,Medical ,Toxicology) Ibn-Zuhar wrote an early
pharmacopoeia which was printed out in 1491.

Question : Write famous scientif works of ABU ALI SINA.

His most famous scientific work include ? He firstly describe the procedure of diagnosis He was the person
who describe the different psychiatric diseases e.g Depression, Mania, Insomnia, Dementia etc. in detail He
was the first person who describes the paralysis in detail. He describes the risk factors of clinical trails He was
the person who firstly describe steam distillation

Question : What is role of Abu Ali Sina ( 980-1037 A.D):

Abu Ali Sina was a great physician, chemist and astronomer of his time. He was born at afshana near Bukhara
in 980 A.D. He wrote the famous book "Al-Qanun fi al-Tibb" known as "The cannon of medicine". This book
was used a text book of medicine for many years and is immense encyclopedia of medicine extending over
million words. He was the first person who described paralysis, different psychiatric diseases and steam
distillation.

Question : Briefly describe about AL BIRUNI.

Al-Biruni was a great pharmacist, physician and Geologist. He was born in Khwarizm. He works in the
development and progress of pharmacy field. He wrote a book Al-Saddana fil tibb which has description of
more than 720 herbal drugs and these are arranged alphabetically He has wrote many other treaties on
herbal medicine He also describe about the active constituents of drugs

Question : What is role of Al-Biruni ( 973-1050):

Al-Biruni was a great pharmacist, physician and Geologist. He wrote one of the most valuable book of
medicine entitled Kitab al-Saydalah fee al-Tibb containing description of about 720 herbal drugs. He described
the active ingredients of drugs. He promoted the academic training of pharmacy students together with day
to day practical experience with drugs.

Question : What is surface tension? What is the unit of surface

tension?
Surface tension is defined as the force acting over the surface of the liquid per unit length of the surface.
Force per unit area (F/A) on surface of liquid. Its unit is newton per meter (N/m2)

Question : Write down factors affecting surface tension?

Factors affecting Surface Tension Intermolecular forces Surface tension increases with the increase in
intermolecular forces and decreases with the decrease in intermolecular forces. Hydrogen bonding: Surface
tension increases with the increase in hydrogen bonding and decreases with decrease in hydrogen
bonding.Temperature: Surface tension decrease with an increase in temperature and increases with a
decrease in temperature.

Question : Write down applications of surface tension.

Emulsifying agents reduce the surface tension of oil and water phase which results in stabilization of
emulsion. ? Bile salts reduce the surface tension of fats in duodenum

Question : Define viscometers? Name different types of

viscometers.
These are the specialized equipment and apparatus used for the determination of viscosity of different
liquids. There are various types of viscometers the most famous are: 1) Ostwald viscometer2) Rational
viscometer3) Falling ball viscometer

Question : What is viscosity?

Viscosity can be described as "the internal resistance of the molecules of any liquid to flow ". Viscosity is the
fundamental tool to check the internal friction of any liquid, like water is thin so it has lower viscosity and
honey is thick so, it has high viscosity.

Question : Write down various factors affecting viscosity.

Temperature Viscosity decreases with the increases in temperature Size of the molecule Viscosity increases
with the increases in size of the molecule Molecular shape More irregular shape of molecule increase the
viscosity of solution.

Question : Give applications of viscosity.

Application of Viscosity measurement 1) Viscosity determination is the fundamental quality control test for
syrups, suspension thickness and consistency. 2) Viscosity give an indication regarding quality and purity of
liquid raw material.3) Viscosity tells us about the thickness of liquid substances.4) Viscosity is a key quality
control test for oil base injections and suspensions.5) Viscosity enhancers increase the viscosity of a liquid
preparation due to which its contact time increase and the effect of drug is prolonged.
Question : What is the effect of adhesive forces on viscosity
If the adhesive forces between the molecules of liquid are stonger it will result in a more viscous liquid. When
these adhesive forces decrease between the molecules of liquid it will give a less viscous liquid.

Question : What is the effect of molecular shape on viscosity?

If the molecular shape of liquid molecule is irregular than it will result in a more viscous liquid.

Question : How viscosity of a liquid is affected by Cohesive forces?

If the cohesive forces are stronger among the liquid molecules than it will result in a liquid with less viscosity.

Question : What is the effect of viscosity in ophthalmic liquid dosage

forms?
When the viscosity of ophthalmic liquid dosage form is increased, this will result in an increased contact time
with the eye thus prolong the desired effect.

Question : Define surface tension. Why we study surface tension in

pharmaceutics?
Surface tension:Surface tension is a contractile tendency of the surface of a liquid that allows it to resist an
external force. The cohesive forces among liquid molecules are responsible for the phenomenon of surface
tension. (OR) The force acting over the surface of a liquid per unit length of the surface is called surface
tension. Its unit is newton per meter (N/m2).Cohesive force is the force of attraction between the molecules of
the same substance.Adhesive force is the force of attraction between molecules of different substance. i. e. a
liquid and a solid surface are called adhesive forces.Explanation: The surface molecules of a liquid are
attracted only sideways and towards the interior, therefore these surface molecules are compressed together
more tightly as compared to the molecules below the surface and forming a sort of thick skin on the surface.
Liquid surface is therefore under tension and surface area of the surface molecules is reduced. The drop of
liquid adopts round shape when falling in air because all the surface molecules are being pulled towards the
center.Factors affecting surface tension:Presence of impuritiesInter molecular forcesHydrogen
bonding TemperatureNeed of surface tension in pharmaceutics:Chemical activity, adsorption, dissolution, and
bio availability of a drug may depend on the surface of the molecule. In order to meet manufacturing
challenges and develop new and better performing products with improved qualities, knowledge of surface
tension is very much important. Surface tension studies are important in preparation of emulsion and
stabilization of other insoluble substance.

Question : What is viscosity? Enlist the applications of viscosity in

pharmacy.
Viscosity: Viscosity is the resistance to flow of liquid. OR Viscosity is the internal friction of a moving fluid. OR
Viscosity is the resistance of a liquid when it tries to flow.The internal friction of any liquid can be determined
by measuring its viscosity. The higher viscosity indicates increase resistance to flow and vice versa. Water is
thinner and has lower viscosity while honey is thicker and has higher viscosity. Therefore hone has more
resistance to flow.Viscometer:Viscometer is an apparatus or instrument which is used to determine or
measure the viscosity of a substance (liquid). There are number of viscometer used for determination of
viscosity, some of them are as follow;Ostwald Viscometer Rotational viscometerFalling ball viscometerFactors
affecting viscosity:TemperatureAdhesive forcesCohesive forcesSize of moleculeShape of moleculeApplications
of viscosity in pharmacy:Viscosity enhancers (e.g. Methylcellulose, Hydroxy--ethyl-cellulose) are used in
ophthalmic solutions to increase their viscosity, enables the formulation to remain in the eye for longer
time.Viscosity tell us the thickness of liquid dosage formsViscosity determination is a quality control test for
syrups, suspension and other liquid dosage formsUseful in formulations of ointments, syrups, suspensions
and lotions.

Question : What is surface tension? What is the unit of surface

tension?
Surface tension is defined as the force acting over the surface of the liquid per unit length of the surface.
Force per unit area (F/A) on surface of liquid. Its unit is newton per meter (N/m2)

Question : Write down factors affecting surface tension?

Factors affecting Surface Tension Intermolecular forces Surface tension increases with the increase in
intermolecular forces and decreases with the decrease in intermolecular forces. Hydrogen bonding: Surface
tension increases with the increase in hydrogen bonding and decreases with decrease in hydrogen
bonding.Temperature: Surface tension decrease with an increase in temperature and increases with a
decrease in temperature.

Question : Write down applications of surface tension.

Emulsifying agents reduce the surface tension of oil and water phase which results in stabilization of
emulsion. ? Bile salts reduce the surface tension of fats in duodenum
Question : Define viscometers? Name different types of
viscometers.
These are the specialized equipment and apparatus used for the determination of viscosity of different
liquids. There are various types of viscometers the most famous are: 1) Ostwald viscometer2) Rational
viscometer3) Falling ball viscometer

Question : What is viscosity?

Viscosity can be described as "the internal resistance of the molecules of any liquid to flow ". Viscosity is the
fundamental tool to check the internal friction of any liquid, like water is thin so it has lower viscosity and
honey is thick so, it has high viscosity.

Question : Write down various factors affecting viscosity.

Temperature Viscosity decreases with the increases in temperature Size of the molecule Viscosity increases
with the increases in size of the molecule Molecular shape More irregular shape of molecule increase the
viscosity of solution.

Question : Give applications of viscosity.

Application of Viscosity measurement 1) Viscosity determination is the fundamental quality control test for
syrups, suspension thickness and consistency. 2) Viscosity give an indication regarding quality and purity of
liquid raw material.3) Viscosity tells us about the thickness of liquid substances.4) Viscosity is a key quality
control test for oil base injections and suspensions.5) Viscosity enhancers increase the viscosity of a liquid
preparation due to which its contact time increase and the effect of drug is prolonged.

