Hydropower - Chapt 30 - 230823 - 112050

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3.0 PLANNING AND LAYOUT OF HYDROPOWER PROJECTS

Hydropower Planning:
• Hydropower planning is an initial stage of work of hydropower
development.
• It mainly involves the estimation of present demand, forecasting
for future and generation of alternative energy sources available
within the country and combination of them to meet the
demand.
• In Nepal, there is huge hydropower potential and small % of it is
utilized to date.
• The generation planning of hydropower projects involve the
following factors:
o Load forecasting based on different economic growth
scenario of the country, future industrial development plan
and other factors.
o Generation planning to meet the future demand, which is
based on the least cost generation expansion plan.
Er. Jagarnath Shah_Chapter 3.0
o Generation Planning is done considering the following factors:

➢ Load centre: HPP near the major load centre should be given
high priority, which results low cost for transmission line
development and reduces other cost due to accessibility.
➢ Regional balance: HPP should be planned based on regional
balance, which results balanced regional development
because HP development opens other development
activities.
➢ Available infrastructure: HPP having infrastructures such as
transmission line, road access etc. should be given first
priority, because it reduces project cost.
➢ Cheaper project: the HPP having lower cost should be given
first priority.
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Investigation of Hydropower Projects:

• In hydropower project, a detailed study and investigation is must
because of following reasons:
o HPP is capital intensive project and hence reliable and detailed
investigation should be carried out to confirm non-risk (safe)
investment.
o To minimize the risks such as hydrological risk, geological risk,
financial risk, environmental and socio-economical risk etc.
o It is associated with large no. of structures from intake to power
house and it has long gestation period.
o One HPP of same capacity is also different from other HPP with
same capacity due to variation in topography, geology, hydrology,
socio-economic condition, layout etc. So, detailed study on those
variations is must.
o To convince and assure the financial supporting party and banks
for loan. Er. Jagarnath Shah_Chapter 3.0
Cycle of Hydropower Development:

• Hydropower development cycle consists of three main parts:
1. Pre-construction phase
2. Implementation phase
3. Operation phase
Pre-Construction phase:
o It covers major part of investigations, planning and design.
o It is organized in several consecutive studies:
i. Reconnaissance study
ii. Pre-feasibility study
iii. Feasibility study
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Implementation phase:
o It covers engineering and construction of the projects.
o It consists the following activities:
i. Design and procurement:
a. definite plan study
b. final design
c. tender/contract document
d. tendering and contracting
ii. Detailed design and working drawings
a. Detailed design and preparation of working drawings for civil,
structural and transmission works.
b. Detailed design and preparation of working drawings for
electro-mechanical Er.and hydro-mechanical equipments.
Jagarnath Shah_Chapter 3.0
iii. Construction of Civil, structural and transmission works

iv. Manufacture and erection of electro-mechanical and hydro-
mechanical equipments
v. Testing and Commissioning
Operation phase:
o The HPP starts for revenue generation and research and
training works shall be carried out in parallel to the
operation of the project.
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Site selection for hydropower projects:
• Selecting a suitable site is crucial for the success of hydropower

project.
• Many factors need to be considered but data on flow and
topography provide the base for establishing the suitability as
well as power generation capabilities of proposed sites.
• The data on geology, seismic condition and sediment are
needed for the planning and design of layout and structures.
Requirements for ideal site selection of hydropower projects:

1. Topo-sheet (Map study):
o From the topo-sheet, topographic variation of site can be determined and it
will become easy to locate the sites.
o It gives tentative head available, approximate length of tunnel etc.
2. Hydrological data:
o Hydrological data are required to estimate the flow in different season.
o Without record of any hydrological data, power to be produced cannot be
estimated.
3. Geological map:
o The ideal site of power plant should have sound geological condition i.e.
stable, free from landslides, no fault zones, hard rocky crack free area.
o From geological map, we can collect the information regarding geological
condition. Er. Jagarnath Shah_Chapter 3.0
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4. Land use map:
o From land use map, we can estimate the number of people to be displaced,
submerged area of village, fertile land etc. and to estimate compensation to
resettle to another place.
5. Stability:
o The site should be stable.
6. Accessibility:
o The intake and power house should be easily accessible.
o It makes economy in transportation of construction materials, equipments

and manpower.
7. Distance to load dispatch centre:
o If the site is near to load centre, it will reduce the cost of transmission line
works and also reduce the power losses during transmission.
8. Morphological study:
o Data of sediment transportation and river characteristics help to draw rating

curve for the sediment concentration against the discharge.
o It evaluates the volume and characteristics of sediment transportation

including particle size distribution, petro graphic (hardness) analysis to
determine the hardness of particle, particle size and nature of material
entering the power waterways.
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Phases (Stages) of hydropower project selection or Project studies:

