Chapter II

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

Teaching Biology

Contextual teaching of biology includes educators going beyond

traditional repertoires to employ a broad variety of teaching, including more

cooperative learning centered on students. Advanced biology teaching has been

criticized for lack of variation in practical laboratory job, failure to provide

sufficient possibilities for field research, ineffective use of ICT and delay in

development in research in the subject and teaching (Braund, Bennett,

Hampden-Thompson & Main, 2013)

Teaching quality, on the other hand, is defined as the properties of efficient

teaching and is considered to be the criteria used to measure teaching quality

both in general and specific to a field. Research shows that, avoiding the use of

various methods, using effective teaching materials and employing strict

classroom management in biology teaching with the study group heavily

increased the number of concepts communicated and whereas problems in

classroom management and classroom atmosphere reduced the concept, thus

influencing cognitive structure in a negative way. Moreover, asking deepening

questions and evaluative feedback affected the cognitive structure in a positive

way (Tasci, 2015).

 However, in the Philippines, the huge number of students flocking into
public

high schools each year demands a number of specialized teachers as well.

However, more often than not, very few education graduates major in biology, or

even science, for that matter. Hence, teachers with other major fields are forced

by circumstances to teach biology. And worse, as pointed out by the workshop

participants, some biology majors could not teach biology because they had

previously been assigned to teach other courses, and any alteration would do

more harm than good to class schedules, at least from the standpoint of

management (Buot, 2008).

Further, the expert assessment of the knowledge base of educators in

Ilocos Norte stated that the knowledge of educators (65 percent) is smaller than

the minimum (75 percent) suggested by ABD-el-Khalick and Boujaoude (1997).

The specialists therefore think that the teachers ' content understanding is hardly

sufficient for their task of learning. In addition, the educators in this research do

not use real life situ systematically (Barquilla, 2018).

Science Technology Engineering and Mathematics (STEM) Strand

The STEM strand is for the Senior High School students who are inclined

toward or have the aptitude for Math or Science or Engineering studies (DepEd

Order No. 51, s.

2015). The subjects to be taken by the STEM students are Pre-Calculus, Basic

Calculus, General Biology 1 &2, General Physics 1 & 2, and Chemistry 1&2

among others (DepEd, 2015).

 A number of studies suggest that a focused and aligned K to 12

curricula facilitates learning in STEM subjects. Because these subjects typically

are based on hierarchical structures that rely on prior learning to determine

future understanding, the absence of focused and aligned curricula may

prevent mastery. Research also shows a clear link between what students are

expected to learn and actual math learning: greater achievement is associated

with covering fewer topics in greater depth. (Smart-STEM Brief, n.d.)

However, employers in many industries lament that job applicants lack the

needed mathematics, computer, and problem-solving skills to succeed, and

international students fill an increasing portion of elite STEM positions in the

United States. Indeed, in 2007, “international students constituted more than a

third of the students in U.S. science and engineering graduate schools,” and

more than 70 percent of those students currently remain in the United States after

earning their degrees. However, an increasing number of foreign students are

finding viable career options in their home countries thereby, limiting the talent

pool available to U.S. employers (National Research Council, 2011).

 In order to achieve the effectiveness of STEM education in the United

States, they are working on the achievement of three goals. These include: (1)

expand the number of students who ultimately pursue advanced degrees and

careers in STEM fields and

broaden the participation of women and minorities in those fields; (2) expand the

STEM- capable workforce and broaden the participation of women and minorities

in that workforce; and, (3) increase STEM literacy for all students, including

those who do not pursue STEM-related careers or additional study in the STEM

disciplines (National Research Council, 2011).

On the other hand, the criteria set in determining the success of STEM

schools include (1) student STEM outcomes; (2) STEM- Focus school type; (3)

STEM Instruction and School Practices. Moreover, Wang (2012) conducted

research which aimed to explore teachers' perceptions and classroom practices

in order to set up the baseline for STEM integration and professional

development best practices in science education. Findings from the study

provide critical data for making an informed decision about the direction of

STEM integration in science education in K-12.

Profile of Schools Offering STEM

Number of Students who prefer to Enroll in STEM Strand. Kingsbury

(2010) explored on the perception of male and female traditional and

nontraditional students to understand why females are underrepresented and not

retained at the same level as males in science, technology, engineering and

mathematics (STEM) courses at the University of Dakota. Two significant

differences were found: (a) females viewed themselves as less prepared for

science, technology, engineering and mathematics courses than did male

students, (b) females were more in favor of the costs of peer tutoring than were

male students. These findings support Merton‟s Self-fulfilling Prophecy Theory.