Question : What is the effect of adhesive forces on viscosity

If the adhesive forces between the molecules of liquid are stonger it will result in a more viscous liquid. When
these adhesive forces decrease between the molecules of liquid it will give a less viscous liquid.

Question : What is the effect of molecular shape on viscosity?

If the molecular shape of liquid molecule is irregular than it will result in a more viscous liquid.

Question : How viscosity of a liquid is affected by Cohesive forces?

If the cohesive forces are stronger among the liquid molecules than it will result in a liquid with less viscosity.

Question : What is the effect of viscosity in ophthalmic liquid dosage

forms?
When the viscosity of ophthalmic liquid dosage form is increased, this will result in an increased contact time
with the eye thus prolong the desired effect.

Question : Define surface tension. Why we study surface tension in

pharmaceutics?
Surface tension:Surface tension is a contractile tendency of the surface of a liquid that allows it to resist an
external force. The cohesive forces among liquid molecules are responsible for the phenomenon of surface
tension. (OR) The force acting over the surface of a liquid per unit length of the surface is called surface
tension. Its unit is newton per meter (N/m2).Cohesive force is the force of attraction between the molecules of
the same substance.Adhesive force is the force of attraction between molecules of different substance. i. e. a
liquid and a solid surface are called adhesive forces.Explanation: The surface molecules of a liquid are
attracted only sideways and towards the interior, therefore these surface molecules are compressed together
more tightly as compared to the molecules below the surface and forming a sort of thick skin on the surface.
Liquid surface is therefore under tension and surface area of the surface molecules is reduced. The drop of
liquid adopts round shape when falling in air because all the surface molecules are being pulled towards the
center.Factors affecting surface tension:Presence of impuritiesInter molecular forcesHydrogen
bonding TemperatureNeed of surface tension in pharmaceutics:Chemical activity, adsorption, dissolution, and
bio availability of a drug may depend on the surface of the molecule. In order to meet manufacturing
challenges and develop new and better performing products with improved qualities, knowledge of surface
tension is very much important. Surface tension studies are important in preparation of emulsion and
stabilization of other insoluble substance.

Question : What is viscosity? Enlist the applications of viscosity in

pharmacy.
Viscosity: Viscosity is the resistance to flow of liquid. OR Viscosity is the internal friction of a moving fluid. OR
Viscosity is the resistance of a liquid when it tries to flow.The internal friction of any liquid can be determined
by measuring its viscosity. The higher viscosity indicates increase resistance to flow and vice versa. Water is
thinner and has lower viscosity while honey is thicker and has higher viscosity. Therefore hone has more
resistance to flow.Viscometer:Viscometer is an apparatus or instrument which is used to determine or
measure the viscosity of a substance (liquid). There are number of viscometer used for determination of
viscosity, some of them are as follow;Ostwald Viscometer Rotational viscometerFalling ball viscometerFactors
affecting viscosity:TemperatureAdhesive forcesCohesive forcesSize of moleculeShape of moleculeApplications
of viscosity in pharmacy:Viscosity enhancers (e.g. Methylcellulose, Hydroxy--ethyl-cellulose) are used in
ophthalmic solutions to increase their viscosity, enables the formulation to remain in the eye for longer
time.Viscosity tell us the thickness of liquid dosage formsViscosity determination is a quality control test for
syrups, suspension and other liquid dosage formsUseful in formulations of ointments, syrups, suspensions
and lotions.

Question : Define atom. And differentiate between protons,

neutrons and electrons.
?ATOM? is derived from Greek word means ?undividable?. it is the smallest particle of an element which
cannot be further divided.It consist of central nucleus containing protons and neutrons and outer shells in
which electrons are revolving.

Question : Define ion and differentiate between cation and anion.

ION Any charged particle is called ion. It may be positive(+) or may be (-). Cation(+) When a atom loses an
electron from the outer most shell, cation (positively charge atom) is produced. Anion(-)<

Question : Briefly explain the ionization experiment by J.J Thomson.

Ionization experiment In 1897,J.J. Thomson conducted the famous discharge tube experiment, by passing
electricity at high voltage a gas at very low pressure. The pressure of air in the discharge tube is reduced to
0.001mm

Question : What is ionization and its applications in pharmacy?

Ionization:Ionization is the process by which an atom or a molecule acquires (obtain) a negative or positive
charge by gaining or losing electrons. OR The formation of ions is known as ionization. Explanation:Atom is
the smallest particle of an element. It consists of central nucleus and outer shells. The nucleus containing
neutron and proton while electron revolving in the outer shells. Neutrons have no charge, proton carry
positive charge and electron carry negative charge. When electron gain energy it moves to higher shell further
away from the nucleus when it loss energy it come back to its original shell.Ion is a charge particle which may
be positive or negative and the process of ion formation is called ionization. Ion is formed when an atom or
molecule losses electron or gain electron. Types of ion are as followCation (+): Positive charge atom is called
cation. Cation is formed when an atom losses electron.Anion (-): Negative charge atom is called anion. Anion is
formed when an atom again electron.Applications of ionization in pharmacy:The degree of ionization of a
drug has an important effect on its absorption, distribution and elimination.Ionization is an important factor
which is considered during the manufacturing process of medicines.Ionization radiations are used in
medicines and medical radiography for making inside images of a bodyIonization radiations are used to
induce mutation to produce new or improved species Ionization radiations are used in sterilization of
equipment used in surgery

Question : What is pH meter?

pH Meter it is an electronic instrument used for measuring the pH of a liquid or semi-solid. A typical pH meter
consists of a glass electrode connected to an electronic meter that measures and displays the pH reading.

Question : Write down applications of pH?

Applications pH measurements are important in medicine, biology, food science and many other
applications. ?

Question : How can you define Redox Indicators?

Redox indicators are the compounds that change their color during oxidation reduction reaction.Example:
KMnO4

Question : What is PH, PH indicators and buffer solicitous and their

applications in pharmacy?
PH:PH is unit of measure which describes the degree of acidity or alkalinity of a solution. It is measured on a
scale of 0 to 14. Solutions with a H less than 7 are said to be acidic and solution with a pH grater than 7 are
basic or alkaline. Pure water has a pH very close to 7 and blood has a pH 7.35.Applications:To determine and
maintain suitable pH for a drug during manufacturing.Enzyme works at specific pH so their preparation must
be maintained at that pH Different dosage forms e.g. eye drops, nasal drops, ear drops, oral solutions;
injectable should be of appropriate pH.PH indicators:A pH indicator is chemical compound that is added in
small amounts to a solution so that the pH (acidity or alkalinity) of the solution can be determined easily.
OrPH indicators are organic substance which have the tendency to change their colour with change of pH of
the solution in which they are present.ApplicationsTo determine the pH of different samplesTo verify the
presence of any chemical substanceTo determine the type of compoundTypes of pH indicators:Acid base
indicator: Change their colour as we change the pH of solution. E.g: Methyl orange, phenolphathaleinRedox
indicator: Change their colour during oxidation and reduction reaction. E.g: KMnO4Precipitation indicators:
Change their colour during precipitation reaction. E.g: potassium chromium oxide.Buffer solution:The solution
which maintains a constant PH of a sample ( solution) even small amount of acids or alkali is added to it. OR
Buffer is the compound or mixture of compounds that resist to changing pH of any solution on slight addition
of acidic or basics solution or compound. A buffer solution is usually a weak acid with its salt with strong base
or with a weak base with its salt with strong acid.Types of buffer solution:The buffer solution can be grouped
into two types on the basis of constituents of buffer solutions.1. Acidic buffer: Those buffer solutions which
are prepared by mixing a weak acid with its salt with strong base. E. g; CH3COOH/CH3COONa2. Basic buffer:
Those buffer solution wich are formed by mixing a weak base with its salt strong acid. E.g;
NH4OH/NH4CIApplicationsTo preserve the PH of biological compounds and fluids.To maintain their PH of
pharmaceutical preparationsBuffers are used in fermentation process.Used to maintain the PH of drugs and
enzymes

Question : Write a note on determination of pH. Also describe

various pH indicators.
Determination of pH pH of a solution is measured by following methods: 1. By using pH paper 2. By using
pH meter 3. By using indicatorsIndicators are further classified asa) Acid base indicatorsb) Redox
indicatorsc) Precipitation indicators

Question : What is buffer? Give examples.

Buffer is the compound or mixture of compounds that resist to changing pH of any solution on slight addition
of acidic or basics solution or compound.ExamplesHCl ?Sodium Citrate Sodium hydroxide and boraxCitric acid
/Sodium citrate<

Question : Write down applications of Buffer.

i. Buffers are most widely used in biological industry to preserve the pH of biological compounds and fluids
ii. In injection manufacturing buffer are used to maintain their pH. iii. Buffer are used in fermentation
process.iv) Buffer are used to preserve and restore the action of enzymes.v) Buffer are used to maintain pH of
drugs.