1. Reconnaissance study:
o It is the first step of project oriented planning and is of
preliminary nature.
o The main objective of reconnaissance studies are:
a. To identify suitable projects for the stated purpose
b. To investigate and study the various projects and project
alternatives to the confidence level required
c. To compare the candidate projects with other projects and
formulate the best suited project.
d. To record lower ranked projects and project alternatives for
future reference
e. To provide preliminary cost
f. To record, screen and rank
Er. Jagarnath the project
Shah_Chapter 3.0 alternatives
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Steps and major activities in reconnaissance study:

i. Project identification
ii. Data collection- power market, topographical map, aerial map,
land use map, geological map, hydrological map, geo-technical
engg, environment and socio-economic data etc. (data may be
from secondary sources)
iii. Desk study- tentative layout of the project, discharge, storage,
head, regulation works, installed capacity, power demand,
location of all possible sites on geographical map etc. (data may
be secondary data)
iv. Field work and design: Field visit to verify layout and other
during desk studies, attention to care of the river, re-selection
of suitable sites with alternatives etc.
v. Preliminary Cost Estimates and Implementation Schedules:
based on reconnaissance level of study, preliminary estimate
and implementation schedules are prepared.
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vi. Environmental and Social studies: by screening, determine

whether project requires IEE or EIA based on legal requirements
is identified as per analysis of secondary data.
vii. Economic assessment: involves simple economic analysis such
as unit cost of installed power and unit cost of annual
generation capability of alternatives to compare and ranking
the projects.
viii. Reconnaissance study report: conclude with a statement on the
viability and suitability of the project. It recommends the
planner’s opinion, soundness and reliability of the investigation
with tentative implementation schedule.
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2. Pre-feasibility study (Preliminary study):

• It is the second step in hydropower investigation and planning.
• It provides the basis for formulating overall plans for basin
development.
• The main purpose of pre-feasibility study are:
a. establish the need and justification for the project
b. formulate a plan for developing the project
c. determine technical, economical and environmental concern of the
project
d. define the limitations of the project
e. ascertain local interest in and desire for the project
f. make recommendation for further action
g. select and appraise possible projects for further consideration
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Steps and major activities in pre-feasibility study:

i. Data collection- hydrological data, meteorological data, geological
data and map, correlation of hydrological data to head works site,
topographical map, sediment data, environmental data, socio-
economic data, walk over survey along the project alignment etc.
ii. Desk study review: Reconnaissance study reports shall be
reviewed and verified.
iii. Field work and design: Topographic survey, geological survey
(through surface explorations), hydrological study - correlation up
to head works site, preliminary hydraulic calculation using thumb
rules, HPP components sizing, preliminary Cost estimate.
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iv. Financial analysis: Calculation of cost per KW, FIRR, pay-back

period etc. based on preliminary component size and preliminary
cost estimate.
v. Environmental and Social studies: determine whether project
requires IEE or EIA as per analysis of data, ToR shall be prepared
for IEE, ToR and scoping of works shall be carried out for EIA, field
visit to affected area and identify the potential social issues from
the project.
vi. Pre-feasibility study report: report should close with firm
statement on the suitability of the project in development
context and recommendation for further actions.
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3. Feasibility study (Final Investigation):

o It is a comprehensive analysis and detailed study of the
considered project, directed towards its ultimate authorization,
financing, design and construction.
o It is carried out to determine the technical, economical and
environmental feasibility of the project.
o This report will provide the necessary information from which the
owners can decide whether or not to go for implementation of
the project.
o It will also provide a basis for appropriation of funds and for
negotiation of loans from financing institutions for design and
construction of the project.
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o It also serves as application documentation for the development

license.
o This investigation includes:
a. Estimate of net economic value to be produced
b. Estimate of cost of development and construction
c. Estimate of cost of operation and maintenance and
replacements
d. Assessment of environmental impacts and cost of mitigation
measures
e. Extent and detail of engg surveys, geological explorations,
design and estimate of cost
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Steps and major activities in feasibility study:

i. Data Collection:
o Supplementary general data and information
o Hydrological data- from the established gauging stations
o Topography - supplementary survey if necessary
o Geology and Geotechnical engineering
o Environment and Socio-economy - detailed environment and socio-
economic data from social survey
ii. Review of desk study and pre-feasibility study:
o Review reconnaissance study report, pre-feasibility study report
and other relevant study report relevant to the project.
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iii. Field work and design:

o Field visit for layout of proposed project layout during pre-
feasibility study
o Field visit for additional survey
o Field visit for geological data collection, pit sampling in foundation
of dam and power house area, ERT survey etc.
o Hydrological data- establishment of gauging stations at head works
and power house site and reliability of hydrological characteristics
o Detailed investigation for structure locations
o Optimization of installed capacity
o Hydraulic Design of each component, component optimization
o Submergence area under full supply level
o Length of transmission line
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iv. Detail Cost estimate and implementation schedules:

o Detailed cost estimate
o Detailed implementation schedule and planning
v. Environmental and Social studies:
o Detailed IEE or EIA report shall be prepared: landslide, stability,
dust, noise, re-settlement, ecology (wild life, aquatic life, and d/s
effect), water right etc.
o Consultation with stakeholders (public hearing in case of EIA)
o Environmental management/mitigation plan
o Building harmony with project affected family for smooth
execution of the project.
vi. Economic assessment and Financial evaluation:
o Financial evaluation
o Sensitivity analysis
o FIRR (Financial IRR), B/C ratio, NPV calculation
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vii. Feasibility study report (or DPR):
o Sometimes, it is also called detailed project report (DPR)
o It is a bankable document.
o It is necessary for PPA (Power purchase agreement) of the project,

financial closure and other requirement of DoED (department of
electricity development)
o Comprehensive feasibility study report is must for getting

generation license.
viii. Consists of:
a. Feasibility study report,
b. conclusion and recommendation for further action.
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4. Definite plan study:

i. Detailed field investigation-hydrological analysis update,
sediment analysis update
ii. Review of feasibility study
iii. Hydraulic modeling
iv. Definite plans
v. Final design of schemes and tender drawing
vi. Specifications and BOQ
vii. Tender and contract documents, civil engineering works,
electromechanical works, transmission works.
viii. Construction schedule
ix. Financing plans
x. Definite plan study report, design report
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5. Tendering/contracting and construction:

Tendering/contracting:
i. Tender administration
ii. Prequalification of tender
iii. Tendering
iv. Tender evaluation
v. Contract negotiation
vi. Contracts for work and supply
Construction:
Consultant – Owner Contractor – supplier
i. Contract management i. Civil engineering work
ii. Detail design and working drawing ii. Hydraulic steel work
iii. Material control iii. Mechanical equipment
iv. Construction management iv. Electrical equipment
v. Site management and construction v. Transmission line
Supervision vi. Engineering details
vii. Erection and testing
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Operation:
• Operation and maintenance by owner
• Power generation facilities, dams, waterways
• Transmission lines and sub stations
• Revenue generation
• Research and training works shall be done parallel to operation of
plants
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Flow duration curve (FDC):

• It is the plot of flow vs % of time that particular flow can be expected to
exceeded or the % of time it will be available.
• It is the graphical representation of the runoff which relates flow rate with
duration.
• It is the graph plotted with flow or discharge along y-axis and frequency of
occurrence or probability of exceedence as % of time on the x-axis.
• FDC are used in assessing the dependability of the discharge and
corresponding power in the ROR plants with or without pondage e.g. flow
available for 75% of time has 75% dependability.
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Effect of time in FDC:

• Daily flow duration curve is more accurate than monthly FDC.
Q Daily Q Without pondage
Monthly With pondage
% of time % of time
Effect of storage in FDC:

• The effect of storage is to rise the dry weather flow (DWF).
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Uses of flow duration curve:

a. FDC is useful in planning and design of water resources projects.
b. FDC is generally used to determine the installed capacity, firm energy
and secondary energy that can be produced from hydropower projects.
c. FDC can be converted into cumulative sediment transport curve by
multiplying each flow rate by its rate of sediment transport from which
total amount of sediment transported can be determined.
d. FDC can be used in the design of drainage systems and in flood control
studies.
e. FDC provides the description of runoff variability in the stream.
f. FDC is generally used in calculating the dependable power in ROR plants
without pondage.
g. FDC is used to plot the power duration curve by multiplying the ordinate
of FDC with constant valueEr. equivalent to 3.0
Jagarnath Shah_Chapter 9.81QH of the power project.
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Power duration curve (PDC)/Load duration curve (LDC):

• A curve connecting the ordinate of a load curve arranged in order
of magnitude. The curve shows the duration of each magnitude of
load.
• It is a graph between load or power along y-axis and % of time
along x-axis.
• It may be constructed for any duration of time.
• FDC can be converted into PDC.
Uses of power duration curve:

• It is used to calculate firm and
secondary energy of hydropower
projects.
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Mass curve and its application:

• It is the cumulative volume time curve.
• It is the method of graphical representation of the stream flow and is obtained
from hydrograph.
• Slope of mass curve at any point denotes the rate of inflow (Q) at that instant.
• Since Q cannot be negative, mass curve of runoff is always a rising curve. The
curve is horizontal when there is cessation of inflow (i.e. flow is zero).
• Steep rise in a curve indicates high flow.
• It is a useful tool in calculating the storage capacity of a reservoir or the safe
yield from a reservoir of given capacity.
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Application of mass curve:

1. Estimation of storage capacity of reservoir for a given demand:
Procedure:
i. For estimation of storage capacity of reservoir, mass curve of inflow is first
plotted.
ii. Mass curve of demand is also plotted.
o For a constant rate of withdrawl from the reservoir, the mass curve of
demand will be a straight line having a slope equal to demand rate.
iii. From the peak such as P and Q of the
mass curve, tangents PA and QB are
drawn such that they are parallel to
demand line.
iii. The maximum vertical ordinate
between the mass curve and parallel
to demand line gives the storage
capacity needed.
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2. Fixing the yield from the reservoir of a given capacity:

Procedure:
i. Tangents are drawn from the peaks such as P and Q in such a way that the
maximum vertical distance of any tangent from the mass curve is equal to the
reservoir capacity.
ii. The slope of these tangents thus gives the safe yield for that period.
iii. The line of the flattest slope represents the safe yield from the reservoir.
S1
S2
Safe yield = slope S2, since

Er. Jagarnath Shah_Chapter 3.0 S2 is flatter than S1
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Energy flow diagrams:

• The water needs to flow from headworks to the power house and
then to the tailrace through water conveyance system designed
for the hydropower projects.
• The energy of the flowing water in the water conveyance system
can be represented in terms of hydraulic are potential head,
pressure head and velocity head.
PE: Potential Energy

KE: Kinetic Energy
ME: Mechanical Energy
EE: Electrical Energy
• The diagram showing the energy of flowing fluid in different parts

of the conveyance system or channels and pipes are called energy
flow diagram. Er. Jagarnath Shah_Chapter 3.0
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• The water in the reservoir or in the forebay has pressure energy.

When it is conveyed through tunnel or penstock, it is converted in
the combined form of pressure and kinetic energy.
• The water strikes with kinetic energy ejecting from nozzle to the
runner of impulse turbine and rotates the runner producing
mechanical energy. In case of reaction turbine, the water strikes
the turbine in the combined form of pressure and kinetic energy
and produces the mechanical energy.
• The mechanical energy generates the electrical energy by
coupling the generator with turbine.
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Estimation of hydropower potential in a river:

Consider a river channel and section 1-1 on u/s of dam site and section 2-2 on d/s
of turbine axis.
Applying Bernoulli’s equation between section 1-1 1nd 2-2, neglecting head loss hL,
we get
Z1 + p1/γ + v12/2g = Z2 + p2/γ + v22/2g
Where, γ = unit weight of water
Z1 + p1/γ + 0 = Z2 + p2/γ + v22/2g
= 1000 kg/m³
(Z1 + p1/γ) – (Z2 + p2/γ) = v22/2g
H = v22/2g
v2 = √(2gH) 1 2
V1²/2g hʟ
P1/γ
V2²/2g
Q
P2/γ
Z1
Datum Z2
1 2
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K.E. at section 2-2 = ½ mv2 = ½ (ρ V) (√2gH)2

Or, E = γ.V.H
Where, H = difference between water level at u/s and d/s.
= (Z₁+h₁) - (Z₂+h₂)
Power potential or installed capacity,
P = E/T = (γ.V.H)/T
Or, P = γ. (V/T) .H
Or, P = γ.Q.H m kg/sec
P = 1000.Q.H/75 = 13.33 QH hp
Or, P = 13.33 x 0.736 QH KW
Theoretical power potential, P = 9.81 QH KW
Practical power potential, P = 9.81 ηQH KW
E = P. T = (9.81 ηQHT)/(60x60) KWh
E = 9.81 η(QT)H/3600 KWh
E = VH/367 KWh
Where, η = ηo = overall efficiency
η = ηc x ηt x ηg x ηtr
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Estimation of hydropower potential in a river:

Alternatively, 1 2
Energy at section 1-1 and 2-2
E₁ = (Z₁ + h₁ + v₁²/2g).γ.V V1²/2g hʟ
E₂ = (Z₂ + h₂ + v₂²/2g).γ.V P1/γ
V2²/2g
Q
Available energy, E = E₁ - E₂ P2/γ
Or, E = [(Z₁+h₁+v₁²/2g) - (Z₂+h₂+v₂²/2g)].γ.V Z1
Datum Z2
Or, E = [(Z₁+h₁) - (Z₂+h₂) + (v₁²- v₂²)/2g]. γ.V 1 2
Neglecting velocity head,
Or, E = H. γ.V
Or, E = γ.V.H
Where, H = difference between water level at u/s and d/s.
= (Z₁+h₁) - (Z₂+h₂)
Power potential or installed capacity,
P = E/T = (γ.V.H)/T Where, γ = unit weight of water
Or, P = γ. (V/T) .H = 1000 kg/m³
Or, P = γ.Q.H m kg/sec
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Or, P = 1000.Q.H/75 = 13.33 QH hp

Or, P = 13.33 x 0.736 QH KW
Theoretical power potential, P = 9.81 QH KW
Practical power potential, P = 9.81 ηQH KW
E = P. T = (9.81 ηQHT)/(60x60) KWh

E = 9.81 η(QT)H/3600 KWh
E = VH/367 KWh
Practically it is not possible to produce P = γ.Q.H because:
i. Discharge of any river varies over a wide range, high discharge are
available only for short duration in a year.
ii. There is head loss in power canal, tunnel etc.
iii. Efficiency of mechanical installation.

