Human Geography Unacademy

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Human and
Economic
Geography
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B
Contents
Module A
05 09 25
Chapter 1 Chapter 2 Chapter 3
Introduction Mineral Resources Energy Resources
46 55 66
Water Resources Marine Resources Biotic Resources
77
Chapter 7
Forest Resources
1
Module B
89 111 130
Agriculture Industries World Economic
Development
139 161 166

Transport Communication International Trade
2
Module C
178 197 205

Population Migration Indigenous People
Distribution of the World
209 214 224

Chapter 17 Chapter 18 Previous Years
Human Urbanization Questions
Development
3
MODULE A
RESOURCES
4
CHAPTER - 1
INTRODUCTION
About Economic on surveys of natural resources, the

selection of sites for industrial plants
geography and railways, land use planning in

agriculture, the integrated planning
of industrial sectors, and spatial
• Economic geography is the study of the distribution of industry.
places, where economic activity takes
place and why it takes place there. At • The most common characterization
the heart is the idea that, most of the within the second “sectoral” approach
people choose their location of resource are to be presented as:
extraction, industry and settlements
» Transport and Communication
to maximize their welfare and profits.
Geography.
This different types of forces can affect
welfare and profits, push and pull » Geography of Agriculture.
people and firms towards a particular » Geography of Industry.
place.
» Labour Geography.
• The two major approaches to the field » Geography of Leisure and Tourism.
of economic geography are:
» Environmental and Development
» Economy as a separate spatial object. Geography.
» Economy as a delimiter for sub-fields in » Geography of Services, Trade and
geography. Retail.
• With respect to the first major approach » Geography of Resources.

(Economy as a separate spatial object), » Rural and Urban Geography (economic
according to Maryáš and Vystoupil, aspects).
primary goal of economic geography is » Health Geography.
to shed light on a spatial organization
and differentiation of social-economic » Geography Entrepreneurship.
system and to understand particular » Globalization.
economic phenomena in a geographical
context. • In general, common denominators
for most of the economic geography
• According to the second approach, definitions are:
economic geography distinguishes
several sub-fields, where different » It is a sub-field of geography with more
types of geographical approaches focus on location and distribution of
are applied to specific themes with an human economic activities,
emphasis on economic aspects, such
as the geography of resources, tourism
» It studies not only immediate
geographical manifestations of such
geography, transport geography, labor
activities but also their interplay with
geography, rural geography etc. These
other social-political phenomena,
come mostly from areas with former
or current centralized economies (The » It is an open discipline, very flexible to
former Soviet bloc, or China) focusing ongoing changes and development,
5
with no distinct paradigm, animals like worms (recycle nutrients

» There exists space and time dependence for plant growth), fungi and termites
of theories and approaches. (breaks dead plant material so that
micro-organisms can act on the detritus
to reform soil nutrients), pollinators and
About Resources dispersers of plants.
• Resources are the basis of all the

economic activities. Resources are Uneven Distribution
very important for the technological
and economic development of firms in
of Resources
spatial perspective. Generally, resources
• Distribution of natural resources on the
are classified into natural, human made
surface of the earth is not found to be
and human resources.
evenly distributed. It is dependent upon
• Our environment comprises of earth the climate of the region, topography
and the atmosphere which surrounds it. of the earth surface, types of rocks and
This environment provides us different the geological activity of the region.
variety of goods and services necessary
for our day to day lives, which are » For instance, low latitudes receive
called natural resources. These natural more of the Sun's energy and much
resources include, soil, air, minerals, precipitation, as compared to higher
water, climate and solar energy, which latitudes which receive less of the Sun's
form the non-living or 'abiotic' part of energy and too little precipitation.
nature. » The areas of temperate deciduous
• The 'biotic' or living parts of nature forest biome provide a more moderate
consist of animals (including microbes) climate, along with fertile soil, timber,
and plants. Plants and animals require and abundant wildlife.
specific abiotic conditions and can » The plain regions are ideal for growing
only survive as communities of different crops because they offer flat landscapes
organisms in which all closely linked to and fertile soil. While steep mountains
each in their own habitat. For example and dry deserts on the other hand are
,the forests, grasslands, deserts, rivers, more challenging.
mountains, lakes, marine environment
etc. form habitat for the specialized » The areas with strong tectonic activity
communities of plants and animals. are characterised by the abundant
presence of metallic minerals while
• The interactions between abiotic fossil fuels are found in sedimentary
aspects of nature and specific living rocks formed by deposition.
organisms together leads to formation
of various types of ecosystems. We • However, uneven distribution of natural
use many of these living organisms resources has their own consequences
of ecosystem directly as our food on human settlement, economic
resources. While others are linked to activities, trade etc. This uneven
our food less directly, for example,soil distribution, many a times, becomes a
source of conflict and war as we are
seeing in case of Sudan.
• Human settlement has been found near
the natural resources in pre-historic
6
time. Natural resources form the

backbone of the economy of a nation. Classification of
Without land, water, forest, and mineral;
one cannot develop agriculture and Resources
industry. By utilizing natural resources,
humans created their own world of • Based on their origin and utilization,
houses, buildings, means of transport resources can be classified in several
and communication, industries etc. ways such as: Renewability, Origin and
Utility
Resource
Renewability Origin Utility
Renewable Non Renewable Cyclic
Biotic Abiotic
Energy Raw Material
Non Replenishable Replenishable

Stuff
Minerals Vegetation Food
I m a g e 1.1: T y p e s of Resources
• There are also macro and micro of nature and can be used directly.
classifications. Like the resources which • Sometimes, tools and technology may
are utilized as food resources, mineral be needed to use a natural resource
resources, and energy resources. Then, in the best possible way. Natural
these are classified at micro level as the resources are broadly categorized
ferrous, non-ferrous etc. for the mineral into renewable and non-renewable
resources. For the food resources this resources. Renewable resources are
classification can be as vegetables, those resources which get renewed or
non-vegetables, organisms etc. replenished quickly after their use. Some
• The objective of classification would of these are unlimited and not affected
primarily decide how we put a resource by human activities, for example Solar
under a particular category. and Wind Energy.
• Resources which are obtained from • The indiscriminate use of renewable
nature and used without much resources such as soil, water, and forest
modification are called natural can have a negative impact on their
resources. The oxygen we breathe, the stock. For example, water seems to
water in our rivers and lakes, the soils, be an unlimited renewable resource.
minerals are all-natural resources. Most But today, in many parts of the world,
of these natural resources are free gifts shortage and drying up of natural water
7
sources is a major problem. Similar of people in valuable resource.

is the case with air, if we continue to Improving the quality of people's skills
degrade our environment in the way we through training, organization, and
are doing. career development efforts, so that,
• Non-renewable resources are those they are able to create additional
sources of energy which have a limited resources is known as 'Human Resource
stock that will eventually run out. It Development'.
may take thousands/millions of years
to be renewed or replenished these
exhausted resources. Since this period Conservation of
of replenishment is much more than
human life spans, such resources Natural Resources
are considered non-renewable. For
example coal, petroleum, natural gas, • Natural resources, however abundant
etc. The distribution of natural resources they are, considering the population
is highly uneven and it depends upon a status and its growth in some countries,
number of physical factors like terrain, puts a lot of pressure on these resources.
climate, and altitude of that particular • If human beings are not careful in
region. utilization of these resources, then even
• Some natural substances become the renewable resources can become
resources only when their original form very scarce and the non-renewable
has been altered by human beings. For resources can definitely get exhausted.
example the Iron ore was not a resource • The resource conservation has become
until people learnt to extract iron from the need of the hour. The carefull use
it. But now people started using the iron of resources by giving them time to get
resources to make buildings, bridges, renewed is called resource conservation.
roads, machinery, and vehicles, which Balancing the need to use resources
are known as human made resources. by present generation and conserve
Nowadays technology is also a human them for the future is called sustainable
made resource. development.
• People can make the best use of natural • International organizations like the
resources to create more productive United Nations have developed the
resources when they have ingredients concept of sustainable development
like knowledge, skill and the technology and have initiated the conservation
to do so. This makes the human beings through initiatives such as Biosphere
as a special resource. People are human reserves etc. Even each person can
resources and better education and contribute by reducing consumption,
good health, help in transformation recycling and reusing things.
8
CHAPTER - 2
MINERAL RESOURCES
Introduction minerals and metals encompass a very

diverse and globally widespread range
of activities—comprising small informal
• Minerals are the naturally occurring artisanal mines producing small
homogenous substances with a quantities of mostly low-volume and
definable internal structure. It can be high-value minerals like gold, precious
obtained in different forms in nature, and semi-precious minerals and very
ranging from the hardest diamond to large, highly mechanized industrial
the softest talc. mining processes.
• Variety of minerals strengthen global • The various minerals are not evenly
and regional economies by providing distributed on the earth surface. It is
the crucial raw materials for different because existence of mineral resources
industrial activities and are inputs is linked with certain types of geological
to almost every sector of the global formation.
economy.
• Minerals and their ores are extracted
• Till now, more than 2000 minerals have from the earth’s interior for different
been identified, but only a few are usage and minerals or metals-
abundantly found in most of the rocks. dependent value chain can be
• The extraction and production of represented through this flow chart:
I m a g e 2.1: C yc l e of Minerals
9
• In the absence of mineral resources infrastructure projects. Approximately

there would be no modern agriculture; around 45 billion tonnes of construction
means of transportation (aircrafts, ships, materials are produced annually.
cars and trains); energy production • Non-energy minerals and metals
and distribution; information and production is highly concentrated, with
communication technologies; 10 nations across the world accounting
military equipments; infrastructure for almost around 70% of the global
establishment; satellites; or even the non-energy mineral, metals and mineral
contemporary modern medicine. fuels production in 2016.
• China is by far the world’s largest
Important Facts and producer of minerals, metals and
mineral fuels. In 2016, in value, it
Information Related produced around 37% of total minerals
and metals (except mineral fuels)
Mineral Resources and about 58% of cement produced
globally.
• In 2016, the different domain of the • Though mining activities are
industry extracted at least around 65 geographically widespread on earth
billion tonnes of minerals and metal but the amount of land utilized by
contained in ores, including mineral mining activities in current and past, is
fuels and cement. rather small when compared to other
human activities like agriculture.
• Based on the total value of the minerals
and metals produced in different parts
of the world in 2016, can be estimated
at least, around 3394 billion nominal Types of Minerals
USD, including mineral fuels and at Minerals are the natural substances of
least about 1207 billion USD, if mineral organic or inorganic genesis with definite
fuel resources are excluded from the chemical and physical characteristics.
calculation. Depending upon the properties and uses,
• Construction minerals production is the it can be classified in various ways.
only type of the minerals and metals
industry that is present in every nation to
supply local construction activities and
10
Types of Minerals
Metallics Non-Metallics (do

(Contain not contain metal)
metal)
Non-
Ferrous Non-Ferrous Organic Do not contain organic
Minerals. Minerals minerals organic matter Minerals
have iron
content. do not have contain organic Mica, limestone,
iron content. matter graphite, gypsum
etc.
Example: -Iron
ore, manganese, Gold, silver,
tungsten, nickel, copper, lead,
cobalt etc bauxite, tin, Coal ,
magnesium, etc. petroleum etc
I m a g e 2.2: T y p e s of Minerals
Distribution of plateaus.
• For example Iron-ore in north Sweden,
Minerals across the copper and nickel deposits in Ontario,
Canada, iron, nickel, chromites and
different continent platinum in South Africa.
• Minerals in sedimentary rock: It
in the world contains non-metallic minerals like
limestone and fossil mineral fuels like
• Minerals resources occur in variety of petroleum and coal are also found in
rocks. Some are produced from igneous the sedimentary strata.
rocks, some in metamorphic rocks while
others found in sedimentary rocks. • Example: Limestone deposits of
Caucasus belt of France, manganese
• Minerals in igneous and metamorphic deposits of Georgia and Ukraine and
rock: Metallic minerals are found in phosphate beds of Algeria.
these types of rock that form large
11
I m a g e 2.3: G l o b a l D i s tri b u ti o n of Mines
Asia • Most ores were found in the region

associated with ancient rock which
• In Asia, India and China have large extends from the Plateau of Spain,
amount of iron ore deposits. though France and Germany to
• The Asia continent produces more than Czechoslovakia and Poland.
half of the global tin. Example: China,
Malaysia and Indonesia are among the
world's top tin producers. North America
• Asian continent also has deposits of • There important zones of mineral
manganese, zinc, copper, bauxite, and deposits are:
nickel.
• The Canadian region north of the Great
• Japan is not a rich mineral resource Lakes: Famous for Iron ore, nickel, gold,
however, it is leading in recycling uranium and copper deposits.
process.
• The Appalachian region: Important for
• China is also in the top list of countries coal deposits.
with respect to production of lead,
antimony and tungsten. • The mountain ranges of the western
North American region: has vast
deposits of copper, lead, zinc, gold and
silver.
Europe
• Europe is also leading producer of iron-
ore in the world. South America
• Large iron ore deposits are found in • High grade iron-ore production is
Russia, Ukraine, Sweden and France. highest in Brazil across the world.
• Eastern Europe and European Russia • Copper: Chile and Peru are leading
region is producing copper, lead, zinc, producers.
manganese and nickel.
12
• Brazil and Bolivia are also amongst the which metallic iron can be extracted
top list with respect to production of tin. through different techniques. The
• Continent also has other mineral colour of iron ore can vary in color from
deposits like gold, silver, diamond dark grey, bright yellow, or deep purple
bauxite, mica zinc, chromium, to rusty red.
manganese, platinum and asbestos • The iron is usually found in the various
and diamond. forms like magnetite, hematite, goethite,
limonite or siderite.
• Four important varieties of iron ore are:
Australia
» Magnetite
• Australia is one of the largest producers
of bauxite in the world and also a − It is the best quality of iron ore and
leading producer of diamond, gold, iron has Iron content around 72%.
ore, tin and nickel.
− It has excellent magnetic qualities.
• Continent is also rich in manganese,
lead, copper and zinc. » Hamatite
• Largest deposits of gold found in
Kalgoorlie and Coolgardie regions of − It contains 60-70% pure iron.
western Australia. − Most important for the purpose of
industrial use.
Africa » Limonite
• African continent is rich in mineral − Yellow or light brown colour.
resources.
− Contains around 40-60% pure iron.
• Continent is the leading producer of
diamonds, gold and platinum. » Siderite
• Large amount of world’s gold is
produced by South Africa, Zimbabwe − It is of inferior quality which
and Zaire. comprises many impurities. It has
large iron ore.
• The other important mineral resources
are copper, iron ore, cobalt, bauxite − It contains only around 40-50%
chromium and uranium. pure iron.
• Region lies south of Sahara Desert, • Distribution of Iron ore across the
is rich with various type of mineral
world
resources.
• Oil is extracted from Nigeria, Libya and » China, Australia, India, Brazil, Russia,
Angola. Ukraine, U.S.A. and South Africa are the
leading producers.
» Other important countries: Canada,
Important Minerals Iran, Sweden, Kazakhstan, Venezuela,
Liberia, Algeria etc.
of the World » Some important iron ore mines/regions
in the world:
Iron ore
• Iron ores are rocks and minerals from − Carajas and Samarco Alegria mines
13
in Brazil. Birmingham and Red Mountain

− Russia: the Ural region, Kuzkas area of South Applatians.
region in Siberia, Angara and − Canada: Including the Wright, Sept
Krasnoyarsk. Isles and Schefferville regions.
− Ukraine: Kirvoj Rog region of − Australia: Pilbara region, Mt.
Southern Ukraine, Kursk Magnetic Goldsworthy, Mt. Tom Price, Mt.
Anomaly (KMA) and Kerch peninsula. Newman, Tailoring peak, Kalanooka
− Kiruna, Gallivare and Danmora in region, Queensland, New South
Sweden. Wales and Tasmania.
− In USA: Lake Superior area including − China: it large iron ore reserves in
Mesabi, Vermillion, Marquette, Shenyang region of Manchuria;
Cuyana, Manomimi and Gogebic; Muhar and Tahyeh region of Xinjiang
Alabama state including the valley.
I m a g e 2.4: I r o n O r e P r o d u c i n g A r e a s
14
Important Iron Ore Belt in India:
Important Iron Ore Belt Description

• In Orissa high quality hematite ore is
found in Badampahar mines of the
Mayurbhanj and Kendujhar districts.
Odisha – Jharkhand
• In the adjoining Singhbhum district of
Jharkhand, haematite iron ore is also
mined in Gua and Noamundi.
• This belt is extended in Chhattisgarh
and Maharashtra. Very high quality
hematites are found in the famous
Bailadila range of hills in the Bastar
district of Chhattisgarh.
• The range of hills consist of 14 deposits
Durg-Bastar-Chandrapur
of super high-quality hematite iron ore.
• It has the finest physical properties
which are required for the steel making.
Iron ore from these mines is exported to
other countries e.g. Japan and South
Korea via Visakhapatnam port.
• Karnataka has large reserves of iron
ore. The Kudremukh mines situated in
the Western Ghats of Karnataka are a
100% export unit.
Bellary-Chitradurga-Chikmaglur-Tumkur
belt • Kudremukh mines are known to be one
of the largest iron ore deposits and the
ore from this mines is transported as
slurry through a pipeline to a port near
Mangalore.
• This belt comprises the state of Goa
and Ratnagiri district of Maharashtra.
Maharashtra – Goa Belt • The ores of this belt are not of very
high quality, but they are exploited
efficiently and it is exported through
Marmagao port.
15
INDIA
IRON ORE
Jabalpur
Singhbhum
Sundergarh
Mayurbhanj
Durg
Chandrapur
Bastar
Ratnagiri
Sandur
Hospet
Goa
Shimoga Chikmagalur
Chikmagalur
Salem
I m a g e 2.5: D i s tri b u ti o n of Iron Ore in I n di a
Manganese Gabon, Kazakhstan and India.

• Some important regions across the
• Manganese is mainly used for the world:
manufacturing of Steel and Ferro-
manganese alloy. Nearly around 6 » Kuruman area of Kalahari Basin in
Kg of Manganese is needed for the South Africa.
production of 1 ton steel.
» Moanda in Gabon.
• It is also utilized in the manufacturing
of some other important things like » Groote Eylandt in the Gulf of Carpenteria
bleaching powder, insecticides, china in Australia.
clay, batteries and paints. » The Serra do Navio and Corumba
• Important producers in the world: district of Mato Grosso in Brazil.
China, South Africa, Australia, Brazil • India’s manganese deposits found
16
in Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, of metals such as iron, with extreme

Chhattisgarh, Orissa, Karnataka and lightness and also with finest
Andhra Pradesh. conductivity and great malleability.
• Important bauxite producing countries
are Australia, China, Brazil, Guinea,
Bauxite Jamaica and Russia.
• Though, several ores contain aluminum, • Australia is the largest bauxite
it is from bauxite, a clay-like substance producing nation which accounts for
that alumina and later aluminium around 31.34% world’s production. The
is obtained. Therefore, it is used in cape York peninsula, New South Wales
production of Aluminium. and Western Australia are the major
bauxite regions.
• Bauxite deposits are formed by the
decomposition of a different variety of • China (18.41%) is the second largest
Rocks rich in aluminium silicates. producers and Hunan, Sichuan and
Guizhou are the main bauxite provinces.
• Aluminium is a very significant metal
because it integrates the strength
I m a g e 2.6: D i s tri b u ti o n of Iron, Copper, and B a u x it e
• The bauxite deposits in India are mainly

found in the Amarkantak plateau,
Maikal Hills and the plateau region of
Bilaspur- Katni. Panchpatmali deposits
in Koraput district (Odisha state) are
the most important bauxite deposits.
17
INDIA
BAUXIRE ORE
Katni
Jabalpur Lohardaga
Kachchh
Jamnagagar
Balaghat
Bilaspur Sundargarh
Amreli Mayurbhanj
Bhavnagar
Thane Koraput
Pune
Ratnagiri Srikakulam
Kolhapur
Belgaum
Shimoga
Chikmagalur
Salem
Madurai
I m a g e 2.7: B a u x it e di s tri b u ti o n i n I n di a
Copper comprise a small percentage of the

metal.
• Copper is widely utilized in various • Chile has around 30% of the world’s
industries because it is corrosion-
copper deposits.
resistant, a good conductor of electricity
and a ductile as well as malleable metal. • Other important copper producing
countries are China, Australia, Russia,
• Therefore, it has wide variety of Indonesia, Canada, Zambia.
application and used in different
products such as power cables, • India is critically poor and deficient in
automobile, utensils, electrical the reserve and production of Copper.
equipment, radiators, refrigerators, Some important regions of copper
pipes and coins etc. minerals in India: The Balaghat mines,
Singhbhum district of Jharkhand and
• Copper mining is costly and tedious Khetri mine in Rajasthan.
affair, because most of the copper ores
18
Some of the other important mineral and related information
Name of the Mineral Related information

• Galena (the principal ore of lead) is a
combination of lead and sulphur.
• Galena comprises 86% of metallic lead
and occurs in regular cube crystals.
Lead • Valuable mineral, due to its features like

softness, malleability and resistance to
corrosion.
• The U.S.A., Russia, Australia, Canada,
Peru, Mexico and Bulgaria are the
major producers.
• Major zinc material is sphalerite which
is a combination of sulphur and zinc.
• Zinc content of the ore is generally in
between 2 to 12%.
• Zinc is highly valuable, due of its
important feature to make alloys and
its resistance to oxidation.
Zinc
• The major application of zinc is for
galvanizing or cooling iron and steel
and is utilized to make it resistant to
rust.
• Canada, Russia, Peru, Australia, Spain,
Zaire and the U.S.A. are the major
producers.
• It is a soft metal, with low melting point
and also resistant to oxidation and
corrosion.
• Tinstone is the major mineral (ore)
Tin which usually contains 75% of tin.
• It is used in coating other metals to
prevent their corrosion.
• Important producers: China, Indonesia,
Peru, Brazil, Malaysia and Bolivia.
19
• It is made up of a various type of plates

or leaves which are tough and flexible.
It fragments easily into thin sheets.
• Its color can be clear, black, green,
reddish-yellow or brown. because of its
excellent dielectric strength, low power
loss factor, insulating properties and
Mica resistance to high voltage, mica is one
of the most crucial and indispensable
minerals used in electric and electronic
industries.
• India is the largest producer and
exporter of mica in the world. U.S.A,
Canada, Argentina and Brazil are the
other producers.
• It is very hard, most malleable and least
fusible metal.
• Pentlandite is important ore of nickel.
• It provides strength to iron and used to
increase heat and corrosion resistance
of Iron and other base metals.
Nickel
• It has variety of application and can
be used in Turbines, Jet engines and in
Rockets.
• Important producers are Canada,
Cuba, Philippines, Myanmar, Indonesia
and Australia.
• Tungsten has become very important
metal because of its features associated
with toughness, strength, hardness, and
resistance to abrasion.
• Tungston Carbide is almost as hard as
diamond.
Tungsten • It is almost indispensable in modern
metallurgy.
• It is used in steels for high speed cutting
tools and in hard metal for rock drills.
• Leading producers are China,
Democratic Republic of Korea, Russia
and Bolivia.
20
• Precious metal which occurs in alluvial

or placer deposits or as reefs or lobes
underground.
• For long time, it has been considered
as an international currency.
• Gold is utilized widely for jewellery
and some gold is used in dentistry, in
making glass and porcelain, in dyes, in
medicines.
Gold
• Major gold producing regions are South
Africa (Witwatersrand, Odendoalrus
and Lydenburg), U.S.A., Australia,
China, Canada and Japan.
• Kolar in Karnataka is famous for
deposits of gold in India. These gold
mines are among the deepest in the
world which makes mining of this ore a
very expensive process.
• It is also a variety of precious metal,
though much less than gold.
• It rarely found in pure form and is often
mixed with zinc blende, galena (lead)
and copper pyrites.
• Important applications: Majorly used
Silver for making ornaments, some silver is
used in the manufacturing of chemicals,
electroplating, photography and for
colouring glass etc.
• Mexico, Peru, Australia, China and
Poland are major silver producing
countries.
mineral resources will continue to

Impacts of increase.
• However, mining activities have many
Extractive Activities negative impact on environment. The
on Environment severe and enduring impacts of mining

activities on the natural environment
are mentioned by various report.
• As we have discussed, that mining is
important for economic development
• Surface mining activities often cuts
back various type of vegetation,
and for sustainable livelihoods.
removes topsoil and introduces heavy
• Due to population growth, rising machinery (which can damage fragile
urbanization and an expanding middle environments).
class (particularly in the developing
countries like India) the demand for
• Closed mining activities have the
capacity to cause environmental
21
damage as well as posing a risk to problems and have adverse human

safety. health effects, particularly if the dust
contains heavy metals in it.
• Contamination of water:
• Soil erosion and contamination
» Chemicals and other harmful materials due to mining:
used to process ores, can enter
waterways which is responsible for » Land conversion because of mining and
contamination of water. its infrastructure destroys or pollutes soil
» The liquid waste water contain toxic cover in many cases, which constitutes
chemicals such as cyanide, organic a long-term problem or even total loss
chemicals and leached heavy metal of agricultural potential of the land.
oxides » Mining processes like crushing and
» Toxic effluent waters from processing milling, significantly reduce soil particle
of mineral ores, that are not properly sizes which is responsible for soil erosion
treated or retained can directly by rainfall, runoff water or wind. This
contaminate surface waters and have can have many negative impacts on
many negative impacts on ecosystems, downstream ecosystems and human
biodiversity and human health. health.
» The negative impact of toxins can be • Habitat clearance during mining:
compounded in the food chain through
bio-accumulation. » Large-scale mining of minerals exerts or
» Increased silt within watercourses due may intensify pressures on biodiversity
to mining activities can disrupt visibility by directly and/or indirectly changing
and the migration patterns of aquatic habitats in an adverse way.
species. » Growing demand for minerals and
» Impact on ocean environment: Rivers the consumption of easily accessible
are contaminated because of mining reserves are pushing exploration
activities can flow into coastal regions, and mining activities into previously
causing lots of negative impacts on inaccessible and/or fragile regions
the marine environment. Extractive of the world like the Arctic, and more
activities in the ocean and disposal remote areas of the world’s tropical
of waste into the sea also pose many forests areas. Here, the impacts of direct
environmental issues. and induced habitat loss associated
with mining activities are very severe.
• Solid waste produced through
mining: Mineral extraction activity
is the world largest waste producer, Social Impact of
specifically from gold, copper, zinc,
bauxite and nickel mining. E.g. to Mining Activities
mine seven grams of gold mineral,
on average one tonne of waste • Mining activities are responsible
material must be mined excluding the for disruption of livelihoods due to
overburden. Air pollution through displacement and dispossession. This
has many negative implications as
mining: Since fine particles and dust
it disrupts complicated land tenure
are often produced by mining activities
systems of the people with informal
and dispersed by the wind action. This
and traditional rights.
can lead to a range of environmental
22
• Social disharmony because of growing • The health-related problems because

internal economic inequalities, e.g. of mining activities are closely related
to the environmental challenges. For
» Gender inequalities due to unequal example, water, air and soil pollution
access to jobs in the mining sector. due to mining eventually translates into
» Social disharmony between those with human health challenges.
jobs at the mine and those without. • A number of prevailing problems in
» The regional economic structure India including Naxalism, can be related
changes as livelihoods are lost and to negative impacts of mining in India.
local economic activity is reorganized
to meet the regular requirement.
• Forced eviction or relocation of local Sustainable Use of

people are common features of mining.
This leads to serious human rights
Mineral Resources
violation, particularly for indigenous
• Various recent analysis highlights how
people or the tribe whose livelihoods
a well-managed extractive industry can
are closely intertwined with the land.
promote delivery of the Sustainable
• Growing inequalities resulting from Development Goals (SDGs) and targets.
mining can be responsible for tensions
• The notion of sustainable development—
between local governments and
integrating the pillars of people, planet,
national governments. Property rights
prosperity, peace and partnership—
and mining impacts can also lead
has become the organizing framework
to local-level conflicts which can
for world development cooperation.
easily become a full-blown war. E.g.
Bougainville conflict in Papua New • Various steps needed for sustainable
Guinea. mining:
23
I m a g e 2.8: S t e p s for S u s ta i n a b l e M i n i n g
• Effective governance of the mining • Governments across the world, need to

industry will require various mechanisms ensure that core institutions relating to
and initiatives at the local, national and mining regulation are functional, with
international levels. the support of regional institutions
• We need integrated development accompanied with trained staff,
planning for mining and coherent budgetary and material resources
policy for development minerals across as well as authority to promote and
the globe at different levels of the regulate the development of the mining
governments. activity.
24
CHAPTER - 3
ENERGY RESOURCES
• Though, in recent times nuclear energy
Introduction is considered as one of the solutions but
because of its destructive use in past, it
• Energy is the capability to do work which became a political controversy.
is needed for various life processes. An
energy resource is something that can
• Therefore, overall energy provides
motion to our industrial machines and
generate heat, power life, move objects,
vehicles. It is the primary input in the
or produce electricity. Those matters
production of goods and services. The
that provide energy are known as fuel.
wheels of progress move with the flow
• Human energy consumption has of energy.
increased gradually during the course
of human history. In the ancient
times humans had modest energy
requirements. Classification of
• During the modern time, humans Energy Resources
consume as much as 110 times as much
The energy resources are classified as
energy per person as early humans.
following:
Most of the energy we utilize today
come from fossil fuels (stored solar • Non-Renewable resources:
energy). These are those resources which
• However, fossils fuels have certain become exhausted. For example: coal,
disadvantage as they are non- petroleum, natural gas.
renewable on a human time scale and
• Renewable resources: These
cause various harmful consequences
are those which can be renewed as
on the earth ecosystem.
and when required. The sun, wind,
• Humans mostly rely on materials on tides, hot springs and biomass are all
planet earth except some important inexhaustible or renewable sources of
source of energy like solar energy. There energy (pollution free).
are 5 fundamental sources of energy:
» Nuclear fusion in the Sun (solar energy). The energy resources can also be classified
as:
» Gravity generated by the Earth & Moon.
» Nuclear fission reactions. • Conventional: These are those
» Energy in the interior of the Earth. resources which have been used by
mankind for quite some time now and are
» Energy stored in chemical bonds. mostly direct form of energy resources.
• The coal was not enough to provide all • Non-conventional: These are
the energy needs of humans and they the relatively newer form of energy
realized that they cannot depend too resources. They need some kind of
heavily on oil and they need to look for processing before extracting energy
better energy resource. from them.
25
Natural Gas,
Conven onal
petroleum, Coal
sources
etc.
Sources of Energy Renewable, Cheap,

Pollu on free &
Inexhaus ble
Non-Conven onal
sources
sun, wind, des,
hot springs and
bio-mass.
I m a g e 3.1: T y p e s of Energy Sources
Coal • Formation of Coal

» About 300 million years ago the earth
• Important Features and Usage ecosystem had dense forests in low
lying wetland regions. Because of
» Coal is as hard as stone and is black in various natural processes, like flooding,
colour. these forests got buried under the soil.
» It is an exhaustible natural resource. » As more soil deposited over them, they
Like petroleum and natural gas, coal were compressed, and the temperature
was also formed from the dead remains also increased as they fell at the greater
of living organisms (fossils). depth.
» It is one of the fuels utilized to cook » Under the tremendous high pressure
food. Initially it was applied in railway and high temperature, dead plants
engines to produce steam to run gradually transformed to the coal.
the engine. Coal as energy source is As coal contains mainly carbon, the
also used in thermal power plants to gradual procedure of conversion of
generate electricity. Coal is also utilized dead vegetation into coal is known as
as a fuel in different industries. ‘carbonisation’. Since it was developed
from the remains of vegetation, coal
mineral is also known as a fossil fuel.
I m a g e 3.2: F o r m ati o n of C oa l
26
Coals are classified as

following (based on carbon,
ash and moisture content):
• Peat:
» Decaying plants in swamps produce
peat.
» First stage of transformation and it
contains less than 40 to 55% carbon,
more impurities, high moisture contents
and low heating capacity.
I m a g e 3.3: G r a di n g of C oa l
• Lignite
» It is comprised of 40 to 55% carbon
and found in intermediate stage. Global Distribution of Coal
» It is a low-grade brown coal, which is Deposit:
soft with high moisture content.
North America:
• Bituminous
• U.S.A.:
» It contains around 40 to 80% carbon,
moisture and volatile content (15 to » Eastern field: Pennsylvania anthracite
40%). field- Scranton, Wilkes Barre and
Carbondale; Appalachian Bituminous
» Dense, compact, and is usually of black Field- Pittsburg, Kentucky and West
in colour. Virginia, Alabama and Tennessee.
» This variety of coal is the most popular » The Interior Provinces (Bituminous):
for commercial usage. Metallurgical Eastern Interior field, Illinois, Indiana
coal is high quality bituminous coal and Kentucky; Western Interior Field-
which has a special value for smelting Oklahoma, Arkansas, Missouri and
iron in blast furnaces. Lowa; Northern Interior Field- Michigan;
Southwestern fields-Texas.
• Anthracite
» Gulf Provinces (Lignite): Arkansas,
» It is the highest quality hard coal. Alabama and Texas.
» It contains around 80 to 95% carbon. » Pacific Province: Oregon, California,
Washington and Alaska.
» Very little volatile matter.
» Negligibly small proportion of moisture.
» Rocky Mountains (lignite and low grade
bituminous): Wyoming, Colorodo, Utah,
New Maxico, Montana, North Dakota.
• Canada: Prairie region – Alberta

(Bituminous and Lignite); British
Columbia Coalfields- Vancouver
Islands; Nova Scotia Coal Fields- Cape
Breton Island.
27
• Europe: • Australia:
» Donetz Coal Basin- Donbass » Sydney-Newcastle in New South Wales;
(Anthracite and high grade bituminous Ipswitch Queensland; Gippsland in
coal); Moscow- Tula coalfields(lignite); Victoria.
Karaganda fields, Caucasus mountains,
Kuznetsk (Kuzbass), Karaganda fields. • South America:
• Asia: » Brazil: Santa Caterine and Rio Grande

de Sul.
» China: Inner Mongolia, Kansu, Hopei, » Columbia: Coal at Cali in the Cauca
Manchurian-Fushun (the world’s Valley.
longest strip mines, Shansi, Shensi,
Fushin, Kailan and Hegang. » Mexico: Piedras Negras, Sabins and
Lampazos.
» Japan: Chikugo, coalfield in the
northwestern Kyushu, Joban and Ube
in Honshu and Ishikari fields of Honshu.
Distribution of Coal in India
» India: Damodar Valley in the states of
Bengal, Bihar, Odisha. Important mines • Two important types of coal fields in
are Raniganj, Bokaro and Jharia. Other India:
smaller deposits are found in Chanda,
Singareni and Pench.
» The Gondwana coal fields (a little
over 200 million years in age) –
» Iran: Kermanshah. contribute around 98% of entire coal
» Pakistan: Quetta and Kalabagh. reserves and production in India. It is
distributed chiefly in the river valleys
• Africa: of the Damodar (Jharkhand - West
Bengal); the Son (Madhya Pradesh–
» S. Africa: Vereeninging and Witban; Chhattisgarh); the Mahanadi (Orissa),
Transvaal and Natal- Middleburg. the Godavari (Andhra Pradesh) and the
» Zimbabwe: Wankie. Wardha (Maharashtra).
» Mozambique: Maniamba. » Tertiary coal fields (about 55 million
years old)- around 2% is produced by
» Zambia: Nikandabwe and Mamba.
tertiary coal fields. It is majorly found
» Nigera: Enugu. in the extra-peninsular regions which
» Zaire: Luena. consist of Assam, Nagaland, Arunachal
Pradesh, Meghalaya, Jammu & Kashmir
and Sikkim.
28
I m a g e 3.4: C o n v e n ti o n a l E n e r g y resources in I n di a S o u r c e : N ROER
• Jharkhand ranks highest in production • Technology to generate energy from

as well as reserves of coal in India. The coal is well developed.
coal deposits of Jharkhand mainly • Large supply of raw material.
occur in Dhanbad, Hazaribagh and
Palamau district. • Relatively cheap source of energy.
• Lignite/Brown coal are found in coastal • High net useful energy yield.
zones of Gujrat, Tamil Nadu, and in land
basins of Rajasthan.
Disadvantages of Coal:
Advantages of Coal Generated
Energy: • It is the most polluting fossil fuels which
emits dangerous toxic compounds.
• The coal is easy to transport. • Problem of surface collapse of
29
underground coal mines. » Under these conditions marine biomass

• It is dirty to mine and awkward to progressively changed into oil and gas.
distribute. » It is primarily found along geologically
• Coal is not useful to fuel vehicles. young tectonic belt at plate boundaries,
where large depositional basins are
more likely to occur.
Petroleum • It provides fuel for heat and lighting,

lubricants for machinery and raw
Petroleum/mineral oil is the next major
materials for several manufacturing
energy source after coal. It is also called as
industries.
conventional oil or light oil.
• Some of the important products of oil
• Important Features: distillation are called petro-chemicals
which are utilized as raw material for
» It is a thick dark type of liquid the manufacture of pesticides, plastics,
comprising of a combination hundreds chemical industries, synthetic fibers,
of combustible hydrocarbons along paints and medicines etc.
with the small amounts of sulphur,
oxygen and nitrogen impurities. • There are three grades of crude oil
based on the gasoline yields:
» It is an inflammable mixture of oily
hydrocarbons. » Paraffin: Highest yield.
» It exists under the ground in solid, liquid » Naphthemic: Intermediate Yield.
and gaseous form.
» Asphalt: Lowest Yield.
» It is found in sedimentary formations
which is important factor that ancient
shields of Africa and Australia do not Global Distribution of
contain petroleum.
Petroleum/ Mineral Oil field:
• Formation: • Saudi Arabia, U.S.A., Russia, and Iran
are the chief producing nations.
» It is formed from the remnant of plants
and animals that once lived in the sea. • The important exporters of petroleum
are Saudi Arabia, Iran, Venezuela,
» For over millions of years these remains
Russia and Norway, while the leading
of plants and animals remained buried
importers are U.S.A., Japan, Germany,
under mud and rock under tremendous
Korean Republic, India.
pressure and at very high range of heat.
30
I m a g e 3.5: D i s tri b u ti o n of Mineral Oil i n wo r l d
• OPEC (Organization of the

Petroleum Exporting Countries)
Natural Gas
» Currently it has a total of 13 Member • Natural gas (also known as fossil gas), is
Countries. a naturally occurring hydrocarbon gas
mixture comprising largely of methane
» Algeria, Angola, Equatorial Guinea, gas, but commonly it can also include
Gabon, Iran, Iraq, Kuwait, Libya, Nigeria, fluctuating amounts of other higher
the Republic of the Congo, Saudi Arabia alkanes. Sometimes it also comprises
(the De facto leader), the United Arab a small percentage of carbon dioxide,
Emirates and Venezuela. nitrogen, hydrogen sulfide, or helium.
» As of September 2018, the 13 member • It is usually found in association with
countries accounted for an estimated mineral oil and sometimes in the
44% of global oil production and coal beds also. But it may also occur
around 81.5% of the world's "proven" separately.
oil reserves, giving OPEC a major
influence on global oil prices. • Although Natural Gas is type of a fossil
fuel, it is cleaner burning source than
gasoline, but does produce Carbon
Advantages of Petroleum: Dioxide (the main greenhouse gas).
Similar to petrol and diesel, natural gas
• The technology to extract energy is well is also a finite source, though available
developed. in larger quantities than the former.
• The problem of disposal of ash is not • Vast reserves of natural gas found in
faced. Russia, Saudi Arabia, Algeria, Iraq,
• It has very high energy content. Indonesia, Australia and Malaysia.
• The transmission of petroleum through • The top producers: Russia, U.S.A.,
pipes makes their movement and Canada, Netherlands and Indonesia.
feeding into machines easier. • The major exporters are Russia, Canada
• It can be used in stationary and mobile and Algeria while the leading importers
systems both. are U.S.A. and Germany.
31
I m a g e 3.6: D i s tri b u ti o n of N at u r a l g a s i n wo r l d
• Conditions Necessary for Developing

Hydroelectricity Hydroelectric Power
(significant There are some important conditions

which are to be met for the economically
component viable production of hydroelectric power.
These could be categorized in following
of electricity two categories:
production) » Economic:
− Market: Large demand for
• Process hydroelectric power.
» Hydropower, or Hydroelectricity, is a − Huge capital outlay.
type of renewable energy that utilizes − Transport facility.
the water stored in dams along with
− Technological knowledge and skill.
the water flowing in rivers to generate
electricity in the hydro-power plants. » Physical Conditions:
» The falling water helps to rotate the
blades of a turbine, which then spins − Appropriate quantity of water is
a generator that transforms the required thus areas of heavy rainfall
mechanical energy of the spinning distributed throughout the year are
turbine into electrical form of energy. required.
» Regular flow of sufficient amount of water − A seismological less sensitive area.
with high velocity provides favourable − Existence of rapids and falls favor
condition for the development of the development of power by
hydroelectricity. Amount and regularity of increasing the velocity of stream.
flow depends on amount of rainfall while
− Great altitude with steep slope to
slope determines the velocity of flow.
enhance water velocity.
32
− Narrow steep-sided valley to technology for production of

facilitate dam construction. hydroelectricity.
− The absence of coal, petroleum etc − Presence of large number
expedites the development of water of waterfalls such as Falls of
power. Appalachian, along the great lakes,
Niagara Falls and St. Anthony Falls
• Certain specific areas which in Minneapolis, Rockey mountains
are favourable for generation of and the Laurentian shields are
hydroelectric power: important.
» Mountainous areas: These are areas − Support of Government in providing
where the rivers have rapids, waterfalls necessary inputs such as Tennessee
and lakes in their coerces and are fed Valley Scheme and St. Lawrence
with glacial such as Appalachian, Alps seaway.
and Rockies. − Large demand of electricity to
» Tropical and temperate areas where support industries such as Aluminium
fairly heavy and well-distributed rainfall smelting, pulp and paper etc.
occurs and major rivers exist.
• Europe:
» The industrial regions having large
demand for power. » Norway, Sweden, France, Germany,
» Those areas where multipurpose river Switzerland and Italy.
valley projects can be appeared. » Norway is the leader in per capita
hydroelectric power.
Distribution of Hydel-Power: • Commonwealth of Independent

• Continent wise Africa has the largest States (CIS):
hydropower potential accounting for
around 41% of the total world potential. » Irkutsk, Bratsk, Krasnoyarsk in Siberia
Africa is followed by Asia (23%), North and Beloyarsk on the shores of Caspian
America (13%), Europe (11%), South Sea.
America (8%) and Oceania (4%). » Kuybyshell and Volgograd on the rive
• But actual production differs widely from Volga.
the potential because of the variations
in the economic growth. With around
• Asia:
41% of the total world production, » Japan:
North America is the largest producer
of hydro-electricity in the world. This is − Abundant rainfall which is very
followed by Europe (40%), Asia (14%), well distributed, mountainous
South America (3%), Oceania (1.4%) topography, lack of coal and the
and Africa (0.6%). need for industrial power provided
• North America: suitable conditions for the very well-
developed hydropower plants in the
» USA and Canada are the largest country.
producers hydroelectricity in the world. − The eastern and southern slopes
» Reasons for growth: of the central Honshu region have
most of the power plants of Japan.
− Development of advanced
» India:
33
− Development of hydroelectric renewable. (Previously, just smaller

power began at the end of the 19th hydel projects of less than 25 MW
century with the establishment of a in capacity were considered as
hydroelectric project for supplying renewable energy).
electricity to Darjeeling region in − Rivers originating from the northern
1897. Recently in 2019, India overtook mountainous region of India are the
Japan as the 5th largest global most important ones for hydropower
hydropower producer by capacity. plants. Various Himalayan tributaries
− India has around 100 hydropower of the Ganga have a potential of
plants above 25 MW and under around 11,000 MW.
New Hydroelectricity Policy in − Some of the important Hydroelectric
2019, Indian government officially Plants in different States of India.
recognized large hydropower as
Name of the state/UT Hydroelectric Plants

J&K Lower Jhelum, Salal on Chenab river, Dool
Hasti and Karrah.
Punjab and Himanchal Pradesh Bhakra-Nangal on Satluj river, Dehar
on Beas, Giri Bata, Andhra, Binwa, Rukti,
Rongtong, Bhabanagar, Bassi, Baira Siul,
Chamera, Nathpa-Jhakri on Satluj river.
Uttarakhand Tehri dam on Bhagirthi river
Bihar Kosi
Uttar Pradesh Rihand
Rajasthan Jawahar Sagar and Ranapratap Sagar
Orissa Hirakud on Mahanadi river
Madhya Pradesh Gandhi Sagar, Bargi
Northeastern states Dikhu and Doyang in Nagaland, Loktak
(Manipur), Gomuti (Tripura), Kopili (Assam),
Khandong and Kyrdemkulai in Meghalaya,
Serlui and Barabi in Mizoram, Ranganadi
(Arunachal Pradesh).
Maharashtra Koyana, Khopoli, Bhira, Purna, Bhivpuri
Karnataka Tungabhadra, Saravati, Kalinadi, Mahatma
Gandhi
Tamil Nadu Pykara, Kodayar, Sholayar, Mettur, Aliayar
Andhra Pradesh Lower Sileru, Upper Sileru, Nizam Sagar,
Nagarjun Sagar, Machkund
» Some of the regions of China and • South America:

South-east Asian countries are also
favourable » Brazil, Chile, Bolivia and Peru.
34
• Africa: » Kafue River, Kariba Dam: Zambia;

Sennar Dam: Sudan; Kainji Dam:
» This continent possesses the greatest Nigeria; Aswan Dam: Egypt.
potential for generation of hydro-
electric power, but due to lack of • Australia:
advancement of technology, capital
and government support, it has not » Hydroelectric power stations mostly
been able to advance towards its located areas of highest rainfall and
potential in the field. elevated region in New South Wales
and Tasmania.
I m a g e 3.7: D i s tri b u ti o n of H y d e l -P ow e r
Disadvantages of transmitted over long distance.