Question : Define Acid and Base

Acid is the negative log of Hydrogen ion (H+) concentration. Example HCl (Hydrochloric acid).Base is the
negative log of Hydroxyl ion (OH-) concentration. Example NaOH (Sodium Hydroxide)
Question : How can you define Acid base indicators?
Acid base indicators are the indicators that change their colors as we change the pH of the solution.For
Example: Methyl Orange , Phenolphthalein

Question : How can you define Precipitation indicators?

Precipitaion indicators are the indicators that change their color during precipitation reaction.
Example: K2CrO4 ( Potassium Chromium oxide)

Question : Write a note on isotonicity.

If a solution is placed behind a membrane that is permeable only to solvent molecules and not to solute
molecules(semipermeable membrane) osmosis occurs as the molecules of solvent passes through the
membrane. If a solution filled membrane is placed in a solution of a higher solute concentration than its own
solvent can pass in any direction, passes into the more concentrated solution until equilibrium established on
both sides of the membrane.

Question : What are the applications of isotonic solutions?

Isotonic solutions are used in physiological experiments and tissue culture ? Isotonic solutions are used to
balance the electrolytes ? &nb

Question : Define osmotic pressure

The pressure which is responsible to prevent osmosis is called osmotic pressure.

Question : Define Isotonic solution.

A solution which has same tonicity as compared to our body fluid is called isotonic solution.

Question : Define hypotonic solution.

A solution which has less tonicity as compared to our body fluid is called hypotonic solution.
Question : Differentiate between hypotonic and hypertonic
solutions.
The solutions which have less ions and it have less osmotic pressure then its comparative
solution. OR Solu

Question : Define hypertonic solution.

A solution which has high tonicity as compared to our body fluid is called hyerotonic solution.

Question : Define solution. What is hypotonic and hypertonic

solution?
Solution:A homogenous mixture of two or more substances on molecular level is called solution. ORSolution
is a liquid preparation that contains one or more chemical substances dissolved in a suitable solvent or
mixture of mutually miscible solvents. Solution is generally composed of two components.i. Solute: The
component of solution which is present in small quantity and is in dissolved form is called solute.ii. Solvent:
The component of solution which is present in large amount and dissolve the solute is called
solvent.Hypotonic solution:The solution in which the concentration of ions and osmotic pressure is less than
its comparative solution is called hypotonic solution. OR The solutions with lower osmotic pressure than body
fluids or 0.9% NaCI solution are called hypotonic solutions. Injection of hypotonic solution into the body will
result in absorption of water (solvent) by the body tissue, casing the body calls to burs. E.g; hemolysis of
RBC.Hypertonic solution:The solution in which the concentration of ions and osmotic pressure is grater than
its comparative solution is called hyperatnic solution. OR The solutions with grater osmotic pressure than
body fluids or 0.9% NaCI solution are called hyyptonic solutions. Injection of hypertonic solution into the body
will result in withdrawal of water (solvent) form the body tissue, causing shrinkage of body cells.Isotonic
solutions:Solution having the same solute concentration to that of the normal cells of the body and the blood
is known as isotonic solution. Two solutions are isotonic when they contain the same amount of solutes, or
dissolved substances. Solution for injection, for application on mucous membrane and ophthalmic solution
must be made isotonic to prevent tissue damage and irritation. Examples of isotonic solutions are dextrose
5% in water, Ringer's solution, and normal solution (0.9% w/v sodium chloride solution).ApplicationIsotonic
solutions are used in physiological experiments and tissue culture Isotonic solutions are used to balance the
electrolytesIsotonic solutions are used to maintain the physiological conditions For medical purpose isotonic
solution (normal saline) is used to flush woundsNormal saline is also used I.V for patients who cannot take
fluids orallySaline is also used for nasal washes tho relive some of the symptoms of the symptoms of the
common cold

Question : What is drug delivery system?

It is the administration of drug or medicine to the living system for their desired action in
body(cure, management or prophylaxis of disease). Medicines are drug delivery systems, they are means of
administering drugs to

Question : What is drug delivery system?

Answer: It is the administration of drug or medicine to a living system for their desired action in the body. OR.
The administration mechanism of therapeutic agents into the living system ( Human or animal body) is called
drug delivery system.

Question : Classify parentrals on the basis of particle size.

Intracutaneous or intradermal (Beneath the epidermis) 0.1 to 0.2ml Subcutaneous(Beneath the surface of the
skin) 1ml or less Intravenous(drug directly injected into blood stream) 1ml to 500ml

Question : Define drug. Write note on the classification of drugs.

Drug:Drug is an agent intended for use in the diagnosis, treatment, cure or prevention of disease in humans
or in animals. ORAny chemical or natural substances which is used in investigation, diagnosis, treatment, cure
or management of different diseases in humans and animals is called drug.Classification of drug:1. ON the
basis of sale:i. Over the counter drugs:OTC drugs are those drugs which do not require prescription. E.g:
multivitamins, NSAIDS, laxatives.ii. Prescription drugs:These drugs require physician's prescription. E.g:
antibiotics, steroids, barbiturates, benzodiazepines2. On the basis of sources:i. Natural sources:These drugs
are obtained from plant, animals, minerals or microbial sources.ii. Semi-synthetic sources:These drugs are
synthesized by using sources of natural origin.iii. Synthetic sources:These are synthesized in laboratory by
using various chemicals.

Question : Define dose, dosage and dosage form.

Dose: The amount of drug taken at a time.Dosage: The amount, number bran frequency of doses over a
specific time ofDosage form: The way by which a drug is presented to a patient for administration. OR Any
pharmaceutical product which has defined shape and have prescribed amount of APIs ( active pharmaceutical
ingredient) is called a dosage form. Dosage forms are essentially pharmaceutical products, typically involving
a mixture of active drug components and non-drug components.

Question : Classify parentrals on the basis of particle size.

Intracutaneous or intradermal (Beneath the epidermis) 0.1 to 0.2ml Subcutaneous(Beneath the surface of the
skin) 1ml or less Intravenous(drug directly injected into blood stream) 1ml to 500ml
Question : Define drug. Write note on the classification of drugs.
Drug:Drug is an agent intended for use in the diagnosis, treatment, cure or prevention of disease in humans
or in animals. ORAny chemical or natural substances which is used in investigation, diagnosis, treatment, cure
or management of different diseases in humans and animals is called drug.Classification of drug:1. ON the
basis of sale:i. Over the counter drugs:OTC drugs are those drugs which do not require prescription. E.g:
multivitamins, NSAIDS, laxatives.ii. Prescription drugs:These drugs require physician's prescription. E.g:
antibiotics, steroids, barbiturates, benzodiazepines2. On the basis of sources:i. Natural sources:These drugs
are obtained from plant, animals, minerals or microbial sources.ii. Semi-synthetic sources:These drugs are
synthesized by using sources of natural origin.iii. Synthetic sources:These are synthesized in laboratory by
using various chemicals.

Question : Define dose, dosage and dosage form.

Dose: The amount of drug taken at a time.Dosage: The amount, number bran frequency of doses over a
specific time ofDosage form: The way by which a drug is presented to a patient for administration. OR Any
pharmaceutical product which has defined shape and have prescribed amount of APIs ( active pharmaceutical
ingredient) is called a dosage form. Dosage forms are essentially pharmaceutical products, typically involving
a mixture of active drug components and non-drug components.

Question : What are excipients? Give examples of various

excipients.
Additives are the substances other than the active medicaments in the formulation (dosage form), which
donot have any pharmacological action. They are used for many purposes as: To give a particular shape to
the formula

Question : What are diluents? Give examples.

Diluents are the inert substances which are specially added to increase the bulk of a drug or to decrease the
concentration. The liquids which are used as vehicles may be specifically used as diluents but for oral
preparations water is the most suitabl

Question : Define binders with the help of examples.

Substances used to cause adhesion of powder particles in tablet granulations e.g. Acacia, sodium
carboxymethyl cellulose, gelatin, liquid glucose
Question : Write a note on antimicrobial preservatives.
Antimicrobial agents are used to retard the growth of microorganisms in the preparation.
Sucrose concentration of syrup is itself antimicrobial because it exerts a great

Question : What are suppositories?

Suppositories are solid dosage form of medicament intended for insertion into body cavities other than
mouth. They may be inserted into rectum, vagina or urethra, where suppositories soften or melt at body
temperature which releases the medicament and exert local and systemic actions.Suppositories vary in
shapes, sizes and weights.

Question : What are anti-oxidants.

Prevent deterioration of preparations by oxidation.E.g. Ascorbic acid. Sodium ascorbate, sodium bisulfite,
tocopherols.

Question : Define buffering agents.

Buffering agents are used to resist change in PH upon dilution or addition of acid or alkali. e.g sodium citrate,
sodium acetate, potassium phosphate.