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Best installed capacity and its estimation:

• It is the capacity of the plant at which the marginal cost is equal to the marginal
benefit.
Let x be the % of time corresponding to best installed capacity.
Consider unit installed capacity:
Let energy price = R per Kwh
Energy for x% of time =1*(x/100)*365*24 hrs
Annual benefit = 1*(x/100)*365*24*R ------------------------ (1)
Electro-mechanical installation cost = C per Kw
Annual operation and maintenance cost = P% of investment
Bank interest rate = i
Project life = n years
C (1+i)ᵑ * i
Annual installation cost = ---------------
(1+i)ᵑ - 1
C (1+i)ᵑ * i P
Total annual cost = --------------- + ------- ---------------------- (2)
(1+i)ᵑ - 1 100
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Equating (1) and (2) i.e. cost and benefit,

C (1+i)ᵑ * i P x P,
Kw
--------------- + ------- = ------ *365*24*R
(1+i)ᵑ - 1 100 100
Find the value of x Best

installed
Power corresponding to x% of time is equal capacity
to the best installed capacity.
x % of time
Power Estimation:
• Following steps should be followed for estimation of power:
i. Draw flow duration curve (FDC)
ii. Draw Power duration curve (PDC)
iii. Determine best installed capacity (BIC)
iv. Determine firm power and secondary power.
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Power demand and its prediction:

The power prediction or load prediction or load forecasting may be done
either for:
i. Short term forecasting
: covers a period of 4-5 years,
: is done for the areas of deficit or surplus power for operation planning.
ii. Medium term forecasting

: covers a period of 8-10 years
: is the basis for the expansion programme of power generation-
transmission facilities.
iii. Long term forecasting

: covers a period of about 20 years or more.
: helps in the formulation of the country’s perspective plan for power
generation vis-à-vis (in respect of) country’s power resources and
modes of transmission voltages.
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Methods of power demand forecasting:

• There are many methods to forecast the load demand which could be used
depending upon the degree of accuracy required and circumstances prevailing:
i. Class-wise consumption
ii. Mathematical formulae
iii. Historical trends
iv. Correlation between power development and economic development
• Besides above, there are many other formulae employing simple extrapolation
from past records to more complex correlations:
i. Scheer formula:
10ᶜ
G = -------------
U⁰˙¹⁵
Where, G = annual growth in generation in %.
U = per capita generation
C = constant
= 0.02 (population growth rate) + 1.33
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ii. Belgium formula:
E = KM⁰˙⁶ (2)⁰˙⁴⁶⁵ᵗ
Where, E = electricity consumption
M = index of manufacture or production
K = adjustment factor
t = time for which consumption is to be projected
Significance of Power prediction:

• For the installation of new power project or for the expansion of the existing
power plant, it is necessary to estimate the total amount of load that would be
required to be met for various purposes.
• The economics of the installation or expansion of a power plant calls for the
correct prediction of load.
• Since the hydropower projects have a gestation time of about 10-15 years from
their conception to the realization, it is necessary that the hydropower station
should be able to cater to the demands at least 15 years in future from the
planning stage.
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Reservoir Planning:
• When a barrier is constructed across a river or streams in the form of
dam, water gets stored on the u/s side of the barrier, forming a pool of
water, is called reservoir.
• Dams and reservoirs are complementary to each other. They require
very careful planning, design and operation.
• Dam and reservoir planning such as selection of dam and reservoir site,
fixation of reservoir capacity, safe yield or storage and other connection
works has very important role for development of multipurpose
projects.
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Classification and Purpose of Reservoir:

• Reservoir may be classified on the basis of purpose:
1. Single purpose reservoir : serves only for one purpose
2. Multipurpose reservoir : used for more than one purposes
• Reservoir may be classified on the basis of function:

1. Storage or conservation reservoir
2. Flood protection reservoir
3. Distribution reservoir: a reservoir without a dam in which water from river
is pumped in to a tank constructed at suitable place and used to supply to
the consumers through distribution networks.
• A reservoir has two main purposes:

a. Flood control
b. Storage or conservation storage
a. Flood Control: to store flood water when discharge rate is at a stage likely to
cause damage in d/s of the valley and release this flood
water slowlyEr. at a safe
Jagarnath rate when
Shah_Chapter 3.0 flood subsides.
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b. Conservation storage for various purposes:
i. Hydropower
ii. Irrigation
iii. Public and industrial water supply
iv. Navigation
v. Soil conservation and land reclamation
vi. Fishery and wild life
vii. Recreation
viii. Growing useful aquatic life
ix. Debris control
x. Sediment control etc.
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Reservoir regulation:
• It is defined as the rational distribution (normal or balanced distribution) of a

river flow in time and space among different field of water resources system
such as irrigation, hydropower, recreation, navigation, water supply etc.
• Multipurpose reservoir needs to be operated and regulated efficiently with a