Female students perceived themselves as less prepared for science, technology,

engineering, or mathematics course than male students, and this perception has

become a reality since female students were not retained at the same level as

male students in STEM courses.

In Sorsogon State College, although an admission test had been

administered to qualify STEM Students, this was done only for students who

were junior high school

completers from other schools excluding the students of SSC Laboratory Junior

High School. Since total absorption of junior high school completers was applied

and no qualifying test was conducted to screen this group of students, 67 out of 178

or 37.64 % of the total number of enrollees were accepted in the Science,

Technology, Engineering and Mathematics (STEM) Track of the school. It is also

possible that these unscreened students do not have Investigative remarks in their

NCAE results which must be the primary consideration in choosing the STEM Track

in career plotting. Because of these reasons, it was not a surprise that most of

these students got lower grades in core mathematics subjects namely Pre-

Calculus, Basic Calculus, General Mathematics, and Probability and Statistics

(Estonanto, 2017).

Faculty Qualifications and Training. In the Philippines, the recipients of RA

10612 are required to teach full-time high school subject(s) in Mathematics,

Biology, Chemistry, or Physics; or Information Technology or Agricultural,

Aquaculture or Fisheries Technology both in the university and technical-

vocational tracks in the secondary education curriculum, for a minimum of two (2)

years in public or private high schools (RA 10612, Section 2).

Other STEM graduates and professionals may also apply to teach

science, mathematics or technology subjects in public and private high schools.

Applicant should: (a) be a Filipino citizen; (b) have graduated with a science,

technology, engineering or mathematics degree with a general weighted average

(GWA) of eighty-three percent (83%) or better from a reputable university; (c ) be

at least forty (40) years of age at the time of the application; (d) not have a

service obligation under another program in conflict of DOST-SEI obligations (RA

10612, Section 13).

 The role of professionally qualified/trained teachers is an important

teacher quality that enhances students' academic achievement in biology,

teaching methods adopted by the teachers significantly influence the

achievement of the behavior objectives ( Akinfe, Olofinniyi & Fashiku, 2012).

Several schools in Ondo State which belong to the population of the study

lacked modern instructional materials without which effective teaching and

learning cannot be utilized and teachers‟ experience significantly influence

students‟ academic performance; capacity building forms a major aspect of

teachers‟ experience that is yet to be given adequate attention( Akinfe,

Olofinniyi & Fashiku, 2012).

In the Philippines, the Commission on Higher Education (CHED) is

developing teacher training modules that equip educators to teach college-

readiness skills and independent thinking. These retooling modules highlight the

potential of senior high school to prepare learners to pursue higher education

and lifelong learning. The modules will train teachers to (a) develop lessons and

objectives in line with learner-centered and outcome-based education; (b)

contextualize their resources and lessons to fit the profile of their students and

the environment in which they are teaching; (c ) be sensitive to teenage

development (including gender identity, and character); (d) create appropriate

assessments and give useful feedback to students; (e) gather and properly use

student feedback to improve their own teaching; and, (f) critically use research,

information and technology in the classroom (CHED, 2015).

Meanwhile, in STEM schools in the United States, teachers who teach in

STEM schools are provided regularly scheduled professional development

activities that focus on STEM content and pedagogy. Teachers provide

leadership in the development and

delivery of the professional development and delivery of professional

development activities (Scott, 2009).

In the study conducted by Romine, Barnett, Friedrichsen, and Sickel

(2014) it was found out that, factors related to support, confidence, and prior

evolution coursework

play an important role in the types of professional development that biology

teachers need. The successful implementation of professional development

programs must start with understanding participant‟s prior experience and

perceptions about the topic of evolution and its implementation in the biology

classroom.

Imogie (2007, as cited by Akinfe, Olofinniyi and Fashiku , 2012), posited

that teachers post- teacher training is aimed at the acquisition of special skills

and experience that will enhance quality service delivery which in turn has a

direct impact on the students' achievement. This was supported by Ogbe and

Omenka (2017) who suggested that teachers should be subsidized by the

government to attend workshops and seminars, vocational courses and

conferences to be educated on the latest advancement in their subject areas.

Instructional Materials. To complement efforts of the Department of

Education, CHED is pooling together broad coalition of experienced faculty from

various colleges and universities around the country to develop teaching guides

that will provide senior high school teachers with teaching strategies, guide

questions and curated references that will aid them in teaching these new

subjects in the basic education curriculum (CHED,

2015).
 In the study conducted by Akinfe, Olofinniyi, and Fashiku (2012), it was

found out that teachers‟ use of instructional materials in teaching is paramount

to students‟ improvement in academic performance.

Ogbe and Omenka (2017) explained that the utilization and production of

biology resource material resources would help to enhance the teaching and

learning of Science and Mathematics if the teachers who are the implementers of

the curriculum engage themselves in proper utilization and improvisation of

material used.
 In Nueva Viscaya, the students thought that teachers use all kinds of instructional

materials from time to time while the teachers perceived themselves to habitually

use all kinds of instructional materials. Both teachers and students viewed that

teachers remarkably consider the characteristics of the different instructional

materials when utilizing them in the teaching-learning process. The teachers

consider the age and year level of their students as well as their attendance to

relevant seminars when using different kinds of instructional materials in facilitating

learning. Additionally, the students‟ age and gender contribute to the teachers‟

effective use of instructional materials with consideration to their characteristics

(Tominez, Dela Cruz & Gabatino,

2013).

Laboratory Facilities. The large yearly increment of students exhausts the

already meager resources available to our country's national high schools. It is

discouraging on the part of high school biology teachers to see 10 to 20, or even

more students, manipulating a single light microscope in a very cramped

classroom. Some teachers opt to forego the inconvenience of such an activity,

and simply discuss what the students are

supposed to see or expect. As a result, students are not exposed to important

psychomotor skills that should have been developed, such as the proper use and

operation of the microscope, thermometer or balance, among others .

Consequently, students become withdrawn and less interactive (Buot, 2008).

In Laoag City, students revealed in the interview that doing laboratory

activities make them work and discover things on their own, enhance their skills,

don‟t limit their explorations, make them feel excited and very eager, let them

discover a lot about things,

and create in them a deeper sense of learning whenever they perform. Students

generally prefer structured (steps are given) and actual (handson) lab activities

using commercial and improvised materials and done collaboratively or by group.

Besides strictly observing lab rules and guidelines, students highly prefer

separate laboratory rooms per Science subject, a laboratory room with a

laboratory assistant and complete with essential

features. Teachers who are, above all, personally intelligent, buoyant, fair,

approachable, innovative, and who technically facilitate during experiments, give

well-planned activities, are organized and orderly are also preferred. Correlation

tests showed that students‟ grade in Science is not significantly correlated to

their interest in laboratory activities but it is significantly correlated to the type of

laboratory activities. Students‟ interest in laboratory activities is significantly

correlated to their laboratory teacher characteristics (Antonio, 2018).

Preliminary results from a survey done by Raymond Pingol from the

VISSER project show that only around 20% of high schools have laboratories

with non-traditional “modern” equipment. Unfortunately, these “modern”

equipment are typically no more than the combination of a computer and an LCD

projector. The lack of science education facilities is reflected on the poor quality

of basic science and math education seen by the low achievement scores of

Filipino students in various tests. The passing rate for the national achievement

test (NAT) for grade 6 is only 69.21%. This was already a 24% improvement

compared to the 2005-2006 passing rate but is still below the passing rate

of 75% (The Manila Times, 2014).

 The use of design- and-develop biology laboratory kit resources are

effective and can improve participants‟ scores. Concepts developed among

participants include reproduction and genetics and science experimental skills

such as observation, classification, inference, prediction, comparison and

interpretation skill. Thus, the kit is recommended for use and it is hoped that the

developed-and-tested laboratory kit can be used in more rural schools to

contribute to enhancing students‟ laboratory skills and the acquisition of

scientific knowledge at the same time. A further comparison of participants‟

results in the 2010 National Achievement Test Results between the

experimental and control group could help determine the extent of the

effectiveness of the kit. The use of the laboratory kit could be promoted in urban

schools as well ( Garabato & Barquilla, 2012).

In Western Visayas, results of the study revealed that the National

Achievement Test mean percentage score of the students for the last three

years had an irregular trend and majority of students‟ participation in science-

related activities was in the regional level. There was a high extent of

implementation along the areas of curriculum and instruction and administrative

support. The common problem encountered by teachers was the lack of

laboratory facilities that were described insufficient while the library resources

were sufficient (Bangcaya & Alejandro, 2015).

Science laboratory is a critical variable in determining the quality of output

from secondary schools. It has a significant relationship with quality of output

from secondary schools (Orbe, 2018).