Question : What are active pharmaceutical ingredients and

excipients?
Active Pharmaceutical Ingredient: The pharmacologically active ingredient in a medicine or drug is called
active pharmaceutical ingredient (API). It is also known as medicament or medicinal agent E.g: Aspirin, Digoxin,
Paracetamol etcExcipients: The substance other than active medicaments in a formulation of dosage form is
called excepients. Excipients are pharmacologyically inactive E.g: preservatives, stabilizers, coloring agents,
flavoring agents etc.

Question : Define dosage form.

Any pharmaceutical product which has defined shape and have prescribed amount of APIs (Active
pharmaceutical ingredient) called a dosage form. Dosage forms are essentially pharmaceutical products,
typically involving a mixture
Question : What are the advantages and disadvantages of parental
preparations?
Advantages 1) Rapid onset of action in emergency situations (IV route)2) Most suitable route for non-
cooperative and unconscious patients 3) Prolonged action of a drug can be produced by this route (IM route)
4) The route is preferred when the drug is not absorbed or inactivated in the GIT. 5) Solutions in volumes from
mililitres to 4 litres can be introduced by parenteral route Disadvantages 1) The administration of drug
through wrong route may prove fatal. 2) Mode of treatment is expensive as expertise is required

Question : Define liquid dosage form. What are the advantages and
disadvantages of liquid dosage forms?
Liquid dosage form:A liquid dosage form is the liquid form of a dose of medicaments along with excipients
used as a drug or medication intended for administration or consumption. Advantages:Better for patients
who have trouble swallowing expiration than othersFaster absorption than solids.More flexibility in achieving
the proper dosage of medication.PalatableBest choice for children and old age person.Disadvantages:Shorter
life than other dosage form,Harder to measure accuracy,Need special storage condition.Less stable,Easily
affected by microorganisms,Bulky to carry around.Easy to loss by the breakage of the container.Measuring
dose is required

Question : Discuss advantages and disadvantages of solutions.

Advantages: They are homogenous, therefore the medicament is uniformly distributed. They are more
quickly effective than tablets or capsules because they are already in solution form and absorptio

Question : What is solubility and solubilization?

Solubility :The amount of substance that passes into solution in order to establish equilibrium at constant
temperature and so produce a saturated solution is known as the solubility of the substance. BP define

Question : What are oral solutions and dry mixtures for solutions?
ORAL SOLUTIONSAccording to the British Pharmacopoeia (BP) Oral solutions are oral liquids containing one
or more active ingredients dissolved in a suitable vehicle.DRY MIXTURES FOR SOLUTION Dry mixtures for
solution are the products that are reconstituted with prescribed amount of solvent at the time of dispensing
the product to the patient.Dry powder mixture contain all the basic components including drug, flavorant,
colorant,buffers and other except for the solvent.
Question : What is ORS? Give its composition.
Oral rehydration solutions are usually effective in treatment of patients with mild volume depletion, 5% to
10% of body weight. These are available OTC and are relatively inexpensive, and their use has diminished the
incidence of comp

Question : What should be the characteristics of elixirs packaging

material.
Because of their usual contents of volatile oil and alcohols, elixir should be stored in tight,
light resistant containers. Should be protected from excessive heat.

Question : Discuss oral, inhalational, parenteral, topical and

suppository dosage forms.
Oral:Medications that are taken by mouth are called oral dosage form. Oral dosage forms include; Tablet or
capsule, Liquid solution or suspension ( e.g., dink or syrup), Powder or liquid or solid
crystalsInhalationalMedications that are delivered through the nose or inhaled and are absorbed through the
nasal mucosa or bronchioles respectively are called inhalational dosage form. It include nasal decongestant
solutions, Aerosol, inhaler, Nebulizer, Smoking, VaporizerParenteralMedications that are administered by
injecting a drug directly into a vein (intravenous), muscle (intramuscular), or fatty tissue beneath the skin
(subcutaneous) etc. are called parenteral dosage form. Parenteral include intradermal (ID), Intravenous (IV),
Subcutaneous (SC)Topical Medications that are applied on the surfaces of the body, especially the skin or
mucous membranes are called topical dosage form, ophthalmic and otic preparations are also topical
medications. Topical or transdermal preparations include Cream, gel, liniment or balm, lotion, or ointment,
Ear drops (otic = relating to the ear), Eye drops (ophthalmic= relating to eye), Skin patch (transdermal =
relating to skin)Enteral or Suppository (Pharmaceutical inserts)Medications that are administered into the
rectum or virginal and absorbed by the lower digestive tract are called enteral dosage form. It includes Vaginal
and Rectal preparations.Solid dosage forms.

Question : What is stability? Briefly describe various stabilizers.

The capability of a formulation in a specific container to remain within the physical, chemical, microbiological,
therapeutic and toxicological specifications.The substances used to control these stabilities are known as
stabilizers. T
Question : Describe various packaging of injections.
Single-dose container or ampoule The container holding a quantity of sterile drug intended for parenteral
administration as a single dose and which when opened can not be re-sealed. Multi-dose container or Vial
The container permits withdrawal of successive portions of the drug without changing the strength, quality or
purity of the remaining portion.

Question : What are the advantages and disadvantages of

parenteral preparations?
Advantages:Used in emergency situation Suitable route for unconscious patients Provide fluids, electrolytes,
and nutrition.Provides higher concentration of drug to blood steam or tissueProvides a continuous amount of
needed medicationInfusion rate can be adjusted.Disadvantages:ExpensivePain on injectionRequire
sterilizationRequire expertise or trained person for administrationPotential for introducing toxicityToxicity can
never be reversedFrequent administration may cause difficulties to patient

Question : Define syrups and explain their types.

Syrups are sweet, viscous, concentrated aqueous solutions of a sugar(sucrose) or sugar-substitute in water
or any other suitable vehicle. With or without added flavoring agents and medicinal substances.

Question : Name method of preparation of syrups

1) Solution with aid of heat2) Solution by agitation without heat.3) Addition of sucrose to medicated liquid4)
Percolation

Question : Define syrups. What are the different types of syrups?

Syrups:Syrups are concentrated aqueous preparation of sugar or sugar substitute with or without flavoring
and medicinal agent. ORSyrups are sweet, viscous concentrated aqueous solution of sucrose or other sugars.
they are used as sweating and flavoring agents. Examples are lemon syrup, raspberry syrup, tolu syrup.Types
of syrups:1. Simple syrups:Simple syrups are concentrated solutions of sugar such as sucrose in water. OR
When purified water alone is used in making the solution of sucrose, the preparation is known as simple
syrup. According to B.P specifications, simple syrup contains 66.7% w/w of water as the solvent and USP
specification in 85% sucrose.2. Flavored syrups:Flavored syrups are made by adding flavoring agent to simple
syrup, e.g. orange flavor or cinnamon water into simple syrup. These syrups are used for masking the
disagreeable taste of medicinal substances.3. Medicated syrups:Medicate syrups are aqueous solutions
containing sugar and at lest one water soluble active ingredient. These syrups are employed in therapeutics.
Question : What are the advantages and disadvantages of syrups?
Advantages of syrups:Syrups retard oxidationPrevents microbial growthPalatable due to presence of
sugarMore quickly effective than solid dosage form mask the unpleasant tasteSuitable preparations for
pediatric and geriatric patientsDisadvantages of syrups: Not suitable in emergency and unconscious
patientsNot suitable for patients with diabetes and GIT disorders Can't avoid first pass metabolism

Question : What are the qualities of good dispersion?

A well formulated suspension should have the following properties: The dispersed particles should not settle
readily and the settled particles should re-disperse immediately on shaking The par

Question : Define parental preparations and also give their

importance.
Parenteral preparations or injectable are the sterile, pyrogen free solutions or suspensions of drugs in
aqueous or oily vehicles meant for introduction into the body by means of an injection (parentally).Since they
are introduced into internal body parts they must be: 1) Sterile, free from all types of microorganisms and
microbial products such as toxins, pyrogens etc. 2) Must be free from particles like dust, fibers. 3) Should be
isotonic with body fluids. 4) Multi-dose injections must contain preservatives

Question : What are different types of dosage form according to the

basis of route of administration
1. Oral dosage form:TabletsCapsulesPowdersOral solutionsOral suspensionsSyrupsEmulsionsii.
InhalationalAerosollnhalerNebulizerSmokinVaporizeriii. Transdermal or topicalCream, gel, liniment or balm,
lotion, or ointmentEar drops (otic = relating to the ear)Eye drops (phathalmic = relating to eye)Skin patch
(transdermal = relating to skin)iv. parenteral:Intramuscular (IM)Intravenous (IV)Intradermal (ID)Subcutaneous
(SC)v. Suppositories:RectalVaginalUrethral

Question : What are capsules? Enlist the advantages and

disadvantages of capsule.
Capsules:Capsules are solid dosage forms in which one or more medicaments are enclosed in a water soluble
bio degradable shell made up of gelatin. ORCapsules are unit solid dosage form in which the medication are
enclosed in a tasteless soluble shell of gelatin, starch or similar material and are intended for oral
administration.Capsules are unit solid dosage form in which the medication are enclosed in a soluble shell of
gelatin, starch or similar material and are intended to be swallowed whole orally. Gelatin USP is a product
obtained by the partial hydrolysis of collagen (protein of fibrous connective tissue), obtained from skin, white
connective tissue and bones of animals.Advantages of capsules:Easy to swallowEconomicalAttractive in
appearanceEasy to handle and carryMay be used for dispensing solid, semisolid drugs and liquid
preparationsDrugs having unpleasant odor and taste are enclosed in a tasteless shell Disintegration is very
reliable in capsule formation.Disadvantages of capsules:Not suitable for highly efflorescent or deliquescent
materials.Hygroscopic drugs are not suitable for filling capsuleHygroscopic substance absorb moisture and
make the shell brittleCapsules cannot be used in aqueous or alcoholic preparation

Question : Define suppositories, suppository bases and pessaries.

What are the advantages and disadvantages of suppositories?
Suppositories:Suppositories are special shaped solid dosage form of medicament for insertion into the body
cavities other than mouth. ORSuppositories are solid dosage form intended for insertion into body cavities
such as rectum, vagina, where they soften , melt or dissolve in the cavity fluid to release active ingredient or
medicament. Suppositories are generally prepared with coca butter or glycerogelatin base. examples are
aminophylline suppositories, glycerol suppositories.Suppositories bases:The vehicle of suppositories is known
as suppository bases. These bases play important role in the release of medicament. The remain solid at
room temperature but melts in the body cavity and release medicaments. Common suppository bases are
coca butter or glycerogelatin. Pessaries:Pessaries are solid unite dosage form of medicament meant for
introduction into the vagina. OR Pessaries are solid medicated preparations for introduction into the vagina
where they melt or dissolve in cavity fluids to release the medicaments. They may be prepared by moulding or
by compression. Examples are lactic acid pessaries, nystatin pessaries.Advantages of suppositories:Can exert
local effect on rectal mucosaUsed to promote evacuation of of bowelAvoid gastrointestinal irritationCan be
used in unconscious patientsCan be used for systemic effect of drugsAvoid fist pass
metabolismDisadvantages of suppositories:Problem of patient acceptabilityCan cause rectal irritationNot
suitable for patient suffering from diarrhea

Question : What are parenteral preparations?

Parenteral preparations:Parenteral preparations or injectables are the sterile solutions or suspensions of
drugs in aqueous or oily vehicles meant for introduction into the body by means of injection under one or
more layer of the skin or mucous membrane. Various types of route of administration of parenteral products
are as follow;Subcutaneous (Hypodermis) injection Intramuscular injection Intravenous injectionIntradermal
injectionIntra-arterial injectionInteracardiac injectionIntrathecal injectionPeridural injectionIntra-articular
injectionIntra cerebral injectionGeneral requirements for parenteral dosage forms:StabilitySterilityFree from
pyrogens & toxinsFree form foreign particlesIsotonicChemical purity

Question : What are suspensions?

Suspensions may be defined as preparations containing finely divided drug particles (the suspensoid)
distributed somewhat uniformly throughout a vehicle in which the drug exhibits a minimum degree of
solubility. These are biphasic

Question : Write a note on reconstituted suspensions.

These are powders or granules which are intended to be suspended in water or some other vehicle prior to
oral administration. In official title these are designated as ?For oral Suspension?.

Question : What are the packaging and storage instructions for

suspensions?
a) All suspensions should be packaged in wide mouth containers having adequate airspace above the liquid to
permit adequate shaking and ease of pouring.b) The label should have statement SHAKE WELL BEFORE USE.c)
Powders for reconstitution containers must have a clear mark to show the level of water additiond)
Suspensions must be protected from freezing , excessive heat and light.

Question : What are the qualities of good suspension?

Qualities of good suspension:Easy and readily re-dispersion of sedimented particles, important for uniformity
of doseFree from gritting particles ( in case of suspensions for external use) No cake formation on
setting Physical, chemical and microbiological stabilityPleasing odor, color and palatability

Question : Define emulsions. And name their types.

An emulsion is a dispersion in which the dispersed phase is composed of small globules of a liquid distributed
throughout a vehicle in which it is immiscible. These are biphasic dosage forms. The two immiscible liquids
are made

Question : What should be the qualities of emulsifying agents?

Should be capable of reducing interfacial tension between two immiscible liquids Should be capable of
keeping the dispersed liquid globules distributed indefinitely throughout the dispersion medium

Question : What is bottle method?

The bottle method is used for the preparation of emulsions of volatile oils or less viscous oils and is a variation
of the dry gum method. Because of low viscosity the volatile oils require greater amount of gum for
emulsification therefore the proport

Question : Explain stability problems in emulsions?

Stability of emulsion means that a formulated emulsion should retain its original characters i.e. as the size of
globules and their uniform distribution throughout the continuous phase. 1.Coalescence Coalescence
means to grow together, to fuse. The dispersed phase fuse to form large globules. 2.Creaming and
sedimentation Upward (creaming) or downward (sedimentation) movement of dispersed globules in the
continuous phase. In creaming they form a thick layer at the surface of emulsion. 3.Cracking/Breaking
Separation of the internal phase from the emulsion is called breaking. The coalescence of the dispersed
globules take place and the two separate layers of the dispersed phase and continuous phase are formed
which are difficult to re-disperse by shaking or stirring to get the original product. 4.Flocculation The
individual particles of dispersed phase come in contact with each other to form loose aggregates and create a
network like structure. Many molds, yeasts, and bacteria can decompose the emulsifying agent, disrupting
the system.

Question : What are the methods used for the preparation of

emulsion?
Preparation of emulsion: The following methods are used for the preparation of emulsion.1. Dry gum
method:This method is also known as 4:2:1 method, these figures represents the proportions of oil, water and
gum required for the preparation of primary emulsion. In this method emulsifying agent is mixed with oil
followed by addition of water to produce the required volume of emulsion.2. Wet gum method:The
proportion of oil, water and gum are same as for dry method. In this method the calculated amount of gum is
triturated with water to from a mucilage. Then the given amount of oil is incorporated in small portions with
rapid trituration until a clicking sound is produced. The primary emulsion is formed, continue the trituration
and add more water to produce the final emulsion.3. Bottle method:This method is used for the preparation
of emulsion of volatile oils or less viscous oils. Because of low viscosity volatile oils require grater amount of
gum for emulsification therefore the proportion of oil, water and gum for primary emulsion are 4:4:2.In this
method the oil is put in a large bottle and then dry gum is added. The bottle is shaken vigorously until oil and
gum are mixed thoroughly. Then calculated amount of water is added and shaken to form primary emulsion.
More of the water is added in small proportions with constant agitation after each addition to produce the
final volume.

Question : What are lotions? Give examples?

Lotions are liquid aqueous preparations intended for external application to the skin without rubbing with the
help of some absorbent material such as cotton wool or gauze soaked in the lotion, applied to the affected
part.Examples Calamine lotion, Salicylic acid lotion, Zinc sulphate lotion

Question : What should be the precautions for lotions?

Bacteria and molds grow in certain lotions if no preservative is added to the preparation. On long standing
the lotions have a tendency to separate out. So container must be labeled ?Shake before Use?. The container
should be labeled ?For External Use Only?.

Question : Which processes are involved in the application of

liniments
Liniments are applied to the skin through friction and rubbing processes.

Question : What are aerosols? Give their components as well.

Aerosols are pressurized dosage forms containing one or more than one active ingredients which upon
actuation emit a fine dispersion of solid and liquid in gaseous form. The liquid or solid drug particles are
dissolved or suspended in gas. The gas used for this purpose is known as propellant. Components of
Aerosols are: 1. Propellant 2.Container 3.Valve assembly and actuator 4.
Product concentrate

Question : Write down the functions of mounting cap, gas kat, and
housing.
1. Mounting cup Used to attach the valve properly to the container, made of tin. Aluminum can also be
used.2. Gas kat It is used to prevent leakage of formulation from container. Made of rubber.3. Housing It
contains an opening at the point of attachment of dip tube. It is made of nylon.

Question : Name different parts of valve assembly

1) Mounting cup2) Housing3) Stem4) Gasket5) Spring6) Dip tube7) Actuator

Question : What is the function of Housing in aerosol?

It contains an opening at the point of attachment of dip tube. It is made of nylon.
Question : What is the function of gasket in aerosol?
It is used to prevent leakage of formulation from container. Made of rubber.

Question : What is the function of actuator?

Its function is to deliver the aerosol product in proper and desired form.

Question : Define aerosols. What are the types of aerosols?

Aerosols:The pressurized dosage forms of medicament in which solid or liquid drugs are dissolved or
suspended in gas. The gas used for this purpose is known as propellant. ORAerosols are pressurized dosage
forms containing one or more active ingredients which upon actuation release a fine dispersion of solid or
liquid droplets in gaseous form/medium.Components of aerosols:PropellantThese are chemical substances
which are responsible for developing pressure within a container and expel the product when the valve is
open.Container It is commonly made form tin plate, aluminium, stainless steel and glass materials and holds
the products/contentsValve assemblyIt allow the expulsion of contents of container,Product concentrateIt
consists of active ingredients, solvent system, preservative/anti-oxidant and surfactantsTypes of aerosols:1.
Nebulizers:A nebulizer is a drug delivery device used to administer medication in the form of a mist ( a cloud
of tiny water droplets) inhaled into the lungs.2. Meter dose inhalers (MDI): A metered- dose inhaler (MDI) is a
device that delivers a specific amount of medication to the lungs. It is usually self-administered by the patient
via inhalation. It is the most commonly used delivery system for treating asthma.3. Dry powder inhalers
(DPI):A dry powder inhaler (DPI) is a device that delivers medication to the lungs in the form of a dry powder.
DPIs are commonly used to treat respiratory diseases such as asthma.

Question : Write a note on sprays.

These are aqueous or oleaginous solutions in the form of coarse droplets or as finely divided solids to be
applied topically usually to nasal pharyngeal tract or to the skin. They are sprayed into mouth for their
laryngitis, pharyngitis and tonsillitis action. But mainly they are used to produce their action on the lungs for
which they are sprayed with a special type of atomizer known as nebulizer.

Question : Write a note on bulk powders.

Bulk powders are generally less-potent drugs are supplied in the form of bulk powders. These are packed in
bulk containers. These are used internally and externally. Internal use: They are supplied in wide-mouthed
containers in which a teaspoon is entered for easy removal of the contents.e.g. Antacids, laxatives External
use (Dusting powders): these are meant for external application to the skin for their antiseptic, protective and
lubricant purposes. These are dispensed in sifter type containers or pressure aerosols.
Question : Write a note on divided powders.
Powder is divided into individual dosing units based upon the dose to be administered at a single time. These
are simple (one ingredient) or compound (two or more ingredient) powders for internal use. Divided portion
of powder is placed on a small piece of paper which is then folded. e.g.Analgesics, ORS.

Question : What are granules and effervescent granules?

Granules:Granules are prepared from powdered substances, the particles of which are made to aggregate by
additions of solvents or binding agents or by some other means. They are generally irregular shaped but may
be prepared to be spherical.They are used in the manufacturing of tablets. Effervescent Granules: They
contain a medicinal agent in a dry mixture usually composed of sodium bicarbonate, citric acid and tartaric
acid. When added to water the acids and base react to liberate carbon dioxide resulting in effervescence.

Question : Define capsules and their types.

Capsules are solid unit dosage form in which the medicaments are enclosed in a particularly tasteless, hard or
soft gelatin shell and are intended for oral use. The basic empty capsule shells are made from a mixture
of gelatin, sugar and water. TYPE OF CAPSULES There are two types of capsules ? Soft Gelatin
Capsules ? Hard Gelatin Capsules

Question : Classify different suppositories.

1.Rectal suppositories Shape: They are tapered at one or both ends Size: 32mm in length Weight: 2g -------
---------------------Adult 1g ---------------------------children 2.Vaginal suppositories or pessaries Shape: Oval,
rod or cone shaped. Size: They are larger than rectal suppositories. Weight: is about 5g and varies
depending upon the base used and purpose. 3.Urethral suppositories or bougies Shape: long, thin, pencil
shaped rounded from both sides Size: Male 3-6mm----------------- diameter 140mm --------------
--length Female 70mm ---------------length Weight:
Male 4g Female 2g 4.Nasal suppositories Also known as nasal bougies meant for
introduction into the nasal cavity Shape: similar in shape to urethral bougies Size: 32 mm ------------length
Weight: 1g 5.Aural suppositories (Ear cones) Shape: These are also pencil shaped like bougies Size: 32mm -
---------------length

Question : What are powders and granules?

Powders:Powders are solid dosage form of medicaments which are homogenous, finally divided, dry
materials meant for internal and external use. According to the mode of dispensing powders are of two
types.1. Bulk powders for internal use:Less potent drugs are supplied in the form of bulk powders and packed
in bulk containers. Bulk powders are of two types on the basis of usei. Bulk Powders for internal use:They are
mixture of finely divided drugs or chemicals in a dry form that may be intended for internal use. These
powders includeOral powderPowder sprayDry powder inhalersEffervescent powdersii. Bulk powders for
external use:They are mixtures of finely divided drugs or chemicals in a dry form that may be intended for
external use available in multiple doses (dusting powder). These powders include Dusting
powdersInsufflationsDentifrices2. Divided powders:These powders are divided into individual dosing units
based upon the dose to be administered at a single time. Divided powders are similar formulation to bulk
powder but individual doses are separately wrapped. These powders include;ORSDouche powdersPowder for
injectionEffervescent powdersGranules:Granules are prepared from powdered substances, the particles of
which are made to aggregate by additions of solvents or binding agents or by some other means. ORGranules
are powder agglomerated to produce large free flowing particles. The particles size of granules ranging form
about 4 to 10 mesh or 0.2-4.0mm. They are irregularly shaped but may be prepared to be spherical. Granules
are used in the manufacturing of tablets. Granules typically have a size range form.Granulation is the act or
process in which primary powder particles are made to adhere (stick) to form large.

Question : Define tablets also explain their advantages and

disadvantages.
Tablets are the solids dosage forms of medicinal substances usually prepared with the aid of pharmaceutical
adjuncts (excipients). Intended for oral, buccal, vaginal or rectal route of administration. Advantage of tablets
1) Ease of administration (easy to swallow) 2) Surety of accurate dose 3) Unpleasant taste can be masked by
coatings. 4) They are dry so more stable than liquid preparations 5) The deterioration of medicaments due to
environmental factors (oxygen and light) is less in tablet form Disadvantage of tablets 1) Children and elderly
people cannot swallow the tablets 2) The manufacturing cost is high.

Question : Write a note on different types of tablets.

1 Compressed tablets 2.Multiple Compressed Tablets 3.Film Coated Tablets 4.Sugar coated tablets
5.Enteric coated tablets 6.Buccal/Sublingual Tablets 7.Effervescent Tablets 8.Chewable
tablets9.Sustained Release Tablets

Question : Why it is necessary to coat the tablet?

1. For pharmaceutical elegance by improving their appearance, taste and stability. 2. Protection against
environmental factors (air, humidity) 3. To mask the taste of drug Most recently coating has been used: To
control the site of drug release (enteric coating) Delay or prolong the release of drug from dosage form
(sustained release)
Question : Write a note on soft gelatin capsule.
Soft Gelatin Capsule These are prepared from gelatin and water to which glycerin, sorbitol or propylene glycol
are added to make them elastic or plastic like. Soft Gelatin Capsules are found in different shapes e.g.
? Oval ? Tube Shape ? Round These are used for filling liquids and semi-solids.
Vitamin preparations such as vitamin A, D and multivitamins

Question : Define dose.

Calculated amount of a drug required to produce a desirable effect is called dose.

Question : Define chelating agents.

: substances that form stable water soluble complexes (chelate) with metals. These metals might promote
instability e.g. Edetate disodium

Question : Define tablets. What are the different types of tablets?

Tablets:tablets are compressed unit solid dosage form made up of medicinal agent (active substances) with
the aid of suitable pharmaceutical excipients (inactive substances) for oral, buccal (relating to the cheeks or
mouth) vaginal or rectal route of administration. OR A tablet is a solid dosage form that is prepared by
compressing or molding the drug into various sizes and shapes. The tablets ae manufactured by single
compression or multiple compression and medicinal agent in addition with excipients including lubricant
binder, distintegrant, diluents, colorant and flavoring agent are used, e.g Paracetamol, Aspirin
Tablets.Advantages:Ease of administrationSurety of accurate doseMore stable than liquid
preparationsUnpleasant taste can be masked by coatings Lighter and compact.Easiest and cheapest to
package.Easy to swallowingProduct identification is easy and cheapest.Disadvatages:Drugs with poor wetting,
slow dissolution properties, is difficult to formulateNot suitable for children, elderly people and unconscious
patients Tablets manufacturing is very expensive methodSome drugs resist compression into dense compacts

Question : What are the different types of tablets?

Different types of tablets:Tablets are classified into the following types.Tablets for oral administration: These
types of tablets include;1. Film coated tablets:Film coated tablet are coated with a membrane of polymeric
substances that improves physicochemical stability of the drug, prevent the drug form external condition and
delays the rate of drug absorption. e.g. Augmentin2. Enteric coated tablets:The tablet is coated with an acid
resistant substance that will dissolve the tablet only in the less acidic portions of the intestines. These types of
tablets are required to be disintegrated in the intestine instead of stomach. e.g. Voltaren, LoprinEffervescent
tablets:These are the tablets that on dissolving in water produce effervescence (bubbles in a liquid, escape of
gas) ORThese tablets contain sodium bicarbonate in addition to the drug substance and are designed to break
in contact with water or another liquid, releasing carbon dioxide in the process. e.g Disprin, Cac 1000.4. Sugar
coated tablets:The tablet that contains active ingradients (s) of unpleasant taste may be covered with sugar to
mask the bitter taste of tablets and make it more palatable. This type of tablet should be administered in
whole form. E.g: Brufen, Vitaferro, Quinine.5. Sublingual tablets:These tablets are placed under the tongue
and are absorbed quickly into the bloodstream. e.g. Nitroglycerin, Uprima6. Buccal tablets:Buccal tablets are
placed in the pouch between the cheek and gum. They are usually small, flat and oval in shape. e.g
Sandopart7. Troches (lozenges):These tablets contain a drug substance in flavored base. Lozenges are allowed
to dissolve slowly in the mouth. The are commonly used for cold and sore throat. e.g Strepsils,
Chlorhexidine8. Chewable tablets:These tablets are required to be broken and chewed in between the teeth
before ingestion. They are commonly given to children and adults who have difficulty in swallowing. e.g.
antacid, multivitamins9. Controlled release tablets - slow release tablets (SR):These tablets are treated with
special coatings so that various portions of the drug will dissolve at different rates. They are designed to
produce drug effects over an extended dissolve at different rates. They are designed to produce drug effects
over an extended time. SR tablets are administered less frequently (usually once daily). e.g. Isoptin SR, Ravel
SR10. Modified release tablets (RM):Modified release tablets are a more advanced version in which release of
the active ingredient is related to time. e.g. Preductal MRTablets for implantation
(implants/Pellets):Implant/Pellets are tablets are prepared for insertion under the skin by giving a small
surgical cut into the skin which is stitched after the insertion of tablets. These tablets must be sterile. E.g:
Contraceptive tablets are formulated as implant.Tablets for vaginal administration:The tablets are intended
for insertion into the vagina. e.g Metronidazole Tinidazole, Dinprostone

Question : Write note on formulation of tablets.

Tablet formulation.Tablets are composed of active pharmaceutical ingredients mixed with number of inert
substance known as excipients or additives. Some of the common additives used in the formulation of tablets
are as follow.DiluentsBinders and adhesivesDisintegrating agentsLubricants and glidantsColouring
agentSweetening agentsFlavoring agentsTablets manufacturing methods:Manufacturing process is dependent
on several factors, including the compression properties of the therapeutic agents, the particle size of the
therapeutic agent, excipients and the chemical stability of the therapeutic agent during the manufacturing
process. There are three methods by which tablets are manufactured;1. Wet granulation2. Dry granulation3.
Direct compressionSteps involved in the manufacture of tablets:Mixing of the therapeutic agents with the
excipientsGranulation of the mixed powders (this is not performed in direct compression)Mixing of the
powders or granules with other excipients (mostly lubricants)Compression into tabletsThe details of each of
these steps will very depending on the manufacturing method used.

Question : Name different types of tablet coatings.

1.Sugar Coating 3.Water Proofing and Sealing Coat 4.Sub -
coating 5.Smoothing and final rounding6.Finishing and coloring 7.Polishing 8. Film Coating 9.
Enteric Coating 10. Air Suspension Coating 11.Compression Coating 12.Dip Coating
13.Gelatin Coating 14.Electrostatic Coating15.Laminated Coating

Question : What is tablet coating?

Tablet coating is a common pharmaceutical technique of applying a thin polymer-based film to a table which
impart characteristics properties to tablets. Tablets are generally coated;To improve their appearance, taste
and stabilityTo control the release of medicamentsTo mask the taste of a drugTo prevent the drug from
external conditions

Question : What are the advantages and disadvantages of

capsules?
Advantages of Capsules 1) Capsules may be used for dispensing solid, semi-solid and liquid drugs.2) Easy to
swallow as they are tasteless and odorless.3) In capsule manufacturing less adjuncts are required as compare
to tablets 4) Capsules can be colored to protect from light. 5) They are easy to handle and carry Disadvantage
of Capsule 1) Capsules cannot be used for aqueous and alcoholic preparation as they will attack the
shell.2) Hygroscopic substances are not suitable to capsulate, they absorb moisture and make shell brittle.

Question : What are ointments? Give their types.

Ointments are soft and greasy semi-solid preparations intended for application on the skin or mucous
membrane. Types of Ointments: i. Medicated Ointment: contains a medicament dissolves, suspended or
emulsified in the base. ii. Non-Medicated ointment : are used as vehicles for preparation of medicated
ointments or can be used for their emollient and protective action to the skin.

Question : Classify ointment bases.

1. Oleaginous bases 2. Absorption Bases 3. Emulsion bases 4. Water soluble bases

Question : Define ointments. What are the types of ointments?

Ointments:Ointments are greasy-semisolid preparations intended for application to the skin or mucous
membrane. An ointment is a fatty preparation as to be easily applied to the skin. Ointments may be
medicated or non-medicated.Types of creams:1. Medicated ointments:Medicated ointments contain at lest
one active ingredient or medicinal agent either dissolved or dispersed in the vehicle. Medicated ointments are
used for the therapeutic effect of the medicinal substance they contain.2. Non-medicated ointments:Non-
medicated elixirs do not contain any medicinal agent or active ingredient. Non-medicated ointments are used
as vehicles for preparation of medicated ointments or can be used for their emollient and protective action to
the skin.

Question : Define Creams. What are the types of creams?

Creams:Creams are non-greasy semi solid preparations intended for application on skin and mucous
membrane. OR Creams are semi-solid emulsions usually for application to the skin. Creams contain a water
soluble base due to which they can easily be removed from skin. Creams may be medicated or non-
medicated.Types of creams:1. Medicated creams:Medicated creams contain at least one active ingredient or
medicinal agent. Medicated creams are used for the therapeutic effect of the medicinal substance they
contain.2. Non-medicated creams:Non-medicated elixirs do not contain any medicinal agent or active
ingredient. These creams are used as emollients (for softening of skin).

Question : What are pastes?

Pastes are semi-solid preparations, used for application to the skin. They are dispersions of high
concentration of insoluble powdered substances in a fatty or aqueous base. ? They are less greasy and
stiffer than ointments due to high solid concentration. ? They are more absorptive than ointments ? As
they are stiff so don?t melt at ordinary temperatures and forming a protective covering over the areas to
which they are applied. ? They are difficult to remove so not suitable for application to hairy area.

Question : Give storage and labelling of pastes.

Storage and labeling They should be stored in air tight containers. So as to prevent evaporation of moisture
present in the paste. Pastes which contain water must be suitably preserved by adding anti-microbial
preservatives. They must be labeled ?FOR EXTERNAL USE ONLY?

Question : What are pastes?

Pastes:Pastes are dispersion of high concentration of insoluble powdered substances (20-50%) in a fatty or
aqueous base. Pastes are semi-solid preparation for external application. Pastes are less greasy and stiffer
than ointment due to high solid concentration. Pastes are usually prepared by incorporating solids directly
into a congealed system by levigation with a portion of base to from paste like mass. They have good
adhesion on skin and less greasy.Pastes are less greasy and stiffer than ointments due to high solid
concentrationMore absorptive than ointmentsThey are difficult to remove so not suitable for application to
hairy area They must be labeled " FOR EXTERNAL USE ONLY"

Question : Explain general dispensing procedure.

General dispensing procedure ? Wear a freshly laundered overall coat. It should be spotless and clean. ?
Provide yourself with clean glass-cloth and a duster or sponge. It is used for cleaning the dis

Question : What are the steps in prescription handling?

The manner in which a pharmacist handles a prescription can enhance his image in the eyes of both physician
and patient. Handling of prescription comprises of following steps: 1 .Receiving &n

Question : Write a note on refilling of prescription.

REFILLING OF PRESCRIPTION; The refilling of prescription is governed by Federal Law which divided the drug
into two categories. 1. Those drugs which are potentially toxic or dangerous causes harmful effects These
can?t be

Question : What are container and closures?

Container: In which the drug is placed and is in direct contact with the drug. Closure: This seals the container
to exclude oxygen, carbon dioxide, moisture, microorganisms and prevent the loss

Question : Explain different materials used for containers for

pharmaceuticals.
MATERIALS USED FOR CONTAINERS 1. Glass 2. Plastics 3. Metals

Question : What type of glass are used in the packaging of

pharmaceuticals?
It is hard, brittle and transparent and is composed of a network of silicon and oxygen atoms. Special types of
glass e.g. colored glass or heat resistant glass can be produced by adding certain other substances. Various
types of glass used for

Question : Write Down different formulas for the calculation of

Child dose.
1) Young's RuleChild Dose = Age (yr) * Adult dose / Childs age (yr) + 122) Counting ScaleChild Dose= Age (yr) +
2 / 24 * Adult Dose3) Clark's RuleChild dose= Weight (pounds or lbs) / 150 * Adult Dose4) Fried's RuleChild
Dose= Age (months) / 150 * Adult Dose

Question : Define compounding and dispensing:

Compounding:It is specialized process to change dosage form (e.g. solid to liquid) and includes the
preparation, mixing, packaging or labeling of a drug in repose to a prescription written by a licensed
practitioner according to the need of a patient. ORPharmaceutical compounding is the mixing of different
pharmaceutical ingredients to form a particular pharmaceutical product that meet the special need of a
patient.Dispensing:Dispensing is a pharmacy art and consists of the removal of two or more doses from a
bulk drug container and placing them in another container/envelop for late use by a patient in response to
prescription.

Question : What is extemporaneous dispensing?

Extemporaneous dispensing:Extemporaneous dispensing is the process of compounding ingredients to
prepare an unlicensed medicine for an individual patient in accordance with a prescription. It may need to be
carried out where no licensed commercially product is available or where the formulation of the licensed
product is not suitable. ORExtemporaneous dispensing is preparation of any dosage from at the time of
dispensing. This is done when there is no appropriate commercially medicinal products are available for the
treatment of a patient.

Question : What are the basic principles or general guidelines for

compounding and dispensing?
General guidelines for compounding and dispensing:Wear a freshly laundered overall coatDispensing bench,
equipment and containers must be cleanRead the prescription carefully make sure you understand it and that
it is legally correct Ensure that the prescription has the name and signature of the prescriber and the stamp of
the health Centre.Ensure that the prescription is dated and has the name of the patient Confirm that there
are no pharmaceutical or therapeutic incompatibilities in the preparationIf necessary find the formula of the
preparationIf you are not sure about correct method of preparation refer to your practical notebookSelect
and weight the correct ingredientsAlways return the ingredients back to their placeBalance must be tarred
before useBalance must be placed in a air free placeNever weigh less than minimum or more than maximum
weight declared on the balance.Collect the correct container and closureNever weigh less than minimum or
more than maximum weight declared on the balance.Collect the correct container and closureLook up the
storage conditions for the preparationWrite the main label and collect any special labels that are
requiredCheck the labels and fix them to the containerPack the preparation in a suitable containerCheck the
finished preparationPack the container in a suitable box and write the patients name and addressMake the
appropriate records in your register

Question : What are the Parts of prescription:

1. DateThe date on prescription helps a pharmacist to find out the cases where prescription (especially
narcotic prescription) is brought for dispensing long time after its issue.2. Name, age, sex and address of the
patient:These particulars are written to avoid the possibility of giving drug to a person other than the one it
meant for.3. Superscription:The Rx symbol which is always written at the beginning of the prescription is
called superscription. Nowadays Rx means "you take".4. Inscription:It contains the names and quantities of
the prescribed medicine or ingredients. It is the main part of prescription.5. Subscription:It contains
prescriber's directions to the pharmacist regarding the dosage form to be prepared and number of doses to
be dispensed. It may also include instruction regarding the flavor of the product, label etc.6.
Signature:Signature consists of the directions to be given to the patient. These may includeThe method of
administration and applicationThe dose if the preparation is for internal doseThe time of administration or
applicationThe part of body where the preparation is to be applied, in case of external use 7. Prescriber's
Name, Address, registration number and signature:These particulars eliminate the danger of dispensing
medicine on spurious order and it authenticates the prescription.

Question : What is prescription? Give various parts of prescription.

Prescription is a written order from a physician, dentist or any other registered medical practitioner to
compound and dispense a specific medication for the patient. Name, age sex and address of the patient

Question : Write down desirable features of containers.

Desirable feature of containers: 1-Container must be rigid enough to prevent damages to the contents. 2-The
materiel of construction must not react with the content. 3-Closure must prevent. ?

Question : Write down containers according to their shape.

According to their shapes 1.Glass / polyethylene bottlesa) Narrow mouth

Question : Write a note on child resistant containers.

Any container and closure system should provide an effective seal to retain the container contents and
exclude external contamination, in response to demands for greater protection of children against accidental
poisoning is known as child-resistant c

Question : Name Different Parts of Prescription.

The prescription has following parts:1) Name , Age, Sex and Address of patient.2) Date Prescribed3)
Superscription4) Inscription5) Subscription6) Signatura7) Refill Status

Question : What type of polymers used for the manufacturing of

containers?
Polyethylene Polyvinyl chloride (PVC) Polystyrene Polypropylene Polyamides (Nylons)

Question : Which type of metals are used Metals used for

pharmaceuticals.
Tin Aluminum Lead Iron

Question : What is unit dose packaging?

The unit dose package for oral solids is made from some flexible material or may be the strip type package.

Question : What is Strip packaging?

In strip packaging the tablets and capsules are packaged in a flexible film or foil that are connected in a
continuous film. i.e. aluminum foil.

Question : Define Hermetically sealed containers.

Which does not allow the air and other gases to pass through it. Generally used for injectable.
Question : Define Single dose containers.
They are used to supply only one dose of the medicament. e.g ampoules

Question : Define Multi-dose containers

This type of container hold a number of doses. It is sealed in such a way that successive doses can be
withdrawn easily. e.g. multidose vials

Question : Define Aerosol containers.

Containers for aerosol must be strong enough to withstand the pressure evolved at the time of use of the
preparation.

Question : What do you know about narrow mouth container and

wide mouth container?
Narrow mouth Containers Liquid oral preparations intended to be swallowed like syrups, elixirs, emulsions,
suspensions are required to be dispensed in narrow mouthed bottlesWide mouth containers Semi-solid
preparations like ointments, creams, pastes are dispensed in wide mouth containers. On manufacturing scale
collapsible tubes are preferred.

Question : What are the different types of containers?

Types of container:The containers can be classified into the following types.Well closed containers: A well
closed containers is used to protect the preparation from contamination by extraneous solids to prevent the
loss of potency of active constituents and to prevent the loss of contents during transport, storage and
handling.Air-tight containers: Air-tight containers are used to protect the containers form atmospheric
contamination of liquids, solids or vapors. They prevent the drugs due to efflorescence, deliquescent or
evaporation.Hermetically-Sealed containers: Hermetically sealed container is that which does not allow the air
or other gases to pass through it. The are used to supply only one dose of the medicament. They are sealed in
such a way that the contents cannot be removed without removing the seal, the contents so removed are
consumed immediately. e.g.. ampules.Multi dose containers: A multi dose container should hold a number of
doses. It is sealed in such a way that success dosses can be withdrawn easily without changing the strength,
quality or purity of the remaining contents e.g. multi dose vials.Aerosol containers: Containers for aerosols
must be strong enough to withstand the pressure evolved inside the container at the time of use of
preparation.
Question : Write down the factors involve in selecting packaging for
pharmaceutical?
The selection of container for packaging of pharmaceuticals product is depended on following factors:
I. Nature of productII. Chemical nature

Question : Explain types of closures.

Closures are available in five basic designs: 1) Screw-on 2)Crimp on 3) Press On4) Roll onScrew on closures are
of two types a) Threaded screw cap b) Lug Cap

Question : Explain various metals used in the packaging of

pharmaceuticals.
Tin plate and aluminum are most commonly used. To make the closures pilfer-proof they may be sealed with
aluminum cap.Metal containers are not very popular for packing the pharmaceutical products because they
react with the preparations. Howev

Question : What is Threaded screw cap?

When screw cap is applied its threads engage with the corresponding threads moulded on the neck of
bottles.

Question : What is Lug cap?

It is similar to threaded screw cap and operates on same principle but it has interrupted thread on closure
instead of a continuous thread .it is widely used in food industry. i.e. jam bottle caps.

Question : What is Blister packaging?

The package consists of a transparent plastic material and a heat sealable backing material.
Question : Define prescription. Discuss different parts of
prescription.
Prescription:Prescription is an order written by a physician dentist or any other registered medical practitioner
to a pharmacist to compound and dispense a specific medication for the patient. ORA prescription is a set of
instructions written by a qualified prescriber to a pharmacist for supply of drugs. OR A prescription is an order
form a registered practitioner or other properly licensed practitioner such as physician, dentist, veterinarian
or dermatologists etc to a pharmacist to compound and dispense a specific medicine for the patient.

Question : What are the contributions of JABER BIN HAYAN?

His greatest scientific works include: ? He invented the practice essence of chemistry which then lead to
the era of industrialization He invented more than 20 laboratory equipment. He firstly describe distillation and
crystallization He discover many chemical substance e.g. Nitric acid, hydrochloric acid, Sulphuric acid, Acetic
acid and oxalic acid. He invented Aqua-regia the only solvent that can dissolve gold. He describe the
purification process of gold.