high degree of intelligence, knowledge and experience to control flood hazards
and to increase overall benefits. It is to ensure that they are neither left
partially empty by the end of rainy season nor they are found full at the time of
arrival of a series of peak floods leading to heavy releases causing floods to the
d/s valley.
• Multipurpose reservoir (irrigation, hydropower, recreation, navigation, water

supply, flood control etc.) is operated considering the following reservoir
regulation principles:
o The water level in the reservoir will normally fluctuate between the
normal pool level (NPL) and the minimum pool level (MinPL). The storage
between these two limits will be maximum conservation of water which is
sufficient for satisfying the irrigation need.
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o As water level in the reservoir shall not be allowed to go below the

minimum pool level, the firm commitments for power will continue to
generate up to this level of water.
o Normal floods will be absorbed in the capacity lying below the NPL and
severe floods shall be absorbed by the capacity lying between NPL and
Maximum pool level (MaxPL). Spillway starts discharging water as soon as
the water level starts rising above the NPL.
o Due to heavy outflow for irrigation purpose and hydropower generation

during dry season, the reservoirs are almost in completely depleted state.
Thus just before the monsoon season, almost full capacity is available in
empty form, not only for conservation of water but also to control the
flood that may occur during rains.
o During monsoon, the irrigation demand is almost nil and water will be
released only for hydropower generation. The reservoir level will thus
continue to rise steadily. The rise in water level is allowed to reach the NPL
by the end of monsoon season.
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Zones of storage in a Reservoir:
• The storage in the reservoir is divided into various zones based on

functions:
1. Surcharge storage
2. Useful or live storage
3. Dead storage
4. Valley storage
5. Bank storage
• The various pool level of reservoirs are:

1. Maximum pool level (MaxPL)
2. Normal pool level (NPL)
3. Minimum pool level (MinPL)
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Surcharge storage:
o The storage between the MaxPL and NPL is called surcharge storage.
o It is actually the storage made during flood time and if needed, may be
disposed d/s by spillway.
o This storage cannot be stored for later use.
Useful or live storage:

o The storage between the NPL and MinPL is called useful storage.
o It is mainly used for power production and also for other purposes if the
project is multipurpose project.
o In a multipurpose project, useful storage may be a combination of conservation
storage and flood mitigation storage.
Dead storage:
o The storage below the MinPL is called dead storage.
o It is below the outlet and hence, this storage cannot be used for any purpose.
o This ideal capacity of the storage has to be provided so as to accommodate the
deposition of silt in the reservoir.
51
Valley storage:
o The amount of water stored in the river before the dam
construction is the valley storage.
o After completion of dam construction, reservoir is formed and
storage goes on increasing.
Net increase in storage
= storage capacity of reservoir – natural valley storage
Bank storage:
o When a reservoir is full, a part of storage enters the permeable
soil as seepage. When the reservoir level falls down, this seepage
from the permeable soil comes out and contributes to the
storage, which is known as bank storage.
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Maximum pool level (MaxPL):

o It is the level up to which water can be stored with the help of crest gates.
o During floods, water starts flowing over the spillway but discharge over spillway
increases with further rise in reservoir level.
o The maximum level attained by water during worst design flood is called
Maximum pool level (MaxPL).
Normal pool level (NPL):

o It is the elevation of reservoir level which can rise under normal operating
condition.
o This level corresponds either to the crest level of the spillway or to the top level
of the spillway gates.
o This level is also known as conservation storage level.
Minimum pool level (MinPL):

o It is the lowest water level which is to be maintained for minimum outflow is
called minimum pool level (minPL).
53
Reservoir Capacity:
• The reservoir capacity can be estimated on the basis of mass curve which
has to be adjusted to account for dead storage, evaporation loss and carry-
over storage.
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• Dead storage capacity: is the storage capacity of the reservoir

which is normally not got into use in a yearly cycle of inflow and
outflow.
• All the storage capacity below the lowest draw-down storage level
of the reservoir is the dead storage capacity of the reservoir. This
ideal capacity of the storage has to be provided so as to
accommodate the deposition of silt in the reservoir.
• Due to the progressive silt accumulation in the reservoir, it is
estimated that the volume below the dead storage level will be
filled with the sediment. Hence, the total volume of silt likely to
be accumulated during the design period of dam is estimated and
approximately that much volume is left for unused to allow for
silting and is known as dead storage capacity.
• The remainder is effective or active or live storage capacity of the
reservoir.
55
Reservoir sedimentation and its estimation:
• River water normally carries certain amount of silt eroded from the catchment
during heavy rain or due to high run-off velocity.
• The extent of erosion i.e. silt or sediment load in the river depends upon the
nature of soil, topography, vegetation cover, intensity of rainfall, technique of
soil conservation and watershed management.
• The sediment transported may be bed load and suspended load.
• The sediment particles try to settle down to the bottom due to gravitational
force but may be kept in suspension due to upward current in turbulent inflow.
• When water reaches a dam site or reservoir, the velocity and turbulence
decreases and coarser particles settle down in the head reaches of the
reservoir and suspended and finest particles settle towards further down
reaches of the reservoir.
• Some fine particles in suspension may escape from dam through spillway,
sluice gate etc.
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57
• The following are the effects of sediment on reservoir:
a. Loss of storage and reduce life of reservoir
b. Sediment deposition at outlet gate
c. Aggradations of reservoir
d. Degradation below reservoir
• This deposition of sediment in the reservoir is called reservoir silting or

reservoir sedimentation.
• The deposition of sediment reduces the water storing capacity of the

reservoir or life of reservoir.
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Estimation of suspended sediment:

• Suspended sediment may be 75 to 95% of total sediment.
• The suspended sediment can be estimated from the following relations:
S = K * 10ˉ³ (R A)ᵑ
Where, S = mean annual sediment deposition in the reservoir in million M³ per

year i.e. 10⁶ M³ per year.
A = drainage area in sq. Km
R = mean annual rainfall in drainage area in mm.
K = drainage area coefficient
n = rainfall factor
• R S Varshney has given the following formula to estimate the suspended load:
S = 1.534/A⁰˙²⁶⁴
Where, S = mean annual sediment in the reservoir in million M³ per 100 Km².
o In case of Nepal, for area from 5000 sq.km to 6000 sq.km, this formula
gives 5% error. Er. Jagarnath Shah_Chapter 3.0
59
Estimation of bed sediment:

• Bed sediment may be 5 to 25% of total sediment.
• Bed load can be determined by balancing principle only (i.e. entering and
outgoing). MWL
Vent + Went
Vexit
Vdep
Here, Vent = entered suspended sediment
Went = entered bed sediment
Vdep = volume of deposited sediment
Vexit = volume of sediment exit through the sluice gate or other way.
Then from balancing principle,

Vent + Went = Vdep + Vexit
Went = Vdep – (Vent – Vexit) Er. Jagarnath Shah_Chapter 3.0
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Sediment control in reservoir:

• In order to increase life of reservoir, it is necessary to control the deposition of
sediment.
• Various measures or methods are undertaken to control the deposition of
sediment in the reservoir and the methods can be divided in to two parts:
1. Pre-construction measures
i. Proper selection of dam or reservoir site
ii. Construction of dam in stages (i.e. initially dam is designed for low depth
and then height of dam is raised after getting silt deposition)
iii. Construction of series of check dams to control debris and landslide flow
in the reservoir
iv. Vegetation cover or screen on u/s of reservoir site and on the catchment
area to arrest the large amount of sediment.
v. Control of sediment inflow in the reservoir by providing series of small low
dams in sandy river to arrest the sediment on u/s of reservoir.
61
2. Post construction measures

i. Removal of post flood water through sluice
ii. Mechanical stirring of sediment to remove deposited sediment
iii. Erosion control and soil conservation in the catchment area.
iv. Afforestation and control of deforestation
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Trap efficiency of reservoir (η):

• It is a measure of sedimentation of a reservoir.
• It is defined as the % of ratio of sediment retained or deposited in reservoir to
the sediment transported or flowing by the river.
Total sediment deposited in the reservoir

Trap Efficiency, η = -------------------------------------------------------
Total sediment flowing in the river
• It may vary from 95 to 100% and depend on the following factors:
a. Capacity inflow ratio (CIR)
b. Silt gradation : larger the silt, higher the trap efficiency.
c. Method of reservoir operation: correct location of scouring sluice may
decrease trap efficiency
d. Shape of reservoir: diverting type reservoir, more silting occur, high trap
efficiency
e. Age of reservoir: old reservoir has stable catchment area, less sediment
transport and hence lessEr.trap efficiency.
Jagarnath Shah_Chapter 3.0
63
Capacity inflow ratio (CIR):

• It is the ratio of capacity of reservoir to the total inflow of water
into the reservoir.
Capacity of reservoir V
Capacity inflow ratio, CIR = ----------------------------------------- = -------
Total inflow in to the reservoir Q
• It is an important parameter of reservoir as the trap efficiency η is

function of CIR.
• If the reservoir is small and inflow is more, most of the inflow
passes d/s as the detention time is small and no time for sediment
to settle i.e. trap efficiency is very less.
• If the reservoir is large, the detention time is more to settle
sediment and hence trap efficiency is more.
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• Brunt (1953) presented graphical relationship between η and CIR

and is called trap efficiency Vs capacity inflow ratio curve as
shown below.
65
Life of reservoir:
• The dead storage in the reservoir is provided to accommodate the sediment.
• When the sediment inflow is more, dead storage within few years gets fully
silted and sediment begins to encroach the useful storage.
• The useful life of the reservoir is said to exist till the useful storage is reduced
to 20% of the designed capacity.
• The estimation of useful life of reservoir is made by:
i. Work out CIR in % and find annual loss of reservoir capacity
ii. Find the correction factor for settlement and consolidation of deposited
sediment which is about 15% of total over a period of 200 years.
iii. Work out η and CIR for different reservoir capacity from graph or table.
iv. Ascertain the total load for a given period, capacity curves are determined
at interval of 25, 50, 75, 100 years etc. and so on and then check up the
quantity of water in different zones of reservoir.
v. A plot may be developed to show the available capacity in different zones
and total capacity against time period. From this plot, it is easy to evaluate
the failure period and this period is taken as life of reservoir.
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Layout of hydropower projects:
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69
Aerial view of the Kali Gandaki run-of-river hydropower project