Hydroelectricity:
Though this energy source provides a lot of
benefits as it is one of the cleanest forms
Nuclear Energy
of energy provider however it has following
issues related to it:
• Nuclear energy is the energy in the
nucleus, or core, of an atom. Radioactive
• Requirement for a large capital and minerals are used to produce nuclear
time investment. energy through high technological
methods.
• Lake destroys land ecosystem behind
dam and also those below dams. • Radioactive minerals used for producing
energy are alternative to fossil fuels.
• Dams slowly get the problem of silting.
Like other minerals, availability of ore
• The common problem is the of radioactive material is finite and
conservation of energy generated. limited. However, a very small quantity
• The hydroelectricity cannot be of radioactive minerals can generate
35
huge amounts of energy. » Nuclear Fission: In this process, the

• There are two types of techniques which nucleus of heavy atom namely of
can be utilized to release energy from Uranium (U235) or lutonium (P239)
the radioactive minerals which can be breaks apart into smaller fragments,
used for various purpose. releasing huge amount of energy.
I m a g e 3.8: N u c l e a r fission
» Nuclear Fusion: In this method, small tritium etc. fuse or join together to
nucleus like those of isotopes of create heavier nuclei, releasing vast
hydrogen, namely deuterium and amounts of energy.
I m a g e 3.9: N u c l e a r fusion
36
• Heavy minerals like uranium, thorium, » The most common isotopes of natural
radium, plutonium and lithium are the uranium are uranium-238 (which has
important sources of nuclear energy. 146 neutrons and accounts for over 99%
• Atomic minerals can be segregated in of uranium on Earth) and uranium-235
two groups: (which has 143 neutrons).
» All uranium isotopes are radioactive
» Primary Minerals: These are made and fissionable. However only 235U is
directly from magmas, hydrothermal fissile (will support a neutron-mediated
solution and groundwater. E.g.: chain reaction).
Uraninite, Thorianite. » Naturally occurring heavy metal
» Secondary Minerals: These are element found in the Earth’s rock, soil,
made because of remobilization of rivers and oceans.
elements from primary minerals, their
transportation in solution and later • World Distribution and Production of
precipitation due to over-saturation in Uranium:
oxidizing or supergene environment.
» In 2018, more than 95% of the world’s
E.g.: Thorogummite.
uranium production was from ten
nations, with the top four nations,
Kazakhstan, Canada, Australia and
Major Atomic Minerals in the Namibia comprising 75% of global
World production.
Uranium and Thorium are the most − Australia: Olympic Dam and the
important atomic minerals. Other variety Ranger mine in Southern Australia.
of atomic minerals are beryllium, lithium
and zirconium. − Canada: Athabasca Basin, Cigar
Lake, McArthur River basin.
Uranium
− Kazakhstan: Chu-Sarysu basin
It is the most prominent source of atomic alone accounts for over half of the
minerals used in atomic energy: country’s known uranium resources.
• Important Features » India: Uranium ores are known to occur
» One of the heaviest naturally occurring in various locations along the Singbhum
elements. Copper belt. It is also found in Durg
district of Chhattisgarh, Udaipur, Alwar
» Atomic number of Uranium is 92 and and Jhunjhunu districts of Rajasthan,
chemical symbol is ‘U’. Bhandara district of Maharashtra and
» Silvery-gray metallic and highly Kullu district of Himachal Pradesh.
radioactive chemical element.
37
I m a g e 3.10: T o p 5 U r a n i u m P r o d u c e r & C o n s u m e r s
• Uranium Reserve
I m a g e 3.11: U r a n i u m R e s e r v e in World
• Use of Thorium: Nuclear energy, military has a high melting point.

purpose, nuclear weapon, ballistic ships, • Thorium-232 accounts for nearly all
submarine, counterweights to aircraft natural thorium and it is the most stable
etc. isotope of thorium.
• Thorium is mainly obtained from
Thorium monazite and ilmenite in the beach
sands near the coast of Kerala and
• Weak radioactive metallic chemical Tamil Nadu.
element with the symbol ‘Th’ and
atomic number 90.
• World’s richest monazite deposits
occur in Palakkad and Kollam districts
• Silvery and tarnishes black when it is of Kerala, near Vishakhapatnam in
exposed to air, forming thorium dioxide. Andhra Pradesh and Mahanadi river
• It is moderately hard, malleable, and delta in Odisha.
38
I m a g e 3.12: D i s tri b u ti o n of Nuclear and T h e r m a l P ow e r P l a n t s
Problems Related to Nuclear • Though it is said to be clean energy but

if accidentally, the radioactive material
Energy is leaked, it can cause pollution in long
Apart from being advantageous in many run which is very harmful to human
aspects, such as clean energy, location beings in long run.
independent, abundant raw material, • It can be used to produce Hydrogen
developed technology, there are many which is an alternate energy source for
problems related to it such as: powering the vehicle.
• Though radioactive material is • It requires enormous amount of water
sufficiently available, but to use it for for cooling purposes.
the nuclear energy, the raw material
• Because of the accidents of Three Mile
needs to be processed through very
Island in the USA and Chernobyl in
advanced technology.
the Ukraine caused much fear among
• Thus, it requires big capital for the people and thus it became a political
development of nuclear plants. issue at world stage.
39
Nuclear energy and providing about 10% of the world’s

electricity. Utilization of nuclear power
technology can contribute to in the past 50 years, has reduced CO2
all of the UN SDGs emissions by about 60 gigatonnes, or
nearly two years’ worth of total global
• There are around 440 nuclear power energy-related emissions.
reactors operating in 30 nations
I m a g e 3.13: C u m u l ati v e CO2 e m i s s i o n s avo id e d b y n u c l e a r p ow e r b y r e g i o n
Some examples related to role » Water desalination projects can also

be nuclear powered and help to build
of Nuclear energy linked with climate resilience in agriculture.
SDGs
• Nuclear energy and SDG 7
• Nuclear energy and SDG 1 (No (Affordable and Clean Energy)
Poverty)
» Nuclear energy is complementary to
» Nuclear energy assists the economy different renewable energy sources.
by supporting direct, indirect and When used together these technologies
induced jobs during construction and can assist to achieve decarbonized
operation of nuclear facilities. The electricity systems at low cost to
cost competitive and stable electricity consumers.
generated by nuclear power plants
attracts energy-intensive industry, • Nuclear energy and SDG 13
therefore creating more jobs. (Climate Action)
• Nuclear energy and SDG 2 (Zero » Nuclear energy is the second-largest
Hunger) source of low-carbon electricity in the
world after hydro power and it displaces
» Sterile Insect Technique Irradiation, is fossil fuel sources that would produce
providing a powerful line of defence about two gigatonnes of CO2 every
against agriculture’s most damaging year.
pests.
40
» Many evidences shows that nuclear elements. The rocks lying deep below
energy can be scaled up in a country earth surface are heated through the
quickly compared to other low carbon radioactive energy.
technologies, and including it in future • It can be considered a renewable source
energy pathways will help reduce the of energy. It is harvested in regions
time, costs, and risks of decarbonization. where favorable situations are found.
• It is harvested by heating water or
Energy Crisis and directly in heating spaces use for
agriculture and domestic purposes. It
Need of Renewable has some disadvantages such as:
Sources of Energy » It cannot be used to power vehicles.

» It is location bound thus is available only
• World has seen instances when it faced in certain locations of certain countries.
energy crisis at big level such as of 1970s, » Sometimes cost becomes an issue in
1990s crude oil crisis which created utilizing these resources.
disturbances within the countries and
at world level. Also we have seen that • Major producers:
each energy type has its disadvantages
like our conventional resources such as
» The U.S.A., Iceland, Italy, Japan, New
Zealand etc. are the main producers of
coal, hydroelectricity and petroleum
this energy.
has their limitations, it may cause big
issues in long run. » The U.S.A. has the world’s largest
geothermal power plant. The Geysers
• Countries all over the world are facing
in California is the largest geothermal
twin problems of fast increasing
power plant in the world.
demand for energy and limited supplies
of and rapidly depleting conventional
sources of energy like mineral oil, coal,
natural gas and wood. Solar Energy
• To address the issues, human beings
have been continuously in search • It is the energy gained from the rays of
of alternative energy resources and Sun which heat up an object when they
under such circumstances, different come in contact. It is harvested with the
non-conventional sources of energy help of photoelectric cells. The energy
have assumed much importance: Solar obtained from Sun is abundant, safe,
energy, wind energy, geothermal power, clean and is renewable.
ocean power, tidal energy and biomass • The daily average global radiation is
energy are some of the Important about 5 kwh per sq. m. per day with
examples of non-conventional sources sunshine hours ranging between 2300
of energy. and 3200 per year. This amount of
energy is much more than the total
energy requirements of the world at the
Geothermal Energy recent level of consumption.
• Different usage of solar energy in the
• It is the energy found inside the present day life are heating of domestic
earth surface through the process and commercial buildings, street
of radioactive decay of radioactive lighting, food cooking by using solar
41
cookers, power generation, agricultural International Solar Alliance (ISA):

and industrial operations, green house
technology, desalination of water and The launch of the International Solar
generation of fuels like ethanol and Alliance (ISA) was announced by India
hydrogen. and France on 30th November 2015,
at the 21st session of United Nations
• Important Regions Climate Change Conference of the
Parties (COP-21) in Paris, France.
» Tropical nations are lucky to receive
sufficient amount of sun shine and can The International Solar Alliance (ISA)
harness solar energy to their benefit. was conceived as a coalition of solar-
resource-rich nations (which lie either
» U.S.A., China, Japan and India are completely or partly between the
the major investors in developing Tropic of Cancer and the Tropic of
technologies for the development of Capricorn) to address their special
solar energy. energy needs.
» However, desert regions with less This dedicated platform will
clouds and more sunshine provide provide cooperation among solar-
great opportunities for developing solar resource-rich countries, through
energy. which the global community,
including governments, bilateral and
multilateral organizations, corporates,
industry, and other stakeholders,
can contribute to help achieve the
common goal of increasing the
use and quality of solar energy in
meeting energy needs of prospective
ISA member countries in a safe,
convenient, affordable, equitable and
sustainable manner.
I m a g e 3.14: S o l a r E n e r g y P r o d u c ti o n
42
Wind Power: Energy from

• Wind blowing consistently at high Ocean- Wave, Tide
speed (usually between 25 and 35km/
hr) in a particular direction contains and Difference in
great power which can be utilized with
the help of wind farms. A wind farm is a temperature
cluster of wind turbines which produce Wave Energy
electricity through windmills.
• It is a free, unlimited, clean and safe • The various movement of wave like
energy. It is being harvested through back-and-forth or up-and-down, can
well developed technology. be captured to produce the wave power
by utilizing it to force air in and out of
• Important Regions the chamber to drive a piston or spin a
turbine that can provide power to the
» The world’s largest wind farm is situated generator.
in Atlamont Pass in California.
• In fact, kinetic energy exists in the
» Scandinavian nations like Norway, moving waves of the ocean. That energy
Sweden, Finland, Netherlands etc. have can be tapped to power a turbine.
great potential of wind energy.
• Waves have been used to generate
» India is emerging as a important wind energy in Japan, Norway and the U.S.A.
power producer in Asia while China has Waves can produce about five times
an ambitious plan to set up wind farms. the energy requirements of Britain.
• The current installed capacity of
wind power generators in the world is
around 160 gigawatts (one gigawatt Tidal Energy
is equivalent to a 1000 million watts). • The periodical rise and fall of the sea
Around 2% of the world’s electricity is level, once or twice a day, mainly due to
obtained from wind energy. the attraction of the sun and the moon,
• Disadvantages is called a tide.
• The energy can be generated from
» It is not obtainable all the time, at all these tides 4 times a day. It is harvested
the places. It has to be used while being with the help of turbines.
produced, as it cannot be stored.
• A tidal range of 3 meters is enough to
» Persistent wind and consistent wind produce energy
speeds are needed for continuous
power generation. • Actual production is carried on at the
mouth of Rauce river in North France,
» The wind farms, whether onshore or off Kislaya Guba near Murmansk, around
shores are unsightly, noisy and generate the coast of the Barents Sea and in
a lot of noise pollution. China.
• Fundy Bay in Canada and Severn
Estuary in Britain have huge potential
for tidal energy.
43
Using Ocean Water oils. Biogas is the gas which is generrated

by fermentation of biodegradable
Temperature Variations to materials like biomass manure, sewage,
Generate Energy municipal waste, green waste etc. It
mainly comprised of methane and
• It is the energy generated due to carbon dioxide.
temperature difference of sea layers
which is also used to obtain energy • India, China and Netherlands are
from the flow of heat. The procedure generating biomass energy.
is known as “Ocean Thermal Energy
Conversion” (OTEC). Power plants
can be built that use this difference in Tar Sands:
temperature to generate energy.
• Tar Sands are big areas of swamps of
• Such conditions prevail in the tropical fine clay and sand mixed with water
zone and this zone holds great potential and variable amount of black molasses.
for producing sea thermal power. Efforts Canada has the world’s largest known
to harness this energy have been made tar sand deposits. Heavy oil is extracted
in Cuba, U.S.A. (Miami coast and Hawaii human needs of fo upgraded to
islands) and Japan. synthetic crude oil and is purified by
• Energy is generated at high cost and removing sulphur impurities.
very little output is gained. Therefore,
need to invest more in this technology
for more better output. Oil Shale:
• It is an underground formation of malt-
Some other stone sedimentary rock which contains
varying amount of a rubbery solid
important resources mixture of Hydrocarbons known as
kerogen. Technology to develop energy
fuel from it is still being researched.
Bio-energy:
• This energy is produced from plant Energy Conservation
synthesis and is one of the most versatile Energy conservation is important
energy sources which is capable of considering the consequences of generation
providing high quality gaseous, liquid of energy which involves cost, technology
and solid fuels. Wood and wood and has impact of causing pollution.
processing residues, crop residues, Energy is required for fulfilling human
animal waste, seaweed etc. provide the needs of food, living, communication and
basic raw materials for biomass energy overall in any economic activity.
generation.
• Biomass can be transformed to other
usable forms of energy, such as biogas The energy can be conserved
or methane, ethanol and biodiesel. by following three basic steps:
• The important gases produced from
• Using energy justifiably minimizing the
biomass are methane, carbon dioxide,
waste in our uses.
and hydrogen sulphide.
• Adoption of new lifestyles foe lesser
• Bio-diesel is produced from vegetable
wastage and conservation of energy.
44
• Development of new energy resources. or commercial. India is developing

off-grid solar power for local energy
needs in addition to its large-scale
India' effort and progress in grid-connected solar photovoltaic (PV)
renewable energy initiative.
•
By 2030, the government aims to create Recent Efforts:
a renewable energy capacity of 500
GW. The installed renewable energy • The largest solar power project set up
capacity as of November 30, 2020 under the central government's 'Make
was 90.39 GW, with solar and wind In India' initiative, with a capacity of 1.5
accounting for 36.91 GW and 38.43 GW, MW, was completed in November 2020
respectively. Biomass power accounted at the Leh Indian Air Force Station in
for 10.14 GW and small hydro power Ladakh.
accounted for 4.74 GW, respectively. • In November 2020, the government
• announced production-linked incentive
Solar power is a rapidly growing (PLI) scheme worth Rs. 4,500 crore
industry in India. As of June 30, 2020, for high-efficiency solar PV modules
the country's solar installed capacity manufacturing over a five-year period.
was 35.12 GW. Installing solar power • Indian Railways is taking increased
plants in India has the lowest capital efforts through sustained energy
cost per MW in the world. efficient measures and maximum use
• Rooftop solar power generates 2.1 of clean fuel to cut down emission level
GW, with 70% of it being industrial by 33% by 2030.
45
CHAPTER - 4
WATER RESOURCES
Introduction from surface run off and ground water

that is continually being renewed and
recharged with the help of hydrological
• Water (H2O) is a tasteless, colorless, cycle.
and odourless chemical substance
comprised of one oxygen atom and two
hydrogen atoms. In most cases, water
incorporates other dissolved chemicals Water Cycle:
that influence its color, taste, odour,
acidity and conductivity.
Important Source of
• The evolution of life of earth itself took Fresh Water
place in the water. Water has played
a significant role in the evolution of • The hydrological cycle has no starting
all types of life. The total amount of point as it is a cyclic interlinked
water discovered in the living beings is process and water moves through the
around 65% and 65 to 99% in various hydrosphere in a cycle.
plants. This clearly indicates the need • The three main procedures involved in
and utility of water. the water cycles are:
• Hydrosphere contains water component
of the earth which comprises oceans, » Evaporation and Evapotranspiration.
seas, glaciers, rivers, underground » Precipitation
water, lakes and ponds.
» Surface runoff
• It is reported that around 71% of the total
surface area of the earth is occupied by • Requirement of fresh water for human
water and the land area accounts for needs and the maintenance of the
only 29% of the total surface area of natural environment and ecosystems
the earth. Due to abundance of water is provided through a continuous flow
on its surface that the earth is often of water in all of its three forms i.e. ice,
known as water planet or blue planet. liquid and vapour, by a as hydrological
• Ocean waters have been used since cycle.
ancient times which was mostly • Water collects in clouds, then falls
associated with transportation, fishing down to Earth in the form of rain or
and defense. People living around snow. This water collects in rivers, lakes
seashores heavily depend upon ocean and oceans, after which it evaporates
water resources for their survival. into the atmosphere to start the cycle
• The 3/4th of the earth’s surface is all over again.
occupied with water, however, human • Solar energy is driving the whole
beings cannot use all of it to fulfill their process. It involves a continuous
requirement. Only a small proportion recycling of water between the different
water is freshwater that can be put to components (the atmosphere, land and
use. The freshwater is mainly acquired oceans) by several processes.
46
I m a g e 4.1: W at e r C yc l e
Distribution of Water available on earth, but there is scarcity

of usable quantity of water in a many
• As have discussed that more than 3/4th part of the world. Because a little over
area of the earth is covered by water. 97% of the earth’s water is salt water
Though abundant quantity of water is which is present in the oceans.
I m a g e 4.2: D i s tri b u ti o n o f wat e r
47
• Water Resource of the Ocean period, including ice sheets, ice

caps, ice fields, mountain glaciers,
» The total volume of the world ocean valley glaciers and cirque glaciers.
is estimated to be about around 1367 − Snow and ice: Areas where seasonal
million cubic kilometres which is little or permanent layers of snow and ice
more than 97% of the world’s free form on the ground surface.
water.
− Artificial reservoirs: Man-made
» This huge quantity of water can cover reservoirs used for storage,
the entire globe by a 3.25 km thick layer regulation and control of water
of water if spread uniformly over the resources.
surface of the earth.
» The important oceans of the world in » Ice caps of Antarctica and various
descending order of area and volume glaciers that occupy high alpine
are: locations, have captured around 2% of
Pacific Ocean > Atlantic Ocean > Indian the earth’s fresh water which is in solid
Ocean > Arctic Ocean form.
» Remaining 1% of all the earth’s water
Name of the Volume can be utilized by humans, plants and
Area (%) land animals.
Ocean (%)
• Fresh Water Resources at Continent
Pacific Ocean 45.77 51.63
Level:
Atlantic Ocean 22.83 23.61 » America (45% )

» Asia (28% )
Indian Ocean 20.34 21.23 » Europe (15.5% )
» Africa (9% )
Arctic Ocean 3.9 11.23
• Brazil, Russia, USA, Canada and China
• Fresh Water Resources of the are the top countries with respect to
world (Only around 2.7% of the fresh water in the world.
water) • Kuwait, Bahrain, Jordan, Libyan Arab
Jamahirya, Maldives, Malta, Qatar,
» Fresh water is contained in: Saudi Arabia, the United Arab Emirates
and Yemen are the ten poorest
− Rivers and streams: Channels
countries in terms of water resources
where water flows continuously or
per inhabitant.
periodically
• Some of the important basins are The
− Lakes: Depressions in the Earth’s
Amazon and Orinoco Basins, Yangtze
surface occupied by bodies of
Basin, Brahmaputra Basin, Irrawaddy
standing water; lakes generally
Basin and Yenisei River Basin.
contain large bodies of standing
water but also include small and
shallow water bodies, such as ponds
and lagoons Water Resources of
− Glaciers: Accumulation of ice
of atmospheric origin, generally
India
moving slowly on land over a long
• 2.45% of world’s surface area and 4%
48
of the world’s water resources are found rivers (receive high amount of rainfall
in India. and melted water from Himalayan
• Water availability from precipitation in region) account for only around 1/3rd
a year is about 4,000 cubic km. of the total surface area in the country,
have around 60% of the total surface
• Overall utilizable water resource in the water resources.
country is only around 1,122 cubic km.
» Much of the annual water flow in
• Surface Water Resources (rivers, south Indian rivers like the Godavari,
lakes, ponds, and tanks) the Krishna, and the Kaveri has been
harnessed well. (As compare to northern
» In India, around 10,360 rivers and rivers).
tributaries are lengthier than 1.6
kilometer each. • Groundwater Resources in India
» The mean annual flow (in all the river
basins) in India is estimated to be
» Overall replenishable groundwater
resources in India are around 432
around 1,869 cubic km.
cubic km. Amongst the top, The
» Because of some topographical and Brahamaputra and Ganga basins have
hydrological restrictions, only around about 46% of the total replenishable
690 cubic km (32% ) of the available groundwater resources.
surface water can be used.
» Utilization of groundwater is relatively
» Ganga, the Brahmaputra and the Barak high in the river basins situated in
I m a g e 4.3: M a j o r ri v e r s i n I n di a
49
north-western area and parts of south

India. Ex: Punjab, Haryana, Rajasthan, Sector wise water
and Tamil Nadu are using groundwater
resources a lot. utilization across the
» Some state like Kerala, Odisha and
Chhattisgarh, exploit only a small
world
proportion of their groundwater • Globally, across most of the region
potentials. over 70% of freshwater is used for
» Maharashtra, Gujrat, Uttar Pradesh, agriculture sector and because of
Bihar and Tripura are the moderate population growth, urbanization, and
users of groundwater resources climate change, competition for water
resources is expected to grow, with a
particular impact on agriculture sector.
I m a g e 4.4: W at e r u ti l i z ati o n a c r o s s th e wo r l d
• It is estimated around 22% of worldwide to over 10 billion by 2050, and whether

water is utilized in Industrial sector urban or rural, this population will need
which include power plants (use water food and fiber to fulfill their basic needs.
for cooling or as a power source), ore • Example: According to projections by
and oil refineries (use water in chemical the UN, India’s urban population is
processes), and manufacturing plants expected to increase to around 50%
(use water as a solvent). of the total population by 2050. This
would mean 840 million people in the
most water-starved parts of the country
Problem associated compared with 320 million today.
• Out of 263 transboundary basins
with water resources across the world, 158 lack any type of
cooperative management framework.
• Global population is projected to grow
• Around 20% of the global aquifers are
50
being over-exploited, leading to serious

consequences such as land subsidence Various reasons
and saltwater intrusion.
• Availability of water also faces pressures
for Water Stress
from pollution. E.g. Eutrophication of
surface water and coastal zones is
and Water Scarcity
expected to grow almost everywhere (particularly in
until 2030.
• Recent trend of climate change India)
will exacerbate the risks linked with
variations in the distribution and • Inefficient water management
availability of water resources. and uneven distribution: Fresh
• Economic losses because of water- water across the world in not evenly
related hazards have increased greatly distributed and some areas have a
in the past decade. Since 1992, different surplus amount of water for their needs
natural hazards like floods, droughts while some areas are facing drought
and storms have affected 4.2 billion problems or have less amount of water
people (95% of all people affected by simultaneously.
all disasters) and caused US$1.3 trillion Water Scarcity and Water Stress:
of damage (63% of all damage).
Water scarcity: Insufficient availability
Composite Water Management Index of water resources to the demands
(NITI Aayog Report), 2019: of water usage within a region or a
• Thirteen of the 28 States and Union country.
Territories have improved their water Water Stress: Water stress can be seen
management practices from last year. when deterioration of fresh water
• Gujarat, though it dropped a point, takes place in terms of quality and
topped the rankings for the 2nd year quantity. It is difficulty in accessing
in a row with a score of 75 out of a the sources of fresh water for use over
maximum possible 100. a period of time which may result
in further depletion of water in the
• Six States did worse as compared region.
to last year — with Delhi, which was
assessed for the first time this year • Improper Water Irrigation: India
garnering the lowest score. is one of the top agricultural countries
• The 16 low-performing States in the world so the requirement of the
collectively account for around 48% water for irrigation is very high. Some
of the population, close to 40% of of the traditional methods of the water
agricultural produce, and about 35% irrigation resulted in the loss of water
of economic output for India. because of evaporation, drainage,
excess use of groundwater, etc.
• Poor Government Policies: Several
government policies providing free
electricity and financial support to the
farmers for extraction of water through
tube wells and bore wells resulted in the
exploitation of water.
• The overall requirement for water in
51
India will grow due to rapid urbanization, with climate change. More risk is
industrialization, population growth associated with water pollution and
and in the absence of proper planning, pathogenic contamination caused
people across the world and in India by flooding or by higher pollutant
will face more issues in future. concentrations during drought season.
• Water pollution: It is associated with • Changes caused by climate change
disposal of variety of industrial wastes, in precipitation patterns are expected
domestic wastes into the freshwater to grow the intensity and frequency of
sources like rivers, lakes have resulted flood and drought events in many areas
in polluting water bodies. which may have lots of secondary
effects. E.g. along with changes in
• Poor water storage: During the natural vegetation, it will also lead to
monsoon rainfall season, the desilting the destabilization of slopes and thus
operations of the water bodies, dams, higher potential for sudden floods and
etc. are not done at the time therefore it landslides.
is affecting the water storage capacity
of India. • Water quality will be negatively affected
because of higher water temperatures,
reduced dissolved oxygen, due to which
Impact of Climate self-purifying capacity of freshwater

bodies will be reduced.
Change on Water • Important ecosystem across the world,

specifically forests and wetlands, are
Resources also at risk. Overexploitation of natural
resources by humans and degradation
• Utilization of water has expanded by a of ecosystems will not only lead to
factor of six over the past 100 years and biodiversity destruction, but at the same
it will continue to increase steadily at time it will also affect the provision
a rate of around 1% per year because of water-related ecosystem services
of increasing population, economic like carbon capture and storage,
development and shifting consumption water purification, and natural flood
patterns. protection along with the provision
of water for fisheries, agriculture, and
• Accompanied with a more erratic and recreation.
uncertain supply of water, climate
change will aggravate the situation of • Impact on Tropical Zone: Much of
currently water-stressed areas across the negative impacts of climate change
the globe and generate water stress in can be seen in the tropical areas where
regions where resources of water are most of the developing countries of
still abundant today. the world are situated. Most vulnerable
• Physical water scarcity is often regions to climate change are small
considered as a seasonal phenomenon, island developing states which will
rather than a chronic one, and climate experience increasing water stress. At
change is likely to responsible for the same time across globe, dryland
shifts in seasonal water availability regions are expected to expand in
throughout the year in several places. tropical areas. Melting of glaciers
because of climate change is expected
• Growing frequency and magnitude of to have a negative effect on the water
extreme natural events like heatwaves, resources of mountain areas and their
unprecedented rainfalls, thunderstorms adjacent lowlands e.g. glaciers of the
and storm surge, are also associated
52
Himalayan ecosystem are melting fast

due to climate change. Demand and Supply
• Even though we can see the impact
of climate change on the distribution
side solution
of water, some uncertainties remain, • Looking at the current situation
particularly at local and basin scales. related to use of water resources,
there is a requirement for a paradigm
shift. We urgently require a transition
from this 'supply-and-supply-more
water' provision to measures which
lead towards sustainable use of water
resource like water use efficiency,
reducing leakages, cooperation at
different level of governments and
recharging/restoring local water bodies
etc.
Demand Side Solution: Supply Side Solution:

• Metro water and groundwater use • Various authorities at national and
should be assessed and priced regional level should monitor and
progressively, like the electricity tariff, regulate groundwater.
where the quantity of electricity use
determines the price. • Water resources associated with
supply by private tankers must also be
• Regional and national government regulated with pricing for their services
should cooperate, and they can having reached exorbitant levels.
practice differential pricing.
• Additional desalination plants should
• Need to put more focus on less water- also be commissioned. Desalinated
intensive crops e.g. millets, pulses and water is less expensive as compare to
oilseeds, especially in India’s drylands, water supplied by private tankers.
farmers would have the incentive to
cultivate them. • Beds of existing lakes can be deepened
for greater water storage and better
• Spread awareness with respect to water percolation.
benefit of organic farming (e.g. -
decomposed organic matter helps to • Need to focus on restoring of water
improve the water holding capability bodies.
of the soil) and conservation tillage etc. • Focus on water harvesting techniques
• More use of Micro-irrigation system like and adaptation of more water
drip and sprinkler irrigation system. harvesting method like- Buildings
inside the complex can be equipped
with facilities for artificial ground water
recharge.
53
Some of the appropriate and low-cost drainage and

treatment systems.
important initiatives
taken by India Pradhan Mantri Krishi
Sinchayee Yojana (PMKSY):
Atal Bhujal Yojana (ABHY):
• It has been formulated amalgamating
• It focused on sustainable ground ongoing schemes like:
water management with community
participation in select over-exploited » Accelerated Irrigation Benefit
and ground water stressed regions Programme (AIBP) of Ministry of Water
in seven States (Gujarat, Haryana, Resources, River Development & Ganga
Karnataka, Madhya Pradesh, Rejuvenation.
Maharashtra, Rajasthan and Uttar » Integrated Watershed Management
Pradesh). Programme (IWMP) of Department of
Land Resources.
» On Farm Water Management (OFWM)
Jal Jeevan Mission: component of National Mission
• The proposed Jal Jeevan Mission will on Sustainable Agriculture (NMSA)
make source sustainability measures of Department of Agriculture and
mandatory prior to pumping and Cooperation.
distributing water to households.
• Programmes like the Swajal project in • Major objective of PMKSY
Uttar Pradesh and Uttarakhand and » To achieve convergence of investments
the Water and Sanitation Management in irrigation infrastructure at the field
Organisation (WASMO) programme level.
in Gujarat, demonstrated that with
adequate capacity building and » Increase cultivable region under
training are very helpful through which assured irrigation.
water can be most efficiently managed » Improve and enhance on-farm water
at the lowest appropriate level. use efficiency to reduce wastage of
• Schemes would be managed by the water.
community itself with the help of » Enhance the adoption of precision-
establishment of a village water and irrigation and other water saving
sanitation committee, a sub-committee methods which will fulfill the aim of
of the gram panchayat. ‘More crop per drop’.
• Surface water-based multi-village » Enhance and improve recharge of
schemes will be promoted if adequate aquifers and introduce sustainable
quantity of safe groundwater is not water conservation techniques by
present in a region, or where it may be exploring the feasibility of reusing
technically not feasible to have single- treated municipal wastewater for peri-
village schemes. urban agriculture and attract greater
• Provision for the effective channeling private investment in precision irrigation
and treatment of household wastewater system in agriculture.
(known as grey water) with the help of
54
CHAPTER - 5
MARINE RESOURCES
» This is accrued from multiple services
Introduction and resources such as:
• Multiple resources of Oceans have been − Marine transport (90% of world

used since ancient times which was trade moves over the seas),
mostly associated with transportation, − Global telecommunications
fishing and defense. People living (submarine cables carry 95% of all
around seashores heavily depends digital data across the world),
upon marine resources for their survival.
− Various sources of food e.g. fisheries
• Marine resources can be segregated and aquaculture feed 4.3 billion
into two part i.e. biotic and abiotic population with more than 15%
resources which are found inside the of annual consumption of animal
oceans and are beneficial to human protein),
beings.
− Oil and gas (around more than 30%
• Apart from transportation, the use of are produced from offshore),
the oceans has diversified into multiple
fields and the economic richness of the − Marine tourism (around 5% of the
seas and oceans is represented by: world Gross Domestic Product (GDP)
and 6-7% of global employment),
» The different variety of living resources − Shore- based economic activities
e.g. fish and marine vegetation which (13 of the world’s top 20 megacities
provide us protein and feed for other and more than 40% (around 3.1
species, billion) of the world population lives
» Variety of material goods like within 100 km of the sea in about
hydrocarbons, minerals, and sand and 150 coastal cities situated along the
gravel, coast and in island nations).
» Important services like, ports, • Recently the idea of Blue Economy
shipbuilding, fishing, tourism, gained prominence which is associated
» Renewable energy produced by wind, with ocean-based economic and
wave, tidal, thermal and biomass. commercial development which
leads to improved human wellbeing
• These multiple resources acted as a and social equity, while significantly
catalyst for the development of variety decreasing environmental risks and
of industries, both on land and at sea. ecological scarcities."
• Commercial value of different activities
in the world’s oceans (estimated By
United Nations).
» The economic value of marine

resources linked with various activities
in the world’s oceans is estimated to be
between US$ 3 trillion to US$ 6 trillion
(INR 20 lakh crore to 40 lakh crore).
55
» Examples:
Marine resources
− Due to the work of river.
linked with ocean − By the means of sea waves and
deposits and their currents.
− Due to work of winds.
sources − Due to the work of Glaciers.
The ocean deposits spread over the ocean
floors and these deposits are mostly linked • Pelagic Deposits
to the four sources.
» These sediments are found on the
• Terrigenous Deposits floors of deep seas and oceans. These
deposits are mainly obtained from
» These deposits are obtained from land the marine vegetation and animal life.
and it is mostly found the shallower The sediments comprise of shells and
depths. It can include deposits of skeletons of marine Vegetation and
mud, volcanic materials obtained from animals.
denudation of continental rocks, sand
and gravel.
» Pelagic deposits cover around 75.5% of
ocean areas in the form of many types
» There are various sources through of oozes in a sporadic mix in most cases
which these deposits are brought into with other types of ocean deposits. Of
to the oceans. the total ocean deposits, red clay covers
around 31.1% of the ocean floor.
I m a g e 5.1: P e l a g i c D e p o s it s
56
• Deposits and sediments from marine resources, as to which extent

Sub – Marine Volcanoes areas should be covered by countries
to extract resources to which they can
» The volcanoes sub merged under the own. These disputes have largely been
ocean explode out volcanic material resolved to a some extend by the Law
which is also very helpful in the creation of The Sea created by United Nations.
of oceanic deposits. Different maritime zone and their
resources are:
• Extra Terrestrial Deposits • Baseline
» Ocean deposits can also be obtained » Normal baseline can be defined as
from extra Terrestrial sources, for
the low-water line around the coast
example: meteors and their ash falls on
recognized by the coastal State. Various
the earth, which can be detected with
rules and regulation for determining
the microscope.
the baseline apply in different
circumstances, like bays, mouths of
rivers, ports, deeply indented coastlines,
Marine resources fringing reefs, and roadsteads.
and United Nations • Internal Waters

Convention on the » This is the part of water which lies on
Law of the Sea
the landward side of the baseline from
where the breadth of the territorial water
(UNCLOS) is calculated. Each coastal country has

full sovereignty over its internal waters
as if they were part of its land territory.
• Conflict arose due to the extraction of
I m a g e 5.2: M a riti m e L i n e s (UNCLOS)
57
• Territorial waters − Right to apply its jurisdiction as

provided for in international law
» Extent and Nature of Rights: regarding the establishment and use
of artificial islands, installations, and
− Territorial waters extends seaward structures, marine scientific research,
up to 12 nautical miles (nm) from its and the protection and preservation
baseline. of the marine environment.
− The coastal country exercises
sovereignty over its territorial sea » Important resources and activities:
» Important resources and activities: − Fish, energy and mineral resources

Vital zone of living animals of oceans, are the important resources of this
ports and harbour facilities, tourism zone.
and resorts. − Modern fishing nets and techniques
are being used for species specific
• Contiguous Zone fishing.
» Extent: It lies adjacent to and beyond − Different technologies and expertise
its territorial sea that extends seaward assess the damage due to oil spill
up to 24 nm from its baselines. or other causes which will help
to determine the impact, and
» Nature of Rights: restoration.
− In its contiguous zone, a coastal
• Continental Shelf
country may exercise the control
necessary to stop the infringement » It lies up to 200 nm from its baseline.
of its customs, fiscal, immigration or
sanitary rules and regulations within » It is comprised of the seabed and subsoil
the limits of its territory or territorial of the submarine regions which extends
sea, and punish infringement beyond the range of its territorial sea
of those laws and regulations throughout the natural prolongation of
committed within its territory or its land region upto the outer edge of
territorial sea. the continental margin.
− Country has the right to control » Coastal country has Exclusive

trafficking in archaeological and Sovereign rights over natural resources
historical objects found at sea. of the seafloor, as well as sedentary
organisms.
• Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) » Usually Near shore important resources
are:
» Extent and nature of rights: − Placer deposits for tin, titanium,
zircon, chromium, iron, gold and
− 200 nautical miles from the
diamond
baselines.
− Phosphorites: mostly calcium
− The country has sovereign rights for phosphate used in agriculture
the purpose of exploring, exploiting,
conserving and managing natural − Evaporites: (formed due to
resources, whether living or nonliving evaporation of sea water), mainly
and other activities for the economic salt (Sodium Chloride), anhydrite
exploitation and exploration of the and gypsum
zone e.g. the production of energy − Offshore resources are oil and
from the water, currents and winds. petroleum, gas hydrates.
58
Important Marine energy to operate than distillation, it

was considered to be sustainable in
Resources and desalination of water.
Related Information • Flash Distillation/

distillation:
Equilibrium
Fresh Water Resources

» In this method a liquid mixture feed
• Saline ocean water can be transformed is pumped through a heater to raise
into fresh water through different the temperature and enthalpy of the
processes. Many countries and sectors mixture.
need to produce fresh water by » After this it flows through a valve and
desalination due to their lack of natural the pressure is reduced due to which
sources of fresh water. liquid gets partially vaporized.
• Desalination process has brought » The liquid and vapor separated once
freshwater and industrial and the mixture enters a big enough
commercial development to different volume. As the vapor and liquid are in
regions of the world that otherwise such close contact till the "flash" occurs,
might have remained unproductive. the product liquid and vapor phases
Following are the techniques which are approach equilibrium.
used for this purpose:
• Reverse Osmosis: • Electro-dialysis:
» Reverse Osmosis (RO) is a water » Salt dissolved in water takes the

purification technique that uses a form of ions which, because they are
partially permeable membrane to charged and move under the influence
separate unwanted molecules, ions, of an electric field. This method uses
and larger particles from water. an applied electric field to separate
these salt ions through ion-permeable
» This process required considerably less membranes.
I m a g e 5.3: E l e c tr o - di a ly s i s C e l l
59
• Freezing: When the saline water is » Shallow coastal water. Enough

made to freeze, the water molecules sunlight penetration which supports in
arrange themselves into a crystalline photosynthesis procedure required for
lattice, leaving behind highly plants.
concentrated salt. » Coastlines which are indented give
• Salt Absorption: Chemically active favourable coastal conditions for
resins of charcoals are utilized to draw fishing activities.
off the resolved salt ions from saline » Mixing of cold and warm ocean water
water, which gives fresh water. and the associated plankton formation,
which is the important food for fishes.
» Coastal upwelling zones where high
Marine Fishing rates of primary production take place.
• The ocean waters have been fished for » Accessibility to forest resources which
thousands of years and are an integral supports the manufacturing of fishing
part of our society. boats.
• It is traditionally construed as one of
the most significant sectors of the Blue
Economy. Its contribution is majorly Marine Mineral Resources
felt in economic activities like national • These minerals are either dissolved in
income, trade, employment generation, the marine water or they can be found
food and nutritional security and various as deposits. These resources are found
kinds of non-traditional economic either on the surface or below the
security. surface. Some of the principle marine
• Fish consumption significantly grown mineral resources are:
from 5.2 kg per capita in the year 1961
to 19.4 kg in the year 2017, at an average
• Salt, or sodium chloride
annual rate of 2.4%. » Exists in ocean water at a concentration
• In 2017, fish consumption accounted for of around 3% and as such constitutes
around 17% of the world population’s for more than 80% of the dissolved
intake of animal proteins, and 7% of all chemical elements in sea water.
proteins consumed. » Salt availability in all the oceans is
• The top seven producing nations of so enormous that it could provide all
world capture fisheries accounted for human needs for hundreds, perhaps
almost 50% of total captures, China thousands, of years.
capturing around 15% of the total, » Amongst most of the mineral resources
followed by Indonesia (7% ), Peru (7% salt can be extracted at commercial
), India (6% ), the Russian Federation level efficiently.
(5% ), the United States of America (5%
) and Vietnam (3% ). • Potassium
• The most common species of the global
fisheries are herring, cod, anchovy, » Similar to the sodium and chlorine
flounder, tuna, shrimp, mullet, squid, of salt, Potassium occurs in large
crab, salmon, lobster, scallops and quantities in ocean water, however
oyster. its average concentration of about
1,300 parts per million (ppm) or 0.13%
• Good fishing grounds depends on: is generally too low to permit direct
60
economic extraction. » It is formed as the result of precipitation

» It is found in many thick evaporite by biological organisms ranging from
sequences along with common salt mollusks to corals and plants.
i.e. sodium chloride and is mined from » Gypsum forms during evaporation of
these beds at rates of tens of millions of ocean water and thus may occur with
metric tons per year. evaporite salts and/or with limestones.
» The potassium salts were deposited » The gypsum deposits are mined and
when ocean water had been evaporated generally transformed into plaster of
down to about one-twentieth of its paris and used for construction.
original volume.
• Cobalt-rich ferromanganese
• Magnesium crusts (CFC)
» It dissolved in ocean water at a » CFC are commonly discovered in a
concentration of around 1,000 parts range of 800-2,500m of depth.
per million.
» It can include cobalt, nickel, manganese
» It is the only metal mineral directly and copper. Additionally it may also
extracted from sea water. include other minerals including
» The important minerals mined are precious metals (platinum) and rare
magnesite and dolomite. earth elements.
» They are known to occur in the EEZs
• Sand and Gravel zone of Kiribati, the Marshall Islands,
the Federated States of Micronesia,
» The ocean basins constitute the Samoa, Palau, and Tuvalu.
ultimate depositional regions of
sediments eroded from the land, and • Seafloor Massive Sulphides (SMS)
beaches represent the largest residual
deposits of sand. » They are commonly discovered at
» They are extensively mined for depths between 350 and 5,000 meters.
construction materials, glass » SMS deposits mostly found in the deep
manufacture, and preparation of silicon ocean water around submarine volcanic
metal. arcs, where hydrothermal vents exhale
sulphide-rich mineralizing fluids into
• Limestone and Gypsum the ocean.
» Limestones (rocks comprised of calcium » It comprised of high concentrations of
carbonate) are forming extensively iron, zinc, gold, silver, copper, cobalt,
in the tropical to semitropical ocean manganese and nickel.
regions of the world.
61
I m a g e 5.4: D e e p O c e a n M i n e r a l s
• Polymetallic Manganese Nodules related technologies, and ocean climate

(PMN) change advisory services,.
• Two most important projects planned
» Polymetallic manganese nodules (PMN) in the 'Deep Ocean Mission' report
most often found at great depths (3,500 incorporate a desalination plant
– 6,000m). powered by tidal energy and a
» PMN can comprise of manganese and submersible vehicle which can explore
limited amounts of cobalt, copper, iron, depths of at least 6,000 metres of
lead, manganese, nickel, zinc, and rare ocean water.
earth elements. • This mission will support India’s vision
» They are potato shaped, and largely to exploit the resources of the Central
porous nodules found in abundance Indian Ocean Basin (CIOB). India
carpeting the sea floor of world oceans has been allocated 75,000 square
kilometers in the CIOB by the United
in deep sea.
Nations International Seabed Authority
(ISA) for the exploration of polymetallic
Deep Ocean Mission of India nodules.
• It has been estimated that around 380
• It will help India to enter hitherto million metric tonnes of polymetallic
untapped 75,000 sq km of area in
nodules are available at the bottom of
international waters to tap vast marine
the Central Indian Ocean basin.
resources.
• Challenges associated with the
• The objective of the mission is mostly exploitation of polymetallic manganese
linked with deep sea mining, underwater
nodules (PMS):
vehicles and underwater robotics
62
» The specialized drills and extraction- • Ocean Thermal Energy

technology that would be required Conversion (OTEC):
pulling out the metals from the deep
sea would develop a major technical » OTEC uses the temperature differential
challenge. between cooler deep and warmer
» The deep-sea mining without holistic shallow or surface sea waters to power
approach may cause a drastic a heat engine and produce useful work.
disturbance and imbalance in the » Energy is generated at high cost and
ocean ecosystem. very little output is gained. need to
» It is considered as the last resources to invest more in this technology for more
depend on. There are various mountain better output.
ranges, ridges, forests, seamounts, » However, the temperature differential is
volcanoes and a unique ecology that small, and this significantly impacts the
challenges the common knowledge. economic feasibility of ocean thermal
» The deep-sea mining may distract the energy for electricity generation
various keystone and the foundation because in this process energy is
species. generated at high cost and very little
output is gained.
Marine Energy/Ocean Energy

There are various ocean phenomenon Marine Biotechnology
and elements like wave, tidal stream, tidal
• Various marine bio-resources like
range, ocean thermal, ocean current, run-
sponge, marine fish species, molluscs,
of-river, and salinity, etc., through which
bacteria, algae, olga, coral, fungus,
energy can be harnessed from sea water.
sea worm, etc. are utilized widely in
• Tidal Energy: different industrial applications, drug
developments, agriculture, fisheries,
» A tidal range of 3 meters is enough to biofuel, oil spills, tissue and dental
produce energy. applications.
» Tidal barrages and lagoons to power • Marine Biotechnology has variety of
small mills have been used in Europe uses in industrial sectors including
for many centuries. pharmaceuticals, cosmetics,
nutritional supplements, molecular
» One of the major limitations on tidal
probes, enzymes, fine chemicals and
technology development is its site
agrochemicals.
specificity which will always constrain
tidal technology and limits its total • At global level the size of biotechnology
potential. market is estimated at around US$
2.4 billion which is expected to grow
• Wave Energy: annually at the rate of 10%.
» Wave associated with different ocean • Biotechnology can be grouped into:

water movement like back-and-forth » Green/Agricultural Biotechnology.
or up-and-down, can be captured to
produce the wave power » White/Industrial Biotechnology.
» In fact, kinetic energy exists in the » Blue/Marine Biotechnology.

moving waves of the ocean water which » Red/Medical Biotechnology.
can be used to power a turbine.
63
• Some important products of − It is the excessive loading of water

Biotechnology with nutrients, dissolved substances
containing the elements Nitrogen (N)
» Biopolymer is very useful in dental and Phosphorus (P) needed for the
biomaterials, wound dressing, bio- growth of organism. It is happening
adhesives, tissue regeneration and 3D due to increased inputs of nutrients
tissue culture scaffolds. from various activities in the
upstream catchment, atmospheric
» Specific marine fish varieties are
deposition and local effluents.
utilized for drug manufacturing to
cure cancer, malaria, Alzheimer, pain − The side effects of eutrophication
and inflammation, different forms on marine ecology include:
of infections, schizophrenia, and algal blooms, oxygen depletion
neovascular diseases. in lower water layers, increased
sedimentation and oxygen
» Sponge is useful to manufacture drugs
consumption, and, sometimes,
for diseases like cancer, malaria,
mortality of benthic animals and
viral infections inflammation and
fish.
cardiovascular issues
» Coral for inflammation and wounds. » Ship-generated or vessel-source

pollution and pollution by dumping.
» Offshore petroleum exploration and
Marine Pollution exploitation (pollution from seabed
activities).
• At global level, different land-based » Deep-ocean mining activities adversely
like agricultural run-off, discharge of affects benthic organisms by destroying
nutrients and pesticides and untreated habitats.
sewage including plastics) account
for around 80% of marine pollution.
Different ocean water habitats are
contaminated with man-made debris.
Important
• Huge amount of nutrients from international
sewage and agricultural runoff have
been responsible for ocean pollution. and regional
Example: Increasing incidence of low
oxygen (hypoxic) regions called as dead conventions/Rules
zones, where most marine life cannot
live, resulting in the collapse of some
• Convention on Biological Diversity
(CBD): This has three major goals, the
important marine ecosystems.
conservation of biological diversity
• There are now around 500 dead zones (Biodiversity); the sustainable use of
with a total global surface area of components of biodiversity; and the
more than 245,000 km²(approximately fair and equitable sharing of benefits
equivalent to that of the United coming from genetic resources.
Kingdom).
• Nairobi Convention related to
• Some important sources of ocean protection and conservation of coastal
Pollution: environment of East African coast;
» Eutrophication • The International Maritime Organization
(IMO) has its own regulatory framework
64
related to the shipping sector, ensuring • Therefore to preserve the marine

the safety and security of maritime ecosystem and sustainable use of
navigation as well as protection of ocean resources, the global community
ocean environment. in 2015 announced its commitment to
• Ramsar Convention on wetlands of Sustainable Development Goals 2030
international significance. in which Goal 14 is associated with
sustainable development of the ocean
• MARPOL: The International Convention resources: “Life Below Water – Conserve
for the Prevention of Pollution from and sustainably use the oceans, seas
Ships is the major international and marine resources for sustainable
convention covering prevention of development.”
pollution of the ocean ecology by ships
from operational or accidental causes. • Goal 14 of SDGs is also associated
with other Goals like as SDG 1 (No
• African Maritime Transport Charter Poverty), SDG 2 (Zero Hunger), SDG
on promoting regional co-ordination 6 (clean water and sanitation for all),
and best practices in transportation of SDG 7 (affordable and clean energy),
ocean. SDG 8 (economic growth), SDG 9
• International Whaling (infrastructure), SDG 10 (reduction of
Commission (IWC): International inequality), SDG 11 (cities and human
Convention for the Regulation of settlements), SDG 12 (sustainable
Whaling to provide for the proper consumption and production), SDG 13
conservation of whales and thus make (on climate change), SDG 15 (related to
possible the orderly development of the biodiversity), and SDG 17 (partnerships
whaling industry. for the goals).
• World Heritage Convention which also

seeks to protect and conserve sites of Different countries have been cooperating
human heritage on high seas. in policy initiatives and action plans to
promote various methods to conserve
the marine ecosystem and its resources.
Sustainable Among the island countries, Seychelles
and Mauritius have been spearheading
Development Goals the discourse, while the European Union
(EU) has developed a sophisticated policy
(SDGs) associated for harnessing the resources of oceans.
Similarly, various multilateral institutions
with marine like APEC, EAS, SAARC and IORA have
resources highlighted the growing significance of the

Blue Economy in their policy framework.
India is also emerging as a major maritime
• The ocean drives some of the important
and naval power. It has placed the Blue
global systems that make the Earth
Economy high on its agenda for economic
habitable for humankind.
growth. The essential objective of India
• Our rainwater, weather, climate, is to promote Blue Economy and protect
drinking water, coastlines, a large part marine ecosystem through a robust
of our food, the oxygen in the air we regulatory framework which contributes to
breathe, are all directly or indirectly sustainable utilization of existing natural
provided and regulated by the ocean resources.
water.
65
CHAPTER - 6
BIOTIC RESOURCES
Introduction they are part, this comprises diversity

within species, between species and of
ecosystems.
• The biosphere comprised of all the
biotic component (living organisms),
• Population trend of various species
of plants and animals are important
the abiotic component (energy and
because they are a measure of overall
physical environment) and there are
ecosystem health.
continuous interactions between living
organisms and physical environment • The COVID-19 pandemic has further
and also among the living organisms pointed out the significance of the
themselves. relationship between people and
components of nature.
• Human life and socio-economic well-
being are dependent on the accessibility • Soil ecosystem comprises the largest
to various natural resources (both reservoirs of biodiversity on the earth
abiotic and biotic). and up to 90% of living organisms in
terrestrial ecosystems, including some
• Various natural resources and its
type of pollinators, spend part of their
component holds immense value for
life cycle in soil habitats.
human beings and perform various
direct or indirect functions for humans.
E.g. most important one is climate
regulation. Component of
• Biotic resources comprised of various
species of microorganisms, fungi, plants
Ecosystem
and animals living on earth surface.
• The Earth’s ecosystem comprises
• Convention on Biological Diversity of both the living and the nonliving
(CBD) defines biodiversity as the components. Living organisms cannot
variability among living organisms survive without their surrounding non-
from all sources, inter alia, terrestrial, living environment as the non-living
marine and other aquatic ecosystems environment gives materials and energy
and ecological complexes of which for the very survival of living organisms.
66
include all living

elements of the
environment
Biotic
Forests and forest
products, crops, birds,
wildlife, fishes and
other marine lives
Component of
environment
include all non-living
elements of the
environment
Abiotic
Land, water, air and

mineral resources
I m a g e 6.1: C o m p o n e n t of E n v ir o n m e n t
• Biotic Component: living rabbits, cow, and goat etc.

component can be divided into three − Carnivore animal gets nutrition
categories. indirectly from producers by eating
herbivores.
» Producers (Autotrophs): Make their
own food − Organisms that can feed on both
the plants and animals are known
− Producers mainly comprises green as omnivores.
plants, algae, and certain bacteria
etc. » Decomposers
− Plants make their own food through − These include saprophytes that lives
the process of photosynthesis in on dead or decaying matter.
which they derive their energy from
the Sun i.e. primary source of energy
− They are micro-organisms mostly
bacteria, fungi, protozoa etc.
on the planet.
− In chemosynthesis process they
obtain their energy from chemicals
and make their own food. E.g. Important Biotic
Cyanobacteria.
Resources and their
» Consumers (Heterotroph)
Extent
− It comprises organism that consume
other plants or animals for energy • Along with trees forest also comprises
and nutrients. many different species of plants
and animals that reside in the soil,
− Herbivores animals derive nutrition
understorey and canopy.
directly from consuming producers
or green plants. E.g. antelope, • According to Unites Nations, an estimate
67
from 2011 puts the number at around terrestrial vertebrates and the highest
8.7 million (plus or minus 1.3 million), number of threatened species.
with around 6.5 million species on land
and around 2.2 million in oceans. • Important info related to Tree
• Important information related to species (According to the Global
Habitats Tree Search)
» Tropical moist forests stand out as » Survey suggests the existence of 60,082
the significant reservoirs of global tree species which includes palms and
biodiversity and it includes around many agricultural tree crops (e.g. coffee,
1200 species of beetle from a single oil palm and fruit trees) not commonly
tree species, 365 types of tree species found in forests.
in a 1-ha plot, 365 plant species in a 0.1- » Around half of world’s tree species (45%
ha plot and approximately half of the ) are part of just ten families. Fabaceae,
global species richness in just 6 to 7% Rubiaceae and Myrtaceae are the three
of its land area. most tree-rich families.
» Tropical and subtropical forests (dry » Brazil, Colombia and Indonesia (mostly
and humid) include the ten hotspots Tropical countries) are the countries
with highest number of endemic higher with the greatest number of tree
species.
I m a g e 6.2: D i s tri b u ti o n of Tree species
» The countries with the most country- Madagascar and Papua New Guinea.
endemic types of tree species reflect » Threatened species:
broader plant diversity trends e.g. in
Australia, Brazil and China or are island − Till December 2019, 20,334 types of
regions where isolation is responsible for tree species had been included in
the added speciation e.g. in Indonesia, the IUCN Red List of Threatened
68
Species, out of these 8 056 were − Over 1400 tree species have been
assessed as globally threatened assessed as critically endangered
species (Critically Endangered, species which require urgent
Endangered or Vulnerable). conservation action.
I m a g e 6.3: TOP TEN COUN TRIES AND T ERRITORIES I N TERMS OF NUMBER OF

END EM IC TR EE SPECIES
• Around 144 000 types of species of fungi America, the gorillas of Central Africa,
have been named and classified so far the lemurs of Madagascar, the panda
but it is roughly calculated that the vast bears of China and the Philippine Eagle.
majority (over 93% ) of fungal species » Around 1.3 million species of
are currently unrevealed which shows invertebrates have been identified.
that the total number of fungal species However, some report suggests the
on Earth ecosystem is somewhere range of species between 5 million to 10
between 2.2 and 3.8 million. million.
• Important information about Animals:
• Wildlife in India
− According to IUCN, around 70000
vertebrate species are known and » India is also a home of great variety of
forests act as the important habitats wildlife.
for almost around 5 000 amphibian » Indian region provides habitat to about
species (80% of all known species) 75,000 species. 1200 different species of
and close to around 7500 bird birds are found in India.
species (75% of all birds).
» Amongst the important animals,
− over 3 700 different mammals (68% elephants are found in the forest of
of all species) Assam, Kerala and Karnataka. Camel
and wild ass are mostly confined to the
» Some of the important species are the
arid regions and Runn of Kachchh in
jaguar of Latin American region, the
Gujarat, respectively.
koalas of Australia, the bears from North
69
» Gir forests of Gujarat is occupied by • Important criteria for the identification

Indian lions. One horned rhinos are of hotspot are:
living in the swampy and marshy
regions of Assam and West Bengal. » Region must have at least 1,500 vascular
plants as endemics which implies it
» Other important animals of the
must also have a high percentage of
countries are four horned antelope
plant life that is found nowhere else
(Chousingha), Indian antelope (Black
(unique) on the planet.
buck), Hangul (Kashmir stag) swamp
deer, spotted deer, musk deer and » Region must have 30% or less of its
leopards. original natural vegetation. In other
words, it must be threatened.
• According to a number of reports:
• Currently, there are 36 recognized
» Species of soil bacteria and fungi biodiversity hotspots in the world out of
exceed by around 15,000 and 97,000, which eight hottest hotspots in are:
respectively.
» Madagascar
» 20 000 to 25 000 species of nematodes;
21 000 species of protists (protozoa, » Western Ghats/Sri Lanka
protophyta, and moulds); 40 000 » Brazil's Atlantic Forest
species of mites.
» Caribbean
» But many of these species are still » Indo-Burma
unknown (not identified).
» Sundaland
» Eastern Arc and Coastal Forests of
Biodiversity Tanzania/Kenya
» Philippines
Hotspots
• Four such hotspots are identified in
• Biodiversity of the world is not evenly India:
distributed across the geographical
areas of the earth. Some areas of the 1. Himalaya: Includes the entire Indian
world are very rich in biodiversity. E.g. Himalayan region.
India accounts for only 2.4% of the 2. Indo-Burma: Includes entire North-
total land area of the world; however, it eastern India, except Assam and
provides habitats to approximately 8% Andaman group of Islands.
species to the global diversity.
3. Sundalands: Includes Nicobar group of
• In 1988 Norman Myers (British Ecologist) Islands.
introduced the concept of hot spots
4. Western Ghats and Sri Lanka: Includes
to designate priority areas for in-situ
entire Western Ghats.
conservation. He suggested that the
hot spots are the richest and the most • The North American Coastal Plain was
threatened reservoirs of biodiversity on identified by the Critical Ecosystem
the earth ecosystem. Partnership Fund (CEPF) as the 36th
biodiversity hotspot in the world.
70
I m a g e 6.4: B i o di v e r s it y H ot s p ot s
Significance of resources also associated with the

variety of services provide by ecosystem.
Biotic Resources • Various services may be categorized

into four groups: provisional, regulative,
associated with cultural or supporting services. The first
three type of services have a direct
ecosystem services impact on human well-being, whereas
the supporting services has an indirect
• Humans depend to a large degree impact by providing supporting role
on biotic resources managed by to provisional, regulative, and cultural
ecosystems. Importance of biotic services.
Name of the Services Services Provided

The control of Climate and Disease,
Regulative suppression of pathogens, Water
purification etc.
Provisional Fiber, Food and Fuel wood etc.
Such as recreational benefits,
Cultural Educational, spiritual and religious
benefits.
Nutrient cycling, soil formation and crop
supporting services
pollination etc.
71
• Across the world in all climatic zones, and moisture regulation, animal
communities that live within forests habitat, and nutrient transport services.
depend on forest biodiversity for food, • Around more than half of the world’s
fodder, shelter, energy, medicine and habitable land has been converted
income generation. to agriculture, and more than 70% of
agricultural land is utilized for grazing
by cattle, sheep, goats, and other
• Biodiversity linked with biotic resources
livestock. This massive conversion of
is must for the stability and proper
forests, wetlands, grasslands and other
functioning of the biosphere (lithosphere,
important terrestrial ecosystems has
atmosphere and hydrosphere).
resulted in decline in the number of
• As niche provides very vital information vertebrates worldwide, with the greatest
about all the factors responsible for the losses in vertebrate populations
existence of a species, it can play a vital occurring in freshwater habitats and in
role in the conservation of different South and Central America.
organisms.
• Activities like agriculture, forest clearing,
• Ecological niches allow different species wetland filling, stream channeling
to exist in their environment. Under the and rerouting as well as roads and
right conditions, the various species will building construction are often part
thrive and play a unique role. of a systematic effort that produces a
substantial change in the ecological
trajectory of a landscape.
Loss of Biodiversity • Large-scale commercial agriculture
and Reasons activities (cattle ranching and
cultivation of soyabean and oil palm
etc.) accounted for around 40% of
• The idea of biodiversity is also linked tropical deforestation between 2000
with species richness (the count of and 2010, and local subsistence
species in an area), and thus biodiversity agriculture for another 33% of forest
loss is also associated with species loss deforestation.
from an ecosystem or even the entire
biosphere which can also be termed as
• Important factors responsible for
degradation and depletion of biotic
an extinction of a species.
resources are habitat change, various
• Even though a species may not be unsustainable agricultural practices;
removed from the ecosystem or from invasive species; low resource-use
the biosphere, its niche diminishes as efficiency and overexploitation of
its numbers fall. The niches occupied by resources, including illegal logging and
a single species or a group of species trade in wildlife.
is vital to the proper functioning of
the ecosystem. Thus a sudden decline
in numbers may produce significant
changes in the ecosystem’s structure.
(Niche, in ecology, is the role that a
species plays in the ecosystems it
inhabits).
• For example, clearing trees from a forest
eliminates the services provided to the
ecosystem like shading, temperature
72
− Decreasing
Sustainable use of deforestation.
emissions from
biotic resources and − Decreasing emissions from forest

degradation.
Conservation of − Conservation of forest-carbon
Biodiversity stocks.
− Enhancement of forest-carbon
• Six globally agreed principles of forest stocks.
and landscape restoration are: − Sustainable management of forest
resources.
» Focus on the landscape scale.
» Engage stakeholders and support » The Convention on International
participatory governance. Trade in Endangered Species of
» Restore multiple forest functions for Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES)
multiple benefits.
− Objective is to ‘ensure that
» Maintain and enhance natural international trade in specimens of
ecosystems within landscapes. wild animals and plants does not
» Tailor restoration approaches to the threaten their survival’. Through
local context. its three appendices (Appendices
I, II and III), CITES accords varying
» Manage adaptively for long-term
degrees of protection to greater
resilience.
than 30,000 species of animals and
• The biosphere depends on a diversity plants.
of organisms to keep it in balance.
To ensure that we protect and enrich » Convention on Wetlands (Ramsar
this biodiversity it is necessary that Convention)
we gather and disseminate essential
knowledge which can empower people, − It provides framework for the
industries and governments. The conservation and wise use of
knowledge is essential component to wetlands and their resources. It
help all stakeholders live in harmony works on the basis of national action
with nature. and international cooperation.
• Diversity of species ensures − The convention includes all aspects

environmental resilience, provides of wetland conservation and their
humans with the life systems on which wise use. The Convention recognizes
they rely and enriches life on earth. the wetlands as ecosystems
Therefore, different governments need which are extremely important for
to make strict laws which should ensure biodiversity conservation in general
the sustainable use of biotic resources and for the well-being of human
and maintenance of diversity of species. communities.
• Biodiversity-related Conventions and » The International Treaty on Plant

initiatives. Genetic Resources for Food and
» Five globally accepted mitigation Agriculture (ITPGRFA):
plan of REDD+ related to sustainable − Aim of the treaty is ‘the conservation
use of forest are: and sustainable use of plant genetic
73
resources for food and agriculture. introduction and spread of pests of

The treaty also aims for fair and plants and plant products. Objective
equitable sharing of the benefits is to protect world plant resources,
arising out of their use, in line with the including cultivated and wild plants.
Convention on Biological Diversity − It also takes into account both direct
(CBD), for sustainable agriculture and indirect damage by pests, so it
and food security. also includes weeds.
− The treaty also aims to recognize the − The convention also provides
enormous contribution of farmers to the mechanisms to develop
the diversity of crops that feed the the International Standards for
world. Phytosanitary Measures (ISPMs). It
− The Treaty covers all types of plant helps countries to implement the
genetic resources for food and ISPMs and the other obligations
agriculture. under the IPPC, by facilitating the
− For access and benefit sharing national capacity development,
treaty’s ‘Multilateral System’ puts national reporting and dispute
64 of our most important crops into settlement.
global pool of genetic resources. This − As of March 2017, it has 183 parties,
pool is freely available to potential including 180 United Nations
users in the Treaty’s ratifying nations member states, Niue, the Cook
for some uses. These crops together Islands and the European Union.
account for 80% of the food we
derive from plants. » International Whaling
Commission (IWC)
» World Heritage Convention
(WHC) − The purpose of the IWC is to provide
for proper conservation of whale
− Through this convention, United stocks and thereby make possible
Nations Educational, Scientific and the systematic development of the
Cultural Organization (UNESCO), whaling industry.
aims to identify and conserve the
world's cultural and natural heritage. » Convention on Biological
This is done ‘by drawing up a list of Diversity (CBD): The Convention
sites whose outstanding values is to on Biological Diversity (CBD) is an
be ‘preserved for all humanity’ and international legally-binding treaty. It
to ensure their protection through was signed at the ‘Earth Summit’ held
co-operation among nations. in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, in 1992 and
− By signing the Convention, every entered into force on 29 December
country pledges to conserve not 1993. It has three main objectives:
only World Heritage sites that are
situated on its territory but also to
− Conservation of biological diversity.
protect its national heritage. − Sustainable use of biodiversity.
− The fair and equitable sharing of
• International Plant Protection benefits arising from the use of
Convention (IPPC) genetic resources.
− IPPC is a 1951 multilateral that • Conservation methods can be grouped
aims to prevent and to control the into two categories:
74
» In-situ (on-site) conservation methods they contain.

comprises the protection of plants and » It provides local solutions to global
animals within their natural habitats or challenges. Biosphere reserves
in protected areas. Protected areas are comprise terrestrial, marine and coastal
land or sea dedicated to protect and ecosystems.
maintain biodiversity.
» Planning and management of Biosphere
» Ex-situ (off-site) conservation method Reserves involve local communities
focuses on protection of plants and and all interested stakeholders. They
animals outside their natural habitats. integrate three main "functions":
These include botanical gardens, zoo,
gene banks, seek bank, tissue culture − Conservation of biodiversity and
and cryopreservation. cultural diversity.
• Biosphere Reserves − Economic development which

is socially, culturally and
» Biosphere reserves are in-situ procedure environmentally sustainable.
to preserve biodiversity and promote − Logistic support, underpinning
sustainable use. development through research,
» The concept of Biosphere Reserves (BR) monitoring, education and training.
was introduced by UNESCO’s Man and
Biosphere (MAB) Programme, dealing
» Three zones of Biosphere Reserves
through which above functions are
with the conservation of various
achieved:
ecosystems and the genetic material
I m a g e 6.5: S tr u c t u r e of B i o s p h e r e R e s e rv e s
− Core Areas: It comprises a strictly for activities that are compatible

protected zone that contributes to with sound ecological practices
the conservation of landscapes, which can reinforce scientific
ecosystems, species and genetic research, monitoring, training and
variation. education etc.
− Buffer Area: It surrounds or − Transition Area: It is the outermost
adjoins the core region. It is utilized part of the Biosphere Reserve. It is
75
the region of active cooperation − Achanakmar-Amarkantak, Madhya

between the reserve management Pradesh-Chhattisgarh
and the local people. Here, various − Kachchh, Gujarat (Largest Area)
activities like settlements, forestry,
recreation and other economic that − Nilgiri, Tamil Nadu-Kerala (First to
are in harmony with the conservation be Included)
goals, are allowed. − Gulf of Mannar, Tamil Nadu
» Presently there are total 18 biosphere − Cold Desert, Himachal Pradesh

reserves in India: − Seshachalam, Andhra Pradesh
− Agasthyamala, Karnataka-Tamil
− Nanda Devi, Uttrakhand
Nadu-Kerala
− Sundarban, West Bengal
− Great Nicobar, Andaman & Nicobar
− Khangchendzonga, Sikkim Island
− Panna, Madhya Pradesh
− Dehang-Debang, Arunachal
Pradesh Various solutions that balance
− Manas, Assam conservation and sustainable use of
biotic resources are critical and possible.
− Dibru-Saikhowa, Assam The sustainable utilization of different
− Nokrek, Meghalaya biodiversity resources remain critical to
− Similipal, Odisha the food security, health, cultures and
livelihoods of millions of people.
− Pachmarhi, Madhya Pradesh
76
CHAPTER - 7
FOREST RESOURCES
Introduction in place and reduces the soil erosion.

» Leaves of the trees that fall around
prevents water runoff and permits the
• The forest ecosystem is a very complex
water to percolate into the soil.
version of the ecosystem which
comprised of multiple variety of trees » Provide habitat to various types of
and support extremely large number of organisms.
life forms. » Dead plants decompose to form humus
• As we know that trees are the important and organic matter that holds the water
part of the earth’s environment which and gives nutrients to the soil.
clean the air, act as sound absorber » Forests produce huge amount of
and also maintain the temperature of oxygen and take in carbon dioxide,
the earth. thereby maintaining the temperature
• Forest includes both plant and animal and composition of earth’s atmosphere.
communities, but it is usually identified » Transpiration from the trees affects the
on the basis of its dominant vegetation, relative humidity and precipitation of
which normally constitutes the bulk of the region.
the biomass.
• Some important factors which affects • The Food and Agriculture Organization
the size, location, and character of a has defined forest as Land spanning
forest are: more than 0.5 hectares with trees
which are higher than five meters and
» Length of daylight and darkness a canopy cover of more than 10%, or
(responsible for duration of trees are able to reach these thresholds
photosynthesis). in situ. It does not include land which
is predominantly under agricultural or
» Mean temperature along with
urban land use.
difference in temperature. Differences
(both diurnal and annual) to find out • Most of the terrestrial biodiversity is
extreme conditions. found in the world’s forests – from
boreal forests in the far North to tropical
» Total duration of growing season.
rainforests.
» Precipitation: total amount, variations
over time and intensity.
• Together these forests contain:
» Soil types, Slope and Drainage. » More than 60 000 different tree species.
• Forests perform various important » Provide habitats for 80% of amphibian
species.
functions like:
» 75% of bird species and 68% of
» Roots of plants help in holding the soil mammal species.
77
» Areas
Six important types covering Equatorial
including Zaire and Congo.
Africa
of forest resources in » Indonesia, Malaysia, and Philippines

etc. in South-East Asia.
the world » Some parts of India (Western Ghat and
Andaman & Nicobar Islands) and Sri
• Equatorial Moist Evergreen or Rainforest Lanka.
• Tropical Deciduous Forest
• Climatic Conditions
• Temperate Broad-leaved Deciduous
and Mixed Forest » Temperature
• Mediterranean Forests
− Great uniformity of temperature
• Coniferous Forest throughout the year.
• Mangrove Forest − Mean monthly temperatures are
always around 27°C with very little
variation.
Equatorial Moist Evergreen or − There is no winter.
Rainforest − Cloudiness and heavy precipitation
moderates the daily temperature.
• Distribution: Therefore, even at the equator itself,
the climate is not unbearable.
» Situated between 5° N and 10° N and S
of the equator. − The diurnal (i.e. daily) and annual
range of temperature is small.
» Amazon basin of South America.
I m a g e 7.1: T r o p i c a l R a i n f o r e s t
78
» Precipitation of Malaysia make different types of

products from cane and sell them to
− Heavy precipitation, between 60
people in villages and towns.
inches and 100 inches, and well
distributed throughout the year.
− No month without rain and a Tropical Deciduous Forest
distinct dry season like those of the
Savannah or the Tropical Monsoon • This deciduous and semi-evergreen
Climates, is absent. forests are prevalent in region where
− Because of the great heat in the rainfall is seasonal, and a definite dry
equatorial belt, mornings are bright season exists.
and sunny. • Deciduous trees because of the marked
− Evaporation and convectional dry period, during which they shed their
air currents followed by heavy leaves to withstand the drought period.
downpours. • As compared to rainfall is lesser and
well-defined dry seasons are found in
• Natural Vegetation this forest.
» Encouraged a luxuriant type of • Distribution

vegetation – the tropical rain forest.
» Asia: India and Myanmar (Burma),
» Light cannot penetrate into the lower Indonesia, Thailand, Laos, Cambodia,
strata full of undergrowth. South China, Philippines etc.
» Comprises a multiple type of evergreen » North Australian region.
plants which yields tropical hardwood,
e.g. mahogany, ebony, greenheart,
» In Africa: Margins of tropical rainforest.
cabinet wood. Lianas, epiphytic and » Some regions of Central South America.
parasitic plants are also found.
• Natural vegetation
» Trees of single species are very less in
such vegetation. » As compare to equatorial forest, this
forest is more open, less luxuriant and
• Life and wildlife in the Equatorial forest there are far fewer species.
forest Regions
» Most of the forests yield valuable timber
» Macaw parrot, hummingbirds and and are prized for their good quality
toucan are some of the important birds and durable hardwood.
of this forest region. » Important species of trees are sal, teak,
» The water bodies of the equatorial mahogany and neem.
regions are also rich in animal life
with alligators, tactless, fishes, frogs,
• Lion, tiger, pig, deer, and elephant are
some of the animals are found in Indian
hippopotamus etc.
deciduous forest.
» Sparsely populated.
» Home to most primitive people live as
hunters and gatherers. Temperate Broad-leaved
» The Indigenous tribes of Amazon basin Deciduous and Mixed Forest
collects wild rubber, the Pygmies in
the Congo Basin gathers nuts and • Found in temperate climate terrestrial
the Orang Asli people in the jungles accompanied with broadleaf tree
79
ecoregions, and with conifer and eastern North America, with some
broadleaf tree mixed coniferous forest other globally distinctive ecoregions
ecoregions. in the Caucasus, Southern Europe, the
• Distribution: Richest and most Himalayas, Australasia, Russian Far
distinctive characteristics of this East and southern South America.
forest found in central China and
I m a g e 7.2: E x t e n t o f t e m p e r at e b r o a d l e a f a n d m i x e d f o r e s t s
• Natural vegetation Mediterranean Forests

» Northern hemisphere: dominant • Climatic condition
broadleaf trees in this forest include
oaks, beeches, maples, or birches. » General character consists of dry
summers and rainy winters, although in
» The term "mixed forest" comes from
some region rainfall may be uniform.
the inclusion of coniferous trees as a
canopy component seen in some of » Summers are typically hot in low-lying
these forests. inland areas but can be cool near
colder seas region.
» Example of coniferous trees: pines, firs,
and spruces.
• Distribution
» Southern Hemisphere, endemic genera
such as Nothofagus and Eucalyptus » Countries adjacent to Mediterranean
occupy these forest regions, and most Sea region e.g. France, Italy, Spain,
coniferous trees found in mixtures with Portugal and Albania.
broadleaf species of trees. » The south-western tip of Africa (around
Cape Town).
» California (around San Francisco).
» Central Chile.
» Southern and South-west Australia.
80
I m a g e 7.3: E x t e n t of M e dit e rr a n e a n F o r e s t
• Natural Vegetation • Many species of plants are found in

these forests, including pine, cedar, fir,
» Mostly composed of broadleaf trees, and redwood.
such as the oak and mixed sclerophyll
• This variety of trees are cone-shaped
forests.
as this helps prevent the accumulation
» Pine and deciduous oak forest are of snow on the trees.
found across California.
• This type of forest extends through
» Eucalyptus forests of Southwest Europe, Asia, and North America in
Australia. the Northern hemisphere and Chile,
Argentina and New Zealand in the
Southern hemisphere.
Coniferous Forest
• They are found predominantly in
regions with warm summers and cool
Mangrove Forest
winters and vary in their kinds of plant • These are salt-tolerant shrubs and trees
life. that grow along coastlines in the tropics
• This kind of forest is common in the and subtropical region.
coastal areas of regions which have • In this region they fulfill important
heavy rainfall and mild winters, or environmental and socio-economic
inland in drier climates or montane functions.
regions.
• These forests provides large variety of
• Needle leaf trees dominate in this wood and non-wood products, coastal
forest, while some other region also protection and provision of habitat for
have broadleaf evergreen trees or a terrestrial and aquatic species.
mix of both tree types.
• 14.79 million hectares area in 112
81
countries have mangrove forest.

• Asia (5.55 million hectares) > Africa (3.24
Forest resources and
million hectares) > North and Central
America (2.57 million hectares) > South
related information
America (2.13 million hectares). in India (India state
• Oceania region has the smallest area
of mangroves (1.30 million hectares). of forest report 2019)
• More than 40% of the total mangrove
forest was reported to be in just four
• Forest and Tree Cover in India
nations: Indonesia (19% of the total), » The total forest cover of the country –
Brazil (9% ), Nigeria (7% ) and Mexico around 7,12,249 sq km (21.67% of the
(6% ). geographical area of the India).
• The Sundarbans mangrove forest is » The tree cover of the country-
one of the largest mangrove forests approximately around 95,027 sq km (i.e.
in the world (140,000 ha), which is around 2.89% of geographical region).
situated on the delta of the Ganges, the
Brahmaputra and the Meghna rivers on » The total forest and tree cover of the
country - 8,07,276 sq km (24.56% of the
the Bay of Bengal. geographical area of India).
• Increase in forest cover as

Global forest area compare to 2017
by climatic domain » Increase of 3,976 sq km (around 0.56%
) of forest cover and 1,212 sq km (1.29%)
• Globally there are five important of tree cover.
climatic domains: tropical, temperate, » Top five States in terms of increase in
boreal, polar and subtropical forest cover are: Karnataka (1,025 sq
• The largest part of the forest (45% ) km) > Andhra Pradesh (990 sq km) >
is situated in the tropics, followed by Kerala (823 sq km) > Jammu & Kashmir
the boreal, temperate and subtropical (371 sq km) > Himachal Pradesh (334 sq
climatic domains. km).
» Mangrove forest cover in the country
has increased by 54 sq km (1.10%).
» Increase of 3,229 square kilometers in
bamboo bearing area.
• Decline of Forest Cover in North

East Region
» Total forest cover in the North-Eastern
region of India is 1,70,541 sq km, (65.05%
of its geographical area).
» 2019 report shows a decrease of forest
cover to the extent of 765 sq km (0.45%)
I m a g e 7.4: G l o b a lf o r e s t a r e a b y c l i m ati c in the northeastern region.
domain
» Apart from Assam and Tripura, all the
82
States in the region show decrease in is 99,278 sq km (3.02%), Moderately

forest cover. Dense Forest (MDF) is 3,08,472 sq
km (9.39%) and Open Forest (OF) is
• Classification of forest cover 3,04,499 sq km (9.26%).
(7,12,249 sq km which is 21.67% of » Very dense forests and moderately
the total geographic area) dense forest comprises over 57% of the
total forest cover of India.
» Area covered by Very Dense Forest (VDF)
I m a g e 7.5: F o r e s t a n d tr e e c ov e r i n I n di a
Benefits from Forest and food security

Forests and • Natural vegetation of forests and trees
Biodiversity outside forests cover all important
dimensions of food security i.e. nutritious
food, income, employment, energy and
Significance of forests for poor ecosystem services.
• Population in areas of low- and middle- • Globally approximately around 1 billion
income countries with high forest cover population depend to some extent
and high forest biodiversity is low, but on forests for their foods such as wild
poverty rates in these regions tend to meat, edible insects, fish, edible plant
be high. E.g. 252 million population products and mushrooms.
residing in forests and savannahs had
incomes of less than USD 1.25/day. • Outside trees and natural vegetation
of forests also support food availability
• Generally, these poor people are by giving fodder for livestock, either as
more dependent on biodiversity and browse or as animal feed.
ecosystem services than are people
who are better off. • Nutrients are absorbed from food
through the cooking process, and
• Various types of forest foods form a around the globe one-third population
small (in terms of calories) but critical i.e. around 2.4 billion people use wood
part of diets commonly consumed by fuel for cooking and one amongst ten
poor people, and it also adds variety to people in world utilizes wood fuel to
predominantly staple diets. boil and sterilize water to make it risk
83
free for drinking and food processing. • Medicines derived from forest
• Drumstick tree important for providing ecosystem are prominently utilised
large amounts of vitamin B, vitamin C, in Ayurvedic, traditional Chinese and
beta-carotene, magnesium, iron and other indigenous health care systems.
protein. Multipurpose Baobab trees • E.g.- Quinine produced from several
and their fruits contain up to 300 mg of Andean forest tree species of the genus
vitamin C per 100 g of fruit pulp, close Cinchona, was widely used antimalarial
to approximately six times the level of medicine in the world.
vitamin C present in oranges.
Cultural services provided by

Ecological balance and support forest ecosystem
to Agriculture
• Many forest population, specifically
• Forest have much higher levels of indigenous tribal people have multi-
plant and animal biodiversity than generational connections with
agricultural fields which regulate the particular forest regions and trees.
ecological balance. • Indigenous people also derive intangible
• Biodiversity and services of forests have benefits resulting from a deep spiritual
positive effects on the productivity and relationship with forest ecosystem and
resilience of agricultural production native species, expressed in beliefs,
systems located near forests e.g., customs, culture and traditions.
approximately around 75% of the
world's accessible freshwater comes
from forested watersheds, which is
being utilized for agricultural activities.
Forest Degradation
• Forests also play an essential role in and Deforestation
mitigating and adapting to climate
change, therefore also contributing • Economic development has supported
to prevention of climate-related food billions of populations to come out
insecurity. of poverty in many countries across
• About 87 of the world's 115 leading the globe. However, at the same time
food crops, representing around 35% nature has been significantly changed
of global food production by volume, in this process which is having negative
receive assistance from animal impact on biodiversity of the forest
pollination in some measure for fruit, including indigenous peoples.
vegetable, or seed production and • A recent survey confirms that
habitat for many pollinators provided deforestation and forest degradation
by the forests. continue to take place at an alarming
rate in the world, which is responsible
for the ongoing loss of biodiversity.
Potential medicinal values of • Expansion of agricultural activities
forests continue to be one of the major
factors of deforestation in the world.
• Over 28 000 plant species, many of Large-scale commercial agriculture
which are the part of forest ecosystems, activities (primarily because of cattle
are currently registered as being of ranching and cultivation of soyabean
medicinal use. and oil palm) accounted for around
84
40% of tropical deforestation between of REDD+ related to sustainable use of

2000 and 2010, and local subsistence forest are:
agriculture for another 33% of forest
deforestation. » Decreasing emissions from
deforestation.
• Though the rate of deforestation has
reduced over the past three decades. » Decreasing emissions from forest
However, since 1990, it is estimated that degradation.
around 420 million hectares of forest » Conservation of forest carbon stocks.
have been lost through conversion to
» Enhancement of forest carbon stocks.
other types of land uses.
» Sustainable management of forest
• The rate of deforestation (between resources.
2015-2020) was estimated at around 10
million hectares per year, reduced from
• The New York Declaration (2014)
16 million hectares/year in the 1990s.
on Forests now has over 200
• Over 100 million hectares of forest endorsers
areas are adversely impacted by forest
fires, pests, diseases, invasive species » A voluntary and non-binding
drought and adverse weather events. international declaration to take action
• Therefore, important factors responsible to halt various global deforestation
for the degradation of forest are activities.
habitat change, various unsustainable » It comprises of national and subnational
agricultural practices; invasive species; governments, MNCs, NGOs and groups
low resource-use efficiency, and representing indigenous communities.
overexploitation of resources, including
illegal logging and trade in wildlife.
» Particular provision of declaration
includes commitments from and
support to the private sector to remove
deforestation from the supply chains of
Various initiatives major agricultural products by the year
for combating 2020
deforestation and • CITES

» Convention on International Trade in
forest degradation Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and
Flora, which is also known as Washington
Important initiatives and Convention,is a multilateral treaty was
conferences at global level signed to protect endangered plants
and animals. Its main objective was
• Various mitigation plans of REDD+ i.e.
to ensure that international trade in
Reducing emissions from deforestation
products of wild animals and plants
and forest degradation, the role of
does not threaten the survival of these
sustainable management of forests
species in the wild.
conservation, and increase of forest
carbon stocks in developing nations
• TRAFFIC
is now included in the recommended
action in the Paris Agreement on » It is the Wildlife Trade Monitoring
climate change. Network.
• Five globally accepted mitigation plan » It is non-governmental organization,
85
working internationally on the trade • The National Commission on Agriculture

of wild animals and plants in the field in 1976 has classified social forestry into
of both biodiversity and sustainable three types i.e. Urban forestry, Rural
development. It was established with forestry and Farm forestry
the objective to ensure that trade in the • Social forestry stands for the
wild animals and plants is not a danger protection and management of
to the conservation of nature. forests and afforestation on barren
lands for the purpose of assisting in
• The United Nations Convention the environmental, social and rural
to Combat Desertification i.e. development.
UNCCD
• Urban Forestry: This type of forestry
• It aims to combat desertification is related to management of trees on
and reduce the effects of drought public and private lands in and around
through national action programs urban centres like industrial and
which incorporate long-term policies commercial green belts, green belts
supported by international cooperation and parks.
and partnership arrangements. It is
the only legally binding international • Rural forestry: Under this focus is
agreement combing environment on promotion of agro-forestry and
and development to sustainable community-forestry.
land management. The Convention
emphasizes specifically on the arid, » Agro-forestry (combines forestry
semi-arid and dry sub-humid region. with agriculture): It emphasize on
raising of trees and agriculture crops
• Biodiversity Convention i.e. CBD
on the same land inclusive of the
(Convention on Biological Diversity):
waste patches. It helps in simultaneous
Its three important goals and objective
production of fodder, food and fruits.
are:
Major role played by Agroforestry in
» The conservation of biodiversity. conservation of nature
» The sustainable utilization of their It gives habitats for species that can
components. handle a certain level of disturbance.
» The fair and equitable sharing of assists to preserve germplasm of
benefits arising from genetic resources. sensitive species.
» Aim of CBD is to develop national decreases rates of conversion of
strategies and policies for the natural habitats by giving a more
conservation and sustainable use of productive, sustainable alternative to
biological diversity. traditional agricultural systems
helps to provide connectivity between
habitat remnants.
Forest Conservation in India Providing various ecosystem services
• Indian government forest policy like erosion control and water
emphasizes sustainable forest recharge which is responsible for
management to conserve and expand preventing the degradation and loss
forest reserve on the one hand, and to of surrounding habitats.
meet the regular requirement of local
» Community forestry: it is associated
people on the other.
with the raising of trees on public or
86
community land such as near railway for commercial and non-commercial

line, religious place, village pasture, purposes on their agricultural lands.
roadside, canal bank, and in schools Different types of lands like the margins
etc. of agricultural fields, grasslands and
pastures and land around houses can be
• Farm forestry: it refers to the farming utilized for raising trees for the purpose
process under which farmers grow trees of non-commercial farm forestry.
87
MODULE B
ECONOMIC GEOGRAPHY
88
CHAPTER - 8
AGRICULTURE
Introduction yields have slowed. However, some of

the important factors for the slowdown
is the slowdown in the demand for
• Over the centuries, the growth of agricultural products which is also
agriculture contributed to the rise of associated with world population
civilizations. Agriculture is the primary growth rates that have been declining
source of the world’s food and fabrics. since the late 1960s.
• Agriculture can reduce poverty, raise • Growth in demand will slump down
incomes and improve food security for even more in the coming years. The
almost 80% of the world's poor, who production potential of the world is
live in rural areas and work mainly in more than enough to cope up with the
farming. rising demand. However, developing
• Agricultural development is important countries will become more dependent
tool to end abject poverty, improve on agricultural imports, and food
prosperity and feed a projected 8 billion security in many poor areas will not
people by 2045. improve without substantial increases
• Growth in the agriculture sector is four in local production.
times more effective in raising per
capita income of the poorest compared
to growth in manufacturing and service
sector. In 2016, various surveys found
Whittlesey’s
that close to 65% of poor working Contribution towards
adults made a living via agriculture.
• Agriculture is also crucial for economic the classification of
growth. As in 2018, it accounted for
nearly around 4% of global gross
Agricultural Region
domestic product (GDP) and in some
developing nations, it can account for
• Whittlesey have made important
contributions to an understanding
more than 25% of GDP.
of the character and distribution of
• Instead of this, agriculture-induced agricultural types, and toward a world
growth, poverty alleviation & food classification of agricultural areas.
security are put at risk: Climate change
may bring down crop yields, especially
• In general, the major variables in
differentiating regions of agricultural
in the world’s most vulnerable regions.
may be summarized as-climate, soil,
• Agriculture, forestry and land use slope, density of population, stage of
change contribute 27% of total technology, and tradition.
greenhouse gas emissions, therefore
mitigation strategy in the agriculture
• Whittlesey’s classification is based on
five principle criteria:
sector is part of the solution to climate
change. » The crop and livestock association.
• In recent years, the growth rates of » The methods used for growing the
world agricultural production and crop
89
crops and intensity of land use. methods of farming give rise to different
» Structures used to house and facilitate types of agricultural systems. The
the farming operations. following are the important agricultural
systems.
» Processing and marketing of farm
produce.
» Degree of mechanization. Nomadic Herding
• There are thirteen types of agricultural • Nomadic herding/pastoral nomadism
occupancy of the agricultural land are is one of the earliest subsistence
recognized: activity, in which the herders depend
on animals for food, clothing, shelter,
» Nomadic Herding tools and transport.
» Livestock Ranching • Nomadic herding might be called
» Shifting Cultivation the aboriginal form of the livestock
business.
» Rudimental Sedentary Tillage
• They travel from one place to another
» Intensive Subsistence Tillage with Rice
along with their livestock, depending
Dominant
on the areas related to the amount
» Intensive Subsistence Tillage without and quality of pastures and water.
Paddy Rice Each nomadic community occupies a
» Mediterranean Agriculture well-identified region as a matter of
tradition.
» Commercial Grain Farming
• The stock which supports the agricultural
» Commercial Livestock and Crop
system may be sheep, cattle, goats, or
Farming
even camels or reindeer. Along with
» Subsistence Crop and Stock Farming them a few work animals are kept-
» Commercial Dairy Farming horses, asses, camels, or reindeer-to aid
in herding, in roundups, and in moving
» Specialized Horticulture camp.
» Commercial Plantation Agriculture • A different variety of animals in different
areas:
Important types of » Tropical Africa: Cattle are the most

significant livestock.
agriculture in the » In Sahara and Asiatic deserts region:
World sheep, goats and camel are reared.
» Mountainous region of Tibet and Andes:
• Agriculture is practiced under multiple yak and llamas.
combinations of physical & socio- » The Arctic and sub Arctic area: Reindeer
economic conditions and different are the most significant animals.
90
I m a g e 8.1: N o m a di c H a rd e r s
• Three important regions of Pastoral is called as 'transhumance'.

nomadism: • Example: In mountain regions, such
as Himalayas, Bakarwals, Gujjars,
» The core area extends from the Atlantic
Bhotiyas, and Gaddis migrate to the
shores of North Africa eastwards across
plains from the high altitude pastures
the Arabian peninsula into Mongolia
in winters and from plains to the
and Central China.
mountains in summers and.
» The second important zone extends
over the tundra region of Eurasia.
• Similarly, in the tundra areas of the
world, the nomadic herders move from
» In the southern hemisphere there are north to south in winters and south to
small regions in South-west Africa and north in summers.
on the island of Madagascar.
• Pastoaral nomads is badly effected by:
• Transhumance: The procedure of
migration from plain areas to pastures
» Formation of political boundaries.
on mountaineous region during » New settlement plans by different
summers and again from mountain countries.
pastures to plain regions during winters
91
I m a g e 8.2: A r e a s of N o m a di c H a rdi n g
Commercial Livestock Rearing wool, hides and skin are processed and
packed scientifically and exported to
• As compare to nomadic herding, different world markets.
commercial livestock rearing is more
• Rearing of animal is based on scientific
organised, structured and capital
ideas in which the main emphasis is on
intensive.
breeding, genetic improvement, disease
• Important features of Commercial control and health care of the animals.
Livestock Rearing:
• Important areas/countries for
» Commercial livestock ranching is commercial livestock rearing:
mostly linked with western cultures and
» Large expanse of prairies extending
is practised on permanent ranches.
from north to south in western Canada,
» These ranches stretch over large areas Western U.S.A. and Central Mexico.
and are fragmented into a number of
» Pampas of Brazilian Plateau and
parcels, which are fenced to regulate
Argentina.
the grazing.
» Llanoes of Venezuela.
» When the grass of one parcel is grazed
by animals then, they moved to another » Veldt region of South Africa.
parcel. The number of animals in a » Temperate grasslands of Australia and
pasture is kept in proportion to the New Zealand.
carrying capacity of the pasture.
» Areas lying east of the Caspian Sea and
» This is a specialised occupation in north of Aral Sea i.e. steppes of Eurasia.
which only one type of animal is reared.
• Animals are grazed over large regions
• Most significant animals are sheep, which are called as ‘ranches’ in Prairies
cattle, goats and horses. and ‘estancia’ in Pampas.
• Different types of products such as meat,
92
Name of Primitive subsistence

Name of the region/ counrty
agriculture/Shifting Cultivation
India Jhum/Bewar/Podu
Srilanka Chena
Malaysia Ladang
Philippines Kaingin
Vietnam Ray
Indonesia Humah
Myanmar Taungya
Congo Masole
Brazail Roka
Mexico and Central America Milpa
Uganda, Zambia and Zimbabwe Chitmene
I m a g e 8.3: C o m m e r c i a l L i v e s to c k R e a ri n g
Subsistence agriculture
Subsistence farming is type of agriculture two categories — Primitive Subsistence
in which farmers grow food crops to meet Agriculture and Intensive Subsistence
the needs of themselves and their families Agriculture.
on smallholdings. It can be divided in
93
Primitive Subsistence Agriculture and the ashes add to the fertility of the
soil.
• Primitive subsistence agriculture/
• Therefore, shifting cultivation is also
Shifting Cultivation is mainly practised
known as slash and burn agriculture.
by many tribes in the tropics, especially
The cultivated patches are very small
in Africa, south and central America
and farming is done with very primitive
and south east Asia.
types of tools such as sticks and hoes.
• The vegetation is mostly cleared by fire,
I m a g e 8.4: S hi f ti n g c u lti vati o n
• After some years (around 3 to 5 years) cultivation in different part of the world.
the soil looses its fertility and the farmer • Following are the important regions of
switches to another parts and clears shifting cultivation:
other part of the forest for farming.
• After sometimes the farmer may return » The largest areas of shifting agriculture
to the earlier patch. are in central Africa on both sides of
Equator.
• One of the major problem associated
with shifting cultivation is that the cycle » North-eastern part of India comprising
of jhum becomes less and less due to the states of Assam, Meghalaya,
loss of fertility in different part of the Manipur, Tripura, Nagaland and
land. Mizoram and South-East Asia.
• There are various names of shifting » Central America and South America.
94
I m a g e 8.5: A r e a s of P ri m iti v e S u b s i s t e n c e A g ri c u lt u r e
Intensive Subsistence Agriculture » The yield/unit area is high but per

labour productivity is low in this type of
This type of farming is largely spotted in farming.
densely populated areas of monsoon Asia
These areas include China, India, Pakistan, • Intensive subsidence agriculture
Bangladesh, Countries of South East associated with other crops.
Asia and Japan. There are two variety of
intensive subsistence farming. » Though rice is the dominating crop
in Monsoon Asia but in some parts of
• Wet paddy cultivation is dominant Asia, paddy cultivation is difficult or
feature of intensive subsistence practically not possible due to uneven
agriculture. climatic conditions, difference in relief,
soil and some of the other geographical
» Featured by dominance of the rice crop.
factors.
» The high density of population is
responsible for very small landholding.
» Wheat, soyabean, barley & sorghum
are cultivated in northern China, North
» Farmers share the work with the family Korea and North Japan.
members leading to intensive utilization
of land resource.
» In India wheat is cultivated in plains
and millets are grown in dry parts of
» Mechanisation of agriculture is limited, western and southern India.
and most of the agricultural works are
done by manual labour.
» Most of the features are similar to that
of wet paddy cultivation apart from
» Farmyard manure is used to maintain one that irrigation is often used.
the soil fertility.
95
I m a g e 8.6: A r e a s of I n t e n s i v e S u b s i s ta n c e F a r m i n g
Plantation Agriculture connects the estates to the factories

and markets for the export of the goods.
• Plantation agriculture was introduced
by the Europeans colonial agricultural • The French set up cocoa and coffee
structure in colonies located in the plantations in west Africa.
tropics. • The British established huge tea
• Plantations are mostly profit-oriented gardens in India and Sri Lanka, rubber
large scale production process. plantations in Malaysia, and Sugarcane
and banana plantations in West Indies.
• Some important plantation crops are:
tea, coffee, cocoa, rubber, cotton, palm, • Spanish and Americans invested mostly
sugarcane, banana & pineapple. in coconut and sugarcane plantations
in the Philippines.
• Significant features of this type of
farming are • In Indonesia, once the Dutch had
monopoly in sugarcane plantation.
» Large estates or plantations. • Today also, some coffee fazendas
» Single crop specialisation. (large plantations) in Brazil are handled
» Large capital investment, managerial by Europeans.
and technical support. • Currently, ownership of the large
» Scientific technique of cultivation. number of plantations has passed into
the hands of the government or the
» Cheap labour.
nationals of the countries concerned.
» Better system of transportation which
96
Extensive Commercial Grain • It was the invention of various farm

machinery which allowed farmers to
Cultivation cultivate grain on a large scale and it
• Commercial grain cultivation is done in is also associated with specialisation in
the interior parts of semi-arid regions of wheat monoculture in many areas.
the mid-latitudes.
I m a g e 8.7: F a r m M e c h a n i s ati o n
• Important Characteristics of Extensive » Whole cultivation process from

Commercial Grain Cultivation ploughing to harvesting is often entirely
mechanised.
» Wheat is the main crop, though other
crops like corn, barley, oats and rye are • Important regions of this type of
also cultivated. Agriculture: Best developed and
» The farm size is very large. Hence, pronounced in the Eurasian steppes,
entire operations of cultivation are the North American Prairies, Pampas
mechanised. of Argentina, Velds of South Africa, the
Australian Downs and the Canterbury
» As compare to intensive cultivation, this Plains of New Zealand.
type of cultivation is associated with
low yield per acre but high yield per
person.
97
I m a g e 8.8: A r e a s of Extensive Commercial Grains
Mixed Farming
• Mixed farming is one of the agricultural Mixed farming systems can be classified
methods in which more than one in number of ways - based on land size,
agricultural practices take place on the type of crops and animals, geographical
same agricultural yield. The farmer can distribution, market orientation, etc.
add livestock farming to the cash crop Three major categories are:
farming.
» Between-farm mixing Vs On-farm
• Mixed farming practiced in many mixing:
forms which is influenced by external
and internal factors. External factors − On-farm mixed farming refers to
are weather patterns, market prices, mixing on the same farm, and
political stability, technological between-farm mixing refers to
developments, etc. Internal factors exchanging resources between
relate to local soil characteristics, different farms.
composition of the family and farmers'
ingenuity.
− On-farm mixing occurs particularly
where individual farmers will be
• This form of agriculture is found in the keen to recycle the resources they
highly developed parts of the world, e.g. have on their own farm.
North-western Europe, Eastern North
America, and the temperate latitudes
− Between-farm mixing occurs in
countries where it is used to mitigate
of Southern continents.
the waste disposal problems of
• Types of mixed farming specialized farming.
agriculture
98
» Mixing within crops or animal systems: to minimize risk and not to recycle
resources.
− In this type of system, multiple crops
are sown, generally over a specified
− Integration is done to recycle
resources efficiently. In this system,
time period in a season, or different
products or by-products of one
types of animals are kept together,
component serve as a resource for
mostly on-farm.
the other - dung goes to the crops
− Within-crop, mixing takes place and straw to the animals.
where crop rotations are practised
over and within years. For example,
− In this case the integrated system
serves to make maximum use of
a farmer generally practice grain-
the resources. Unfortunately, these
legume rotation to provide the grain
systems tend to become more
with nitrogen or a potato-beet-
vulnerable to disturbance because
grain rotation to avoid disease in
mixing of resource flows makes the
the potatoes.
system internally more complex and
− Examples: chicken-fish pond systems interdependent.
where chicken dung fertilizes the fish
pond; in beef-pork systems where • Mixed farms are moderate in size &
pigs eat the undigested grains from important crops cultivated under this
the beef cattle dung. farming are: wheat, barley, oats, maize,
fodder & root crops.
» Diversified versus integrated systems:
• Animal husbandry is an essential
− Diversified systems consist of component of mixed farming.
crops and livestock that co-exist • Crop rotation and intercropping
independently from each other. In play essential and significant role in
particular, farmers can have pigs, maintaining soil fertility. Equal emphasis
dairy and crops as quite independent is put on crop cultivation and animal
units. In this case the mixing of husbandry in which Fodder crops are
crops and livestock primarily serves vital part of mixed farming.
I m a g e 8.9: M i x e d F a r m i n g in World
99
• Animals like cattle, sheep, pigs and (roughly 750 million people) around the
poultry give the primary income along globe are engaged in milk production.
with crops. • Dairy farming is the most efficient and
• Mixed farming is featured by high advanced type of rearing of milch
capital expenditure on various type animals.
of farm machinery and building, large • Highly capital intensive: Animal sheds,
use of chemical fertilizers and green storage facilities for fodder, feeding
manures and also by the skill and and milking machines add to the cost
expertise of the farmers. of this type farming
• Special emphasis is put on cattle
breeding, health care and veterinary
Dairy Farming services.
• Approximately 150 million households
I m a g e 8.10: D a ir y F a r m i n g
• It is highly labour intensive because it processes have increased the duration

involves rigorous care in feeding and of storage of various dairy products.
milking. • Three important areas of commercial
• A compare to crop cultivation, there is dairy farming:
no offseason during the year in dairy
farming. » The largest is North Western Europe
followed by Canada.
• It is practised along the urban centres
which give a neighbourhood market for » The third belt comprises South Eastern
fresh milk & dairy products. Australia, New Zealand and Tasmania.
• The development of transportation, • In most developing countries, milk is
refrigeration, pasteurisation and other produced by smallholders, and milk
preservation processes have helped production contributes to household
in the storage and therefore these all
100
livelihoods, food security and nutrition. by 15 million tons per year, mostly in
Milk provides relatively quick returns developing countries, If the increased
for small-scale producers and is an volume was produced by smallholder
important source of cash income. dairy farmers, 3 million new jobs would
• Global milk demand is increasing be created annually.
I m a g e 8.11: A r e a s of D a ir y F a r m i n g
Mediterranean Agriculture » The inferior quality grapes are dried

into raisins and currants. This region
• Mediterranean agriculture is very also produces olives and figs.
specialised commercial farming.
• Region practicing this type of
• The benefit of Mediterranean
agriculture is that more valuable crops
agriculture: countries on either side
like fruits and vegetables are cultivated
of the Mediterranean Sea, southern
in winters when there is a huge demand
California, central Chile, southwestern
in European and North American
parts of South Africa and south and
markets.
southwestern region of Australia.
• This area is significant supplier of citrus • Environmental characteristics
responsible for the evolution of
fruits.
traditional Mediterranean agriculture:
• Viticulture (grape cultivation): special
strength of the Mediterranean region. » The long summer drought; rainfall is
confined to the winter half of the year.
» Super quality wines in the world are
produced from best-quality grapes in
» Unless crops are irrigated they must
either be sown in the autumn and
different countries of this region.
harvested by early summer, or be
101
capable of resisting drought. market is nothing but the distance that

a truck can cover overnight, therefore
» Comparatively mild winters. the name truck farming.
• In addition to market gardening, a
modern development in the industrial
Market Gardening and regions of Western Europe and North
Horticulture America is factory farming.
• Growth in the horticulture sector, after • Livestock, particularly poultry and
mid-1990s, has encouraged growth cattle rearing, is done in stalls and pens.
in horticultural trade, per capita • They all are fed on manufactured
availability and share in farming feedstuff and they are also carefully
systems. supervised against diseases due to
• The Horticultural Revolution (HR) which this requires heavy capital
benefited the poor by generating investment.
employment and income opportunities, • It is estimated that vegetable cultivation
improving resource use efficiency, alone generated approximately 80
encouraging commercialization million jobs worldwide during 2003,
in agriculture, and enhancing the which would have been 53 million less
availability of health-promoting micro- had this area been allocated to rice.
nutrients.
• Contrary to the green revolution, the
• Market gardening and horticulture efficient link of farmers with the market,
specialise in raising the high value not the availability of technology, was
crops such as vegetables, fruits and the major constraining factor in the
flowers, exclusively for the urban spread of the horticulture revolution.
markets. Small-scale farms are used
and they are situated where there are
good transportation linkages with the
urban centre where high income group Types of farming
of consumers is situated.
• This type of farming is both labour and
according to Farming
capital intensive and lays emphasis on organisation
the utilization of irrigation, HYV seeds,
fertilizers, insecticides, greenhouses Co-operative Farming
and artificial heating in colder areas.
• Method and Benefits
• This variety of agriculture is well
progressed in densely populated » A organization of farmers create a co-
industrial districts of north west Europe, operative society by pooling in their
north eastern United States of America resources voluntarily for more efficient
and the Mediterranean regions. and beneficial farming. Individual farms
• Parts of the Netherlands specialises in remain intact and farming is a matter
growing flowers and horticultural crops of cooperative initiative.
especially tulips, which are flown to all » Co-operative societies support farmers,
major cities of European market. to procure all vital inputs of farming,
• Truck farming: The areas where trade the products at the most
cultivators specialise in vegetables only, favourable terms and help in processing
the farming is called as truck farming. of quality products at low rates.
The distance of truck farm from the
102
• Origin: Co-operative movement • As of 2017, Argentina and New Zealand

started over a century ago and has been have been the top crop and food
successful in large number of western producing countries.
European countries like Denmark, • Countries in terms of gross per capita
Netherlands, Belgium, Sweden, Italy monetary value (Ex: China, India and
etc. the United States) lead in terms of
• The movement has been so successful absolute monetary value.
and victorious in Denmark that
practically every farmer is a part of a
co-operative. Rice
• Climatic condition:
Collective Farming » Rice crop requires high temperature,
• The primary principle behind this types (above 25°C) and high humidity with
of farming is built on social ownership of annual rainfall above 100 cm.
the means of production and collective » Rice grows best in areas of fertile soil,
labour. humid and warm climate.
• Origin: Collective farming (The Model » Delta and valley soils are the most
of Kolkhoz) was originated in erstwhile suitable.
Soviet Union to improve upon the » Soils with higher clay content are
inefficiency in the previous technique preferred for its cultivation due to their
of agriculture and to boost agriculture better moisture retention capacity.
cultivation for achieving self-sufficiency » In the areas of less rainfall, irrigation
food products. comes as a handy tool to grow rice.
• The cultivators used to pool in all
their resources e.g. land, livestock and • Rice is a labour intensive crop because
labour. But, they were allowed to keep much machinery is not used in its
very small plots to grow crops in order cultivation. Hence cheap abundant
to meet their daily requirements. labour is needed for its successful
cultivation.
• Due to this, it is grown in densely
Major crops of the populated areas which provide cheap
abundant labour and ready market to
world rice.
• During 1997-99, rice made up 21% of the
• Maize, wheat, rice and potatoes are world’s cereal consumption by weight.
rich sources of calories and are the Average consumption per capita in
essential staples in most regions of developing countries has been levelling
the world. However, sugar cane, which off since the mid-1980s, reflecting
predominantly grows in the tropical economic development and income
and subtropical regions is the world's growth in major East Asian countries.
largest crop by production quantity,
• Important Regions of rice cultivation
also due to its use as a biofuel.
103
I m a g e 8.12: M a j o r R i c e P r o d u c i n g A r e a s
Wheat » Well drained loamy and clayey soils are

ideal for wheat crop.
• Climatic Condition » About 80% of the world’s wheat is
winter wheat. Spring wheat is grown in
» It is a crop of temperate climate.
higher latitudes where winters are too
» This is a rabi crop, which requires a cool cold for wheat.
growing season and a bright sunshine
at the time of ripening. • Some of the best soils are in the “Black
» Wheat cultivation requires around Earth” region of Ukraine, the dark brown
50 to 75 cm of annual rainfall evenly prairie soils of North America.
distributed over the growing season. • Major Producers in the world: China,
» It can be grown in the drier region India, U.S.A., Russia, France, Germany,
through irrigation facilities. Canada, Australia, Pakistan, Argentina,
Ukraine and Kazakhstan.
104
I m a g e 8.13: M a j o r W h e at P r o d u c i n g A r e a s
Maize Coarse Grains:

• These include sorghum, maize, rye,
• Climatic condition: barley, millet and oats, and some
» Maize is a food as well as fodder crop. It other regionally important grains like
is grown in semi-arid climatic conditions tef (Ethiopia) or quinoa (Bolivia and
and over inferior soils. Ecuador).
» Temperature requirement: Between • About 3/5th of total world

21°C to 27°C. consumption of coarse grains is
utilized for animal feed. However,
» Requires at least 140 frost free days where food insecurity is high, these
during its growth. crops remain very important in direct
» Maize can be grown on a variety of human consumption. Ex: In sub-
soils, but well-drained deep loamy soil Saharan African region, around 80%
is the best suited for this crop. of the grain harvest is used in this way.
» It is known as corn in America and • Consumption of coarse grains has
Europe. been increasing fast, driven mainly
by growing use as animal feed in
developing nations.
• In the future, consumption of coarse
Grains may grow quicker than that of
wheat or rice, in line with the growth
of the livestock sector. Different
developing countries will account for
a growing share of global production,
increasing from less than half today
to just under three-fifths by 2030.
105
• Major maize producing countries: U.S.A., China, Brazil, Mexico, France,

Argentina, Brazil, Indonesia, India, South Africa, Ukraine, Canada, Egypt, Russia.
I m a g e 8.14: M a j o r M a i z e P r o d u c i n g A r e a s
Sugarcane » a long duration crop and requires 10 to

15 and even 18 months to mature.
• Climatic Condition » It can be cultivated in a various soil
including loams, clayey loams, black
» Sugarcane is a tropical and a subtropical cotton soils, brown or reddish loams or
crop.
even laterites.
» It grows well in humid and hot climatic
conditions with a temperature of 21°C • India is the second largest sugarcane
to 27°C and an annual rainfall between producing country after Brazil. It is the
75cm. and 100cm. major source of sugar, gur (jaggary),
khandsari and molasses.
» Irrigation is needed in the regions of
low rainfall. • Area cultivated by crop, 1974-76 to
1997-99
I m a g e 8.15: A r e a c u lti vat e d b y c r o p s .
106
• Ratooning • Sugar industry is witnessing faster

growth in consumption, which is mainly
» It is a unique characteristic of sugarcane driven by developing countries. The
cultivation in which a second crop is earnings of developing country through
allowed to grow from the remains of sugar exports have been restricted by
one already harvested. policies such as restricting access to
markets, including policies favouring
» It is also known as stubble cropping
substitute sweeteners such as corn
as the new plants cultivated from the
syrup.
stubble of the harvested crop.
» Ratooning cannot be practiced • Major sugarcane producing
endlessly as the yield and quality countries: Brazil, India, China,
reduces after each cycle. Example: In Thailand, Mexico Pakistan, Philippines,
sugarcane, two or three ratooning crops Australia, Argentina, U.S.A., Egypt,
are possible, after which fresh planting South Africa and Myanmar.
has to be done.
I m a g e 8 .1 6 : M a j o r S u g a r c a n e P r o d u c i n g A r e a s
Cotton with the help of irrigation.

» It requires bright sunshine during the
• Climatic condition: period of growth and cool weather at
the time of ripening.
» It requires light rainfall or irrigation,
high temperature, 210 frost-free days • Drier areas have the advantage of
and bright sunshine for its growth. inhibiting the spread of pests such as
» requires 6 to 8 months to mature. boll weevil.
» Cotton requires clear sky during • According to their staple length there
flowering stage. are three types of cotton fibre
» it can be grown in areas of less rainfall » long staple (length of fibre 24-27 mm),
107
» medium staple (length of fibre 20-24 » the trade reforms needed to address
mm) subsidies and high trade barriers for
» short staple (length of fibre less than 20 cotton,
mm). » the assistance provided to the cotton
sector in developing countries.
• World Cotton Day: WTO marks 7 » Major cotton producing countries in the
October 2020 as the first anniversary world
of World Cotton Day. The annual
celebration of World Cotton Day » Egypt is popular for producing long
provides the opportunity to recognize staple fine quality cotton.
the importance of cotton as a global » The U.S. cotton region produces mostly
commodity grown in over 75 countries medium staple.
across five continents and to highlight
» India produces short and medium
its central role in job creation and
staple cotton although long staple
maintaining economic stability in
cotton is also becoming popular.
several least-developed countries.
» China, Pakistan, Uzbekistan and Brazil.
• x`n two tracks:
I m a g e 8.17: M a j o r C otto n P r o d u c i n g A r e a s
• World Cotton production: projected to grow by 6%.
» World production is projected to rise

by 16% and reach 29.2 Million tonnes Tea:
in 2028. Growth will come mostly from
an expansion of the cotton area (by • Temperature varies from 20 to 30
9%) while average global yields are degrees Celsius.
108
• Rainfall ranges from 150 to 300 cm. Liberia, Equador, Venezuela, El

• Soil Type: Rich in humus and organic Salvador, Ghana and Nigeria.
matter, deep and fertile well-drained • Indian variety of coffee ‘Arabica’ is
soil. famous worldwide.
• Top Tea Producing States: Assam >
West Bengal > Tamil Nadu.
• India is the second largest producer of Pulses:
tea. • Temperature ranges from 20 to 27
• It was introduced in the eastern hill degrees Celsius.
slopes of India by the British. • Rainfall is expected to be between 25
• Slopes of eastern hills have humid and 60 cm.
climate and evenly distributed rainfall • Sandy-loamy soil is the soil type.
without water logging which are
• Top Pulses Producing States: Madhya
optimal conditions for terrace farming
Pradesh > Rajasthan > Maharashtra >
of tea.
Uttar Pradesh > Karnataka.
• Tea is a labor-intensive company. It • India is the world's largest producer as
necessitates a large supply of cheap,
well as consumer of pulses.
skilled labour. To maintain its freshness,
tea is processed in the tea garden. • In a vegetarian diet, these are the main
sources of protein.
• Major Producers of the world: China,
India, Kenya, Sri Lanka, Turkey, Vietnam, • Tur (arhar), moong, urad, masur, gram
Iran, Indonesia, Japan. and peas are the most common pulses
grown in India.
• Being leguminous crops, all these
Coffee: crops except arhar help in restoring soil
fertility by fixing nitrogen from the air.
• Temperatures range from 15 to 28 Therefore, these are mostly grown in
degrees Celsius. rotation with other crops.
• Rainfall ranges from 150 to 250 cm. • Some of the other important producers
• Soil Type: Thick friable loamy soil with are: Canada, Myanmar, China, Nigeria,
good drainage. Brazil, Australia, USA and Russia.
• Top Coffee Producing States:
Karnataka > Kerala > Tamil Nadu.
• India is the seventh largest producer. Oil seeds:
• Coffee was initially brought from • Temperature: Between 15-30°C
Yemen and introduced on the Baba • Rainfall: Around 30-75 cm.
Budan Hills.
• Soil Type: Loam to clayey loam and
• Hills with well-defined shade canopy, well drained sandy loams.
comprising evergreen leguminous
• Top Oilseeds Producing States:
trees provide the optimal condition for
Madhya Pradesh > Rajasthan > Gujarat
coffee cultivation that is why it is mainly
> Maharashtra > Uttar Pradesh.
concentrated in the hilly regions.
• Main oil-seeds produced in India are
• Major Producers of the world: Brazil, mustard, groundnut, sesamum (til),
Vietnam, Indonesia, Columbia, India,
coconut, castor seeds, soyabean,
Ethiopia, Peru, Guatemala, Uganda,
linseed, cotton seeds and sunflower.
109
• The majority of these are edible and Rubber:

can be used as cooking ingredients.
Some of these, however, are used as • Temperature: Above 25°C with moist
raw materials in the manufacture of and humid climate.
soap, cosmetics, and ointments. • Rainfall: More than 200 cm.
• Major Producers of some specific • Soil Type: Rich well drained alluvial soil.
oilseeds: Groundnut in India, Soyabean
in U.S.A., Brazil and China, Olive in
• Top Rubber Producing States: Kerala >
Tamil Nadu > Karnataka.
California (U.S.A.), Italy, Spain, Greece,
Tunisia, Turkey, Portugal, Morocco and • It is an equatorial crop, but under
Syria, Linseed in Argentina, Canada, special conditions, it is also grown in
India, U.S.A., Russia and the Baltic tropical and sub-tropical areas.
nations, Caster seed in India and • Rubber is an important industrial raw
Sri Lanka, Coconuts in Philippines, material.
Indonesia, India and Sri Lanka.
• Major producers of Rubber in the
world: Thailand, Indonesia, Malaysia,
India, Philippines Vietnam, Ivory coast,
Nigeria, Sri Lanka, Liberia, Brazil and
Guatemala.
110
CHAPTER - 9
INDUSTRIES
• The
Introduction countries with
economic growth which is driven by
steady
industrialization, international trade

• Secondary activities or manufacturing and related services are the forerunners
activities convert raw materials into in alleviating the poverty.
products of more value to people.
Example- Transformation of pulp into a
• In fact, there is no single country in the
world which has reached a high stage
notebook.
of economic and social development
• The paper produced from pulp and without having developed an advanced
cloth made from cotton have had value industrial sector.
added to them at each stage of the
manufacturing process. In this way the
• On the other hand, one major impact of
the industrialization is their considerable
finished product has more value and
environmental degradation. Issues
utility than the raw material that it is
like effective waste management and
made from.
proper control of soil, water and air
• Industry means any economic activity pollution have not been fully resolved.
which is concerned with following:
» Production of goods on large scale e.g.

iron and steel industry. Classification of
» Extraction of minerals from mineral
ores e.g. coal mining industry or
Industries
Industries can be categorised on the basis
» The provision of services e.g. tourism of:
industry.
• Size
• Since the initial years of nineteenth
century, livelihoods of modern societies • Inputs/raw materials
have been built on the economic • Output/products
foundations laid by the industrialisation. • Ownership.
• Over the last 200 years industrialization
has lifted millions of people out of
poverty.
111
I m a g e 9.1: C l a s s i f i c ati o n of I n d u s tri e s
Industries based on Size: industries:

The size of industry depends on amount − Utilization of local raw materials and
of capital invested, number of employees, simple tools to produce everyday
and volume of production. According to goods in their day-to-day use.
this, industries may be categorized into
household or cottage, small-scale and
− The living house is an economic
space for the cottage industry.
large-scale.
− Very small capital investment for
• Household industries or cottage arranging local tool.
industry − Usage of indigenous technology
and knowledge.
» It is the smallest industry unit and it is
different from small scale industries. − Taking help from their family
members or part-time labour.
» Some common products are: Pots
making, bamboo basket weaving, − Finished products may be either
fabric, mats, Curtain making, furniture consumed in the same household or
making, Jewellery making of gold or sold in the local markets.
silver.
» Role of Cottage Industries in the
» Some artefacts and crafts are made Economy:
from bamboo, wood obtained locally
from the forests. − Cottage industries are the backbone
» Important features of Household of the rural economy.
112
− Major employment generator in may be grouped under two broad types

rural region. (based on system of manufacturing):
− Non-Polluting. − Traditional large-scale industrial
− Local resources usage. areas which are thickly clustered in
− Livelihood for millions of the rural a few more developed countries.
population which reduce Rural to − High-technology large scale
Urban Migration. industrial regions which have spread
to less developed countries.
• Small Scale Manufacturing
» Because of the large scale operations,
» Small scale manufacturing industry is they have the potential to lower the
distinguished from cottage industries cost of goods.
by its production techniques and place
» They can also create opportunities for
of manufacture (a workshop outside
small-scale and cottage industries to
the home/cottage of the producer).
evolve and flourish.
» There is no separate space for cottage
industry; economic activities are done
in-house whereas there is generally Industries based on Inputs/Raw
separate economic space for small Materials
scale industries.
» Small Scale Manufacturing uses local • Based on the raw materials used, the
raw material, simple power-driven industries are classified as: (a) agro-
machines and semi-skilled labour. based; (b) mineral based; (c) chemical
based; (d) forest based: and (e) animal
» It gives employment and raises local based.
purchasing power.
» Hence, different regions of the
countries like India, China, Indonesia • Agro-based Industry
and Brazil, etc. have developed labour-
intensive small-scale manufacturing in » It includes the processing of raw
order to provide employment to their materials from the field and the farm
population. into finished products for rural and
urban markets.
• Large Scale Manufacturing » Important agro-processing industries
are food processing, sugar, pickles,
» Large scale manufacturing industry
fruits juices, beverages (tea, coffee and
needs a large market, various raw
cocoa), spices and oils fats and textiles
materials, enormous energy, specialized
(cotton, jute, silk), rubber, etc.
workers, advanced technology,
assembly-line mass production and » Some preserving techniques like drying,
large capital. fermenting and pickling, are being used
since long time
» This type of manufacturing developed
in the last 200 years, in the different
regions of United Kingdom, north-
• Mineral based Industries (use
eastern U.S.A. and Europe. Now it has minerals as a raw material)
disseminated to almost all over the
» It mainly uses the ferrous metallic
world.
minerals which contain ferrous (iron),
» The world’s major industrial regions such as iron and steel industries but
113
some use non-ferrous metallic minerals, other side mixed economic countries
such as aluminium and copper allow both Private and Public sector
industries. industries.
» Many industries also use non-metallic • Private Sector:
minerals such as cement and pottery
• These owned by individual or multiple
industries.
investors where few individuals pool their
financial resources. These industries
• Chemical based Industries
are managed by private organizations.
» Utilization of natural chemical minerals, In capitalist nations, industries are
e.g. mineral oil (petroleum) is used in generally owned by private players.
petrochemical industry. • Joint Sector Industries:
» Some other important chemical-based • These are sometimes owned by the
industries are Salts, Sulphur, potash, government and private individuals
Synthetic fibre and plastic or large private company who have
contributed the capital or managed by
• Forest based: Timber for furniture joint stock companies.
manufacturing industry, wood, bamboo
and grass for paper industry, lac for lac
industries come from forests.
• Animal based Industries like
Location of
Leather for leather industry and wool industries and
for woollen textiles are procured from
animals. factors responsible
for its establishment
Industries Based on Output/
Product • Industries are not established evenly
across the world and it is found to
• The industries whose products are used be concentrated in certain regions
as raw material to make other types of because of various factors which
goods are called basic industries like maximize profits and provides ease in
Iron and steel, copper smelting and doing business.
aluminium smelting industries.
• Industry needs certain fundamental
• The consumer goods manufacturing infrastructures like power, water and
industries produced goods which are integrated transportation system which
consumed by consumers directly like can be provided in much lesser time in
industries producing bread, tea, soaps, selected areas than in entire country.
paper, etc. are consumer goods or non-
• Industrial location theory helps to
basic industries.
find out the best location suited for
particular industries and it also finds
out the best industries suited for a
Industries based on Ownership
particular location.
• Public Sector Industries: • Alfred Weber (German Economist) gave
• These are owned and governed by the theory of location of Industries in
governments. E.g. ONGC and SAIL in 1909. This theory emphasized on the
India. Socialist countries have many "Pull factors" that attract industries to a
state-owned industries and on the specific location.
114
• According to Weber, location choice coal fields.

is influenced by labour cost, transport • Other industries like the electro-
costs and agglomeration areas around metallurgical and electro-chemical
the main cities. Among these factors industries, which are great users
transport cost is the primary factor and of cheap hydro-electric power, are
labour cost and agglomeration is part generally situated in the areas of
of secondary factor. hydro-power production, for instance,
• Generally, location of industries is aluminium industry.
influenced by various factors like
access to raw materials, power, market,
capital, transport and labour etc. And Market
the relative significance of these factors
• The entire process of manufacturing
changes with time and place.
is not useful until the finished goods
Location of industries mainly reach the market. Nearness to market
depend on: is necessary for quick disposal of
manufactured goods. It assists in
reducing the transport cost and
enables the consumer to get products
Raw Materials
at cheaper rates.
• Industries using weight-losing raw • In cotton textile industry, cotton is a
materials are situated in the regions non-weight-losing raw material and is
where raw materials are located. generally situated in large urban centre,
• Example-Sugar industry, pig iron e.g. Mumbai, Ahmedabad, Surat and
industry and pulp industry Kanpur etc.
• Iron and steel industries • Petroleum refineries are also situated
near the markets as the transport of
» As both iron ore and coal are weight- crude oil is easier and different products
losing raw materials, an optimum derived from them are utilized as raw
location for iron and steel industries material in other industries. Example:
should be near raw material sources. Koyali, Mathura and Barauni refineries.
» Due to which most of the iron and
steel industries are situated either near
coalfields (Bokaro, Durgapur, etc.) or Transport
near sources of iron ore (Bhadravati, • Transport by land or water is essential
Bhilai, and Rourkela). for the transportation of raw materials
and for the marketing of the finished
products.
Power
• Example, the development of railways in
• Regular power supply is a pre-requisite India by colonial Britishers, connecting
for the localisation of industries. Coal, the port towns with hinterland
mineral oil and hydroelectricity are determined the location of many
the three vital conventional sources of industries around Kolkata, Mumbai and
power. Source of power is the deciding Chennai.
factor in the location of power industries.
• The industries moved to interior
• In the iron and steel industry large locations, only when railway lines were
quantities of coking coal is required thus laid. All Important industrial plants are
these are frequently located around the located on the trunk rail routes.
115
Labour Some of the other important factors

• Industries tend to establish their are:
locations where there is abundance of Climate, government policies, capital and
labour force. banking facilities etc.
• Supply of labour is important for
industries in two respects:
Industrial region of
» Workers in large numbers are often
required. the world
» Skilled people or technical expertise
are required.
• Industrial regions are those areas,
where concentration of industries has
• In India, labour is somewhat mobile and occurred because of favorable geo-
is available in large numbers because economic conditions.
of our large population. Government • Industrial regions develop when a
also initiated many schemes for their number of industries establish close to
skill development. each other and share the benefits of
their closeness. Major industrial regions
of the world are Western and Central
Historical factors Europe, Eastern North America, Eastern
• Cities like Mumbai, Kolkata, Chennai Asia and Eastern Europe.
and Dhaka were largely industrialised • Major industrial regions prefer
due to our colonial legacy. temperate areas or sea ports and
• During the initial period of colonisation, particularly near coal fields.
manufacturing industries received • Different industrial regions in India
new thrust because of the European
traders and merchants. Regions like » Mumbai-Pune cluster
Dhaka, Murshidabad, Surat, Bhadohi, » Bangalore-Tamil Nadu region
Vadodara, Coimbatore, Kozhikode,
» Hugli region
Mysuru etc., emerged as important
manufacturing centres. » Ahmedabad-Baroda region
» Chottanagpur industrial belt
» Vishakhapatnam-Guntur belt
» Gurgaon-Delhi-Meerut region etc.
116
I m a g e 9.2: W o r l d I n d u s tri a l B e lt
• Some common characteristic of the
industrial regions are: Distribution of Major
» Specialisation of Skills/Methods of Industries
Production.
Textile Industries
» Mechanisation and Automation.
» Technological innovations through R & • Textile industries provide us clothing, the
second most important requirement of
D strategy.
man after food. Some of the important
» Organisational Structure and textiles industries are - Cotton, woolen,
Stratification like large organization silk, jute and synthetics.
and executive bureaucracy etc.
• India is the second-largest producer
» Access to Transportation and of cotton and also the second-largest
Communication Facilities. producer of textiles and garments after
» Access to Market. China. India is also largest producer
of jute. It provides employment to 51
» Access to Sources of Energy.
million people directly and 68 million
» Access to Raw Material. people indirectly.
» Access to Labour Supply.
» Access to Agglomeration of industries Cotton Textile Industry
(Large number of industries benefit
from nearness to a leader-industry and • The cotton textile manufacturing
other industries). industry is considered as one of the
oldest industries. Prior to industrial
revolution, cotton cloth was hand spun
(wheels) and looms were used very
rarely.
117
• In 18th century, spinning jenny was • China, U.S.A., India and Russia are the
invented which led to the development leading producers of cotton textile. U.K.,
of power looms. This facilitated the Japan and Germany have developed
development of cotton textile industry, this industry by importing cotton
first in Britain and later in other parts of because these nations do not produce
the world. cotton.
I m a g e 9.3: C otto n M i l l U s e in World
• World: Cotton Textile Manufacturing Regions
I m a g e 9.4: C otto n T e x ti l e M a n u fa c t u ri n g R e g i o n s
118
• Cotton textile is the most important Cotton Industry in India:

of all the textile industries in the world
because it caters to the clothing needs • In 1854, the first successful mechanized
of the common man. It uses cotton as the textile mill was set up in Mumbai. The
main raw material for manufacturing warm, moist climate, close proximity
cloth, which is a pure raw material i.e. it with sea port for importing machineries,
does not lose weight during the process availability of raw material and skilled
of cloth manufacturing. labour resulted in fast expansion of
cotton textile industry n the country.
• Therefore, it does not heavily depend in
raw material although cotton as a raw • Initially the industry flourished in the
material plays an important role in its states of Maharashtra and Gujarat
location. due to the favourable humid climate.
But today, humidity can be created
• The factors responsible for its location artificially, and raw cotton is a pure and
are market, power supply and means not weight losing raw material, so this
of transportation. Of all these factors, industry has spread to other regions of
market is the most important factor. India.
• Example: Coimbatore, Kanpur,
Chennai, Ahmedabad, Mumbai,
Kolkata, Ludhiana, Puducherry and
Panipat.
Other important textile industries

• Wool is produced from the hair of sheep and goat. This
industry does not depend much upon availability of raw
material but is a market-oriented industry.
• This is evident from the fact that most of the world’s wool
is produced by Australia, New Zealand and South Africa
Woollen Textile Industry
whereas most of the woollen industry is concentrated in
areas of cold climate in Europe and North America.
• Europe accounts for nearly two thirds of the world’s
woollen mill capacity and production. Russia, China,
Japan, U.S.A. and U.K. are important producers.
• The silk industry is primarily raw material oriented. Silk is
a luxury item and only rich people can afford to buy it.
• In the recent decades, the world production of silk has
shown somewhat declining trends particularly because
of two reasons viz
Silk Textile Industry
» High cost of production and maintenance and
» Development of synthetic textiles which are cheaper
and easier to maintain.
• Important producers: Japan, China, U.S.A., France,
Germany, Italy, U.K. and India.
119
• Jute is a strong, rough and the cheapest fibre which is

utilised to produce a different variety of products like
Jute Textile Industry gunny bags, hessians, ropes, carpets etc.
• Almost all the world’s production comes from India and
Bangladesh.
• Gained prominence in the early decades of 20th century.
Synthetic fibres are mainly of two types viz.
» Cellulosic fibres derives from natural cellulose, e.g. rayon
Synthetic Textile Industry » Bruce synthetic which are produced from coal or
petroleum molecules, e.g. nylon, acrilon and polyester.
• The U.S.A., Japan, Germany, Russia and U.K. are the
main producers. Iron
numerous environmentally harmful,

Problems associated with Textile non-biodegradable chemicals. The
Industry issue get aggravated when large
quantities of unused chemicals are
• Cotton textile is facing tough dumped in the water bodies.
competition from synthetic fibers. Since • Another challenge is the low quality
man-made fibre is considerably less of infrastructure in developing and
costly than cotton, consumers prefer underdeveloped countries.
fabrics with synthetic blends.
• After two to four rounds of cotton
cultivation in the same soil, farmers Iron and Steel Industry
start to experience loss of moisture
• Iron and Steel industry is known as
which is detrimental for cotton crops.
the basic industry as it provides base
The quality of cotton gets very poor
to all other industries. It provides solid
due to sporadic picking in the further
foundation to modern civilization. It
round in some parts of the drought-
mainly depends upon the utilization of
ridden states.
coal, iron ore and manganese as the
• Along with these prevailing challenges, basic raw materials which are heavy
apparel companies need to now and weight losing raw materials.
tackle a steep increase in prices of raw
• As this industry uses large quantities of
materials as well. Prices have seen an
bulky raw materials and it also produces
upward movement after many units in
heavy products, it is also known as
China were shut down due to pollution
heavy industries.
norms.
• Steel is essential to our society. As
• The corona virus outbreak has hit
a permanent material which can be
logistics in the world, which has in turn
recycled repeatedly without losing its
further dampened the rates.
properties, steel is also fundamental to
• Due to the stringent social and a successful circular economy.
environmental norms in the international
• From transport systems, infrastructure
market the textile industry has been
and housing, to manufacturing,
under increasing pressure.
agriculture or energy, the iron and still
• Textile industry is extremely chemical- industry is continuing to expand its offer
intensive and involves the use of of advanced high strength steels which
120
reduce the weight of applications and involves many stages. The raw material
encourage circular economy practices. is put in the blast furnace where it
undergoes smelting.
• It is then refined. The output obtained
Process of making steel and its is steel which may be utilized by other
usage industries as raw material.
• The transformation of iron ore into steel
I m a g e 9.5: R aw M at e ri a l for S t e e l I n d u s tr y
• Special alloys of steel can be produced copper. Alloys provide steel unusual
by adding small amounts of other hardness, toughness, or ability to resist
metals such as aluminium, nickel, and rust.
I m a g e 9.6: S t e e l P r o d u c ti o n
Changes in location of iron and still the industry was near coal fields and
industry close to canals and railways.
• After 1950, iron and steel industry began
• Before 1800 A.D. iron and steel industry to be established on large areas of flat
was situated where raw materials,
land near seaports. This is because by
power supply and running water were
this time steel works had become very
easily accessible.
large and iron ore had to be imported
• After some time, the ideal location for from overseas.
121
Distribution of Iron and Steel Russia are the leading producers.

Industry: » The important steel centres are Scun
The industry is one of the most complex Thorpe, Port Talbot, Birmingham
and capital-intensive industries and is and Sheffield in the U.K.; Duisburg,
concentrated in the advanced countries of Dortmund, Dusseldorf and Essen in
North America, Europe and Asia. Germany; Le Creusot and St. Ettienne
in France; and Moscow, St. Petersburgh,
• USA: most of the production comes Lipetsk, Tula, in Russia and Krivoi Rog,
from the north Appalachian region and Donetsk in Ukraine.
(Pittsburgh), Great Lake region
(Chicago-Gary, Erie, Cleveland, Lorain, • Asia
Buffalo and Duluth) and the Atlantic
Coast (Sparrows Point and Morisville). » The important centres include Nagasaki
As the industry has also moved towards and Tokyo-Yokohama in Japan.
the southern state of Alabama. Pittsburg » Shanghai, Tienstin and Wuhan in China.
area is now losing ground. It has now » Jamshedpur, Kulti-Burnpur, Durgapur,
become the “rust bowl” of U.S.A. Rourkela, Bhilai, Bokaro, Salem,
• Europe: Visakhapatnam and Bhadravati in
India.
» U.K., Germany, France, Belgium,
Luxembourgh, the Netherlands and
I m a g e 9.7: M a j o r I r o n & S t e e n C e n tr e s
122
Challenges associated with Iron • Some of the other important challenges

and Still Industry are low potential utilization, inferior
quality of products and environmental
• Iron and steel industry require large degradation etc.
capital investment which a developing Therefore, there is a need to allocate
and underdeveloped countries cannot resources for research and development to
afford. produce steel more competitively to raise
• Irregular supply of electricity in their standards particularly in developing
different parts of the world especially in and underdeveloped countries
developing countries.
• The technological development in
developing and underdeveloped Chemical Industry
countries is less as compared to other It has a large number of products and
countries. is widely diverse and complex industry.
• Other important challenge is associated Chemical industry has mainly divided into
with the low per capita labour six branches.
productivity. Example: The per capita • Heavy chemicals like sulphuric acid,
labour productivity in India is at 90- soda ash, caustic soda, chlorine, nitirc
100 tonnes which is one of the lowest acid, hydrochloric acid etc.
in the world. The labour productivity
in Japan, Korea and some other major • Electro-chemicals such as fertilizers,
steel producing countries is about 600- nitrate, ammonia, carbides, wood pulp
700 tonnes per man per year. etc.
I m a g e 9.8: D i s tri b u ti o n of Chemical i n d u s tri e s
123
• Petrochemicals includes plastics, • More or less, technology simplifies

manmade fibres, fertilizers, synthetic communication, whether it’s a social
rubber, explosives etc. connectivity or relaying scientific
data. IT is backbone for effective
• Light chemicals are concerned with communication whether it is internal
insecticides, colours, tars, carbolic acid, and external.
explosives, fertilizers, manmade fibres,
synthetic rubber etc. • Information technology facilitates the
effortless exchange of information
• Pharmaceuticals include medicines across borders, as well as the expansion
and drugs. of resources from countries all across
• Derived chemicals are related to the world. Information technology is
paints, leather tanning materials, soap, the catalyst for global integration in
glass, paper etc. this age of globalization.
• Being a knowledge-based industry, I.T.
sector utilizes skilled labour forces.
Information Technology (IT) • Economic growth and services in many
and High-Tech Industry other sectors can be achieved by the
help of I.T. industry in a rapid manner.
• IT industry deals in the storage,
processing and distribution of • Growth in IT industry is also very
information. Today, this industry has important to achieve the Goal 9 of
become global. This is due to a series SDG i.e. Build resilient infrastructure,
of technological, political, and socio- promote inclusive and sustainable
economic events. The main factors industrialization and foster innovation.
guiding the location of these industries
are resource availability, cost and
infrastructure.
I m a g e 9.9: I n di a n IT I n d u s tri e s
124
• Great progress has been achieved in • ICTs have the potential to bring millions
bridging the digital divide or digital upon millions of people into the global
gap. The explosive growth in mobile economy and to form new social
telephony, even in the poorest countries, communities.
is changing the way people contribute • Falling global absolute poverty and
to the economic and social well being rising ICT penetration.
of their societies.
2.2 6
2.0 5
1.8 4
1.6 3
1.4 2
1.2 1
1.0 0
1990 1994 1998 2002 2006 2010
I m a g e 9.10: R e l ati o n B e t w e e n ICT & P ov e rt y
• Even though such kind of progress • In this situation, the world recognize
and all its potential, ICTs are still less that the ICT community can be the
accessible and costly for the majority of facilitator of a new transformation that
the people in the world. The challenge must take place.
is not only to provide affordable access • Many IT industries are established
to information and communication across the globe. Some of the important
technologies, but to do so in a way that IT industries are Google, Microsoft,
makes socially responsible business Infosys, Accenture and IBM etc.
sense.
• Some important IT hubs are situated
• There are millions of people waiting in Silicon Valley, California (USA) and
to contribute to the global economy Bengaluru, India.
in more substantial ways, but they are
limited by their current circumstances.
125
Some of the other important industries

Pulp and Paper Industry • It is a forest-based industry as most of the pulp and
paper is produced from soft wood of the coniferous
forests found mainly in northern parts of Canada and
Eurasia.
• The other raw materials used are esparto grass, sebai
grass, bhabar grass, bamboo, cotton lint, cotton waste,
wastepaper and rags etc.
• Soft wood is used for coaster paper like newsprint while
other raw materials give better quality paper.
• This industry also depends upon the availability of
abundant pure water, cheap power, chemicals like
caustic soda, soda ash, chlorine, china clay etc., cheap
and skilled labour and a ready market.
• Canada, the U.S.A., Sweden, Finland and Russia are the
leading producers of mechanically made pulp
• The U.S.A., Canada, Sweden, Finland, Japan, Russia are
the major producers.
Fertilizer Industry • This industry provides the basic input for improving soil
fertility and for increasing the agricultural production.
• Depends chiefly upon three important raw materials–
phosphate, potash and nitrate.
• It also depends upon nitrogen obtained from the air.
Accordingly, there are three types of chemical fertilizers.
• Nitrogenous fertilizers (urea, ammonium sulphate, nitro-
limestone): China, the U.S.A., and India are the leading
producers
• Phosphatic fertilizers (in the form of super phosphate
like nitro-phosphate and ammonium phosphate): U.S.A.,
China, India, Russia, Australia, Brazil etc. are the major
producers
• Potassium fertilizers (in the form of potassium): Nearly
75% of the potassic fertilizer comes from Canada,
Germany, Belarus, U.S.A. and Russia.
Automobiles Industry • Automobiles Industry developed in Europe at the end of
the 19th century.
• At present it comprises of large number of vehicles such
as cars, trucks, buses, three wheelers and two wheelers.
• It relies upon the availability of steel, rubber, plastic and
a large number of components which lead to creation of
a large number of ancillary industries.
• Major producers: The U.S.A., Japan, Germany, France
and Italy.
126
Electronics Industry • It Is mainly concerned with electronic equipments such

as computers and other equipments of everyday use.
• It gives maximum employment in proportion to capital
investment. It is entirely depending on technological
development and is not affected by the availability of
raw materials.
• U.S.A., Japan, China and some European countries are
some of the leading countries in this industry.
• Recently, some of the south-east Asian countries like
South Korea and Indonesia have emerged as important
producers.
• The development of semiconductors

New technologies and mainframe computing in the 1960s,
shaping the together with personal computers and

the internet, were the main engines of
industrial landscape the third industrial revolution.
• Recent technological breakthroughs
• Different waves of technological seem to be pushing yet another wave,
advancements have pushed economic in what is commonly called the fourth
development since the first industrial industrial revolution. The concept is
revolution. based on the growing convergence
• The invention of the steam engine, the of different emerging technology
mechanization of simple tasks and the domains—digital production
construction of railroads triggered the technologies, nanotechnologies,
1IR between 1760 and 1840. biotechnologies and new materials—
and their complementarity in
• With the advent of electricity, the
production.
assembly line along with mass
production gave rise to the second • Advanced manufacturing is the term
industrial revolution between the late typically used to denote the adoption
19th and early 20th century. of these technologies in manufacturing
production.
I m a g e 9.11: U s e of Technology in M a n u fa c t u ri n g
127
» Leaving no one behind while sharing

Inclusive and benefits accrued from industrial growth,
Sustainable and prosperity is shared among women

and men in all countries.
Industrial » Broader economic and social growth
is supported within an environmentally
Development sustainable framework.
» New methods or approaches to harness
• Three dimensions of sustainable and share available knowledge,
development which are addressed by technology and innovation.
Inclusive and sustainable industrial
development: social equity, economic » All above factors are supported through
growth, and environmental protection. multi-stakeholder partnerships.
• Two main pillars of inclusive and • Adopting more socially inclusive and
sustainable industrial development: environmentally sustainable business
the first one is about creating shared operations will help to mitigate risk,
prosperity for all, and the second focuses develop new markets and cultivate
on safeguarding the environment. sustainable relationships with suppliers,
• We need to ensure following factors customers and investors.
while implementing inclusive and • Introducing energy efficiency
sustainable industrial development,: improvements and scaling up the use of
renewable energy for productive uses
» Higher level of industrialization and and industrial applications is essential
globalization of markets should benefit if the world is to move towards inclusive
goods and service industry. and sustainable development.
I m a g e 9.12: I n c l u s i v e & S u s ta i n a b l e I n d u s tri a l D e v e l o p m e n t
128
• Effective knowledge networks are multilateral stakeholders, national

an important means for developing and local governments as well as
countries to exchange knowledge private entities are better equipped
and accelerate their economic to approach development processes
development. By working through an in a more effective, inclusive and
integrated and networked approach, transparent way.
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CHAPTER - 10
WORLD ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT

• EARLIER, societies were hunting machines and factories became the
gathering where people survived by primary means of production with the
hunting animals and gathering plants. emergence of industrial societies.
Most of their time was devoted to these • Whole industries developed to make
two things. So, no separate institution the machines, build the factories and
for production and distribution of goods to use the machines and factories to
and services could be created. produce clothing, household goods,
and many other important products.
Gradually the secondary sector of the
economy became dominant sector.
Perhaps inevitably it led to a growth in
the tertiary (service) sector to respond to
the demands of an industrial economy.
ECONOMIC
I m a g e 10.1: E a r l i e r h u n t e r g ath e r e r s
DEVELOPMENT
• Next horticultural and pastoral societies
were developed, in which people raised • According to Michael Todaro “Economic
animals and grew crops. Although, they development is an increase in living
were better than their hunting and standards, improvement in self-esteem
gathering counterparts but families as needs and freedom from oppression
a unit were involved, so no separate as well as a greater choice”.
institution of economy can be evolved. • No single description incorporates
• This separate institution i.e. ‘the all the different strands of economic
economy’—finally did appear with the development. It is usually described in
advent of agricultural societies about terms of objectives.
5,000 years ago. The societies started • Most commonly described objectives of
producing the food surpluses due to economic development are creation of
invention of wheel and plow, these jobs and wealth, and the improvement
surpluses gave rise to inter and intra of quality of life.
society trade. • Economic development is a process
• Rise of trade marked the appearance that influences growth and restructuring
of a separate economy. To repair of an economy to enhance the economic
broken wheel and plows new crafts well-being of a community.
job evolved and subsequently job • So, in the broadest sense, economic
profiles diversified. But despite these development encompasses three major
developments people still worked near areas:
their home.
1. Policies that the government
• During 1700s and 1800s, work and undertakes to meet various
home finally began to separate as
130
economic objectives including high development, we often discuss terms

employment, inflation control, and like modernization, industrialization,
sustainable growth. and so on. Many times, we confuse
2. Policies and programs to provide industrial development with economic
services to people. Ex: highways development.
and providing medical access to the • The world is often categorized into two
different sections of the society. broad group of countries:
3. Policies and programs clearly 1. The More Developed Countries
directed at improving the business (MDCs): A developed economy
climate with the help of, technology is typically characteristic of a
transfer, business finance, marketing, developed country with a relatively
neighborhood development, high level of economic growth
business retention and expansion and security. Developed countries
and real estate development etc. have advanced technological
infrastructure and have diverse
• The ultimate objective of economic
industrial and service sectors. So
development is to improve the
these are also called as industrialized
economic well-being of a community
countries.
with the help of various efforts like job
retention, job creation and tax base 2. The Less Developed Countries
enhancements etc. (LDCs): Least developed countries
(LDCs) are low-income countries
• As there is no single meaning for the
confronting severe structural
economic development, there is no
impediments to sustainable
single policy, strategy, or program
development. They are highly
for achieving successful economic
vulnerable to economic and
development. Communities differ in
environmental shocks and have
their geographic and political strengths
low levels of human assets. LDCs
and weaknesses. Each community,
have exclusive access to certain
therefore, will have a unique set of
international support measures
challenges for economic development.
in particular in the areas of
development assistance and trade.
“The ultimate resource in economic
development is people, it is people nor
• Such a broad regionalization technique
is likely to be overly simplistic, yet it is
capital or raw material that develops an
commonly used, and it can be quite
economy“ _Peter f. Drucker.
useful.
Measurement of Economic
Most Commonly Used Measures
Development
of Economic Development:
• Economic development is a concept
and an activity in general to assess 1. GDP Per Capita.
the core competencies of a nation, its 2. Population Growth.
innovation and use of the available 3. Occupational Structure of the Labor
resources. This process improves the Force.
political, economic, and social well-
being of the people. 4. Urbanization.
• When we discuss economic 5. Consumption per capita.
131
6. Infrastructure. • Urbanization: It is the percentage of

7. Social Conditions: a country's total population that lives
in urban areas. Currently less than half
• GDP per capita: GDP is the total of the global population live in urban
market value of overall goods and regions. Usually, urbanization increases
services produced within a country in with development of country.
a year. Economic activity of the county
can also be measured with the help of • Consumption per capita: Per
GDP. The more the country produces capita consumption is the yearly use
per person, the more "developed" it is of goods and services by each person,
assumed to be. derived by dividing the quantity of
goods and services used by the total
• Population Growth: In general, population. Consumption per person
poorer nations have more rapid rates of
is the important indicator of economic
population growth. Even though growth
development.
rates of the population seem small (1%,
2% 3%, or maybe 4%), but they have a • Infrastructure: A country's
big impact. infrastructure is act as the foundation
for its economic development. It
• Occupational Structure of the includes the urban centers, transport
Labor Force: The economic activities networks, communications, energy
can be divided into primary activities, distribution systems, farms, factories,
secondary activities, and tertiary mines, and such facilities as schools,
activities. (Some add quaternary hospitals, postal services, and police
activities and quinary activities, too). and armed forces.
» Primary Activities: These are those There are no alternatives for
activities that directly remove the infrastructure development and
various resources from the earth. there are no shortcuts for faster
Generally, they include agriculture, economic growth. Unless developing
fishing, mining and lumbering etc. countries invest in various elements
of the infrastructure component,
» Secondary Activities: It involve process their development would be slow and
which focus on converting resources into retarded and they would lose out in the
finished products. This include various race for economic competitiveness.
types of Manufacturing activities.
» Tertiary Activities: It comprise the • Social Conditions: Better social
different service sector of the economy conditions are necessary for improving
and it includes various services related the well-being of every individual in
to transportation, education, banking society so they can reach their full
and retailing etc. potential. Better social conditions
require the removal of barriers so that
• The occupational structure of the labor all citizens can strive to achieve their
force also changes with the progress dreams with confidence and dignity.
of the country. In Less Developed It is about helping people so they can
Countries (LDCs) most of the people move forward on their path to self-
are engaged in variety of primary sufficiency.
activities. On the other side, in high
income countries like the United states − Literacy rate
most of the population are involved − Life expectancy
with the tertiary sector.
− Health care
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− Caloric intake trawled. This is sometimes known as

− Infant mortality extractive production.
• Human Development Index:

Gross National Product (GNP) per
Secondary Activities
capita is the most important indicator • Secondary activities add value to
of development yet there are some natural resources by transforming
significant problems associated with raw materials into valuable products
it. Hence, every year United Nations by the procedure and techniques
Development Program (UNDP) of manufacturing, processing and
computes a Human Development construction (infrastructure) industries.
Index for each country. The human
• Manufacturing and assembly process
development index (HDI) composed
is associated with the secondary
of three indicators: Life Expectancy,
production. It involves converting raw
Education (adult literacy and combined
materials into components, for example,
secondary and tertiary school
making plastics from oil. It also involves
enrollment) and Per Capita Income.
assembling the product, e.g., building
HDI emphasizes that people along with houses, bridges and roads.
their capabilities should be the ultimate
criteria for assessing the development
of a country, not economic growth Tertiary Activities:
alone.
• This sector includes all economic
activities where different ‘services’ are
produced such as education, banking,
Type of economic activities insurance, transportation, tourism, etc.
• Economic activities are generally This sector is not directly involved in the
grouped into primary, secondary, processing of physical raw materials.
tertiary and quaternary activities and • Some of the Common examples are
there are three important types of the work of a plumber, electrician,
industry in which firms operate. technician, launderer, barber,
shopkeeper, driver, cashier, teacher,
doctor, lawyer and publisher etc.
Primary Activities:
• Primary activities are directly dependent
on natural wealth and environment as Quaternary Activity
these refer to effective use of earth’s • Quaternary activities are part of the
resources such as water, vegetation, service sector that is ‘knowledge
land, building materials and minerals. oriented’.
Therefore it also includes, hunting and
gathering, pastoral activities, fishing, • This sector can be segregated into
forestry, agriculture, and mining and quaternary and quinary activities.
quarrying. • The Quaternary Sector: It is said to
• Primary production is associated the intellectual aspect of the economy.
with acquiring of raw materials. E.g. It includes education, training, the
metals and coal have to be mined, oil development of technology, and
drilled from the ground, rubber tapped research and development. More
from trees, foodstuffs farmed and fish than half of all workers in developed
economies are involved in the
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‘Knowledge Sector’ and there has been reach 9.8 billion by 2050, with 6.7 billion
a very high growth in demand for and people living in urban areas (around
consumption of information-based 68% increase as compare to 2015).
services from mutual fund managers • Significant issues affecting the
to tax consultants, software developers population of world include shifting
and statisticians. Like some of the mortality and fertility rates, gender
tertiary functions, quaternary activities equality, and youth education and
can also be outsourced. employment.
• Quinary Activities (Often referred to as • Fertility rate, or the number of births
‘gold collar’ professions): The highest per woman (of child-bearing age), is
level of decision-makers or policymakers estimated to reduce from a global
implement quinary activities. Quinary average of 2.5 in 2019 to 1.9 by 2100. At
activities are type of services that focus present, Niger has the highest fertility
on the creation, re-arrangement and rate at 7.0; the Indian fertility rate 2.22.
interpretation of new and existing ideas,
data interpretation and the use and • Life expectancy averages is about 65
evaluation of new technologies. They years in Least Developed Countries
represent exclusive and highly paid (LDCs); life expectancy at birth in the
senior business executives, government U.S. is 69.4 years.
officials, research scientists, financial • Globally, contraceptive usage is
and legal consultants, etc. increasing. In 2019, contraceptive use
was about 1.7 times higher than in 1990
and is 6 times higher in LDC. But more
Population Dynamics: than 20% of women of reproductive
age in 15 countries still do not have
• The 2020 India population is 1.3 billion access to contraceptives.
and the world population is over 7.6
billion. • The population of sub-Saharan African
region is growing rapidly and may grow
• Global population is estimated to to over 3 billion people by 2100.
I m a g e 10.2: U r b a n P o p u l ati o n
134
Important facts related to Standard 2.3 billion people lack access to proper
of Living sanitation facilities. Access is lowest in
sub- Saharan African region, where only
• In 2015, around 0.73 billion people lived one in every three people have proper
below the world poverty line of $1.90 facilities. Globally, urban regions have
USD per day. The projected estimation better sanitation coverage—83% have
was around 1.9 billion in 1990. access to proper facilities, compared to
• According to the Gini Index, Belgium, 50% in rural areas.
Slovenia and Norway have among the Only one quarter of people in least
most equal income distributions in the developing countries have access to
world. basic hygiene (soap and water).
• 2/3rd of Indian population live in In 2015, around 71% of the global
poverty. About 68.8% of the Indian population had access to clean
population lives on less than $2 a drinking water at home, however
day. Over 30% even have less than around 263 million people spent more
$1.25 per day available - they are than 30 minutes per round trip to
considered extremely poor. This makes collect safe drinking water. In Oceania
the Indian subcontinent one of the and Sub-Saharan Africa only around
poorest countries in the world; women 40% and 43% of the rural populations,
and children, the weakest members of respectively, have access to improved
Indian society suffer most. water resources.
• More than 1.8 million people were Healthcare and Disease: Close to
homeless in India in 2019. around 29% of deaths in 2016 were
• Food: Average expenses on food as caused by communicable diseases.
a percentage of income range from In 2018 around 38 million world
14% in developed countries to 24% in population were infected with HIV and
developing countries in 2018. In 2019, nearly around 770,000 died from AIDS.
Americans spent an average of 9.5% Most number of cases are in eastern
of their disposable personal incomes and southern Africa (20.6 million). The
on food. Generally speaking, the more number of new infections reduced by
developed a country is, the smaller. 41% between 1997 and 2018, however
The percentage of household income it infection rates have increased in
spends on food. eastern Europe, northern Africa, central
Asia, and Latin America.
Globally, around 45% of deaths
of children under 5 are caused by Diarrheal diseases killed around 1.6
undernutrition. million people in 2016 because of
inadequate water, sanitation, and
The Green Revolution (GR) during hygiene services. Nearly around
the second half of the 20th century 446,000 children die every year from
was responsible for huge growth in diarrhea. More than 70% and 55%
agricultural yields and helped feed of the infections are because of
the rapidly growing world population. unsafe drinking water and sanitation,
Sub-Saharan African region was the respectively.
only developing area where increased
food production was primarily due to In 2018, there were about 228 million
increased crop area vs. increased crop cases of malaria in the world, with
yield. nearly about 93% occurring in Africa.
Approximately around 405,000 people
• Water and Sanitation: Nearly around died and 67% were children under
135
the age of five. According to various nations are in agriculture (60%),

survey more populations will be at risk services (27%), and industry (13%).
of malaria as climate change expands
suitable habitat for disease-carrying • Environment: Various survey reported
mosquitoes. Since 2010, malaria that it is “extremely likely” (>95%
mortality rates have reduced by over certainty) that the recent climate
38% globally, with the largest decline change is caused by anthropogenic
occurring in southeast Asia. greenhouse gas emissions.
In the 21st century, climate change
Indoor air pollution, caused primarily
and global warming will likely result
because of smoke while cooking, is
in more flooding and coastal erosion,
responsible for around 3.8 million
droughts, tropical storm intensity,
premature deaths each year.
increasing extinction risk for various
Various cardiovascular diseases are the plant and animal species, extreme
important cause of death in the world. heat, and human health risks (related
Regular physical activity, a healthy diet, to malnutrition and water-related and
and avoiding tobacco could decrease vector-borne diseases).
the major risk factors associated with
Decline in crop productivity in low
premature deaths from cardiovascular
latitudes and freshwater availability
diseases and strokes.
are likely. Poor communities are more
In 2015, appoiximately 90 million people vulnerable because of their low adaptive
fell under the poverty line because of capacity and high dependence on local
out-of-pocket health care costs. climate (e.g., rain for agriculture).
Education and Employment: Global Various surveys in 2019 found that not
youth literacy has increased from investing in climate change mitigation
around 83% in 1990 to 92% in 2018. would result in an average 7.2%
The previous broader gap in female decrease in global GDP by 2100 while
and male literacy rates is also closing adhering to the Paris Agreement could
e.g. in 1990, literacy rates were around limit this decrease to 1.1%.
87.4% and 78.9% for boys and girls,
respectively and in 2018, the literacy
rates were close to around 93% (male)
and 91% (female). Challenges of Economic
Cuba allocates the highest percentage Development
(between 12- 13%) of its GDP on 1. Energy and Environmental
education each year. The U.S. spends Security: Consensus has recently
around 5% every year. been forged on the potential for long-
Sub-Saharan Africa primary school term economic, national security
enrollment improved from 52% to 80% and societal damage from insecure
from 1990- energy supplies and environmental
catastrophe, as well as the intense
2015; the 2015 world average is around
need for technological advances that
91.5%.
can provide low-polluting and secure
In Low Human Development nations, energy sources.
nearly around 25% of the population
has at least some secondary education. 2. Conflict and Poverty: Globally,
In very High Human Development where boundaries and borders have
countries this metric is 89%. blurred, and where seemingly distant
threats can metastasize into immediate
Most number of jobs in developing
136
problems, the fight against global disadvantage over an extended time

poverty has become a fight for global and results in an inability to improve
security. one’s economic circumstances or
enable one’s children to escape them.
3. Competing in Era of
Globalisation: Multinationals are 7. Global Corporations, Global
facing a new era of globalisation, Impact: The private sector is becoming
characterised by the polarized forces a important player-indeed some might
of cooperation and competition. This say the dominant player-in shaping
period is one of fragmented, multi- the world economic and development
speed globalisation. agenda. Various multinational
corporations with operations that span
4. Global Imbalances: Recent
the globe, and in some cases, capacities
interconnected world is in uncharted
and networks that match those of
territory. The world's sole hegemonic
governments, have a particularly
power, the United States, is addicted
important part to play in spreading the
to foreign money, while emerging
opportunities and mitigating some of
powers like China and oil exporters
the risks of globalization.
maintain growing surpluses. Some
people are worry that the world is at 8. Global Health Crises: Various
a tipping point, where only a dramatic governments across the world has
changes in economic policy can begun to realize that global health
modify the looming trajectory. While, issues are relevant for any citizen,
others see underlying structural factors regardless of nationality, residence
perpetuating gross imbalances for a or status. Despite developments in
sustained period. the world’s collective ability to battle
disease with advances in field of
5. Rise of New Powers: The rise of
medicine and technology, global
“emerging powers” (a group that
health needs remain unmet, making
usually includes the so-called BRICs
the entire world vulnerable to variety of
(Brazil, Russia, India, and China), but
health crises. Particularly poor people
which sometimes is applied more
continue to suffer disproportionately
broadly to include South Africa, Mexico
from inadequate health services,
and others) is redesigning the world
exacerbating their struggle out of
economy and international politics.
poverty.
The economy of these countries are
growing much faster than the rest of 9. Global Governance Stalemate:
the world and they are changing the Recent global challenges-nuclear
structure of international production proliferation, the threat of pandemic
and trade, the nature and direction flu, the fight against global poverty
of capital flows, and the patterns of and the deadlock of global trade
natural resource consumption. negotiations cannot be solved by the
previous approaches of international
6. Economic Exclusions in Some
institutions. Therefore, to resolve the
Areas: Economic exclusion is a world’s most pressing problems, which
multidimensional process in which touch all corners of the world, we
particular groups are prevented must adapt our global governance
from participating fully and equally approaches to be more representative
in the economic life of their city or and thus more effective by encouraging
metropolitan area. It occurs when and enabling the key affected countries
people experience acute economic to take an active role in generating
137
solutions. they are very poor to survive. With

such a toll, addressing poverty in new
10. Global Poverty: New Actors, New
and more effective ways must be a
Approaches: The challenges related priority for the global policy agenda.
to global poverty is more urgent than Fortunately, various new actors are
ever. More than half the population of bringing new perspectives, new
world (nearly 3 billion people) lives on approaches and new energy to the
less than $2 per day. Nearly around challenge. Ex: Cooperation from UN,
30,000 children die each day and close World bank, SDGs etc.
to about 11 million per year because
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CHAPTER - 11
TRANSPORT
Introduction related care, improve girls’ enrollment

in school, and increase and diversify
farmers’ income by connecting them to
• Transport is a type of service or facility markets.
for the carriage of persons and goods
from one location to the other using
• According to Global Mobility Report
2017, Mobility will increase as more
humans, animals and various kinds of
goods and people move across the
vehicles. These movements take place
towns and globe. It is estimated that
over land, water and air. Some important
by 2030 (as compared to 2015), annual
modes of international transportation
passenger traffic will increase around
are:
50% ; global freight volumes will grow
» Land transport (Roads and railways) by 70% ; and an additional 1.2 billion
cars will be on the road.
» Water transport
» Air transport
» Pipelines Important factors
• Better, secure
transportation,
and
along with
speedy
the
that will shape the
efficient communication, encourage Mobility
cooperation and unity among scattered
Mobility will be shaped by three factors:
peoples and at the same time it has
the potential to improve the lives and
livelihoods of billions of people.
• Transport sector is a essential driver Demographics
of various economic and social • By 2030, around 1.2 billion people with
development. It helps to bring a radically changed socio-economic
opportunities for the poor people and makeup will fuel different new demands
enabling economies across the region for mobility solutions and by that time,
to be more competitive. around 16.5% of the world’s population
• Infrastructures associated with will be aged 60 or older.
transportation connects people to, • This demographic trend—led by
education, health services and jobs. countries of OECD and joined by various
Various types of transport service transition economies—calls for new
enable the supply of goods and solutions that are affordable,responsive
services around the world; and it also and age-appropriate.
allows people to interact and generate
the knowledge and solutions that foster
long-term growth. Preferences
• Example-Rural services can prevent
large number of maternal deaths with • People wish to stay in a society where
the help of timely access to childbirth- they can move easily from one place to
other, travel and relocate as needed,
139
and have quick,easy and affordable • With the discovery of the wheel, the use
access to variety of services. of carts and wagons became important.
• As physical movement of people The revolution in transport happened
and goods are increasing, due to after the invention of the steam engine
which various new opportunities are in the 18th century.
developing that allow the “virtual” • Perhaps the first public railway line
movement of people and goods as well. (between Stockton and Darlington in
• Some of the important examples are northern England) was established
telecommuting, which helps employees in 1825 and then onwards, railway
across the globe to work away from transport became the most popular and
traditional offices and e-commerce fastest mode of transport in the 19th
that allows consumers to order various century and the discovery of the internal
goods online. combustion engine revolutionised road
transportation system.
Important land transport consists of:

Technology
• Future mobility is also depends on the Roads and Highways
progress and development of digital • Road is an important medium of land
technology. Various report estimated transport. It comprised of different
that By 2020, the global population will varieties and varies from pathways
have around 26.3 billion digital devices and unmetalled roads to national and
and connections— this is expected to international highways. It is the most
be more than three times of the world’s convenient medium of transportation
population. Approximately more than for shorter distances.
60% of global mobile traffic will be in
the Africa,Asia Pacific and the Middle
• The roads link the fields and farms to
factories and markets, and the goods
East.
can be distributed right at the doorsteps
• Attached with transport systems, it of the consumers.
can lead to more safer, equitable and
efficient mobility. It also offers huge
• They are very useful for short distances
and can be built in hilly and remote
prospects for countries to reshape the
areas where railways cannot reach.
way people, goods, and services travel.
• In many urban areas, the utilization of • World distribution of roads in very
uneven. Road system is not developed
smartphones has catalyzed a move
upto the desired standards and
away from vehicle ownership and
expectations all over the world. The
toward vehicle sharing, ride hailing and
total motorable road length in the world
carpooling.
is only about 15 million kilometres. Of
this, around 33% is in North America
alone (The highest road density
Land Transport and the highest quantity of vehicles
are registered in North America as
• Large number of the movement of compared to Western Europe).
goods and services takes place over • In recent times, traffic on roads has been
land. In early days, humans themselves increased dramatically. The congestion
were carriers e.g. palanquin (palki/doli) occurs when the road network are
and later animals were utilized. not able to cope with the demands of
140
traffic, which is responsible for long- Road density Across the World
standing traffic in the city. Most of the
important cities in the world have been • Developed countries have a better
facing the problem of congestion. network of highways as compared to
the developing countries. Example-The
road network in Europe is quite dense,
because of which every port and city in
Europe is linked by highways.
Region/Continent Important information about road density

North America • Very high Highway density (close to around 0.65 km per sq
km).
• Most of the places are within 20 km distance from a highway.
• Cities Across the continent are well-connected. E.g. The
Trans- Canadian Highway connects Vancouver in British
Columbia (west coast) to St. John’s City in Newfoundland
(east coast) and the Alaskan Highway connects Anchorage
(Alaska) to Edmonton (Canada).
• Canada has comparatively less roads due to cold climate in
its northern part. Large number of highways in Canada have
been constructed in north-south direction to link Canada
with Mexico.
• United States of America:
» A network of sixty lakh kilometres of road which is the largest
in the world.
» Accounts for nearly one-third of the world’s vehicles. Most
of the roadways have been developed in the eastern part
of the U.S.A. because of high degree of urbanisation and
industrialisation.
Europe • About 20% of world’s roads and 25% of world’s vehicles are
in this region.
Russia • All the important cities of Russia are connected by highways.
Moscow is the focal point in European Russia while Irkutsk is
the main centre in Asiatic Russia.
• Dense highway network is constructed in the industrialised
region west of the Urals with Moscow as the hub.
• Because of the vast geographical area, highways in Russia
are not as important as railways
Australia • The main highways of Australia are near the coastal areas.
Australia’s major road is the Transcontinental Stuart Highway.
• This connects Darwin in the Northern Territory to Melbourne
in Victoria via Alice Spring and Tennant creek.
141
China • Has vast area and its major cities are linked by highways.
Beijing is the main centre which has been linked with
Shanghai and Tsungtso city near Vietnamese border.
• Shanghai has also been linked with Guangzhou in the south.
• A highway has recently been constructed to join Lhasa with
Cheugdu.
Africa • The highways are mainly concentrated in the coastal areas
of the continent.
• Cairo in the north has been linked with Cape Town in the
south by a highway.
Important information of Road and Highways in India

• The road transportation system in India accounts for the largest share in the movement
of both fright and passenger.
I m a g e 11.1: N ati o n a l H i g h way s N e t wo r k in I n di a
142
• The main highways connect Mumbai, transport vehicles.

Kolkata, Chennai, Delhi and other major • The overall number of registered
cities of India. vehicles in India increased from 58.9
• The most important is Sher Shah Suri million in 2001-02 to 182.4 million in
Marg. Now it is called as National 2012-13.
Highway No. 1 between Delhi and
Amritsar and National Highway No. 19
(earlier National Highway 2) between Railway
Delhi and Kolkata.
• Railway transport system is a mode
• The longest National Highway is of land transport for bulky goods and
National Highway No. 44 which links
passengers over long distances. It
Varanasi with Kanniyakumari via Rewa,
is comparatively cheaper and more
Jabalpur, Nagpur, Hyderabad, Kurnool,
convenient mode of transport than
Bangalore and Madurai. Its total length
roadways in moving goods in bulk.
is 2,325 kms.
• Railways developed much after the
• Besides the National Highways,
development of roadways and railways
there are state highways which are
became the fastest and most popular
maintained by the states. A golden
mode of transport system for both
quadrangle has been developed to
goods and passengers in the 19th
connect the four metropolitan cities of
century.
Delhi, Mumbai, Chennai and Kolkata.
• Commuter trains are very popular in
• The North-South corridor connects India, Japan, U.K. and U.S.A. These
Srinagar to Kanniyakumari and the
carry millions of passengers daily to
East-West corridor connects Porbandar
big urban centres from the surrounding
to Silchar.
areas in the morning and back in the
• Driven by a rapidly growing economy evening.
accompanied by better access to vehicle
• There are around 13 lakh km of railways
finance and better road connectivity,
open for traffic in the world. The density
the road mobility demand has grown
of railway network changes from one
continuously, which is responsible for
country to another due to high cost of
a strong rise in the number of road
construction and maintenance.
Continent/Region/Country Information about rail network

North America • North America has the most extensive network of
railways making up nearly around 40% of the world’s
total.
• The railway network today is used extensively for the
transport of bulky freight like minerals, grains, timber
and manufactured produces over long distances.
• Most number of rail network is established in the
highly industrialised and urbanised region of East
Central U.S.A. and adjoining Canada.
• Railways in Canada, are in the public sector and
extended all over the sparsely populated regions. The
transcontinental railway networks carry the bulk of
coal and wheat tonnage.
143
Europe • European region has one of the densest rail networks

in the world.
• There are roughly around 4,40,000 km of railways,
most of which are double or multiple tracked.
• Important railheads are Paris, Berlin, London, Brussels,
Milan, Warsaw and Moscow.
• Belgium has the greatest density with one km of
railway for every 6.5 sq. km of the country.
• Passenger transport by rail is more significant than
freight in many European countries.
• Underground railways are important in London, Paris
and Moscow.
Asia • India, Japan and China have good railway work in
Asia.
• With its 64,015 km route length, 87,040 km running
track and about 7030 stations, India has the densest
railway network in Asia.
• China’s 35,000 km long route length is not sufficient
keeping in view the vastness of the country.
• Japan has a total length of 28,000 km railways. Other
countries of Asia have relatively few rail routes.
• West Asia is least developed in rail routes. West Asia
is least developed in rail transport because of vast
deserts and sparsely populated regions.
Australia and New Zealand • Australia has around 40,000 km of railways, of which
close to 25% are found in New South Wales alone.
The west-east Australian National Railway network
runs across the Australia from Syndney to Perth.
• New Zealand’s railway lines are mainly in the North
Island to serve the various farming regions.
144
Africa • Although Africa is the second largest continent of the

world after Asia, this continent has only 40,000 km of
railways.
• Some of the important routes include:
» The Benguela Railway network between Angola to
Katanga-Zambia copper belt.
» The Tanzania Railway line from the Zambian copper
belt to the sea at Dar-essalaam.
• Elsewhere, as in Algeria, Senegal, Nigeria, Kenya,
Ethiopia, railway lines run from coastal ports to inland
centres, however do not form a good network or link
with lines in other countries.
• South Africa, with 18,000 km of railways has the
densest rail network due to the gold, copper and
diamond mining activities.
Russia • Railway transportation account for around 90% of
the Russia’s total transport with a very dense network
established in west of the Ural mountains.
• Moscow is the important centre from where major
lines radiating to other parts of the country.
• Underground railways and commuter trains are also
playing important role in Moscow.
Trans–Continental Railways across » World's longest double-tracked

the world and electrified trans– continental
railway line which joins St. Petersburg
• These are the railway lines which have (Leningard) in the west to Vladivostok
contiguous railroad trackage that in the east. It covers a total distance of
crosses a vast continental land mass 9,322 km.
and has terminals at different oceans
» Its construction started in 1891 and was
or continental borders.
completed in 1905 after 14 years.
• Following are the important trans- » Trans-Siberian railway line was
continental railways lines of the world
constructed to integrate European and
• Trans-Siberian railway line Asian parts of Russia.
145
I m a g e 11.2: T r a n s -S i b e ri a n r a i lway l i n e
• Trans–Canadian Railways » This railway line is considered as the

economic artery of Canada. Meat and
» It was constructed in 1886. The total wheat are the important exports on this
length of this railway track is 7,050 km. track.
» It connects Saint John on the Atlantic » The Canadian-Pacific railway line was
coast in the east to Vancouver on the constructed to satisfy British Columbia
Pacific coast in the west. because it had agreed to join the
» Some important stations on this route Federation of States on the condition
are Montreal, Sudbury, Fort William, that it will be joined to eastern port by
Winnepeg, Regina, Medicine Hat and railway.
Calgary.
146
I m a g e 11.3: T r a n s –C a n a di a n r a i lway l i n e
• The Australian Trans–Continental Broken Hill, Peterborough, Port Pirie,

Railway Port Auguste, Forrest and Kalgoorlie.
This railway route has different gauges
» The most important railway route of which results in loss of time and increase
Australia which connects Sydney in the in cost of transport. It takes about fifteen
east with Perth in the west. days for goods to reach from Sydney to
» The Australian Trans-Continental Perth which can be covered in less than
Railway was constructed to save the five days on a single gauge.
Western Territory from going out of the » Another major north-south railway line
Federation of States. connects Adelaide and Alice Spring
» Important stations on this route are and to be joined further to the Darwin-
Birdum line.
I m a g e 11.4: A u s tr a l i a n T r a n s –C o n ti n e n ta l R a i lway line
147
• The Union and Pacific Railway • The important industrial corridor of

Amritsar-Kolkata and Delhi-Mumbai
» This railway line connects New York are also being established around both
near the Atlantic Coast to San Francisco these Dedicated Freight Corridors.
on the Pacific Coast via Cleveland,
Chicago, Omaha, Evans, Ogdan and
Sacramanto. Diamond Quadrilateral Bullet Train
» Ores, grain, paper, chemicals and Network Project:
machinery are the important items • In Budget 2014-15, Union government
transported on this route. had announced to undertake
development of high-speed
rail connectivity on Diamond
Railway Network in India Quadrilateral network joining
important metros and growth centres
• The Indian Railways (IR) is the fourth
of the nation.
largest railway network in the world.
(Route km-67,956 km in 2020). • Similar to the Golden Quadrilateral
expressway project, the Diamond
• India also has the largest passenger
Quadrilateral will connect the four
(1,150 billion-passenger km in FY17) and
major mega cities in India i.e. Delhi,
fourth largest freight (620 billion net-
Mumbai, Kolkata and Chennai.
tonne km in FY17) transporting railway
system in the world.
• In FY17, 13,32910 passenger trains
carried over 22.24 million passengers
Water Transport
daily, i.e., almost equivalent to
• Water transport is one of the ancient
Australia’s population, while the freight
modes of transport. Man has been
transported was 1.1 billion tonnes.
navigating in oceans, rivers and lakes
since ancient times. This is the cheapest
Dedicated Freight Corridor (DFC) mode of transportation and is especially
useful to transportation of heavy cargo.
• DFC is a high-level capacity and high- • Water transport is cheapest because:
speed railway corridor that is completely
meant for the transportation of freight » The friction of water is far less than the
i.e. transportation of commodities and friction of land or air and the energy
goods. cost of transportation is much lower.
• It comprises of two arms: » There is no need for spending capital in
constructing and maintaining the tracks
» Western Dedicated Freight Corridor as in case of railways or roadways.
(WDFC): It is the around 1,500-km
railway corridor which connects Dadri in » It can carry heavy loads at low costs.
Uttar Pradesh to Jawaharlal Nehru Port
• Water transportation can be divided
Trust in Mumbai, covering all foremost
into two groups:
important ports along the way.
» Eastern Dedicated Freight Corridor » Sea Routes
(EDFC): EDFC begins at Sahnewal » Inland Waterways
(Ludhiana) in Punjab and ends at
Dankuni in West Bengal.
148
I m a g e 11.5: T r a n s p o rtati o n C o s t of V a ri o u s R o u t s
Sea Routes The Mediterranean and the Indian

The natural oceans water offers a Ocean Route
smooth highway traversable in all the • Some of the major ports on this route
directions with no maintenance costs. Its are Port Said, Aden, Mumbai, Colombo
transformation into a route-way by sea- and Singapore.
going vessels is significant development
in human adaptation to the physical • The construction of Suez Canal has
environment. greatly decreased the time and
distance as compared to the earlier sea
route through the Cape of Good Hope
Some of the important ocean routes are: The Suez Canal
The North Atlantic Route (Big Trunk • The Suez Canal is a human-made
Route) waterway constructed in 1869 that cuts
• It Connects the two industrially north-south across the Isthmus of Suez
developed regions of the world i.e. in Egypt.
North-eastern U.S.A. and Northwestern • The Suez Canal connects the
Europe. Mediterranean Sea to the Red Sea,
• It the busiest route in the world and making it the shortest maritime route
1/4th of the world’s foreign trade moves to Asia from Europe.
on this route.
The Cape of Good Hope Route
• It links the highly industrialised
and developed Western European
Countries with South-east Asia, South
149
Africa, West Africa and the commercial The North Pacific Route
agriculture and livestock economies of
New Zealand and Australia. • Trade route across the vast North
Pacific Ocean moves by various routes
• The total volume of trade and traffic which converge at Honolulu.
between both East and West Africa is
increasing because of the development • The direct route on the Great Circle
of the rich natural resources such as connects Vancouver and Yokohama
gold, diamond, copper, tin, groundnut, and reduces the travelling distance
oil palm, coffee and fruits. (2,480 km) by half.
• It links the ports on the west coast of
North America with those of Asia.
The South Atlantic Route
• Example-Vancouver, San Francisco,
• Links West European and West African Seattle, Portland and Los Angeles on
countries with Brazil, Argentina and the American side and Yokohama,
Uruguay in South America. Kobe, Shanghai, Hong Kong, Manila
• Reason for less traffic on this route: and Singapore on the Asian side.
» The limited development and

population in South America and Africa. The South Pacific Route
» Little traffic on the route between Cape • It Links Western Europe and North
town and Rio de Janeiro and Cape America with Australia, New Zealand
Town because both Africa and South and the scattered Pacific islands via
America have similar products and the Panama Canal.
resources. • Also utilized for reaching Hong Kong,
Philippines and Indonesia.
• Honolulu is a major port on this route.
I m a g e 11.6: M a j o r S e a R o u t s
150
Ports in India: around 200 intermediate or minor ports.

With respect to major ports in India, the
• India has a 7,500-kilometer coastline, Union government decides the policy
making it one of the world's largest and performs regulatory functions.
peninsulas, and ports handle roughly In case of the minor ports, policy and
90% of the country's foreign trade by functions are regulated by government
volume and 70% by value. of the states.
• Currently, India has 12 major ports and
I m a g e 11.7: M a j o r p o rt s a n d Sea Routes in I n di a
Inland Waterways diversion for irrigation, and their poor

Maintenance.
• Rivers, canals and lakes are the main • Rivers are the only mode of transport
medium of inland waterways.
in dense forests of the world. Very
• These were very vital means of transport heavy cargo like timber, coal, cement
in old days, but they have lost much of and metallic ores can be transported
their significance due to the advent of through inland waterways.
roadways, railways, lack of water due to
151
Worldwide Important River Welland and Soo Canal to form an

waterways inland waterway.
• North America: two important inland − Along with the Great Lakes, the
waterways systems in North America estuary of St. Lawrence River, forms
are: a exceptional commercial waterway
in the northern part of North America
» The Great Lakes–St. Lawrence
waterway: » Mississippi River System:
− Great Lakes of North American − It connects the interior part of U.S.A.

region i.e. Huron, Superior, Michigan, with the Gulf of Mexico in the south).
Erie and Ontario are linked by
I m a g e 11.8: I n l a n d wat e r way s i n N o rth A m e ri c a
• Europe Dnieper, Don, Volga etc.
» France, Germany, Belgium, the

» Large number of rivers are
interconnected through canals. One
Netherlands, United Kingdom and
can move through rivers and canals
European Russia are some of the
from the Mediterranean Sea to the
countries of Europe which have
North Sea.
developed inland waterways.
» A well-knit close network of inland » The Rhine Waterways:
waterways has been developed along − It flows through Netherlands and
the rivers Rhine, Rhone, Seine, Meuse, Germany.
Weser, Ems, Elbe, Oder, Denube,
− It is navigable for around 700 km
152
from Rotterdam (Netherlands) to around more than 20,000 ocean-

Basel (Switzerland). going ships and 2,00,000 inland
− The Ruhr river joins the Rhine from vessels trade their cargoes.
the east. It flows via a rich coalfield − It links the industrial regions of
and the whole basin has become a Switzerland, Germany, France,
prosperous manufacturing area. Belgium and the Netherlands with
− This inland waterway is the world’s the North Atlantic Sea Route.
most heavily used and every year
I m a g e 11.9: I n l a n d wat e r way s i n Europe
» Volga Waterway: » China has many large rivers but some

of them, especially in the eastern part,
− Russia has many developed are more developed for water transport.
waterways, of which the Volga is The Huang He, Chang Jiang rivers are
one of the most important. navigable.
− It gives a navigable waterway
of 11,200 km and drains into the Inland Water Ways in India
Caspian Sea. • Inland Water Transport (IWT) of India
− The Volga-Moscow Canal links it carries less than 2% of India’s organized
with the Moscow region and the freight traffic and negligible passenger
Volga-Don Canal with the Black traffic.
Sea. • The annual freight volumes carried
on inland waterways using National
• Asia Waterways (NW-1, NW-2, and NW-3)
» Inland waterways are comparatively and Goa Waterways was 21.91 MMT in
better developed in China and India 2016- 17. Maharashtra inland waterways
than other countries of the continent. alone transported more than 33.29
MMT.
153
I m a g e 11.10: I n l a n d W at e r W ay s in I n di a
• The Inland Waterways Authority of • The air transport was developed in the
India (IWAI) is authorized to develop early twentieth century and World Wars
and maintain infrastructure for fairway, accelerated the pace of development
navigational aids and terminals. of air transport. There has been a
• The IWAI also provides an enabling phenomenal growth of air transport
environment for private investment in during the last fifty years.
cargo vessels and operational services. • The world distribution of air transport is
• There were only five NWs in the country very unequal.
until 2015. In April 2016, 106 more • Western Europe, Eastern USA and
waterways scattered over the 24 states Southern Asia have dense network of
were declared as NWs. air routes.
• The major nodal points of the world
are London, Paris, Rome, Moscow,
Air Transport New Delhi, Mumbai, Bangkok, Karachi,
Singapore, Tokyo, San Francisco, Los
Important global information Angeles, Chicago, New York and Rio de
about Civil Aviation Janeiro etc.
• It is the costliest and fastest mode of • Soviet Asia and Africa lack air services.
There is a distinct belt of air routes form
transport.
east to west in the mid latitudes of the
• Modern age is called as the Air Age.
154
Northern Hemisphere. The U.S.A. alone • Due to its high speed, it is selected by
accounts for about 60% of the airways passengers for long-distance travel.
of the world. Valuable cargo can be moved rapidly
• Africa, Asiatic part of Russia and South on a world-wide scale. It is often the only
America lack air services. There are means to reach inaccessible region.
limited air services between 10-35° • In the contemporary time, no place in
latitudes in the Southern Hemisphere the world is more than 35 hours away.
because of low population, limited Supersonic aircraft can cover the
landmass and low level of economic distance between London and New
development. York within three and a half hours.
I m a g e 11.11: M a j o r A ir R o u t s & A ir p o rt s
Air transport/ Civil Aviation in 68th out of 140 countries worldwide in

air transport infrastructure.
India
• The Ministry of Civil Aviation’s initiative
• The civil aviation sector in India UDAN (Ude Desh ka Aam Nagrik, a
contributes $72 to India’s GDP in 2019 regional connectivity scheme), is a 10-
and it will supported around 4 million year scheme, which will encourage
jobs by 2035. balanced regional growth and make
• In 2016, the demand for domestic air flying affordable for the people of
journey was twice as compare to China. India. It will also help to enhance
connectivity to the country’s unserved
• India’s domestic air traffic made up and underserved airports.
around 69% of total airline traffic in
South Asian region. • India’s civil aviation sector has been
growing steadily; the number of
• Global Competitiveness Report (World passengers was 158 million in 2016-17.
Economic Forum) 2019 ranks India as
155
I m a g e 11.12: S tati s ti c on C i v i l A v i ati o n in I n di a
Pipeline Transport • Pipelines in Middle East

» It has a large number of pipelines.
• Pipelines is amongst the newer Some these pipelines cross the desert
developments in transportation and transfer oil from Iran, Iraq and
along with ropeways and cableways. Saudi Arabia to the refineries at the
Important materials like mineral oil, Mediterranean coast.
natural gas, water, sludge and sewers
» The most significant is the Trans-
are transported by pipelines.
Arabian Peninsula pipeline (Tap-line).
• Even solids can also be moved through This is 1,600 m long and has a diameter
pipelines after transforming them into of 750 mm.
slurry.
» It transfers oil from Ras Tanura to Sidon.
• Russia has one of the longest pipelines.
• Pipeline in the United States of This is 4,800 km long trans-continental
America ‘COMECON’ pipeline. It carries oil from
Ural and Volga regions to the East
» It is foremost in pipeline transport and European countries.
has around 1,60,000 km long pipelines. • In Europe, Italy, France, Netherlands,
Large number of pipelines carry and some other countries have laid gas
petroleum from the areas of production pipelines.
to the regions of consumption.
• Pipelines in India
» Around 17% of all freight per tonne km
is carried through pipelines in the USA. » India has also laid pipelines to transfer
» Important pipeline is the ‘Big Inch’ which oil from Assam oilfields to Barauni
transfers oil from the Gulf of Mexico to and from Gujarat oilfields to Mathura
the north-eastern part. and Bhatinda. Pipelines comprise an
important mode of transporting natural
gas.
156
» India has also constructed 1,700 km Jharkhand, West Bengal and Odisha.
long Hazira-Bijaipur-Jagdishpur (HBJ) According to GAIL, with the Urja Ganga
gas pipeline. It supplies to fertiliser project, 20 lakh households will receive
plants at Bijaipur, Sawai Madhopur, PNG connections.
Jagdishpur, Shahjahanpur, Anwala and
Babrala. • Pipelines have relieved the growing
pressure on the existing surface
» Another gas pipeline connects
transport system and can go a long way
Jamnagar to Loni near Delhi.
as the future mode of transportation of
» Pradhan Mantri Urja Ganga project: essential materials, particularly in India
Objective of the gas pipeline project as It is aiming to move towards a gas-
is to provide piped cooking gas to based economy by increasing the share
residents of Varanasi and later to of natural gas in India’s energy basket.
millions of people in states like Bihar,
I m a g e 11.13: P i p e l i n e s in I n di a
Important close to around 64% of global oil

utilization, 27% of all energy use, and
Challenges around 23% of the world’s energy-

related CO2 emissions. As motorization
associated with rates are increasing, the environmental
impact of this sector is also expected to
Transportation grow drastically.
• Rapid urbanization and
• Climate change: Various motorization: Cities will be the
transportation services accounts for home of around 6.7 billion residents by
157
2050 which is equivalent to 2/3 of the Universal Access

projected global population. The total
number of different types of vehicles on • Universal access accounts for
the road will double to reach around 2 distributional considerations and
billion by 2050. places a minimum value on everyone’s
travel needs, providing all, including
• Accessibility and Affordability: the vulnerable young, old, women and
Approximately 1 billion people in low- disabled, in both urban and rural areas,
income nations still lack access to an with at least some basic level of access
all-weather road. In many cities, time through transport services and leaving
lost to congestion is responsible for “no one behind.”
eroding the prosperity. Very High cost
of mobility costs cut the overall income
of the poor who often lack reliable and
affordable public transportation.
Efficiency
• Road Safety: According to various • It seeks to make sure that demand
surveys, more than 1.25 million people related to transport is met effectively
of the world are killed and up to 50 and at the least possible cost.
million are injured on the world’s roads • Focus of this objective is related to
every year. Low and middle-income the optimization of resources (energy,
countries account for 90% of the technology, space, institutions, and
deaths although they own just half the regulations) to generate an efficient
world’s motor vehicles. transport system or network.
• Air pollution: The pollution from
motorized road transport has been
associated with a wide range of health Safety
conditions, including cardiovascular • Globally, road transport claims the bulk
and pulmonary diseases. Each year, of transport related fatalities and it
almost 185,000 deaths can be directly accounts for around 97% of the deaths
attributed to pollution from vehicles. and 93% of the costs.
• It aims to improve the safety of mobility
Important attributes
across all modes of transport by
avoiding injuries, fatalities and crashes
of transportation for from transport mishaps. There are

internationally agreed global targets
better future for road and air transport safety.
• Mobility should have four important Green Mobility

attributes: it should be safe, efficient
equitable and climate responsive. • In 2012, transport was the largest
Achieving these four goals will ensure energy consuming sector in 40%
that mobility needs of the current of countries worldwide, and in the
generation will not be met at the remaining countries it was the second-
expense of future generations. largest energy consuming sector. In
one projection, energy related CO2
emissions are expected to grow by 40%
between 2013 and 2040
• Therefore, objective is to address
158
climate change through mitigation and

adaptation, and to reduce both air and
noise pollution.
I m a g e 11.14: G l o b a l M o b i l it y
Transportation sustainable transport systems for

all, improving road safety, notably
linked with by expanding public transport, with

special attention to the needs of
Sustainable those in vulnerable situations, women,
children, persons with disabilities and
Development Goals older persons.
» Target 3.6: By 2020, halve the number
(2015-2030) of global deaths and injuries from road
Sustainable transport and mobility are traffic accidents.
essential to achieve the various promises » Target 9.1: Aiming at developing
of the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable quality, reliable, sustainable and resilient
Development (17 SDGs). infrastructure, including regional and
• Some SDG targets that are directly trans-border infrastructure, to support
related to transportation economic development and human
well-being, with a focus on affordable
» Target 11.2: By 2030, provide access and equitable access for all.
to safe, affordable, accessible and
159
• Global progress in reducing greenhouse and dignity without safe transport that
gas emissions (SDG 13) cannot be is accessible itself and that enables
realized without decisive action access to all that people need (SDG 9
on energy (SDG 7) and sustainable and 11).
transport, and countries cannot provide • Personal security for all passengers
food security (SDG 2) or healthcare is critical. Goals of biodiversity (SDG
(SDG 3) without providing reliable 15) and ocean health (SDG 14) also
and sustainable transport systems to have significant intersections with
underpin these advances. the promotion of smart, sustainable
• Young people cannot attend schools mobility practices across regions and
(SDG 4), women cannot be assured across modes.
opportunities for employment and • Finally, strengthening the means of
empowerment (SDG 5), and people implementation (SDG17) of the SDGs
with disabilities and elderly people with coherent policies are also central
cannot maintain their independence for transportation.
160
CHAPTER - 12
COMMUNICATION
Introduction a crucial role can be played by various

mode of communication in promoting
human development. As the world
• Communication means exchange of advances towards greater democracy,
information by speaking, writing, or market economy and decentralization,
other means. Example: Technological conditions are becoming more
devices are used to transfer the favourable for people to start steering
information. Important technologies their own course of change. But it
of communication are Radio, Telecom, is vital to stimulate their awareness,
Print Media, Books, message, computers, participation and capabilities.
and the Internet. Communication and technology are
• Human beings have evolved various central to this task.
methods of communication over time.
In ancient times, the messages were
delivered by: Types of
» Beating the drum or hollow tree trunks. communication
» Giving indications through smoke or
fire or, Personal Communication
» With the help of fast runners. Example • A letter, Telephone, Telegram, fax,
Horses, camels, dogs, birds and other email and internet etc. and among all
animals were also utilized to send the personal communication system,
messages. internet is the most important and
advanced one.
• Modern types of communication
system has transformed the world • The internet is associated with a huge
into a global village. Introduction of central warehouse of data, with detailed
post office, telegraph, printing press, information on different items which
telephone, satellite, etc. has made the provide efficient access to information
communication much faster and easier. at a comparatively low cost.
• Science and technology development

have significantly contributed in
bringing about revolution in the field of
Mass Communication
communication. • The method by which information
• Modern technology has enabled man can be communicated to a very large
to utilize satellites for communication number of people are known as Media
purposes. Many advanced and or Mass Communication
developing nations are busy in • Example radio, television, newspaper,
developing satellite communication. cinema, books, magazines, Public
United States of America and Russia are meeting, Seminar, conference and
pioneers in the field of space research. satellite communication etc.
• In today's new climate of social change, • Origin of modern mass
161
communication and its role

Detailed information
» The initial modern mass media
institution started with the development of some the
of the printing press.
» Although printing history in some
important means of
societies dates back to many centuries, Communication
however first attempts at printing books
using modern technologies started in Satellite communication:
Europe.
• Satellites are both a mode of
» This technique was first introduced communication in themselves, and
by Johann Gutenberg in 1440. Initially they control the use of other modes of
printing was restricted to religious communication.
books.
• The satellite communication system
» Print industry grew along with deployed since the early 1970s has
the Industrial Revolution. Initial rendered the unit cost and time of
development of the press was restricted communication invariant with respect
to an audience of literate elites and to distance. It costs the same to
gradually in the mid-19th century, with communicate over 600 km as it does
further development in technologies, over 6,000 km via satellite.
transportation and literacy that
newspapers started to reach out to a • Initial India’s Effort
mass audience.
» 19th April 1975- Aryabhata launched.
» Growing print industry and newspaper » 7th June 1979- Bhaskar-I
was also responsible for growth of
nationalism. As due to development » 18th July 1980- Rohini
in this field, the feeling that people » 19th June 1981- APPLE (Arian Passenger
who did not even know of each other’s Payload Experiment) satellite was
existence feel like members of a family. launched
Sense of togetherness provided to the
» 20th November 1981- Bhaskar-2 was
people who never meet each other.
sent into the space
» Example: Growth of Indian nationalism
» 10th April 1982- INSAT-1A was launched
emerged in the wake of some of the
(However in September same year it
institutional changes brought about by
stopped working).
British rule in India. Anti-colonial public
opinion was nurtured and spread by » Later, INSAT-2B was sent to space
the nationalist press to people of our on 30th August 1983 through space
country, which provided the actual shuttle, Challenger. INSAT-1B has made
information associated with the radio, television, and long-distance
oppressive measures of the colonial communication very efficient and
state. effective.
Remote Sensing Satellite

• Remote sensing is the act of acquiring
information about a phenomenon or
object which is not in intimate contact
with the information gathering device.
162
• Remote sensing is done with the help

of satellites and covers large areas of
the earth.
I m a g e 12.1 : R e m ot e S e n s i n g s at e l l it e
• The best satellite images are provided • The satellites have provided lots of
by Landsat satellites of National important information about the earth
Aeronautical and Space Administration to scientists as well as to map makers.
(NASA) of the USA. • The Indian Remote Sensing Satellite
• In this field a major step in remote System (IRS) became operational with
sensing was taken by NASA in July the launching of IRS-IA in March 1988
1972 when Earth Resources Technology from Vaikanour in Russia. Subsequently
Satellite (ERST-1) was sent into the India has also developed her own
space. Its name was replaced with Launching Vehicle PSLV (Polar Satellite
LANDSAT-1 in 1975. Launch Vehicle).
• The launch of Landsat, which is • These satellites collect data in various
operated jointly by NASA and the US spectral bands and transfer them to
Geological Survey, took place in April the ground stations for various uses.
1999. The National Remote Sensing Centre
(NRSC) at Hyderabad gives facilities for
163
acquisition of data and its processing. internet.

These are very vital and useful data in • Popular access systems of the internet
the management of natural resources. permit any individual with a micro-
computer and modem to plug into
cyberspace, the world of electronic
Cyber Space- Internet: computerised spaces encompassed by
the internet and related technologies
• In contemporary understandings, the
e.g. the World Wide Web (WWW).
term “Information and Communication
Technology” (ICT) mostly refers to • In modern time, internet is the largest
computers, computer networks and electronic network on the planet. By
systems, and disparate information 2025, more than 91% of people in
distribution or delivery technologies developed countries and nearly 69%
such as land and submarine cables, of those in emerging economies will be
satellites, the telephone, and even using the Internet. Internet dependence
television. will not just be a concept, but rather the
new reality.
• Today, these networks, technologies,
and their delivery systems are • Now there has been a shift among
increasingly referred to as “cyberspace”. internet users from U.S.A. to the
developing countries. The percentage
• With the increasing digitization of
share of U.S.A. has decreased from
information in the late twentieth
66 in 1995 to only 25 in 2005. Now the
century, telecommunications gradually
majority of the international internet
connected with computers to form
users are in U.S.A., U.K., Germany,
interconnected networks through the
Japan, China and India.
I m a g e 12.2: I n t e r n e t P e n e tr ati o n
• As millions of new users log on to the commerce. Therefore, cyberspace

internet each year and along with exists ‘everywhere’.
this, cyberspace has expanded rapidly
• Increasing connectivity, however, did
in size and in use and importance,
not only bring the prospect of human
including e-mail and electronic
164
betterment; it created technological 2020) advised that “cyber incidents

disparities between States and growing pose a huge threat to the stability of
vulnerabilities and risks, or what are the global financial system.” It also said
often described as “cyber insecurities” that in recent times, there have been a
or “digital uncertainties”. number of major cyber incidents that
• Cybersecurity: The efforts to secure have negatively impacted financial
ICT is “the protection of ICTs from institutions and the ecosystems in
unauthorized access or attempted which they operate.
access” affecting the so-called “CIA” • Now different countries and
triad of Confidentiality, Integrity and organization at national and
Accessibility of ICT. The “unauthorized international level coordinating with
access” referred to implies the presence each other to put forward some
of an adversary, thus capturing comprehensive techniques and codes
intentional threats (e.g., sabotage, which will provide security to the large
destruction. number of internet users.
• The Financial Stability Board (in April
165
CHAPTER - 13
INTERNATIONAL TRADE
• “TRADE related activities has been ideas and cultural practices spread,
going on for as long as individuals particularly in the areas of language,
have needed something that others religion, and art.
had and they did not”. Bartering for • International trade led to the
goods and trade in kind developed into establishment of trade emporiums
more sophisticated forms of exchanges which in turn often developed into
using commonly agreed commodity colonies. As the competition for
currencies such as bronze or copper resources and access to lucrative trade
ingots or even cowry shells. routes intensified, wars often then
• These were often only good for large resulted when rulers looked to seize the
scale trade deals though, and for riches of rival states and empires.
smaller transactions, something else
was needed: Coinage Coins were often
introduced in ancient cultures as a
convenient way to pay soldiers, but the
TRADE IN
idea quickly spread to civilian life. CONTEMPORARY
• Early trade largely focused on luxury
goods like precious metals, spices, TIMES
and fine textiles, but eventually, as
transportation by ship became faster, • INTERNATIONAL TRADE refers to the
more reliable, and cheaper, even exchange of various goods and services
mundane items like olives and fish paste as well as resources from one country to
were exported across great distances. another, it can be done by government
or firms that have the stamina of
• With the increased contact between
operating on the international scale.
cultures caused by trade, so too
I m a g e 13.1: T r a d e F l ow ac ro s s r eg i o n a n d c h a n g e i n 2015-2016
166
Factor Impacting International of people and thus the movement of

trade.
Trade:
For example, the region of central
1. Impact of national income: It can be Asia today faces a number of barriers
judged from the balance of payment to international, extra regional trade.
of a country. When the export of a Nearly 2-3 decades after independence,
country surpasses its imports, there is the former republic of Kazakhstan,
a flow of money income in the country Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan,
and the level of national income and and Uzbekistan confronted trade
employment goes up. hindering obstacles emanating from
For example, in some country like the region’s geography and individual
Canada, UK, Australia, more than 20% state policies trade regimes.
of national income is deduct from 5. The Level of Economic Development:
international trade. International Trade enables a country
2. Impact of government restriction: to enjoy the advantages of International
These are usually in the form of quota specialization according to comparative
system, tariff, subsidies, voluntary costs every country specializes and
export restriction, safety standards, export those commodities which it can
labelling requirements, pollution produce cheaper for what others can
control, quantity restriction etc. provide at a lower cost for.
For example, imposition of duty on For example, cheap labour at the start
steel and aluminium products by united of 1980 in China has led to become
states on china a manufacturing hub leading to
improvement in GDP thus contributing
3. Impact on exchange rate: The
to economic development. Another
exchange rate has an effect on trade
example it sectors growth has led to
surplus or deficit which in turn affects
outgo of export of service sector in
the exchange rate and so on in general
India.
however a weaker domestic currency
stimulates exports and makes import 6. Lack of the Restriction on Piracy:
more expensive conversely a strong The piracy affects international trade
domestic currency hampers the exports through an increasing insecurity
and makes imports cheaper. related to prompt delivery of the goods
transported, piracy increases the cost of
For example when the value of one dollar
international maritime transport since
is rupee 70, then export of alphonso
higher prices should be paid to crew of
mango would be 1000 cartoon however
ship passing through dangerous waters
when value of one dollar increases to
which raises associated insurance cost
rupee 80, the demand for alphonso
of merchandises Carried on those ships.
mango may increase to 1200 cartoon in
market(due to depreciation of currency) 7. Competitiveness: It can be defined
further leads into increase in exports. as a process in which higher levels
of competitiveness are achieved at
4. Geographical location: Geography
different levels that is at firm, regional
and Economy are closely tied
and national level it is the ability of a
together because transport makes
region to export more value than its
trade with widespread areas possible
import. For example, competitiveness
as geographical features include
of an United States in the field of
mountains, deserts, water bodies etc
technology disruption.
which directly impacts the movement
8. Political factors: This can include
167
government policies, political stability/ Role of WTO and Regional

instability, corruption, foreign trade
policies, tax policies, labour laws, Trade Blocs
environmental laws etc. For example, • The World Trade Organization (WTO)
impact of Brexit on India-EU relations. is an inter-governmental organization
9. Language: It helps to make business established on January 1, 1995, to
studies in the global economy and regulate international trade and
overcome communication barriers a headquarter of WTO is in Geneva,
shared language is critical collaboration (Switzerland). It came into existence as
and increasing awareness of objectives a successor to the General Agreement
in international business example on Tariffs and Trade (GATT).
result show that on average a common • It provides a platform to negotiate
(official or spoken) language increases trade agreements among the different
trade flow directly by 44%. member countries and to resolve
10. Culture: It relates to what behaviour is any trade disputes. It manages 60
common and accepted professionally global and about 300 regional trade
in one location, compared to another. agreements. The WTO includes 164
What may be acceptable business member states. WTO also have some
practice in one country may be observer states that are not signatories
different from the approach that is to the WTO agreements, and they do
used by business overseas therefore not take part in free trade.
organising culture is something that
should be understood in order to avoid
misunderstanding between colleagues The Ministerial Conference:
and clients, and also to make sure that • The Ministerial Conference of the WTO
businesses are presenting themselves meets in every two years to make vital
to their new market in the best way decisions with respect to existing trade
they can. agreements. The Ministerial Conference
For example, McDonalds going holds the authority to make decisions
vegetarian in Gujarat during Navratri. on any aspects of all multilateral
11. Patterns of international trade: Global agreements made under the WTO.
growth has been accompanied by • The Conference comprises
a change in pattern of international representatives from all the members of
trade, which reflects ongoing changes WTO and It gives equal representation
in the structure of global economy. This to all its members regardless of the
changes include the regional trade size of their economy or share in
blocks, de-industrialisation in many international trade. It can be considered
advanced economies, the increased as the legislative branch of the WTO.
participation of former communist
countries and the emergence of china
Functions of WTO:
in India for example in 1995 the USA
has captured nearly 25% of trade in hi • It has a crucial role to play in the
tech goods while china had only 3%, by international trade global economics
2005, the USA share has fallen to 15% politics and legal issues arising in the
while China share has risen to 15%. international business because of the
globalisation.
• The goal of WTO is to provide a fair
platform for its member countries to
168
help in services like exports imports trade initiative encourages developing

and conduct their business in peaceful countries development and donors
manners. to recognise the role that trade can
• Facilitating the implementation play in development in particular the
administration operation and initiative seeks to mobilise resources
furthering the objectives of agreements to address the trade related constants
establishing it and other multitude identified by less developing and least
trade agreements and providing the developing countries
framework.
• Providing the forum for negotiating
among its members concerning their
Regional Trade Blocs
multilateral trade relations in matters Regional trade blocs allows more efficient
dealt with under the agreements in the combinations of technology, natural
annexes to the agreements setting it up resources, labour forces and management
and for the result of such negotiations as talents across countries that share
decided by the ministerial conference. geographical proximity while minimizing
transaction costs associated with legal,
• It is also Cooperating with the
financial and administrative differences in
International Monetary Fund and
adjacent nation states including currencies,
International Bank of Reconstruction
regulations and other government issues.
and Redevelopment with a view to
achieve greater coherence in global
policy making. These market form economies of
• For example the eleventh ministerial scale, bring manufactures from various
conference of the WTO was held at economies resulting in greater competition
Buenos Aires Argentina during 10-13 which promotes efficiency within firms.
December 2017. In the run up to the
ministerial conference decisions were
expected on food security agricultural 1. European Economic Area (EEA)
issues and other fisheries subsidies • It consists of the Member States of the
some of the members were also European Union (EU) and three countries
pushing for the outcome in the area of the European Free Trade Association
of e-commerce domestic regulations (EFTA) (Iceland, Liechtenstein and
investment facilitation and MSME. Norway; excluding Switzerland).
• Another example is the WTO aid for
169
I m a g e 13.2: E u r o p e a n E c o n o m i c A r e a
• The Agreement on the EEA entered with the four fundamental pillars of
into force on 1 January 1994. It seeks the internal market, namely: the free
to strengthen trade and economic movement of goods, people, services
relations between the contracting and capital.
parties and is principally concerned
2. North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA)
I m a g e 13.3: NAFTA M e m b e r s
170
• It is a trade pact signed in 1992 that

gradually eliminated most tariffs and
other trade barriers on products and
services passing between the United
States, Canada, and Mexico.
• The pact effectively created a free-
trade bloc among the three largest
countries of North America. NAFTA
went into effect in 1994 and remained
in force until it was replaced in 2020.
3. The Southern Common Market

(MERCOSUR):
• The Southern Common Market
is a regional integration process,
initially established by Argentina,
Brazil, Paraguay, and Uruguay, and
subsequently joined by Venezuela and
Bolivia.
• It has been based on the principles
of Democracy and Economic
Development, which underpins the core
values of a human-faced integration.
• MERCOSUR is an open and dynamic
process. Since its creation, its main
objective has been to promote a I m a g e 13.4: MERCOSUR M e m b e r s
common space that generates business Source: cfr.org
and investment opportunities through
the competitive integration of national 4. THE ASEAN economic community
economies into the international (AEC):
market.
• It is the realization of the region’s end
• It has established multiple agreements goal of economic integration. The
with countries or groups of countries, AEC aims to create a single market
granting them, in some cases, the and production base for the free flow
status of Associated States – this being of goods, services, investment, capital,
the situation of the South American and skilled labor within ASEAN.
countries.
• Once AEC is realised, ASEAN region will
be characterized by free movement of
goods, services, and investments along
with free flow of capital and skills.
• The new Community offers expanded
opportunities and inevitable challenges
for multinationals investing in this
diverse but often opaque market.
• The AEC facilitates the implementation
171
of reforms related to investment, trade important for developing the ASEAN as

and services, which is necessary in each the most competitive economic blocs
ASEAN Member States. in the world.
• At the regional level, the AEC is very
I m a g e 13.5: ASEAN M e m b e r s
5. The Common Market of Eastern 21 Member States, population of over

and Southern Africa (COMESA): 583 million a Global Domestic Product
of $805 billion, a global export/import
• The Common Market for Eastern trade in goods worth US$ 324 billion.
and Southern Africa (COMESA) is the
• Geographically, COMESA covers almost
largest regional economic organization
two thirds of the African Continent with
in Africa, with 19 member states and a
an area of 12 Million (sq km) and forms
population of about 390 million.
a major marketplace for both internal
• COMESA has a free trade area, with and external trading.
172
I m a g e 13.6: COMESA M e m b e r s
dialogue and arriving at decisions

6. Asia Pacific Economic on a consensus basis, giving equal
Cooperation (APEC): weightage to the views of all members.
• It was established in 1989 as a regional • APEC’s 21 member economies are:

Australia; Brunei Darussalam; Canada;
economic forum to leverage the
Chile; People’s Republic of China;
increasing interdependence of the
Hong Kong; Indonesia; Japan; Republic
Asia-Pacific region. It aims to create
of Korea; Malaysia; Mexico; New
greater prosperity for the people of
Zealand; Papua New Guinea; Peru; The
the region by promoting balanced,
Philippines; The Russian Federation;
inclusive, sustainable, innovative, and
Singapore; Chinese Taipei; Thailand;
secure growth and by accelerating
Viet Nam and United States of America.
regional economic integration.
• It operates as a cooperative, multilateral Impact of COVID-19 Pandemic on APEC:
economic and trade platform. It is the APEC region is expected to post around
only global intergovernmental grouping 2.7% economic decline in 2020 due to
which is committed to reducing various the impact of Covid-19. The region’s
barriers to trade and investment unemployment rate is estimated to rise
without requiring its members to to around 5.4% in 2020 from 3.8% in
enter into legally binding obligations. 2019, or an additional 23.5 million workers
APEC achieves its goals by promoting being unemployed in 2020.
173
I m a g e 13.7: APEC M e m b e r s
7. The South Asian Association For

Regional Cooperation (SAARC):
• The SAARC is an economic and political
organization of eight countries in South
Asia. It was established in 1985 when the
Heads of State of Bangladesh, Bhutan,
India, Maldives, Nepal, Pakistan, and
Sri Lanka formally adopted the charter.
Afghanistan joined as the 8th member
of SAARC in 2007.
• The SAARC is most densely populated
region and one of the most fertile areas
which comprises 3% of the world’s area,
21% of the world’s population and 3.8%
(US$2.9 trillion) of the global economy.
• All the SAARC countries have common
I m a g e 13.8: SAA RC M e m b e r s
problems and issues like poverty,
illiteracy, malnutrition, natural disasters,
internal conflicts, industrial and 8. The Indian Ocean Rim Association
technological backwardness, low GDP (IORA):
and poor socio-economic condition.
• IORA is an inter-governmental
organisation which was set up in 1997.
174
• The vision for IORA was invented during • This region is considered as a lifeline
a visit by late President Nelson Mandela of international trade and transport
of South Africa to India in 1995. IORA’s and the Indian ocean region is woven
apex body is the Council of Foreign together by trade routes and commands
Ministers (COM) which meets annually. the control of major sea-lanes.
• The association gain significance by • The United Arab Emirates (UAE)
the fact that the Indian Ocean region assumed the role of Chair since
carries 1/3rd of the world’s bulk cargo November 2019 - November 2021,
traffic, ½ of the world’s container ships, followed by the People's Republic of
and 2/3rd of the world’s oil shipments. Bangladesh.
I m a g e 13.9: IORA M e m b e r s
• A CSO (committee of Senior Officials) a dangerous threat to the future

meets twice a year to progress IORA’s generation.
agenda and consider recommendations For example, virtual export of water
by Working Groups and forums of through export water intensive crop
officials, business, and academics to like rice and cotton to the international
implement policies and projects to market leads to depletion of water
improve the lives of people. resources in India.
• Import of harmful goods: The foreign
trade may lead to import of harmful
Limitation of International goods like cigarettes, drugs etc. which
Trade: may harm the health of country’s
resident. For instance the people of
• Rapid depletion of exhaustible china suffered greatly through opium
resources: It could lead to a more imports.
rapid depletion of natural resources.
As country begin up their production, • Control of price through
natural resources tend to get depleted monopoly: The exploitation of
with the time and it could pose importing country by the exporting
175
country can take place by controlling across the world provide their own
the prices of certain commodities. political risk at varying levels while
E.g. crude oil cannot be produced by domestic political changes over time
every country and that is the reason present an ongoing challenge by
why crude importing countries are at changing the laws in a discriminatory
disadvantage all the time due to near fashion and create regulations that
monopoly of oil exporting countries. directly impact a specific organisation.
For example, Donald Trump after
• Economic Dependence: The
coming to power abruptly changed the
underdeveloped nations have to
trade policy as well as the visa policy
depend upon the developed ones for
with India, china and European Union.
their economic development which may
lead to economic exploitation of the • Intellectual Property Theft: The
underdeveloped country. The countries wider the product is dispersed, the more
which sell primary commodity and buy likely that it may be illegally copied by a
manufactures goods in return are the competitor. This can be done in various
losers and get exploited. The standard ways through proprietary information
of living in such countries remain low. or market branding or by reverse
Such condition may lead to discontent engineering. Because of the different
and unrest among underdeveloped legal system in different countries, it
ones. becomes very difficult for countries to
prosecute further.
• Political Risk: Different countries
176
MODULE C
HUMAN GEOGRAPHY
177
CHAPTER - 14
POPULATION DISTRIBUTION
• Population Distribution: North America (around 358 million) and
• Population distribution is the spacewise Oceania (around 39 million).
pattern in which the population is • China (nearly 1.4 billion) and India
spread. In most countries, there is wide (1.3 billion) are the most populous
regional variations in the geographic countries of the world and account for
distribution of the population. The respectively 19 and 18% of population
environment in Antarctica makes it a of world. India's population is expected
very challenging location to live in, with to continue to grow for several more
cold temperatures, lack of vegetation decades. It is estimated to reach near
and geographical isolation. about 1.5 billion in 2030 and upto 1.7
• Places which are densely populated billion in 2050, while the population
has liveable environments e.g. Western of China will mostly remain constant
Europe, Deccan Plateau and Ganges and then reduce slightly. As such it is
plain and the East Coast of the USA. projected that India's population will
This can be the result of flat relief, a surpass China in the future.
favorable climate, availability of natural • Population Density:
resources and fresh water. • Population density can be defined as the
• Population distribution is also uneven measurement of the number of people
within a country. Locations with in an area. It is an average number.
favourable conditions are generally Population density is calculated by
more densely populated compared to dividing the number of people by area.
those in more challenging environment. Population density is usually shown
For example, Northern states like as the number of people per square
Uttar Pradesh have higher population kilometer.
density as compared to Himalayan • According to United Nations 2010
States. Population Data, the average density
• The population of world reached 7.3 of world population is 44 persons per
billion in mid of year 2015, which means sq. km.
that the world has added around 1 billion • Asia is the most densely populated
people in the span of 12 years. The continent having 110 persons per square
global population is highly distributed kilometer. Europe got the second rank
over the seven continents of world. with a population of 102 persons per
Most of the world's population (around square km. The continent of Latin
60%) lies in Asia (approximately 4.4 America with a density of 20 persons
billion), 16% lives in Africa (nearly 1.2 per sq. km, ranks third. It is followed by
billion), 10% lives in Europe (around 738 Africa, Anglo-America and Oceania,
million), 9% in Latin (South) America having a density 21, 14 and about 3
and the Caribbean islands (around 634 persons per sq. km. respectively.
million), and the remaining 5% lives in
178
Population Density in India:
Persons / Sq. Km
Regions India 325
State with Highest Population Density West Bengal 903
State with Lowest Population Density Arunachal Pradesh 13
UT with Highest Population Density Delhi 9,340
Andaman & Nicobar

UT with Lowest Population Density 43
Islands
District with Highest Population Density North East (Delhi) 29,468
Lahul & Spiti (Himachal

District with Lowest Population Density 2
Pradesh)
Factors Affecting Population Density:

There are a range of human and natural factors that affect population density.
Factors (Physical) High Density Low Density
Relief Low land which is flat in nature. High land which is

(Shape and height of a Example Ganges Valley of mountainous. Ex:
particular land) India. Himalayas.
Areas which are rich in

Areas with few resources
resources (e.g. coal, oil, wood,
generally have less
Resources fishing etc.) tend to have
population density. Ex: The
very high population density.
Sahel region.
Example- Western Europe.
Areas which have temperate

Areas with extreme climatic
climates, are in general,
conditions of hot and cold
densely populated as there
Climate of the region are generally sparsely
is sufficient rain and enough
populated e.g. the Sahara
heat which is necessary for the
Desert, Arctic or Antarctic.
growth of crops. Example-UK.
179
Factors (Human) →
Countries where stable Unstable countries tend

government is present to have lower population
Political Factor generally have a high densities as people migrate
population density. from such region. Example-
Example- Singapore. Afghanistan.
Group of people tends to Other groups of people

Social Factor live near each other for prefer to be isolated e.g.
security. Ex: USA. Scandinavians.
Good job opportunities Limited job opportunities

encourage high population cause some areas to be
Economic Factor sparsely populated.
densities, particularly in
large cities. Ex: Amazon Rainforest.
• Globally the average population

density is 44 people per square km, but
there are humongous variations across
countries. Many of the small island or
isolated nations have huge populations
for their size. Fr instance, Macao,
Hong Kong, Monaco, Singapore and
Gibraltar are the 5 most densely
populated countries. Singapore has
around 8,000 people per km2 – more
than 200 times as dense as the US, and
2000 times that of Australia.
• Of the larger countries, Bangladesh
has the highest population density.
It is populated with 1,252 people per
km2; this is almost thrice dense as
its neighbour, India. It is followed by
Lebanon (595), South Korea (528), the
Netherlands (508) and Rwanda (495
per km2) completing the top five.
• How the population growth of world I m a g e 14.1: W o r l d P o p u l ati o n P r o j e c ti o n
changed over the timeline ?
• World population from 10,000 BC till • Historical demographers estimates
present day: that around the year 1800, the world
population was near to one billion
• Below chart shows the increasing people. This indicates that on an
number of people living on Earth over average the population grew very
the last twelve thousand years. slowly over this long time from the year
10,000 BCE to the year 1700 (i.e. around
0.04% per annum). This changed
180
fundamentally after 1800. The world Population Growth following

population was nearly around 1 billion
in the year 1800 and increased about the Agricultural Revolution:
7-fold since then. • Approximately ten thousand years
• Close to 108 billion people have ever ago, mankind discovered agriculture.
lived on our earth. This means that Agriculture provided reliable supply of
recent population size makes up 6.5% food.
of the total number of people ever • Scholars think this new technology of
born. For the long time period from the food production provided the extra
appearance of modern Homo sapiens food necessary to support a bigger
up to the starting point of this chart in human population.
10,000 BCE, it is anticipated that the
total world population was often well
• It also helped people to settle down
in villages and cities for the first
under one million. In this phase our
time in history. These changes may
species was often seriously threatened
have caused lower death rates and
by extinction.
higher birth rates, causing the human
population to grow more rapidly than it
had in the past.
History of Population Growth:
In the Beginning:
Population Growth Early in the
• Homo sapiens arose about 200
Common Era (CE):
thousand years ago in Africa. Humans
first left Africa about 100 thousand • The human population is estimated
years ago, and eventually colonized to have reached about 200 million
Asia, Australia, and Europe. (0.2 billion) people by 0 CE (AD). Up
• By about 15 thousand years ago, Homo to about 1000 CE, population growth
sapiens populations had reached the was relatively slow, in part because
New World. periodic plague epidemics caused
large numbers of deaths. Beginning
• During this entire period of time, humans around 1000, the rate of population
lived in small populations of nomadic growth started to increase again. By
hunters and gatherers, and the growth 1300, there were close to 500 million
of the human population was very slow. people on Earth.
• Life was hazardous, and almost as many • Between about 1300 and 1750,
people died each year from hunger, the human population again grew
accidents, or disease as were born. slowly because of repeated disease
• By ten thousand years ago, the pandemics. For example, in the mid-
population had grown to only about 1300s, a plague pandemic called
five or six million people. the Black Death spread throughout
• Some scholars think that this may have Asia and Europe. This was one of the
been the maximum number of people devastating pandemics in human
that could be supported by hunting history. In just a few years, it is thought
and gathering, and that greater human to have resulted in the death of more
population numbers required new ways than 100 million people in Eurasia.
of producing food. • By 1400, the human population fell
below 400 million people, and it took
more than a century for the population
181
to recover. New sources of energy, like coal and

• In the 1500s, Spanish explorers electricity, increased the efficiency of
introduced smallpox to human the new agricultural machines. It also
populations in the New World. enabled rail transport, which improved
the distribution of food. For all of these
• Original inhabitants of America had reasons, death rates continued to fall,
never been exposed to the disease especially in children.
before, and they lacked any immunity
towards it. The disease spread from • In London in the mid-1700s, roughly
a handful of Spaniards to millions three-quarters of children died before
of Native Americans, causing severe the age of five. By the early 1800s, in
disease and immense rates of death. contrast, less than one-third of London
children died before the age of five.
Lower childhood death rates led to
more young adults in the population,
Demographic Transition: so birth rates increased.
• Major changes in the human population
began during the 1700s in Europe.
• Death rates fell while birth rates Birth Rates Fall:
remained high. Until birth rates also fell • It wasn't until the late 1800s or early
about a century later, the population of 1900s that birth rates began to fall in
Europe grew rapidly. Europe. People started having fewer
• The same population changes occurred children, because large families were
a little later in other industrialized no longer beneficial for several reasons.
countries, including the United States, • As child death rates fell and machines
Canada, and Australia. did more work, farming families no
• Starting around the mid-1950s, similar longer needed to have as many children
changes also occurred throughout to work in the fields. Laws were passed
much of the developing world. In that required children to go to school.
each case, while death rates were low Therefore, they could no longer work
and birth rates remained high, the and contribute to their own support,
population growth rate increased and and they became a drain on the family’s
the size of the population exploded. income.
• By the late 1900s, birth rates in Europe
finally fell to about the same low levels
Death Rates Fall: as death rates. Recently, birth rates in
many European countries have fallen
• Several discoveries in science and
even lower, so they are now lower than
technology may have contributed
death rates.
to lower death rates starting in 18th
century Europe. For example, new
scientific knowledge of the causes and
transmission of infectious diseases led Stages of the Demographic
to improved water supplies, sanitation Transition:
systems, and personal hygiene. Better
farming techniques and agricultural • Demographic transition concept refers
machinery increased the food supply. to the historical shift from high birth
rates and high infant death rates in
• The Industrial Revolution of 1800s led societies associated with minimal
to even greater advances in health. technology, education (especially of
182
women) and economic development, • The major changes of the demographic

to low birth rates and low death rates transition are generally classified in the
in societies with advanced technology, following five stages:
education and economic development.
I m a g e 14.2: 5 S ta g e s o f th e D e m o g r a p hi c T r a n s iti o n
• Stage 1: A high birth rate coupled growth slows.

with a high death rate causes slow • Stage 4: The birth rate falls to the
population growth. Even though women same low level as the death rate,
have a lot of children, many of the as the fertility rate falls to just about the
children die before adulthood, so the replacement level. Population growth
fertility rate is close to the replacement slows even more, approaching zero.
level. This is the pre-transition stage.
• Stage 5: The birth rate continues
• Stage 2: The death rate falls,
to fall so it is less than the death
but the birth rate remains high. rate, because fertility is below the
Women are still having a lot of children, replacement level. Population growth
but more of the children survive to becomes negative.
adulthood, so the fertility rate is well
above the replacement level. The
population grows rapidly.
Exploding Population and the
• Stage 3: As women start having fewer Green Revolution:
children, the birth rate start to fall,
although the fertility rate is still higher • Between the year 1950 and 1984,
than the replacement level. Population the green revolution transformed
183
agriculture around the world. Industrial Revolution and

• Grain production alone increased by Population Growth:
more than 250% . Like the agricultural
revolution before it, the green revolution • The industrial revolution which
allowed more people to be fed. witnessed second major turning point
in the history of population growth,
• Since the green revolution began,
led to the systemization of production
world population has grown by
with the help of power driven machine.
about five billion people, and so far,
This resulted in high output per capita
food production has kept pace with
and rapid accumulation of wealth. This
the increase in population, although
rapid growth was due to fossil fuel,
there are local food shortages due to
mainly coal.
problems with food distribution and
access. • The industrial revolution in Europe
and North America created a new
• It is likely that without the green
society in which the primary activities
revolution, there would be greater
(agriculture, fisheries, mining and
levels of malnutrition than what
forestry) began to decline and the
currently exist.
secondary (manufacturing) and tertiary
• There are concerns that world food (services) activities began to take an
production may soon start to lag increasingly important role.
behind population numbers. There are
• It led to rapid increase in urban
some reasons for it that are as follows:
population. Poor people witnessed
» One problem is that more cropland is abysmal living standards in new
being used to produce biofuels instead industrial towns. Consequently, disease
of food for human consumption. flourished in over-crowded, unsanitary
urban settings. Death rates were often
» Agricultural land is also being lost to catastrophic when certain disease
residential and industrial development. broke out such as Cholera.
Even if human population growth
continues to decline, rising living • In the early years of Industrial
standards in developing countries are Revolution, the education sector was
likely to create a greater demand for not well developed, medical facilities
resources. were inadequate, literacy rate was low
and the per capita and the standard of
» While under nutrition in childhood has living were also low.
improved over the past few decades,
hundreds of millions of children still • Industrial revolution demanded more
lack adequate nutrition, especially in labour hands and it was compensated
South Asia and sub-Saharan Africa. in the form of high birth rate. There
was also low awareness about family
• Food and Agriculture Organization planning, sustainability of future
(FAO) predicted that the world will have generations etc. All this resulted in high
to produce 70% more food by 2050 to population growth.
feed the more than nine billion people
that are projected to be alive by then.
Factors influencing the
Distribution of World
Population:
• Harsh physical conditions and lack of
184
sufficient livelihood opportunities are temperature is obviously not favourable

chiefly responsible for lack of large for habitation. Vegetation is very scarce.
scale inhabitation in some areas. The Cold winters and very short summers
factors which affects distribution of makes living difficult.
population may broadly be grouped
into the following major categories:
Topography:
» Physical factors
• Navigable areas are generally more
» Socio-economic factors populated than harsh ones. Mountains
» Demographic factors and are not preferred because of lack
» Political factors of arable land. Low lying plains and
coastal regions are more favoured
areas for human settlement than high
Physical Factors affecting altitude areas.
distribution of Population: • For example; the Himalayas are thinly
populated while the Ganga valley is
Climate: one of the densely populated area of
• Climate is amongst the most important the world.
natural condition. It determines the • Coastal regions have the advantage of
nature of the flora and fauna of the ocean trade and transportation and as
region and influences agriculture. such, the major cities of the world are
Humans want favorable climatic mostly located in the coastal areas.
conditions in the places where they
want to settle down. The climatic belts
are indeed the principal areas of most Water:
of the human activities. It is easily
• Water is most essential for the survival
observed that the highest populated
of mankind. Almost all the ancient
countries of the world are mostly
civilizations of the world started and
located in the tropical regions.
flourished near rivers and the coastal
• A warm, comfortable climate attracts regions. The Amazon, the Nile, and
people. Regions with such climates Ganges river systems gave birth to
provide favorable conditions for a many rich civilizations on their banks.
wide range of animals to thrive thus
• Adequate rainfall give rise to vegetation
supporting life systems in that place.
and agriculture which subsequently
Agriculture and animal husbandry are
determines a suitability of a place for
the means which makes food possible
habitation. Because of lack of water,
for huge population.
large sections of deserts are not
• On the other hand, places with extreme inhabited by humans.
and harsh climatic conditions are
• Similarly, there is less population on
generally scarcely populated as it is
the rain-shadow side of any hill or
difficult to sustain human life in such
mountain but leeward side is often
regions.
densely populated.
• The temperate regions are colder than
the tropical regions but hotter than
the polar regions. The polar regions of Soil Quality:
Arctic and Sub-Arctic regions remain
least populated. The extremely low • Soil quality influences the density
and distribution of the population. A
185
substantial amount of populations • There are lot of examples of destruction

earns their livelihood from agriculture of settlements due to natural disasters.
which depends heavily on the quality Bichuan city, in Sichuan province of
of the soil. China was totally destroyed in 2011
• Food crops are grown on the soil, due to an earthquake of magnitude of
hence, it is one of the most important scale 8.0 causing havoc and huge loss
raw material required. of lives. The city was not rebuilt but left
abandoned to prevent any further loss
• The alluvial region, deltas and the of human life in the event of recurrence
coastal regions of India supports high of the disaster in future.
population densities.
• Contrarily, mountainous regions, where
soil erosion is a concern, such as the Socio-Economic Factors
Tarai region of Uttarakhand, or the
sandy soil of the Rajasthan desert
Affecting Population
cannot withstand dense populations. Distribution:
Economic Activity:
Mineral Resources: • Economic activity is indicator of
employment opportunities. People in
• Huge reserves of mineral resources rural area are heavily dependent on
encouraged the establishment of
agriculture for their survival.
industries, which facilitated settlements.
• If the agriculture fails to support the
• The Chhota Nagpur plateau is an area rural population, or if there are better
very rich in mineral and other natural
opportunities available in urban region,
resources. The higher population
they might migrate to cities.
densities in Chhota Nagpur Plateau of
Jharkhand and in the adjoining areas of • Concentration of population in cities
Orissa are largely due to the availability is an outcome of huge and versatile
of minerals. economic activities and livelihood
opportunities offered by these cities.
• In general there is work for almost
Location of a Place: everyone in cities, which is not so in
• Proximity to major towns and cities villages where there are only fewer
facilitates concentration of population. options. Hence, population density in
the towns and cities tends to be higher
• The city’s periphery and the nearby than in rural areas.
towns provide affordable housing for
the dwellers of city. Cheap and reliable
transportation provide affordable and Social Organization:
suitable means of travel.
• Social Organization of communities in
Natural Disasters: new regions encourages the movement
• Natural disasters discourage population of people.
concentration. • Man is a social animal and as such
• Frequent storms, earthquakes, floods, it becomes essential for him to form
wild fires etc. discourage formation of a community, creating a familiar
settlements because people tend to environment where he stays.
migrate towards safer places.
186
Demographic Factors of high population density and pressure

on limited resources on the earth. With
Population Distribution: the introduction of contraceptives and
Migration: with different family planning options
available, birth rate began to go down.
• Migration has deep influence on
distribution of population.
• The push factors or any negative Political Factors Influencing
circumstances at the place of origin,
motivates people to leave their native
Population Distribution:
place and move to newer areas. Better War and Political Conflicts:
opportunities in distant regions also
encourages migration. • War and political turmoil takes a great
toll on human lives. Death rates are
• Most of the people in general move to high at such places, and as such, people
other places because of the scarcity of are forced to move somewhere else for
resources, shortage of work and other their safety.
livelihood opportunities, insufficient
remuneration, inadequate medical • Mortality rates peak and the out-
facilities and education, etc. migration dominates in such places.
Safer places experience a sizeable
• Expectations of better standard of living population growth due to the in-flow of
is mostly the main factor which drives migrants from outside.
rural to urban migration of population.
• This is also the situation in areas near
• Though the migration process allows the political boundaries of nations that
redistribution of population, but it also do not have peaceful relations with
puts pressure on the place of destination each other. Even if there is no conflict
and increases the population density in and tension, the fear of one forces
this place. people to move, making these regions
the least populated ones.
Fertility and Mortality:
• Fertility and mortality both influences Political Unrest and Discrimination:
the population of a particular region. • Fight between different political parties
• When the fertility level is high in a or people with different religious beliefs
region, the population of that place have often resulted in a reduction of
increases. In such places, mortality can population in the affected area.
bring stability. • Political unrest and discrimination
• Diseases and epidemics always are always detrimental to population
significantly influence mortality levels. growth.
In earlier era, high occurrence of disease • Before settling down permanently in a
resulted in more deaths. To nullify this new place, migrant population looks
loss, a high level of fertility was usually for a place which not just provides
maintained. economic opportunities but also
• As the medical science developed, provides safe and healthy environment
many diseases could be cured and for a decent life.
hence the death rate fall down sharply • The politically unstable region is not
and the population escalated. able to provide both these conditions,
• But this created the problems linked with as such, it discourages the incoming
187
migrant population and also the always led to population growth in that
already residing population. particular region.
• Discrimination faced by migrants due • Migration help in the process of
to race, language, food, culture etc. redistribution of population. Policies
discourages in-migration. which promotes reduction in fertility
rates,like banning of infanticide also
influence the growth of population in a
Policies: place.
• Policies encouraging migration have
Distribution of Population:
I m a g e 14.3: C o n t n e n t w i s e D i s tri b u ti o n of P o p u l ati o n
• Population distribution is the way in which are less developed. Population

which the members of a population or distribution has continuously changed
of a specified sub-group of a population over time and space, with migration
(for example, defined by age, sex, and varying rates of population growth.
literacy, or ethnic status) are dispersed Almost half of the world population is
physically in a specific region. clustered on just 5% of the land, while
• Distribution of population on a global about 33% of total land area is virtually
scale is highly uneven and is non- uninhabited. Less than 10% of the
uniformly distributed, with the greater world's population lives in the Southern
part of the world's population living in the hemisphere, and 80% lives between 20
northern hemisphere and in countries degrees and 60 degrees North latitude.
188
Densely Populated Regions: Future Distribution of

• There are total 4 areas in the world Population:
where the average density of population » One of the most important lesson from
is more than 100 persons per sq. km. the demographic history of countries
is that the population explosions are
» North West Europe(UK, France,
temporary. And for many countries the
Germany, Netherlands, Poland, Belgium,
demographic transition has already
Luxembourg, Ireland, Denmark, Spain,
ended, and as the global fertility rate
Portugal and Italy).
has now halved, we know that the world
» Eastern- North America (North-East as a whole is approaching the end of
United States and South-East Canada). rapid population growth.
» East -Asia (China, Japan, South Korea » The seven fold increase of the world
and Taiwan). population over the course of two
» South- Asia (India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, centuries amplified humanity’s impact
Sri Lanka, Maldives and Nepal). on the natural environment. Every
year around 140 million children are
• All these densely populated areas lie born and 58 million people die – the
in the northern hemisphere and are difference is the number of people that
so placed that more than 75% of the we add to the world population in a
world’s population is now concentrated year: 82 million.
between the Tropic of Cancer and 700 » Population growth reached its peak
North. Of these regions, China and in 1968 with annual growth of 2.1%.
India have large populations from the After that the increase of the world
ancient time. Europe is comparatively population has slowed and today grows
less ancient and the United States has by just over 1% per year.
become densely populated only in the
last two hundred years. • By the end of the century when global
population growth will have fallen to
0.1% according to the UN’s projection
Sparsely Populated Regions: – the world will be very close to end of
the demographic transition. It is difficult
• More than 70% of the land surface is to estimate the population dynamics
sparsely populated. These could be beyond 2100; it will depend upon the
listed as below: fertility rate.
» Ice caps and Cold Regions • We are on the path which is going
» Deserts and Arid Lands towards new balance. The huge global
demographic transition that our world
» Mountainous Regions entered more than two centuries ago
» Tropical Rain Forests is then coming to an end: This new
equilibrium is quite different from
the one in the past phase which was
associated with very high mortality that
kept population growth in check. In the
new equilibrium phase, it will be low
fertility that keeps population changes
small.
189
Age and Sex Structure: number of additional years a person

could expect to live if current mortality
• The composition of a population is trends were to continue for the rest of
determined by the number or proportion that person’s life.
of males and females in each age
category. The age-sex structure of a • Natural Increase (or Decrease):
population is the cumulative result The surplus (or deficit) of births over
of past trends in fertility, mortality, deaths in a population in a given time
and migration. Information on age- period.
sex composition is essential for the • The three basic determinants of age
description and analysis of many other compositions are:
types of demographic data.
» Mortality
» Natality
Some demographic concepts
» Mobility
and terms:
• These three factors are interdependent
• Birth Rate (or crude birth rate): and any change in one influences the
The number of live births per 1,000 other. It is through these variables that
population in a given year. the socio-economic indicators influence
• Death Rate (or crude death the age structure. It is the fertility rate
which determines the proportion of
rate): The number of deaths per 1,000
population in different age categories.
population in a given year.
Countries of Asia (such as India,
• Infants Mortality Rate: It is the Pakistan, Bangladesh, Indonesia etc),
number of deaths of infants under age Latin America and Africa have high
1 per 1,000 live births in a given year. fertility.
• Life Expectancy: The average Population Pyramids:
Developed Countries:
I m a g e 14.4: P o p u l ati o n p y r a m id o f UK
190
• The population pyramid of the Reasons for low birth rate:

developed countries shows low birth
and low death rates, and high life • Improved status of women.
expectancy. • Ready availability of contraceptive and
The effects of this population family planning methods.
structure are as follows: • Careers are more important than
having a family.
• In the future, less availability of people • The cost of living has increased.
workforce.
• Growing tendency of late marriages
• More expenditure on old age pension resulting into late formation of family.
and geriatric care than other sectors
like education. • Increased desire for material
possessions, e.g. cars and holidays
• Burden on healthcare sector due to instead of children.
geriatric care.
• More requirement of old age homes
require more spending. Death rates are low because of:
• Less maternity hospitals and schools
required as youth population will
• Modern advanced medical system.
decline. • Vaccinations against diseases, e.g.
Malaria, Polio etc.
• Teachers and midwives are made
redundant as they are surplus to • Improvements in water, hygiene and
requirements. sanitation.
• Import of foreign labour force will • Improved food production and storage.
increase from developing countries like • Lower infant mortality rates.
India
• People have to work longer as the age The population in the developed world is
of retirement is raised.
therefore fairly stable and neither rising
nor falling significantly.
In developed countries like the UK, both
birth rates and death rates are low.
Developing Countries:
• The population pyramid of developing
countries shows high birth and death
rates and low life expectancy.
191
I m a g e 14.5: P o p u l ati o n p y r a m id o f UK
The effects of this population • Slum areas will increase as people

will fail to get homes due poverty and
structure are as follows: unemployment.
• Added burden on various social sector • In many developing countries like India,
services like health, education due to death rates have decreased while birth
higher population rates have remained extremely high.
• More expenditure to construct
educational institutions
• Government may be forced to divert Birth rates are high because:
expenditure pattern like reducing • Children provide laboring hands to
spending on defence and increase family to support family income. For
spending on health and education. this reason families tend to have more
This may compromise other sectors like children.
national security.
• Children are suppose to look after
• More maternity hospitals are required elderly parents because of lack of
to construct. pensions.
• More teachers and midwives are • Lack of availability and awareness
required to be trained. about contraception and family
• In the future, there may be huge planning.
demand-supply gap in labour force • High infant mortality rates, so more
where supply will be more than demand children are conceived to compensate
if economic growth and development the loss.
fails to accommodate growing
population. • Religious beliefs and dogmas encourage
large families.
• Demographic waste can result into
higher incidence of poverty and • In some developing countries, children
unemployment. can be viewed as a sign of virility.
192
• In less educated sections of The Malthusian theory is

society, family planning and use of
contraceptives are seen as taboo which stated as follows:
results into higher birth rate. Generally • There is a natural sexual instinct in
this is observed in tribal societies. human race to increase at a fast
rate. Hence, population increases in
geometrical progression and if it is not
Death rates are fairly high controlled, becomes double in every 25
because of: years.
• Contrarily, the food supply increases
• Famine and lack of food availability. in much slow arithmetical progression
• Malnutrition due to poor diet. due to the operation of the law of
• Poor hygiene, sanitation and lack of diminishing returns based on the
clean drinking water. supposition that the supply of land
is constant. Hence the food supply in
• Natural disasters like heavy rainfall, successive similar periods will be 1, 2, 3,
droughts, epidemics etc. destroying 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, and 9 (after 200 years).
crops.
• Because population increases in
• High incidence of diseases, E.g. Malaria. geometrical progression and the food
• Lack of doctors, medicines and supply in arithmetical progression,
healthcare. population outruns supply of food.
• War, persecution, civil wars etc. E.g. • To regulate over-population resulting
Afghanistan. from the imbalance between food supply
and population, Malthus suggested
positive checks and preventive checks.
As birth rates are higher than death
rates, there is rapid population growth in • The different preventive checks are
developing countries. applied by a man to control the birth
rate. They are late marriage, celibacy
and moral restraint, etc. All these
Population theories: preventive checks either look utopian
or some are not practicable.
Malthusian Theory: • Suppose we fail to check growth
of population by the adoption of
• Thomas Robert Malthus enunciated
preventive checks, positive checks
his views regarding population in his
operate in the form of misery, famine,
famous book, Essay on the Principle
war, vice, disease, floods and other
of Population as it affects the Future
natural calamities which reduces
Improvement of Society, published in
population and thereby brings a
1798.
balance to supply of food.
• The author incorporated his researches
in the second edition of his Essay got
published in 1803. The Malthusian Criticism of Malthusian theory:
theory describes the relationship
between the growth in population and • The Malthusian theory has been widely
food supply. It states that population discussed and criticized during the 19th
grows faster than food supply and if and early 20th century.
unchecked leads to vice or misery.
193
Green revolution: to restrict the size of the family.
• Green revolution has increased food

production dramatically and today
world has surplus food though there
Marx’s Response to Malthus’
are incidences of poverty and hunger. Theory:
But the point is, green revolution proved • The debate about the Malthusian theory
Malthus’ mathematical formula wrong. is still continue. Economists like J. S. Mill
and J. M. Keynes supported his theory
Preventive checks: but others, especially, sociologists,
argued against the theory.
• Preventive checks suggested by
• According to sociologists, the
Malthus were either utopian or not
widespread poverty and misery of the
practical. The forced celibacy or late
working class people was, not due to an
marriage may cause increase in social
eternal law of nature as propounded by
crimes like rapes. Even moral restraint is
Malthus but due to the misconceived
not practicable after marriage.
organization of society that is widening
gap between haves and have-nots.
Positive checks: • Karl Marx argued:
• Positive checks like famine, floods or » Starvation was caused due to unequal
other natural calamities were suggested distribution of wealth and accumulation
by Malthus to control population of that wealth by capitalist. It has
growth. But humankind has progressed nothing to do with population as such.
so much that it has found solutions to
control or reduce the impact of natural » Population depends on social and
disasters or famine or epidemics. economic organization. The problem of
overpopulation and limits to resources,
as enunciated by Malthus, are inherent
and inevitable features associated with
Misconception about civilized the capitalist system of production.
society: » Marx also argued that food production
• Malthus assumed that preventive checks started increasing once the farmers
are applicable or workable in civilized were given new technology which
society. It was totally a misconception helped them to increase the production.
about developing countries. Even
developing countries are adopting • French sociologist E. Dupreel argued
some preventing measures. that an increasing population would
spur rapid innovation and development
to solve problems, whereas a stable
population would be complacent and
Use of family planning or less likely to progress.
contraceptives:
• Malthus assumed that population
control measures like use of Demographic Transition theory:
contraceptives or family planning • Demographic transition theory can
methods amount to moral hazard. But be utilized to describe and estimate
in almost all societies it is now accepted the future population of any area.
norm to use family planning methods It talks that, the population of every
194
region changes from high births and Criticism:

high deaths to low births and low
deaths as society do progresses from • Though the theory of demographic
rural, agrarian, and illiterate society to transition is appreciated widely by many
urban industrial and literate society. demographers, it has been criticized on
These changes occur in stages that are many grounds too. Some critics believe
collectively known as the demographic that it is not a theory at all.
cycle. • The main points of criticism are:
» It is merely based upon the empirical
First Stage: observations or the experiences in
• 1st stage has high fertility and high Europe, America and Australia.
mortality rate because people » It is not predictive and neither its stages
reproduce more to compensate the are segmental and inevitable.
deaths due to epidemics and unreliable » The role of technical innovations
supply of food. of mankind cannot be underrated,
• Here, population growth is slow and particularly in the field of medicine,
most people are engaged in agriculture which can arrest the rate of mortality.
where large families act as asset. » Neither does it provide a fundamental
• Here, people are mostly illiterate, life explanation for the process of fertility
expectancy is low and have low levels decline, nor does it identify the crucial
of technology. variables involved in it.
» It does not provide any time-frame for
a country to move from one stage to
Second Stage:
other stage.
• Fertility remains high in beginning » At last, it does not hold true for the
of 2nd stage but declines as the time developing countries of the world, which
advances. recently experienced unprecedented
• Reduced mortality rate accompany growth in population because of heavy
this. decline in death rate.
• Despite these criticisms and

Third Stage: shortcomings, the demographic
transition theory does provide an
• This is the last stage, in this stage, both effective portrayal of the world’s
fertility and mortality declines largely. demographic history at macro level
Here, population is either stable or of generalizations. As an empirical
grows slowly. generalization developed on the basis
• The population becomes urbanised, of observing the demographic trend in
literate and has high technical knowhow the West, the transition process for any
and deliberately controls the size of country can easily be understood.
family.
• This indicates that humans are India’s demographic dividend:
extremely flexible and able to adjust
fertility of their own. • In an ageing world, India has one of the
youngest population. India's median
age will be just 28 by 2020, compared
to 37 in China and the United States, 45
195
in Western Europe, and 49 in Japan. capital, which is essential for promoting

• Since 2018, India's working-age economic development, ending
population (people aged 15 to 64) extreme poverty, and fostering a more
has risen faster than the dependent inclusive community.
population (children under the age • Increase the employability of the young
of 14 and people over the age of 65). population by skill growth: India's
This enlargement. This growth in the labour force must be equipped with
working-age population would last the necessary skills for the modern
until 2055, or 37 years from now. economy if it is to fully benefit from its
• This transition occurs primarily as a favourable demographics.
result of a decline in the total fertility • To accommodate the influx of young
rate (TFR, which is the number of births people into the workforce, the country
per woman) following the stabilisation needs to generate ten million jobs each
of life expectancy. year. Promoting business interests and
• Two fascinating facts emerge from a entrepreneurship would aid in job
UN Population Fund (UNFPA) report on growth, allowing the vast labour force
India's demographic dividend. to find work.
• Improved healthcare system would
» India has a five-decade window of result in a higher number of working
demographic dividend potential, from days for the young workforce, boosting
2005-06 to 2055-56, which is longer the economy's competitiveness.
than any other nation on the planet.
• Robust educational pipeline: Investing
» Because of the varying behaviour wisely in primary, secondary, and
of population parameters, this higher education to raise educational
demographic dividend window is standards. India, which has nearly 41%
accessible at different times in different of its population under the age of 20,
states. will only benefit from the demographic
dividend if it improves its education
system.
Steps to Reap Dividend:
• Academic-industry cooperation is
To reap the demographic dividend, India also needed to align modern industry
should focus on labour, land reforms: demands with academic learning levels.
International Monetary Fund. • Ensure participation of women: With
• Investing in people through quality a forecast of a gradually shrinking
education, healthcare, employment, workforce, India needs to ensure
and skills helps to develop human participation of women to reap the
demographic dividend.
196
CHAPTER - 15
MIGRATION
• Human migration includes movement and is then usually termed as asylum
of people from one place to other place seeker. If his application is successful
with intentions of settling, permanently this person's legal status becomes that
or temporarily, at a new location of a refugee.
(geographic region). • We observe that the same person is
• The movement often occurs over long both an immigrant and an emigrant.
distances and from one country to Migrants who move to a new place are
another, but internal migration (within a called Immigrants. Migrants who moves
single country) is also possible; indeed, out of a place are called Emigrants.
this is the dominant form of human • In general people migrate for better
migration globally. Age is also important economic and social life. Mainly there
for both work and non-work migration. are two sets of factors which influence
People can migrate as individuals, in migration. The Push factors make the
family units or in large groups. place of origin looks less attractive for
• Persons moving from their home reasons like unemployment, poor living
because of forced displacement (like conditions, political turmoil, unpleasant
natural disaster or civil unrest) can be climate, natural disasters, epidemics
described as displaced persons and if and socio-economic backwardness.
staying in their home country, internally- The Pull factors make the place of
displaced person. destination seem more attractive than
• A person who wants refuge in another the place of origin for reasons like better
country can make a formal application job opportunities and living conditions,
to that country where refuge is sought peace and stability, security of life and
property and pleasant climate.
Factors of Migration:
I m a g e 15.1: P u s h and Pull fa c to r s o f m i g r ati o n .
197
Causes of Migration: Natural calamities

Unemployment • Natural calamities can also play a
big role in migration. Suppose your
• One of the important reason of area gets hit by a tsunami and most
migration is unemployment. Suppose of the local public infrastructure gets
people are not able to find a livelihood destroyed. There will be a lack of basic
due to huge unemployment, these things.
people may not be able to make enough
money to survive in those regions. • Thus, many people have no other
Hence, they have huge incentive to choice than leaving that place.
move to other countries for finding their
livelihood.
Wishing for a better future
• People strive for a better future. This
Desertification is more true for people living in poor
• In some regions, it is impossible to make countries.
a living because of the harsh and bad • As such, these people try to migrate to
climatic conditions. This is particularly rich countries in order to provide their
true for farmers who live in areas with kids with better chances for a higher
hot and dry climate, which in turn leads standard of living.
to significant desertification problems.
Conflicts and clashes

Forced labor
• It is a main reason for migration. People
• In some countries, forced labor is who are living in areas where Conflicts
a big problem even today. In those happens force leave that place due to
nations, the local population often fear of dying in those clashes.
tries to escape those adverse working • Hence, those people are often willing
conditions by leaving their home and to leave their home and to migrate to
moving to other countries. Hence, other countries which are more liberal
forced labor is significant reason for and promise a higher level of freedom.
migration in general.
Discrimination
Inefficient medical care
• Some countries in the world where
• In poor developing countries, medical discrimination happens on a daily
standards are very low in general and basis. For instance, women are often
diseases cannot be treated properly. discriminated against and are not
This gives rise to a high death rate and looked at equal with men.
hence indicates a low life expectancy
for the people.
• To improve their health standards, Poverty
many people leave their homes and
• High level of poverty can contribute to
relocate to foreign countries since they
migration. Poor people have a bigger
believe that the overall medical care is
incentive to migrate to rich developed
much better in other places.
nations as they provide better social
security and better health care facilities
198
in those nations. • During Medieval period, Arab were

• Again, those people may also think strong in technology and education.
that they have better job abroad than They conquered large territories in
in their home country, which gives them Central Asia, Northern Africa and
an even higher incentive for migration Iberian Peninsula of Spain and Portugal
to other new countries. and eastern parts of Europe.
• During 14th and 15th centuries, the
Europeans had better navigation ships
Starvation and they discovered America, Australia,
and numerous unknown islands of
• Extreme poverty leads to malnutrition
Arctic, Atlantic, Indian and Pacific
and starvation. It force people to leave
oceans.
their home country since they may
simply die if they stay there since these Internal migration in India
people may not have enough financial
• The number of internal migrants
measures to buy basic food and water.
in India was 450 million as per the
Thus, starvation can further exacerbate
most recent 2011 census. This is an
the migration problem.
increase of 45% over the 309 million
Diseases recorded in 2001. Internal migrants as
a percentage of population increased
• Some countries are also quite
from 30% in 2001 to 37% in 2011.
vulnerable to epidemics or pandemics.
Due to insufficient health standards, • Key Source States: Uttar Pradesh,
many people in those regions die from Bihar, Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh,
those diseases. Andhra Pradesh, Chhattisgarh.
• In order to avoid the infection with • Key Destination States: Delhi,
serious diseases, people may try to Maharashtra, Gujarat, Haryana,
migrate to other countries which have Punjab and Karnataka.
higher medical standards and are also » Intra-State Migration: Within their own
not hit by epidemics on a regular basis. district, an estimated 400 million Indians
"migrate." The next 140 million people
move from one district to the next, all
Technology while remaining in the same state.
• Generally, countries and regions which » Inter-State Migration: Just about 60
are technologically advanced, have million people — or about 10% of all
better economic opportunities and are internal migrants — move from one
more resourceful. Thus people of these state to another.
regions develop and imbibe new areas.
» Rural Migration: Rural-to-rural
• Contrary to this, less advanced groups migration is the most common form of
may be attracted to the greater migration. Just about 20% of overall
opportunities provided by a more migration (600 million) is from rural to
developed society. In ancient times, urban areas.
Romans conquered vast areas in
» Urban Migration: 20% of the total
Europe, North-Africa and West-Asia.
migration is from one urban area to
• During this time period, many people another urban area. As such, urban
migrated to Rome which provided migration (rural to urban as well as
better economic and employment urban to urban) accounts for 40% of
opportunities. the total migration.
199
Effects of Migration: bring different traditions, customs and

cultures with them which then ultimately
• Migration is indeed a result of the uneven breaks the narrow mindedness and
distribution of opportunities over a broadens up the mental horizon of
particular space. People tends to move society as a whole.
from place offering low opportunity
• Negative: Anonymity rises and creates
and low safety to the place of better
a kind of social vacuum and feeling
opportunity and better safety. Results
of rejection. This ultimately converts
can be observed in economic, social,
in anti-social activities such as crime,
cultural, political and, demographic
drug abuse, theft, etc.
areas.
Environmental consequences
Economic Consequences
• Large scale rural to urban migration
• Positive: Migrants send remittances to leads to overcrowding in cities thus
their family members which are very
putting tremendous pressure on the
important for economy.
infrastructure of cities. It give rise to
• Negative: Over-crowding that happens unplanned and haphazard growth of
due to non regulated migration of cities where slums are common.
people. For instance, the development
of unhygienic slums in industrially
developed states like Maharashtra, Other problems
Gujarat, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu and
Delhi. • When males leave their wives in rural
areas, it puts extra physical and mental
burden on women.
Demographic consequences • Women’s migration for education and
employment gives them more freedom,
• Positive: Redistribution of population on the other hand it also adds to their
inside a country. The process of
vulnerability
urbanization is dependent on rural to
urban migration of people.
• Negative: It causes imbalance to the Solution for migration:
structure of demography. Age and
sex composition is seriously affected Stopping the conflicts
in states of Rajasthan, Uttarakhand,
• To mitigate the issue of migration, it is
Madhya Pradesh and Eastern
crucial to stop conflicts so that people
Maharashtra due to migration. Similar
will not be forced to leave their home
situation happens in the recipient
lands. Policy makers, and governments
states.
in every part of the world have to work
together and should stop any kind of
interaction with the nations involved in
Social consequences
conflict.
• Positive: Migrant people brings a wave • This will increase the financial pressure
of social change. They infuse new on those countries and as such, those
ideas of science and technology, girl’s countries would have a bigger incentive
education, family planning, etc from to refrain from clashes.
one place to other place. People also
200
Increasing levels of average wealth Stopping discrimination

in poor countries • We need to fight discrimination of all
• It is important that the average wealth kinds on a global scale. Everyone must
levels in poor countries increases so have a fair chance in life, irrespective
people have an incentive to stay in their of where he or she is born, irrespective
home lands rather than to migrate to of the gender and the skin color and
other places. irrespective of anythings which prevent
this equality of opportunity.
• Rich developed countries should provide
financial support to poor countries and • People all over the world should become
share their updated research so that more tolerant towards minorities and
poor countries can develop their own have to accept their lifestyles, customs
knowledge, that will translate to higher and traditions.
wealth and higher living standards for
the local population as whole.
Fighting global warming
• Global warming contributes towards
Improving education status migration. As large areas of land no
• Education is ultimately a way to get out longer remain suitable for farming due
of poverty since it is directly related to to a lack of water because of increased
job opportunities and other livelihood air temperature. It is important to curb
options. Low level of education often global warming in order to save the
implies high levels of unemployment livelihood of many farmers.
and poverty in general.
• Hence, it is important to increase
educational status in poor countries so International Migration:
that people of those countries are able • It is a global phenomena which is
to find good jobs and hence do not growing in scope, complexity and
have an incentive to migrate to foreign impact. Migration is both a cause
lands. and effect of broader development
processes and an intrinsic feature of
our ever globalizing world. While its no
Fight extreme poverty (MDG goal) substitute for development, migration
• One of the eight Millennium can be a positive force for development
Development Goals (precursor of when supported by the right set of
SDGs) is to eradicate extreme hunger policies. The rise in global mobility,
and poverty. It is very crucial that we the growing complexity of migratory
eliminate extreme poverty for all people patterns and its impact on countries,
in the world. migrants, families and communities
have all contributed to international
migration becoming a priority for the
international community.
201
I m a g e 15.2: D ata on I n t e r n ati o n a l m i g r ati o n .
International Migration Data: upto 689 billion US Dollars in 2018.

According to United Nations: » The top 3 remittance recipient countries
• In the year 2019, the number of were India (USD 78.6 billion), China
international migrants worldwide, i.e. (USD 67.4 billion) and Mexico (USD 35.7
people residing in a country other than billion).
their country of birth reached 272 million » The United States remained the top
(from 258 million in the year 2017). remittance sending country (USD 68.0
• Female migrants constituted 48% of billion) followed by the United Arab
this international migrant stock. Emirates (USD 44.4 billion) and Saudi
Arabia (USD 36.1 billion).
• There are an estimated 38 million
migrant children, three out of four • In 2018, total number of stateless
international migrants are of working persons globally was around 3.9 million.
age, meaning between 20 and 64 years
old. 164 million are migrant workers. » Bangladesh (around 906,000) had the
greatest number of stateless persons
• Approximately 31% of the international and Bangladesh was followed by
migrants worldwide reside in Asia, 30%
Côte d’Ivoire (692,000) and Myanmar
in Europe, 26% in the Americas, 10% in
(620,000).
Africa and 3% in Oceania.
• India continued as the largest country
of origin for international migrant Emerging migration issues:
people.
• Migrants have contributed highly
» India have highest number of migrants towards sociocultural, civic-political
living abroad (17.5 million), which is and economic contributions in their
followed by Mexico(11.8 million) and origin and destination countries and
then by China (10.7 million). communities.
» United States with 50.7 million • Immigrants tend to have higher
international migrants remained the entrepreneurial agility and capability
top destination country. as compared to native inhabitants.
In countries like the United States,
• International remittances increased
202
migrants have disproportionately Although they are not legally binding,

contributed towards innovation and the two global compacts represent
discovery. a near-universal consensus on the
• Migrants’ inclusion in the receiving issues requiring sustained international
society translates to diverse societal cooperation and commitment.
areas which are closely interdependent.
Inclusion in one policy area like language,
family reunification, education, labour International Migration in
market inclusion, political participation Major Area:
and naturalization – will mostly impact
others. • In the year 2019, Europe and Asia
hosted around 82 million and 84 million
• A dynamic and complex relationship international migrants, respectively
exist between migration and health
which comprises 61% of the global
which extends well beyond crisis events.
international migrants.
• Recent estimation related to the • This was followed by North America,
total number of child migrants is
with around 59 million international
approximately around 31 million. There
migrants in the year 2019 or 22% of
are nearly around 13 million child
the global migrant stock, Africa at 10%
refugees, 936,000 asylum-seeking
, Latin America and the Caribbean at
children, and 17 million children who
4% , and Oceania at 3% .
have been forcibly displaced inside
their own regions. • If we compare with the size of population
in every region, shares of international
• There is evidence that the magnitude migrants in the year 2019 were highest
and frequency of extreme weather
in Oceania, North America and
events is increasing, this is also affecting
Europe, where international migrants
migration and other forms of movement
represented 21%, 16% and 11% of the
across the world. While movement of
total population, respectively.
human resulting from environmental
and climate change is often framed • In comparison, the share of international
along protection and security lines, migrants is relatively small in Asia and
understanding mobility as adaptation Africa (1.8% and 2%, respectively)
allows for migrants’ agency to be part and Latin America and the Caribbean
of the response equation. (1.8%).
• Migration status can significantly • However, Asia experienced the most
impact migrants' capability to deal with remarkable growth from 2000 to 2019,
crisis. Flexible visa and immigration at 69% (around 34 million people in
policies help make it possible for absolute terms).
migrant people to keep themselves • United States of America has been
safe as well as recover from the impact the main country of destination for
of a calamity. Return is one type of international migrants since 1970. Since
choice, but not necessarily the primary, then, the number of foreign born people
response option. residing in the country has more than
• The previous two years have seen quadrupled, i.e. from less than 12 million
substantial modification in the global in 1970, to close to 51 million in 2019.
governance of migration, principally • Germany, the second top destination
in the creation of the United Nations for migrants, has also observed an
Network on Migration and the two global increase over the years, from 8.9 million
compacts on refugees and migration.
203
in 2000 to 13.1 million in 2019. to international cooperation on

migration.
• It presents a great opportunity to
Refugees and asylum seekers improve the governance of migration, to
address the challenges associated with
• By the end of 2018, there was a total of
today’s migration, and to strengthen
25.9 million refugees globally, with 20.4
the contribution of migrants towards
million under UNHCR’s mandate and
sustainable development as a whole.
5.5 million refugees registered by the
United Nations Relief and Works Agency • This Global Compact is framed in a
for Palestine Refugees (UNRWA) in the way which is consistent with target 10.7
Near East. of the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable
Development in which Member States
• There were also approximately 3.5
committed to cooperate internationally
million people seeking international
to facilitate safe, orderly and regular
protection and awaiting determination
migration.
of their refugee status, referred to as
asylum seekers. In 2018, approximately
2.1 million asylum claims were lodged Global Compact on Refugees:
with States or UNHCR. Of the roughly
1.7 million first-instance applications for • In December 2018, the United Nations
asylum lodged in 2018, the United States General Assembly i.e. UNGA affirmed
was the top recipient of asylum claims, the Global Compact on Refugees, after
with 254,300 new asylum applications. two years of extensive consultations
• Peru was the second highest recipient, with various Member States, refugees,
with a significant and rapid increase international organizations, experts,
of asylum applications, from 37,800 civil society, and the private sector.
new asylum claims in 2017 to 192,500 • Global Compact on Refugees is a
in 2018, mainly lodged by Venezuelans framework for more predictable and
(190,500). equitable responsibility sharing.
• It gives a blueprint for national
governments, international
Recent Initiatives: organizations, and other stakeholders
Global Compact for the Safe, to ensure that host communities get
the support.
Orderly and Regular Migration:
• The four key objectives of the Global
• It is the first inter-governmentally Compact on Refugees are:
negotiated agreement, prepared
1. To ease the pressure on host countries;
under the auspices of the United
Nations, covering all dimensions of 2. To enhance self-reliance of refugee;
international migration in a holistic and 3. To expand access to third country
comprehensive manner. solutions;
• This is a non-binding document which 4. And to support conditions in countries
respects states’ sovereign right to of their origin for return with safety and
determine who enters and stays in their dignity.
territory and demonstrates commitment
204
CHAPTER - 16
INDIGENOUS PEOPLE OF THE WORLD

• Hunting-gathering tribes lead a semi-
Hunting-Gathering: nomadic life. They move out in groups
Until about a few thousand years ago, for hunting or gathering and camp in
human societies followed hunting and the open or live in leaf shelters or under
gathering practices as a pattern of overhanging rocks. When they do find
subsistence. Today, only a handful of an area which affords them a plentiful
communities around the world, follow supply of food, they make small
this subsistence pattern as their main or settlements and live in thatched huts.
subsidiary form of livelihood. • Many hunting-gathering tribes
eventually created a systematic method
• The principal economic activity of
of gathering marketable forest produce
the hunter-gatherer or foraging
like resin, wax, honey and a variety of
communities consists of hunting,
medicinal plants which they supplied
fishing, gathering or collecting food as
to forest contractors in exchange of
they have little or no regular access to
grain, clothes and other essential
cultivable land. Since the foods foraged
commodities. Men usually hunt and
are unevenly distributed over large
women gather food either individually
stretches of land, they need to be highly
or in groups.
mobile.
• The forest, rivers and the sea is the main • For example, Onge women are
especially adapted in digging wild roots,
source of food. As such communities
tubers, fruits and collecting firewood;
exercise little or no control over
Sentinelese women use small round nets
vegetation and animals on which they
to fish in shallow waters. Hunting and
depend, they have adapted themselves
honey collection is generally carried
to seasonal and annual fluctuations in
out by the men of the community.
resources.
• The entire pattern of life and world • Most of the hunting-gathering or
foraging tribes of India are situated
view revolves around the forest and is
in the Southern part of the country as
in complete consonance with their eco-
well as in the Andaman and Nicobar
system.
Islands. They include the Chenchus and
• With their primitive knowledge, they the ChallaYanadi of Andhra Pradesh;
have developed indigenous technology, the Kadar, Malaya Pandaram or
skills and time–tested, traditional Hill Pandaram and Cholanaickan of
practices, which support their way of Kerala; Hakkipikkis of Karnataka; the
living. The technology that foragers Great Andamanese, Onge, Sentinelese
employ is limited and they have and the Jarawas of the Andaman and
invented unique solutions to problems Nicobar Islands.
faced by them in hunting, gathering
and foraging food.
• Eskimos of Alaska and Bushmen of
Kalahari are still dependent on hunting
• They use indigenous implements like and gathering for the survival. Eskimos
digging sticks, knives, traps, harpoons, are famous for hunting seals, fishing etc.
snares, traps and hooks and various while Bushmen are based in Kalahari
baskets to collect food.
205
Desert where they generally hunt Gudia, Bringa in Orissa; Penda, Dahiya,
reptiles like snakes and collect water Bewar in Madhya Pradesh; Kondapady
from oasis or water pockets of cactus. in Andhra Pradesh and so on.
• Hill cultivation is widely practiced
throughout India. Tribal communities
Cultivators: inhabiting the hills of Assam, Meghalaya,
Manipur, Tripura, Bihar, Orissa, Madhya
• Cultivation of land is the major source Pradesh and Andhra Pradesh use this
of livelihood of the tribes of India. In type of cultivation.
fact, about two-thirds of the tribal • Tribes like the Adis, Akas, Birjhias,
populations are agriculturists. Bondos, Chakmas, Chirus, Gangtes,
Hmars, Jamatias, Juangs, Dimasas,
Karbis, Mijis, Mishmis, Aos, Konyaks,
There are mainly two types of Phoms, Paites, Riangs, Tangsas,
cultivation: Wanchos practice hill cultivation
methods.
• Hill Cultivation and
• Plain Agriculturist
Plain Agriculture:
• Agriculture is the most important
Hill Cultivation:
and popular economic activity of
• The people living in the hilly areas have the tribal population of India. A large
adopted three ways of cultivation. percentage of the tribals are supported
These include: by agriculture who practice it as their
primary source of livelihood.
» Slash-and-burn cultivation carried out • In a rudimentary form this involves
with the help of digging sticks;
cultivating the land by ploughing it
» Hoe-and-burn cultivation; and with two animals and basic implements
» Terrace cultivation in the ‘terai’ areas such as the plough, spade, axe, sickle,
aided by natural irrigation sources. axe, etc.
• The fertilizer used is cow-dung, though
• Hill cultivation is a seasonally-regulated chemical fertilizers are now being
process designed to open up and bring adopted by tribals.
down a belt of land under cultivation
for agriculture. After couple of seasons • Usually ploughing starts in May-June,
of cropping, the land is left unused for transplanting in July-August and
several years with the aim of restoring harvesting in November-December.
fertility to the soil.
• Following this period, land is again • An important feature of tribal agriculture
cleared and burnt and another cycle of is cooperation among relatives and
cultivation begins on a similar pattern. among the villagers on a reciprocal
Simple instruments like the digging basis during the different stages of
stick (with a metallic end), spade, sickle, agricultural activity. All the major tribes
hoe, and axe are used. of India practice agriculture as their main
• Hill cultivation is known by various names source of livelihood. Tribal communities
like Jhum in Assam, Kurwa or Khallu in practicing agriculture include the
Santhal Parganas; Podu, Rema, Dahi, Apatanis, Cheros, Deoris,Miris, Hos,
206
Jaintias, Khambas, Khasis, Kolams, of Travancore, Nairs of South India and

Tiwas, Rabhas, Kinnauras, Bhumijs, Khasas practice polyandry.
Santhals, Mundas, Oraons, Kharwas, • Irigwe tribe of Nigeria, Masai tribe
Baigas, Gonds, Bhils, Minas, Warlis, of Kenya, some Tibetians of Nepal,
Koyas etc. Northern India and China, Bororo tribe
• Azande tribe of Sudan, Chukchee of of South America practice polyandrous
Siberia, American Red Indians of North marriage.
America, Amaon tribes, and Pygmies of
Africa also practice agriculture.
Polygamous Tribes:
Polyandrous Tribes: • Polygamy is a form of marriage where
The custom of taking multiple wives, or individual marries two or more persons
polygamy, is known to everyone. The at a time. By this definition, above
opposite tradition, the taking of two or mentioned polyandrous marriage is a
more husbands or polyandry, is rather type of polygamous marriage.
less known, and is becoming a very rare
practice indeed in the modern patriarchal
world. Polygyny Marriage:
• Polygyny marriage is exactly opposite
• The word polyandry comes from the to polyandrous marriage. In polygyny
Greek, Poly (many) and Andros (man) marriage, a man marries two or more
and literally means the practice of one women at a time. This type of marriage
woman having two or more than two was evolved due to patriarchal mindset
husbands. of society.
• The custom evolved in cultures where • In such societies, women are not held
resources, were scarce, and where in esteem and they are generally
women were allowed to own property subjugated in every sphere of life like
or ancestral titles. economic resources, family decisions,
• Polyandry allowed men to optimize education, health, social mobility etc.
their resources and live comfortable • In India, polygyny is practiced among
lives which might otherwise denied to Baiga, Muria, Munda, Ho, Naga, Lushai,
them and their children. The women Juang, Kondh and Gond.
enjoyed a very high status.
• Logoli and Abalulya tribes of Kenya,
• Non-fraternal polyandry, where a Ngwa tribe of Nigeria practice
group of unrelated men share a wife, polygyny marriage. Most of the Muslim
is virtually nonexistent because of its communities of Africa practice polygyny
inherent instability: a group of unrelated as it is allowed under Sharia Law.
men would be far less willing to share
the parenting of a completely unrelated
child, no matter the immediate benefits. Reasons for Polygyny Marriage:
• Example: In Mahabharata, Draupadi
married Panch Pandavas is a best
• It is practiced due imbalance in sex
ratio, where women outnumber men.
example of polyandry in general and
fraternal polyandry specifically. • It is practiced because it accords
higher status and prestige, a feature of
• In India, Todas, paharis, Nijanad Vellala
207
patriarchal society. Laureate Amartya Sen and other great

• It is practiced because in polygyny economists, Dr. Haq published the first
marriage, husband gets abundant Human Development Report, which
labour in the form of multiple children was commissioned UNDP.
from multiple wives.
• Central to human development
approach, lies the concept of
Human capabilities. Capabilities stands for
what people can do and what they can
Development: become.
• Basic capabilities valued by virtually
• Human development can be defined as everyone including: good health, access
the process of enhancing freedom and
to knowledge, and a decent material
opportunities of people and improving
standard of living. Other capabilities
their living.
central to a fulfilling life could include
• The concept of human development was the ability to participate in the decisions
developed by economist Mahbub-ul- that affect one’s life, to have control
Haq. He believed that commonly used over one’s living environment, to enjoy
measure of GDP failed to adequately freedom from violence, to have societal
measure well-being in general. respect, and to relax and have fun.
• While he was working with Nobel
208
CHAPTER - 17
HUMAN DEVELOPMENT
Introduction economist who working on development

economics, suggested few reasons in
favour of the human development.
• The term ‘development’ refers to
qualitative modification in an individual » Improved living conditions of people
such as change in personality or and poverty reduction contribute to a
other mental and emotional aspects. healthy civil society and greater social
Therefore, the process of development stability.
continues even after the individual » Human development is also friendly to
has reached his/her physical maturity the physical environment. E.g. overall
(growth). human development associated with
• The Fundamental difference between education will lead towards poverty
economic development and human reduction due to which deforestation,
development is that economic desertification and soil erosion also
development mostly focuses on the declines.
increase of income and on the other » The ultimate objective of the entire
side the human development believes exercise of development is to improve
in overall aspects of human life be it the human conditions and to enlarge
political, cultural, economic and social, people’s choice.
etc.
» It assists in reducing the rate of growth
Growth vs Development: of population.
Growth is related to quantitative changes » Overall improvement in multiple
and development is qualitative in nature. dimensions of Human development can
Growth implies to physical aspects only, also help to reduce civil disturbance in
whereas development is associated the society and in increasing political
with broader aspects such as physical, stability.
emotional, social, cognitive and language » A well-nourished, educated, healthy,
etc. skilled alert labour force is the most
Growth stops at certain period of life productive asset. Hence investments in
however development continues till various sectors of human development
death. are justified on ground of productivity.
• Human development is one of the • Concept of sustainable development

important elements in economic aspect. refers to “development that meets
The basic idea behind this is that it is the the needs of the present without
use of income and not the income itself undermining the ability of future
that determines the human choices. generations to meet their own needs.”
Since, the actual wealth of a nation is This concept has four dimensions
its people, therefore, the objective of i.e. environment, society, culture and
development should be the enrichment economy – which are intertwined, not
of human life. separate.
• Paul Patrick Streeten well known
209
• The HDI can also be utilized to question

Human Development national policy choices, asking how two
Index (HDI) nations with the same level of GNI per

capita can end up with different human
development outcomes.
• The HDI was introduced to emphasize
that people and their capabilities • HDI is associated with a summary
should be the ultimate criteria for measure of average achievement
assessing the development of a country, in important components of human
not economic growth alone. development:
• The first Human Development Report » A long and healthy life

of UNDP was introduced in 1990 under
» Being knowledgeable
the inspiration and leadership of its
architect, Mahbub-ul-Haq. » Decent standard of living
I m a g e 17.1: C o m p o n e n t s of HDI
• The geometric average of normalized

indices for each of the three components Human Development
are calculated in HDI.
Report, 2020
» The health dimension: measured by life
expectancy at birth. • It is prepared by the United Nations
Development Programme (UNDP).Out
» The educational component: assessed
of total 189 countries, India has ranked
by average of years of schooling for
131 on the Human Development Index
adults (aged 25 years and more) and
2020. The country fell in to the category
expected years of schooling for children
of the medium human development
of school entering age.
(With an HDI value of 0.645). In 2019,
» The standard of living dimension is India’s rank was 129.
assessed by gross national income per
capita.
• The scores for the all three dimensions India’s trend over the years
are then aggregated into a composite (Human Development Index)
index using geometric mean.
• The report indicated that since 1990,
• The HDI simplifies and describes only the HDI value of India has improved to
part of what human development 0.645 from 0.429 (increase of over 50%
entails. Some of the important aspects ). During this period, the life expectancy
are not reflected e.g. it does not reflect at birth in India rose by nearly around
on inequalities, human security, poverty 12 years, while mean years of schooling
and empowerment, etc. witnessed an escalation of 3.5 years.
210
During this time, the expected years of of inequality across three important
schooling also increased by 4.5 years. dimensions.
GNI per capita of India also grew, • Two countries with different distributions
registering a rise of nearly around 274%. of achievements can have the same
• India’s HDI trends as compared average HDI value. Under perfect
to other nations equality, the IHDI is equal to the HDI
but falls below the HDI when inequality
» The UNDP compared HDI value of India rises.
with other South Asian nations like • The IHDI is estimated for 151 countries.
Pakistan and Bangladesh. As compare
to India’s rank (131), Bangladesh
• In 2020 Human Development Report
released by UNDP, India ranked 104
obtained 133rd position, while Pakistan
whereas Bangladesh and Bhutan
stood at 154th place.
ranked 102 & 103 respectively in
» In the South Asian zone, India’s HDI is IHDI. Because of lower ranking, India
more than the region’s average which is categorised under low human
stands at 0.641, while India is also above development category. Norway and
the average value of 0.631 among the Iceland positioned first and second
medium HDI category countries. respectively which categorised under
very high human development category.
Inequality-adjusted
Human Development Gender Inequality
Index (IHDI) Index (GII)
• The gender inequality index (GII)
• The Inequality-adjusted HDI (IHDI) provides insights into gender disparities
was introduced by the UNDP in 2010 in health, empowerment and the labour
to measure human development by market. Unlike the human development
accommodating inequality. IHDI is the index (HDI), higher values in the GII
HDI adjusted for inequalities in the indicate worse achievements.
distribution of achievements in each of
the three dimensions of the HDI (health,
education and income).
How is it defined?
• The difference between the HDI and
IHDI is the human development cost of • The GII is a composite measure,
inequality i.e. the overall loss to human reflecting inequality in achievements
development because of inequality. between women and men in three
dimensions: reproductive health,
• The IHDI provides direct link to empowerment and the labour market.
inequalities in dimensions and it can
also form policies across regions • The health dimension is measured by
towards inequality reduction, and the maternal mortality ratio and the
leads to clearer understanding of adolescent fertility rate.
inequalities across the population and • The empowerment dimension is
their contribution to the total human assessed by the share of parliamentary
development cost. seats held by each gender, and by
• The Coefficient of human inequality, is secondary and higher education
measured as an unweighted average attainment levels.
211
I m a g e 17.2: C o m p o n e n t s of GII
• The labour dimension is measured by gender inequality index 2020. The

women's participation in the workforce. report observed that the labour force
• The GII varies between 0 (when women participation rate of women in the
and men fare equally) and 1 (when men country was around 20.5%, while it was
or women fare poorly compared to the 76.1% for men. And only 13.5% women
other in all dimensions). held seats in Parliament.
• It is designed to reveal the extent to » The report also noted that difference in
which national human development parents’ response toward girls and boys
achievements are eroded by gender has led to higher malnutrition among
inequality, and to provide empirical girls.
foundations for policy analysis and
advocacy efforts.
• Low status restricts women’s
opportunities and freedom, giving Multidimensional
them less interaction with others and
fewer opportunities for independent Poverty Index (MPI)
behaviour, restricting the transmission
of new knowledge, and damaging their • Global Multidimensional Poverty Index
self-esteem and self-expression. (MPI) is a measurement of different
dimensions of poverty, covering 107
• It is a particularly important determinant developing countries and was first
of two resources for care: mothers developed in 2010 by Oxford Poverty
physical and mental health, and their and Human Development Initiative
autonomy and control over household (OPHI) and United Nations Development
resources. Programme (UNDP) for UNDP’s Human
• Low status restricts women's capacity Development Reports.
to act in their own and their children's • The Global MPI is released at the
best interests. There is a demonstrated High-Level Political Forum (HLPF) on
association between women's status Sustainable Development of the United
and malnutrition in children. Nations in July, every year.
• Gender Inequality Index 2020: • 3 Dimensions and 10 indicators are
used in MPI:
» India is placed at 123 position in the
212
» Education (Total weightage 2/6th):

Years of schooling (1/6th) and school Global Scenario:
attendance(1/6th).
• Across 107 developing countries,
» Health (Total weightage 2/6th):
1.3 billion people (22%) live in
Nutrition (1/6th) and Child Mortality
multidimensional poverty. Children
(1/6th).
across these regions indicate higher
» Standard of Living (Total weightage rates of multidimensional poverty e.g.
2/6th): Electricity, drinking water, half of multi-dimensionally poor people
Housing, sanitation, cooking fuel and (644 million) are children under the age
assets. (1/18th weightage given to each of 18. One in every three children is poor
indicator). compared with one in six adults.
• An individual is multi-dimensionally • 65 out of 75 nations studied significantly,
poor if she/he is deprived in 1/3rd or reduced their multidimensional poverty
more (means 33% or more) of the levels between 2000 and 2019.
weighted indicators (out of the total ten • Around 84.3% of multi-dimensionally
indicators). Those who are deprived in poor people live in South Asia (530
½ or more of the weighted indicators million) and Sub-Saharan Africa
are recognized as living in extreme (558 million). Around 67% of multi-
multidimensional poverty. dimensionally poor people are in
• MPI is very important index as it middle-income countries.
recognizes poverty from various • Impact of Covid-19 on Poverty: Covid-19
dimensions compared to the is having a profound impact on the
conventional methodology that development landscape. The various
measures poverty only from the income study projected that on average,
or monetary terms. poverty levels will be set back 3 to 10
• According to Global MPI 2020, India is years because of Covid-19.
62nd among 107 countries with an MPI • Around 107 million multi-dimensionally
score of 0.123 and 27.91% headcount poor people are age 60 or older—a
ratio. particularly important figure during the
• Neighbouring countries like Sri Lanka COVID-19 pandemic.
(25th), Bhutan (68th), Nepal (65th),
Bangladesh (58th), China (30th),
Myanmar (69th) and Pakistan (73rd) are
also ranked in this index.
213
CHAPTER - 18
URBANISATION
Introduction innovation start concentrating in cities,

and cities develop as important centre
for the flow of transport, trade and
• Urbanization is a very complicated information.
socio-economic process that change
the built environment, transforming
• Cities also become important regions
as basic needs and services are often
formerly rural into urban settlements,
more accessible (as compare to Rural
while also shifting the spatial
region).
distribution of a population from rural
to urban regions. • Over the years cities have also become
the places where highest quality of
• it involves a complex set of economic,
public and private services are available
demographic, social, cultural,
and where basic services are often more
technological, and environmental
accessible than in rural areas.
processes that result in an increase in
the proportion of the population of a • People living in urban areas are linked
territory that lives in towns and cities, an with higher levels of literacy and
increased concentration of population education, better health, lower fertility
in the larger settlements of the territory, rate and a longer life expectancy,
and an increasing density of population greater access to social services and
within urban settlements. enhanced opportunities for cultural
and political participation.
• Urbanization process is influenced by
spatial and urban planning as well as • During 1950 and 2018, the urban
by private and public investments in population of the world increased more
the major infrastructure. Growing share than four-fold, from around 0.8 billion
of various economic activities and to an estimated 4.2 billion.
I m a g e 18.1: W o r l d U r b a n -R u r a l P o p u l ati o n
214
• Rural-urban migration is the major economic base.

factor responsible for urbanisation. • E.g. In India, other additional criteria
Rural population migrate to urban for urban settlement: region when it
region in search of jobs and better has more than 75% of its work force
amenities of life. During the late 1990s engaged in non-agricultural activities.
some 20 to 30 million people were
leaving the countryside every year and • Italy: if more than 50% of the
moving into towns and cities. economically productive population are
engaged in non-agricultural activities,
then only a settlement is known an
Classification of urban.
Urban Settlements Administrative Criteria

• Definition of Urbanisation varies from • Some urban settlements are also
countries to countries and some of the recognized according to the way it is
most common basis of classification administered.
is size of population, occupational
• Example: In India, all those regions
structure and administrative setup.
having a municipality, cantonment
board or a notified area are termed as
urban settlements.
Population size
• In Central American countries,
• Across the world, size of the population Brazil and Bolivia, even a small size
is taken as basic criteria for designating administrative hub is recognized as an
a settlement as urban. However, the urban settlement.
number of people that a settlement
should have to consider as urban
settlement differ from country to
country.
• Example: Criteria for Urban
» Any place in Denmark, Sweden and Area in India
Finland having more than 250 persons
considered as urban area. • In India, there are two broad groups of
» Iceland – more than 300 persons towns or urban settlements.
» U.S.A and Thailand- 2500 persons
» India- 5000 person (along with the size Statutory town
of population, its density is an additional
condition, which is 400 persons per sq. • All areas with a municipality corporation,
km.) notified town area committee and
cantonment board etc.
» Japan- 30000 person
Occupational Structure Census town must satisfy the

following criteria
• In Some countries of the world,
urban settlements are defined on the • a minimum population of 5000
215
• at least 75% of male working population

engaged in non-agricultural sector; and Types of Urban
• a density of population of at least 4,000
persons per square kilometer.
Settlements
• Based on population and size, urban
settlements can be categorised as
town, city, metropolitan city and mega
city. Based on functions, cities can be
classified as administrative, industrial,
transportation, commercial, mining,
cantonment, educational, religious,
tourist, etc.
Type of Urban settlement based on population and size

Type of Urban Features
settlement based on
population and size
Town • It is a compact settlement bigger than a village with
community pursuing urban way of life.
• Mostly a town has a municipality and it exercises some
specific functions like manufacturing, retail and wholesale
trade. Professional services are also the part of towns.
City • Regarded as leading town which has outstripped its local
rivals.
• Size of a city is more than the size of a town and it exercise
larger number of economic activities.
• Most cities comprised of transport terminals, major financial
institutions and regional offices.
Conurbation • Applied to a large region of urban development that
(first coined by resulted from integrating separate towns or cities.
Patrick Geddes in • Example: Greater London, Manchester, Chicago and Tokyo.
1915) • India: Delhi conurbation from Panipat to Meerut are good
examples.
Megalopolis • Means “great city” in Greek.,
(Popularised by Jean • it signifies “super- metropolitan area extending as union of
Gottman in 1957) conurbations.”
• Example: The urban landscape extending from Boston in
the north to south of Washington in U.S.A.
216
Million City • A city with a population of ten lakh (one million) or more is
called as million city.
• In the recent past the number of million cities has increased
at an unprecedented rate.
• London was the first city to reach one million mark is 1800
and it was followed by Paris in 1850 and New York in 1860.
• In 1950, there were 84 million cities in the world which rose
to 438 in 2005 (over fivefold increase in the number).
Types of Urban settlement Educational Town

based of functions • Many places become famous due to
the educational facilities provided by
Administrative town: the town. It comprised of universities,
• These towns are the headquarters of colleges, schools, libraries etc.
the administrative departments of • Example: Oxford and Cambridge in
Central or State governments. England and Roorkee, Pilani, Manipal,
• large number of government buildings Aligarh, Varanasi, etc. in India.
of various heads of departments in
addition to parliament house and
assembly halls are the part of such Industrial Towns
town. • Industrial towns owe their development
• Example of national capitals: New Delhi, growth due to industrial growth.
Tokyo, Moscow, Beijing, Washington • Examples: Manchester, Liverpool,
D.C., London and Paris Birmingham, Pittsburgh, Ahmedabad,
• Example of state capitals in India: Faridabad, Surat, Kanpur, Bhilai,
Bhubaneshwar, Gandhi Nagar and Rourkela and Jamshedpur.
Thiruvananthapuram etc.
Other important types of functional towns
are port towns, transport towns, tourist
Mining town
towns, defence towns and fishing towns
• These town have developed in mineral- etc.
rich areas and known as mining towns.
• Example: Johannesburg in Africa,
Coolgardie and Kalgoorlie in Australia Trends and pattern
and Raniganj, Jharia, Dhanbad, Digboi,
Ankaleswar and Singrauli in India. in urbanization
Religious Town Global Trend
• These towns have become popular
because of their religious importance.
• Global urban population has grown
significantly since 1950. The urban
• Example: Vatican City, Mecca, Lhasa, population was 0.75 billion in 1950 while
Puri, Mathura, Madurai, Tirupati, Katra, in 2018 it is increased to 4.22 billion.
Amritsar, Allahabad and Varanasi etc. According to United Nations’ estimates,
217
by 2050, urban areas will hose nearly growth rate globally during 2015–2050.
68% population of the world. • The highest number of large and mega
• During 1950–2025, the growth trend of cities have increasingly proliferated in
global population shows a consistent Asia and Africa. Projections indicate
increase in urban population, but during that this trend is likely to continue. The
2025–2050, a slowdown is projected for concentration of small- and medium-
urban population growth. sized cities in these two regions has
• If we look at the spatial pattern of also increased over time.
urbanisation, it shows that focus of • Two Asian countries—China and India
the urbanisation has shifted to global will be home to some of the world’s
south from global north. Cities in largest cities in the twenty-first century.
Africa and Asia are growing faster as • Following graph shows the Estimated
compared to other regions of the world, and projected urban populations of
and according to projected estimates, the world between 1950-2050
African cities will experience faster
I m a g e 18.2: P r o j e c ti o n of World Urban p o p u l ati o n
• Despite its relatively low level of Africa (548 million) and Latin America
urbanization, Asian region, because and the Caribbean (526 million).
of its huge population, has the largest • Evolution of urban population of
number of persons residing in urban world (Specifically in 6 important
areas (2.3 billion in 2018), followed by geographical region).
Europe(553 million urban dwellers),
218
I m a g e 18.3: C o n ti n e n t wise P r o j e c ti o n of Urban p o p u l ati o n
Urbanization trend in India aspect of urbanization.

• The 2011 census was the first census to
• The 1687-88 is marked setting of first highlight data of people living in slums,
municipal corporation at Madras it found that around one household in
subsequently municipal corporation every six household in urban area is
were also set up at Bombay and located in slum.
Kolkata. • Map of the urban/total population ratio
• After India got independence different of Indian states, as per the 2011 census.
five-year plans focused on different
I m a g e 18.4: U r b a n P o p u l ati o n in I n di a n S tat e s
219
National Crime Records Bureau • Nearly 90% of urban expansion in

(NCRB) statistics about urban developing countries is happening near
hazard-prone areas and built through
agglomerations (UA)
informal and unplanned settlement.
• Some of the UAs are high on the
demographic ladder and go right up to
populations of 20 million and beyond. Finances
• The five largest densely populated cities • The UN and the World Bank
are Delhi, Mumbai, Kolkata, Chennai conservatively estimate that it will cost
and Bengaluru. $3.9 trillion dollars a year to achieve
• Out of the 19 UAs, three each fall within SDGs. Given current annual investment
the states of Maharashtra and Uttar in the SDGs is just $1.4 trillion, there is a
Pradesh, two UAs each in Gujarat, shortfall of at least $2.5 trillion.
Kerala and Tamil Nadu and one each
in Bihar, Delhi, Karnataka, Madhya
Pradesh, Rajasthan, Telangana and Infrastructural challenges
West Bengal.
Housing:
• Availability of affordable housing with
Challenges related easy access to transport, jobs, and
necessary public services for health and
to Urban Settlement safety, is a major challenge associated
with urban settlement.
Institutional challenges Issues related to Sanitation and

Urban Governance: Safe drinking water:
• Example: In India urban governance • Some 8,27, 000 people in low and
faces various sets of challenges middle-income countries die because
like urban local bodies are not fully of inadequate water, sanitation, and
empowered, corruption and lack hygiene each year, representing 60%
of coordination between different of total diarrheal deaths.
agencies. Therefore, ULB needs to be • According to the report titled “The
supported by state government to Economic Impacts of Inadequate
manage urban development. Sanitation in India”, inadequate
sanitation causes India considerable
economic losses, equivalent to 6.4% of
Poor Urban Planning
India’s GDP in 2006 at US$53.8 billion
• For example, coastal areas houses (Rs.2.4 trillion).
almost 0.5 billion urban population, • 785 million people lack even a basic
increasing their vulnerability to sea level drinking-water service, including 144
rise and storm surges. In 136 biggest million people who are dependent on
coastal cities, there are 10 crore (100 surface water.
million) people which is around 20%
of its population – and near about $4.7 • It is estimated that waterborne
trillion in assets are threatened with diseases have an economic burden of
coastal flooding. approximately USD 600 million a year
in India.
220
• Chemical contamination of water, • In October 2019, India’s National Crime

mainly through fluoride and arsenic, is Records Bureau (NCRB) released crime
present in 1.96 million dwellings in India. statistics 2017. An analysis of all the
above data reveals that Delhi, Jaipur,
Lucknow, Indore and Patna have the
Urbanization and Climate highest average crime rates across
crime categories among top Urban
change
Agglomerations (UAs) of the country.
• World’s 50% of the population lives in
urban areas and cities are responsible
for 70% of global carbon dioxide Urban poverty
emissions although they occupy just
2% of the land area. • Though the proportion of urban poor
has declined over the past decades, the
• This impacts negatively on climate numbers keep adding up, fueling the
change and increases the climate and persistent nature of slums linked with
extreme disaster events, like storm high percentage of poor people.
surges and sea level rise. So cities need
to do their part and contribute to a zero- • The National Report (India Habitat III,
carbon, risk-informed development Ministry of Housing and Urban Poverty
future. Alleviation) 2001 observed, around
23.5% of urban households were slum
• Even with the current size of the urban dwellers which is also associated with
population, Indian cities are facing
a multitude of issues such as severe high level poverty.
congestion; deteriorating air quality;
increasing greenhouse gas (GHG)
emissions from the transport sector;
Urbanization and inequalities
increasing road accidents; and an
exploding growth in the number of
• Poorly planned urbanization is also
responsible for increasing levels of
private vehicles inequality and social exclusion.
• Inequality within cities has various
Urban crimes economic, spatial and social
dimensions. Economically, inequality
• Urbanization has created numerous is mostly greater in urban than in rural
social problems, among which is crime areas: the Gini coefficient of income
that became a common phenomenon inequality is higher in urban areas than
to all urban areas in both developed in rural areas in 36 out of 42 nations.
and developing nations. • Slums across the world are the
• Recent unimaginable levels of the world most notable extreme of the spatial
urbanization coincide with rise in urban concentration of urban poverty and
crimes in many parts of the world, as the disadvantage.
rate of unemployment has been on the • Larger cities are generally richer but
increase and coupled with increased more unequal as compare to smaller
poverty among the urban poor. cities.
221
Sustainable solution Smart city Project in India

A Smart Sustainable City is a city
and way forward well performing in 6 characteristics
(Economy, Mobility, People, Environment,
• French “Éco Quartier” and Japanese Governance and Living), built on the
“Eco Model City” initiatives (already ‘smart’ combination of endowments and
engaged in more than 500 towns and activities of self-decisive, independent
cities to date) highlighted the need for and aware citizens.
aligning local experimental practices Smart Cities Mission of India is one of the
and innovations with formal planning most transformational urban missions.
and national policies; coordinating The objective is to strengthen urban
action across national, regional, and infrastructure through application of
local levels; facilitating knowledge smart solutions and provide a better
exchange and practice learning quality of life to citizens.
among participating towns and cities;
and, importantly, providing consistent The operationalisation of 16 Integrated
government support across electoral Control and Command Centres(ICCC)
cycles. has contributed to providing several
online services to the citizens.
• Building cities that “work” –
healthy,inclusive, sustainable, and It has also helped in crime prevention,
resilient– requires investment choices better surveillance and reduction in crime
and intensive policy coordination. against women.
National and local governments can Another 55 ICCCs are in different stages
play vital role, to shape the future of their of implementation. As of now all 100
development, to create opportunities Special Purpose Vehicles (SPVs) have
for all. been formed, 100 City Level Advisory
• Considering the importance of housing, Forums (CLAFs) constituted, 100 Project
the New Urban Agenda recognizes Management Consultants (PMCs)
the need for affordable and adequate appointed and 5,151 projects worth
housing within the sustainable urban Rs.2.05 lakh crore sanctioned.
development framework. “The New The number of projects tendered in SCM
Urban Agenda” gives an opportunity to has accelerated by 240% since March
achieve the Sustainable Development 2018.
Goals (SDGs), including Goal 1 of
eradication of extreme poverty by 2030
(currently measured as people living Sustainable spatial planning
on less than $1.25 per day) and goal
11, which calls for access to adequate associated with urbanization
housing and basic services and the aims at:
upgrading of slums.
• Promoting territorial cohesion with
the help of more balanced social and
economic development of regions.
• Improved competitiveness.
• Creation of jobs.
• Encouraging development generated
by urban function.
222
• Improving the relationship between • Improving the availability of important

towns and the countryside. dimensions like affordable housing,
• Promoting more balanced accessibility. infrastructure and basic services and
access to these services. In India the
• Developing access to information and Housing for All/Pradhan Mantri Awas
knowledge. Yojana was launched in 2015 with an
• Decreasing environmental damage. aim to provide affordable housing to
• Enhancing and protecting natural urban poor by 2022.
resources and natural heritage. • Improve and encourage access to
• Enhancing cultural heritage as a factor education and decent employment for
of development. all urban residents.
• Developing sustainable energy • Introduce various mechanisms to allow

resources and greater use of renewable larger participation in decision‑making,
sources of energy. encouraging input from all stakeholders
on the allocation of public funds and
• Encouraging high-quality sustainable on the formulation, monitoring and
tourism which can lead to better evaluation of all different government
employment opportunities. policies.
• Limiting the impact of natural disasters. • In June 2015, AMRUT Mission (Atal
Mission for Rejuvenation and Urban
While there is no one-size-fits-all solution Transformation) was launched with
available to decrease the different the objective of universal water
urban problems like inequality, some supply, improvement in sewerage
Governments in the world have been able network, developing children and
to address the spatial, economic and social Divyang friendly green spaces & parks,
aspects of urbanization. Four common improvement in storm water drainage
elements of their strategies are and non-motorised urban transport &
implementing a reform agenda under
• Establishing land and property rights which States/UTs are incentivised for
and paying specific attention to security implementation of reforms.
of tenure for people living in poverty.
223
PREVIOUS
YEAR
QUESTIONS
224
MAINS 10. Why is India taking keen interest in

resources of Arctic Region? 2018
1. Account for the present location of 11. What is the significance of Industrial
iron and steel industries away from Corridors in India? Identify industrial
the source of raw material, by giving corridors, explain their main
examples. 2020 characteristics. 2018
2. Account for the huge flooding of million 12. “The ideal solution of depleting ground
cities in India including the smart ones water resources in India is water
like Hyderabad and Pune. Suggest harvesting system.” How can it be made
lasting remedial measures. 2020 effective in urban areas? 2018
3. India has immense potential of solar 13. In spite of adverse environmental

energy though there are regional impact, coal mining is still inevitable for
variations in its developments. development.” Discuss. 2017
Elaborate. 2020
14. What characteristics can be assigned
4. Examine the status of forest resources to monsoon climate that succeeds in
of India and its resultant impact on feeding more than 50% of the won
climate change. 2020 population residing in Monsoon Asia?
2017
5. How can the mountain ecosystem be

restored from the negative impact of 15. Petroleum refineries are not necessarily
development initiatives and tourism? located nearer to crude oil producing
2019 areas, particularly in many of the
developing countries. Explain its
implications. 2017
6. What is water stress? How and why
does it differ regionally in India? 2019
16. The growth of cities as I.T. hubs has
opened up new avenues employment
7. Can the strategy of regionalresource but has also created new problems.
based manufacturing help in promoting Substantiate this statement with
employment in India? 2019 examples. Urbanization 2017
8. Discuss the factors for localization of 17. The effective management of land and
agro-based food processing industries water resources will drastically reduce
of North-West India. 2019 the human miseries. Explain 2016
9. How is efficient and affordable urban 18. South China Sea has assumed great
mass transport key to the rapid geopolitical significance in the present
economic development of India? 2019 context. Comment. 2016
225
19. With a brief background of quality 28. How does India see its place in the
of urban life in India, introduce the economic space of rising natural
objectives and strategy of the ‘Smart resource rich Africa? 2014
City Programme’. 2016
29. Whereas the British planters had

20. Major cities of India are becoming more developed tea gardens all along the
vulnerable to flood conditions. Discuss. Shivaliks and Lesser Himalayas from
2016 Assam to Himachal Pradesh, in effect
they did not succeed beyond the
Darjeeling area. Explain. 2014
21. How far do you agree that the
behavior of the Indian monsoon has
been changing due to humanizing 30. Account for the change in the spatial
landscapes? Discuss. 2015 pattern of the Iron and Steel industry in
the world. 2014
22. What are the economic significances

of discovery of oil in Arctic Sea and its 31. With growing scarcity of fossil fuels,
possible environmental consequences? the atomic energy is gaining more and
2015 more significance in India. Discuss the
availability of raw material required
for the generation of atomic energy in
23. India is well endowed with fresh water India and in the world. 2013
resources. Critically examine why it still
suffers from water scarcity. 2015
32. It is said the India has substantial
reserves of shale oil and gas, which can
24. The states of Jammu and Kashmir, feed the needs of country for quarter
Himachal Pradesh and Uttarakhand century. However, tapping of the
reaching the limits of their ecological resources doesn’t appear to be high
carrying capacity due to tourism. on the agenda. Discuss critically the
Critically evaluate. 2015 availability and issues involved. 2013
25. Mumbai, Delhi and Kolkata are the 33. Do you agree that there is a growing
three mega cities of the country but trend of opening new sugar mills in the
the air pollution is much more serious Southern states of India? Discuss with
problem in Delhi as compared to the justification 2013
other two. Why is this so? 2015
34. Analyze the factors for highly

26. Smart cities in India cannot sustain decentralized cotton textile industry in
without smart villages. Discuss this India. 2013
statement in the backdrop of rural
urban integration. 2015
35. Discussion the various social problems
which originated out of the speedy
27. Critically evaluate the various resources process of urbanization in India. 2013
of the oceans which can be harnessed
to meet the resource crisis in the world.
2014
226
PRELIMS 6. Match List-I with List-II and select

the correct answer: [1997]
1. The original home of the gypsies was: List-I List-II
[1995] (Crops) (Geographical Conditions)
(a) Egypt (b) Russia A. Barley 1. Hot and dry climate
(c) India (d) Persia with poor soil
B. Rice 2. Cool climate with
2. In the Indian context the term 'Denotified poorer soil
tribes' refers to: [1996]
C. Millets 3. Warm and moist
(a) tribes which are aboriginals
climate with high
(b) nomadic tribes
attitude
(c) tribes practising shifting cultivation
D. Tea 4. Hot and moist climate with rich
(d) tribes which were earlier classified as soil
criminal tribes Codes:
(a) A – 2; B – 4; C – 1; D – 3
3. About 50% of the world population is (b) A – 3; B – 4; C – 1; D – 2
concentrated between the latitudes of:
(c) A – 2; B – 1; C – 4; D – 3
[1997]
(d) A – 3; B – 2; C – 4; D –1
(a) 5°N and 20° N
(b) 20°N and 40°N
7. Match List I with List II and select the
(c) 40ºN and 60ºN correct answer using the codes given
(d) 20ºS and 40ºS below the lists: [1999]
List-I List-II
4. "..they are people of yellow complexion, A. Cotton 1. Rainfall 1000–1500
oblique eyes, high check bones, mm; Temperature 40°– 60°C
sparse hair and medium height."
B. Flax 2. Rainfall 1500–2000
The reference here is to: [1997]
mm; Temperature 25°– 35°C
(a) Nordic Aryans
C. Sugar 3. Rainfall 600–800 mm;
(b) Austrics
beet Temperature 5°–18º C
(c) Negroids
D. Jute 4. Rainfall 500–1000 mm;
(d) Mongoloids
Temperature 18°–22°C
5. Rainfall 500–600 mm;
5. Which one of the following
Temperature 18°–22°C
countries is the largest producer of
fuel wood in the world? [1997] Codes:
(a) Indonesia (b) Russia (a) A-1; B-3; C-4; D-2
(c) India (d) China (b) A-2; B-3; C-5; D-4
(c) A-4; B-5; C-2; D-1
(d) A-4; B-3; C-5; D-2
227
8. The Ravva offshore block, with great (b) Lignite

potential for oil, is located in: [1999] (c) Peat
(a) Krishna-Godavari basin (d) Anthracite
(b) Cauvery basin
(c) Mahanadi basin 13. The high density of population in Nile
(d) Palar-Pennar basin valley and Islands of Java is primarily
due to: [2001]
9. Which one of the following agricultural (a) intensive agriculture

practices is eco-friendly? [1999] (b) industrialization
(a) Organic farming (c) urbanization
(b) Shifting cultivation (d) topographic limitations
(c) Cultivation of high yielding varieties
(d) Growing plants in glass-houses 14. With reference to Indian transport
systems, consider the following
statements: [2002]
10. Assertion (A): Chile continues to be
an important producer of copper 1. Indian railway system is the largest in
in the world. Reason (R): Chile is the world
endowed with the orld's largest 2. National Highways cater to around
deposit of porphyry copper. [1999] 45% of the total and transport demand.
(a) Both A and R are true and R is the 3. Among the states, Kerala has the
correct explanation of A highest density of surface road.
(b) Both A and R are true but R is not a 4. National Highway No. 44 is the longest
correct explanation, of A in the country
(c) A is true but R is false Which of these statements are correct?
(d) A is false but R is true (a) 1 and 2 (b) 1 and 3
(c) 2 and 3 (d) 2 and 4
11. Assertion (A): In Australia, cattle rearing
is done more for meat than for milk. 15. In which one of the following Union
Reason (R): Australians are traditionally Territories, do people of the Onge
non-vegetarians [2000] tribe live? [2004]
(a) Both A and R are true and R is the (a) Andaman and Nicobar Islands
correct explanation of A
(b) Dadra and Nagar Haveli
(b) Both A and R are true but R is not a
correct explanation of A (c) Daman and Diu
(c) A is true but R is false (d) Lakshadweep
(d) A is false but R is true
16. 16. Which one of the following countries is
the leading producer of uranium? [2006]
12. Which one of the following types of
coal contains a higher percentage (a) United States of America
of carbon than the rest? [1999] (b) Canada
(a) Bituminous coal (c) Germany
228
(d) Zambia 1. India does not have any deposits of

Thorium.
17. The largest coral reef in the world is 2. Kerala’s monazite sands contains
found near the coast of which one of Uranium.
the following countries? [2007] Which of the statements given above is/
(a) Australia (b) Cuba are correct?
(c) Ghana (d) Philippines (a) 1 only

(b) 2 only
18. Which one amongst the following has (c) Both 1 and 2
the largest livestock population in the (d) Neither 1 nor 2
world? [2008]
(a) Brazil (b) China 23. With reference to the mineral resources
(c) India (d) USA of India, consider the following
pairs: [2010]
19. Which two countries follow China Mineral 90% Natural sources in
and India in the decreasing order of 1. Copper Jharkhand
their population? [2008] 2. Nickel Orissa
(a) Brazil and USA 3. Tungsten Kerala
(b) USA and Indonesia Which of the pairs given above is/are
(c) Canada and Malaysia correctly matched?
(d) Russia and Nigeria (a) 1 and 2 only
(b) 2 only
20. Which among the following has (c) 1 and 3 only
the world’s largest reserves of (d) 1, 2 and 3
Uranium? [2009]
(a) Australia
24. Though coffee and tea both are
(b) Canada cultivated on hill slopes, there is some
(c) Russian Federation difference between them regarding
(d) USA their cultivation. In this context, consider
the following statements: [2010]
1. Coffee plant requires a hot and humid
21. In which one of the following places is climate of tropical areas whereas tea
the Shompen tribe found? [2009] can be cultivated in both tropical and
(a) Nilgiri Hills subtropical areas.
(b) Nicobar Islands 2. Coffee is propagated by seeds but tea
(c) Spiti Valley is propagated by stem cuttings only.
(d) Lakshadweep Islands Which of the statements given above is/

are correct?
(a) 1 only (b) 2 only
22. Consider the following statements:
(c) Both 1 & 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2
[2009]
229
25. Due to their extensive rice cultivation, countries of the United Nations.
some regions may be contributing Which of the statements given above is/
to global warming. To what are correct?
possible reason/reasons is this is
attributable? [2010] (a) 1 only
1. The anaerobic conditions associated (b) 2 only
with rice cultivation cause the emission (c) Both 1 and 2
of methane. (d) Neither 1 nor 2
2. When nitrogen based fertilizers are
used, nitrous oxide is emitted from the
cultivated soil. 29. Which of the following statements is/
are correct? [2016]
Which of the statements given above is/
are correct? Proper design and effective implementation
of UNREDD+ Programme can significantly
(a) 1 only (b) 2 only contribute to
(c) Both 1 & 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2 1. protection of biodiversity
2. resilience of forest ecosystems
26. The most important fishing grounds 3. poverty reduction
of the world are found in the
regions where [2013 - I] Select the correct answer using the code
given below.
(a) warm and cold atmospheric currents
meet (a) 1 and 2 only
(b) rivers drain out large amounts of (b) 3 only
freshwater into the sea (c) 2 and 3 only
(c) warm and cold oceanic currents eet (d) 1, 2 and 3
(d) continental shelf is undulating189
30. Consider the following statements
27. The substitution of steel for wooden about Particularly Vulnerable Tribal
ploughs in agricultural production Groups (PVTGs) in India: [2019]
is an example of [2015-I] 1. PVTGs reside in 18 States and one Union
(a) labour-augmenting technological Territory.
progress 2. A stagnant or declining population
(b) capital-augmenting technological is one of the criteria for determining
progress PVTG status.
(c) capital-reducing technological progress 3. There are 95 PVTGs officially notified in
the country so far.
(d) None of the above
4. Irular and Konda Reddi tribes are
included in the list of PVTGs.
28. Consider the following statements: Which of the statements given above are
[2016] correct?
1. The International Solar Alliance was (a) 1, 2 and 3 (b) 2, 3 and 4
launched at the United Nations Climate (c) 1, 2 and 4 (d) 1, 3 and 4
Change Conference in 2015.
31. Consider the following pairs: [2019]
2. The Alliance includes all the member
230
Sea Bordering Country the cultivation of the crop." Which one

1. Adriatic Sea: Albania of the following is that crop? [2020]
2. Black Sea: Croatia (a) Cotton (b) Jute
3. Caspian Sea: Kazakhstan (c) Sugarcane (d) Tea190
4. Mediterranean Sea: Morocco

5. Red Sea: Syria 34. Consider the following pairs: [2020]
Which of the pairs given above are River Flows into

correctly matched? 1. Mekong: Andaman Sea
(a) 1, 2 and 4 only 2. Thames: Irish Sea
(b) 1, 3 and 4 only 3. Volga: Caspian Sea
(c) 2 and 5 only 4. Zambezi: Indian Ocean
(d) 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5 Which of the pairs given above is/are
correctly matched?
32. Among the following which one is the (a) 1 and 2 only
largest exporter of rice in the world in (b) 3 only
the last five years? [2019] (c) 3 and 4 only
(a) China (d) 1, 2 and 4 only
(b) India
(c) Myanmar
(d) Vietnam ANSWER KEY
1. (c) 2. (d) 3. (b) 4. (d) 5. (b) 6. (a) 7. (b) 8.
33. "The crop is subtropical in nature. A (a) 9. (a) 10. (a) 11. (b) 12. (d) 13. (a) 14. (d)
hard frost is injurious to it. It requires at 15. (a) 16. (b) 17. (a) 18. (c) 19. (b) 20. (a) 21.
least 210 frost -free days and 50 to 100 (b) 22. (d) 23. (a) 24. (a) 25. (c) 26. (c) 27.
centimeters of rainfall for its growth. (b) 28. (a) 29. (d) 30. (c) 31. (b) 32. (b) 33.
A light well -drained soil capable of (a) 34. (c)
retaining moisture is ideally suited for
231
REFERENCES
Image 2.6: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_
References o f _ c o u n t r i e s _ b y _ c o p p e r _ p ro d u c t i o n # /m e d i a /
File:2012copper_(mined).svg
https://ncert.nic.in/textbook/pdf
https://www.treasury.govt.nz/sites/default/files/2018-01/ Image 2.7: UNEP

twp00-12.pdf
Image 3.2
https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/content/ h t t p s : // w w w . n i o s . a c . i n / m e d i a /
d o c u m e n t s / 2 1 2 5 2 0 3 0 % 2 0A g e n d a % 2 0 f o r % 2 0
documents/333courseE/28B.pdf
Sustainable%20Development%20web.pdf
https://www.nationalgeographic.org/ Image 3.3

h t t p s : // w w w . n i o s . a c . i n / m e d i a /
https://nroer.gov.in/
Khullar- Physical, Human and Economic Geography/ Image 3.5

Economic Activities/Agriculture https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f0/
Oil_Reserves_Updated.png
https://www.downtoearth.org.in/
Image 3.8:
https://www.ers.usda.gov/ h t t p s : // w w w . n i o s . a c . i n / m e d i a /
https://www.theguardian.com/environment/
Image 3.9:
The Food and Agriculture Organization of the United h t t p s : // w w w . n i o s . a c . i n / m e d i a /
Nations/World Food and Agriculture/Statistical documents/333courseE/28B.pdf
Pocketbook 2019
Image 3.10
OECD/FAO (2019), “OECD-FAO Agricultural Outlook”,
OECD Agriculture statistics (database), http://dx.doi. https://unece.org/fileadmin/DAM/energy/se/pdfs/UNFC/
org/10.1787/agr-outl-data-en. UNFC_The_Role_of_Nuclear_Energy_in_Sustainable_
Development_Public_Comment/The_Role_of_Nuclear_
Energy_in_Sustainable_Development.pdf
Image References:
Image 1.1: NIOS Image 3.11:
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_countries_by_
Image 2.1: UNEP uranium_reserves
Image 2.3: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/ Image 3.12

commons/8/82/Simplified_world_mining_map_1.png https://unece.org/fileadmin/DAM/energy/se/pdfs/UNFC/
UNFC_The_Role_of_Nuclear_Energy_in_Sustainable_
Development_Public_Comment/The_Role_of_Nuclear_
Image 2.5: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bauxite#/ Energy_in_Sustainable_Development.pdf
media/File:2005bauxite.png
232
Image 3.13 Image 7.4:

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Growth_of_photovoltaics https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Temperate_broadleaf_
and_mixed_forests
Image 4.1:
Image 7.5: FAO
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/73/
HumanIntegratedWaterCycle_%282%29.jpg
Image 7.6: India state of forest report 2019
Image 4.2:
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/ Image 7.7:
thumb/5/58/Earth%27s_water_distribution.svg/800px- http://www.fao.org/redd/overview/en/
Earth%27s_water_distribution.svg.png193
Image 8.1
Image 4.3: NIOS
https://www.nationalgeographic.org/encyclopedia/
herding/
Image 4.4: World Bank
Image 8.2
Image 5.2: https://nroer.gov.in/55ab34ff81fccb4f1d806025/
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Law_of_the_sea file/57cff64b16b51c038dedce00
Image 5.3: Image 8.3

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrodialysis Khullar- Physical, Human and Economic Geography/
Economic Activities/Agriculture
https://www.downtoearth.org.in/news/agriculture/
Image 5.4: World Bank
govt-needs-to-address-policy-ambiguities-affecting-
shifting-cultivation-niti-aayog-61519
Image 6.1: FAO
Image 8.5
Image 6.2: FAO NCERT/Fundamental of Human Geography/Primary
Activities
Image 6.3:
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biodiversity_hotspot Image 8.6
https://nroer.gov.in/55ab34ff81fccb4f1d806025/
file/57cff65216b51c038dedce69
Image 6.4: NIOS
Image 8.7
Image 6.5: NIOS
https://www.ers.usda.gov/amber-waves/2017/april/
agricultural-recovery-in-russia-and-the-rise-of-its-
Image 7.1: Food and Agriculture Organization south/
Image 7.2: Image 8.8

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tropical_rainforest NCERT/Fundamental of Human Geography/Primary
Activities
Image 7.3:
Image 8.9
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mediterranean_forests,_
woodlands,_and_scrub#/media/File:Biome_map_12.svg Khullar- Physical, Human and Economic Geography/
233
Image 8.10 Image 14.1:

https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2019/ h t t p s : / / w w w . g o o g l e . c o m /
feb/12/nearly-a-fifth-of-eu-budget-goes-on-livestock- u r l ? s a = i & u r l = h t t p s % 3 A % 2 F % 2 Fe n . w i k i p e d i a .
farming-greenpeace org%2Fwiki%2FWorld_population&psig=AOvVaw2gL-
X4WohZID0zMqQEpggo&ust=1612200035776000&
source=images&cd=vfe&ved=0CAIQjRxqFwoTCLjs_
Image 8.11 aXXxu4CFQAAAAAdAAAAABAD
NCERT/Fundamental of Human Geography/Primary
Activities
Image 14.2:
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Demographic-
Image 8.12 TransitionOWID.png
Khullar- Physical, Human and Economic Geography/
Image 14.3:
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:World_population_
Image 8.13 (UN).svg
Image 14.4:
h t t p s : / / w w w . g o o g l e . c o m /
Image 8.14 u r l ? s a = i & u r l = h t t p s % 3 A % 2 F % 2 Fe n . w i k i p e d i a .
Khullar- Physical, Human and Economic Geography/ org%2Fwiki%2FDemography_of_the_United_
Image 15.2:
Image 8.15 https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2020/01/iom-global-
The Food and Agriculture Organization of the United migration-report-international-migrants-2020/
Nations/World Food and Agriculture/Statistical
Pocketbook 2019
Image 17.1:
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_Development_
Image 8.16 Index
Image 17.2:
Image 8.17
http://hdr.undp.org/en/content/gender-inequality-index-
Khullar- Physical, Human and Economic Geography/ gii
Image 18.1:
Image 11.10:
https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Urbanization
https://nroer.gov.in/55ab34ff81fccb4f1d806025/
file/57cff4b716b51c038dedc281
Image 18.2:
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Urbanisation_in_India
234
AUTHOR'S NOTE
This book tries to exhaustively cover the complete syllabus of UPSC CSE Preliminary &
Mains examination in an integrated approach for “Human and Economic Geography”.
The purpose is to enable the learners to correctly approach and solve the questions
asked and thereby achieve top ranks in UPSC CSE Examination.
Despite being exhaustive, we have tried to be as precise and accurate as we can to

supplement your smart study. We have tried to include recent events within and outside
India relevant for the CSE examination and present it in a manner in which UPSC
examination demands. The current issues have been linked with the static portion of the
syllabus (wherever possible) so as to develop a better understanding and have a better
grasp over the subject. The aim is to ensure that learners develop a knack of identifying
important subjects and topics from newspapers and magazines thereby saving their
precious time that usually gets wasted in reading the irrelevant stuff.
All this will not only prepare learners for the examination but also give a better
understanding of events happening around us in the society, polity, economy, global
affairs and prepare them for the challenges that they will have to tackle after clearing
the examination.
However, there is always scope for further improvement. It may so happen that learners
might have some suggestions about further improving the quality of the book. Such
suggestions would not only help us in assisting better but also the future learners to
do well. Any such suggestions would be welcome and can be communicated at
upscnotessuggestions@unacademy.com
Mayur Kale, Jayam Chandra, Suraj Singh, Yogesh Joshi have contributed to the creation
of the content in the book. With their profound experience in the field of UPSC and in
the field, they were responsible for selection of topics, content creation and editing of
the content in the notes.
We wish you all the success in your efforts towards UPSC CSE Examination.
Team UNACADEMY
UPSC | Human and Economic Geography
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139 161 166

178 197 205

209 214 224

About Economic on surveys of natural resources, the

geography and railways, land use planning in

• With respect to the first major approach » Geography of Resources.

with no distinct paradigm, animals like worms (recycle nutrients

About Resources dispersers of plants.

• Resources are the basis of all the

time. Natural resources form the

Renewability Origin Utility

Renewable Non Renewable Cyclic

Energy Raw Material

Non Replenishable Replenishable

sources is a major problem. Similar of people in valuable resource.

Introduction minerals and metals encompass a very

• In the absence of mineral resources infrastructure projects. Approximately

Metallics Non-Metallics (do

I m a g e 2.3: G l o b a l D i s tri b u ti o n of Mines

Asia • Most ores were found in the region

in Brazil. Birmingham and Red Mountain

Important Iron Ore Belt in India:

Important Iron Ore Belt Description

I m a g e 2.5: D i s tri b u ti o n of Iron Ore in I n di a

Manganese Gabon, Kazakhstan and India.

in Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, of metals such as iron, with extreme

I m a g e 2.6: D i s tri b u ti o n of Iron, Copper, and B a u x it e

• The bauxite deposits in India are mainly

Copper comprise a small percentage of the

Some of the other important mineral and related information

Name of the Mineral Related information

Lead • Valuable mineral, due to its features like

• It is made up of a various type of plates

• Precious metal which occurs in alluvial

mineral resources will continue to

on Environment severe and enduring impacts of mining

damage as well as posing a risk to problems and have adverse human

• Social disharmony because of growing • The health-related problems because

• Forced eviction or relocation of local Sustainable Use of

• Effective governance of the mining • Governments across the world, need to

Sources of Energy Renewable, Cheap,

Coal • Formation of Coal

Coals are classified as

• Canada: Prairie region – Alberta

• Asia: » Brazil: Santa Caterine and Rio Grande

I m a g e 3.4: C o n v e n ti o n a l E n e r g y resources in I n di a S o u r c e : N ROER

• Jharkhand ranks highest in production • Technology to generate energy from

underground coal mines. » Under these conditions marine biomass

Petroleum • It provides fuel for heat and lighting,

I m a g e 3.5: D i s tri b u ti o n of Mineral Oil i n wo r l d

• OPEC (Organization of the

• Conditions Necessary for Developing

(significant There are some important conditions

− Narrow steep-sided valley to technology for production of

Distribution of Hydel-Power: • Commonwealth of Independent

− Development of hydroelectric renewable. (Previously, just smaller

Name of the state/UT Hydroelectric Plants

» Some of the regions of China and • South America:

• Africa: » Kafue River, Kariba Dam: Zambia;

Disadvantages of transmitted over long distance.

huge amounts of energy. » Nuclear Fission: In this process, the

• Use of Thorium: Nuclear energy, military has a high melting point.