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General layout of dam, intake & desander w.r.t. river geometry near the dam
71
Components of hydropower plants:

1. Dam or weir or barrage or spillway
2. Reservoir
3. Intake
4. Waterways
a. Headrace canal or headrace tunnel
b. Tailrace canal or tailrace tunnel
c. Settling basin or Desanders
d. Supply conduit
e. Forebay or Surge tank
f. Penstock
5. Power house: gate valves, turbine, turbine casing, draft tube,
generator, governer etc.
6. Switchyard
72
36

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8/20/2023

3.0 PLANNING AND LAYOUT OF HYDROPOWER PROJECTS

3.0 PLANNING AND LAYOUT OF HYDROPOWER PROJECTS

o Generation Planning is done considering the following factors:

3.0 PLANNING AND LAYOUT OF HYDROPOWER PROJECTS

Investigation of Hydropower Projects:

3.0 PLANNING AND LAYOUT OF HYDROPOWER PROJECTS

Cycle of Hydropower Development:

3.0 PLANNING AND LAYOUT OF HYDROPOWER PROJECTS

3.0 PLANNING AND LAYOUT OF HYDROPOWER PROJECTS

iii. Construction of Civil, structural and transmission works

Er. Jagarnath Shah_Chapter 3.0

3.0 PLANNING AND LAYOUT OF HYDROPOWER PROJECTS

Site selection for hydropower projects:

• Selecting a suitable site is crucial for the success of hydropower

Er. Jagarnath Shah_Chapter 3.0

3.0 PLANNING AND LAYOUT OF HYDROPOWER PROJECTS

Requirements for ideal site selection of hydropower projects:

3.0 PLANNING AND LAYOUT OF HYDROPOWER PROJECTS

4. Land use map:

o The site should be stable.

o The intake and power house should be easily accessible.

o It makes economy in transportation of construction materials, equipments

7. Distance to load dispatch centre:

3.0 PLANNING AND LAYOUT OF HYDROPOWER PROJECTS

o Data of sediment transportation and river characteristics help to draw rating

o It evaluates the volume and characteristics of sediment transportation

Er. Jagarnath Shah_Chapter 3.0

3.0 PLANNING AND LAYOUT OF HYDROPOWER PROJECTS

Phases (Stages) of hydropower project selection or Project studies:

3.0 PLANNING AND LAYOUT OF HYDROPOWER PROJECTS

Steps and major activities in reconnaissance study:

3.0 PLANNING AND LAYOUT OF HYDROPOWER PROJECTS

vi. Environmental and Social studies: by screening, determine

Er. Jagarnath Shah_Chapter 3.0

3.0 PLANNING AND LAYOUT OF HYDROPOWER PROJECTS

2. Pre-feasibility study (Preliminary study):

3.0 PLANNING AND LAYOUT OF HYDROPOWER PROJECTS

Steps and major activities in pre-feasibility study:

Er. Jagarnath Shah_Chapter 3.0

3.0 PLANNING AND LAYOUT OF HYDROPOWER PROJECTS

iv. Financial analysis: Calculation of cost per KW, FIRR, pay-back

Er. Jagarnath Shah_Chapter 3.0

3.0 PLANNING AND LAYOUT OF HYDROPOWER PROJECTS

3. Feasibility study (Final Investigation):

3.0 PLANNING AND LAYOUT OF HYDROPOWER PROJECTS

o It also serves as application documentation for the development

Er. Jagarnath Shah_Chapter 3.0

3.0 PLANNING AND LAYOUT OF HYDROPOWER PROJECTS

Steps and major activities in feasibility study:

Er. Jagarnath Shah_Chapter 3.0

3.0 PLANNING AND LAYOUT OF HYDROPOWER PROJECTS

iii. Field work and design:

Er. Jagarnath Shah_Chapter 3.0

3.0 PLANNING AND LAYOUT OF HYDROPOWER PROJECTS

iv. Detail Cost estimate and implementation schedules:

3.0 PLANNING AND LAYOUT OF HYDROPOWER PROJECTS

vii. Feasibility study report (or DPR):

o Sometimes, it is also called detailed project report (DPR)

o It is necessary for PPA (Power purchase agreement) of the project,

o Comprehensive feasibility study report is must for getting

viii. Consists of: