AE - 4.1 Operational Amplifiers - Characteristics

4.
1 Operational amplifier, Ideal and Nonideal characteristics of OP-AMP
4.1Operational amplifier, Ideal and Non-ideal

characteristics of OP-AMP
OM SHANTI BABA JI!!!
Module:4 Operational Amplifier Characteristics and

Applications
Course: BECE206L – Analog Circuits
-Dr Richards Joe Stanislaus
Assistant Professor - SENSE
Email: 51749@vitstudent.ac.in
4.1 Operational amplifier, Ideal and Nonideal characteristics of OP-AMP
Module 4:
Module:4 Operational Amplifier Characteristics and
Applications 7 hours
• Operational amplifier, Ideal and Nonideal characteristics of OP-
AMP, DC and AC characteristics - Operational amplifier with
negative feedback: Voltage Series, Voltage Shunt feedback amplifier
- Applications of OP-AMP - summing, scaling, and averaging
amplifiers, I/V and V/I converter, Integrator, Differentiator,
Instrumentation amplifiers and Precision Rectifiers.
1. Introduction
• Linear Integrated Circuits (LIC) are used in audio and radio
communication, medical electronics, instrumentation control, etc
• Operational amplifier (op-amp) is multi-terminal device
• Circuit schematic:
* Two input terminals:
inverting input terminal (-)
non-inverting input terminal (+)
• One Output terminal
• Packages: Metal can(TO) package; Dual-in-line package(DIP) and
flat package or flat pack
1. Introduction
• 8 pin metal can package
with following pin configuration:
2: Inverting input
3: Non-inverting input
6: Output
7: V+ power supply
4: V- power supply
1, 5: Offset null
8: NC (no connection)
1. Introduction
• Dual in-line package
with following pin configuration:
2: Inverting input
3: Non-inverting input
6: Output
7: V+ power supply
4: V- power supply
1, 5: Offset null
8: NC (no connection)
1. Introduction
• 14 pin Dual in-line package
1. Introduction
• Ceramic flat package (10 pin)
1. Introduction
• Mostly used:
8 pin mini DIP (dual in-line package)
Power supply at PINs 7(V+) and 4(V-)
Usually ±15𝑉
Range: ±5 V to ±22 V
Only some OpAMPs have ground
Mostly do not have ground.
1. Introduction
• Mostly used:
Usually ±15𝑉
Power supply is connected as:
1. Introduction
• Mostly used:
Equivalent:
Usually ±15𝑉
Power supply is connected as:
1. Introduction
Power supply
at PINs 7(V+) and 4(V-)
Other ways of connecting Power supply:
c) Resistors and Capacitors:
R >10kΩ and capacitors: 0.1 𝑡𝑜 10𝜇𝐹

d) Zener diodes: for Symmetrical
supply voltages (in avalanche mode
of operation)
𝑅𝑆 to restrict supply current
1. Introduction
Power supply
at PINs 7(V+) and 4(V-)
Other ways of connecting Power supply:
e) Diodes , potentiometer and
capacitors
Diodes protect IC
if supply is accidentally connected
in reverse
1. Introduction
• MOST Widely used Op-AMP
• LM741
and its improved versions (741C, 741A, 741E, 741S, 741SC)
2. IDEAL Operational Amplifier

• For simplicity, other terminals have not been shown
in the schematic symbol of Op-amp
(May use only input and output terminals
for representation)
• + and – symbols represent
non-inverting and inverting input terminals
respectively
• If 𝑉1 = 0, and if the input is a sinusoidal wave input at 𝑉2 (inverting
terminal) then the output 𝑉0 has 180° phase shift (out of phase with
input)
• If 𝑉2 = 0, and if the input is a sinusoidal wave input at 𝑉1 (non-inverting
terminal) then the output 𝑉0 has 0° phase shift (in phase with input)
2. IDEAL Operational Amplifier

• IDEAL OP-AMP characteristics:
Open loop voltage gain: 𝐴𝑂𝐿 = ∞
Input impedance: 𝑅𝑖 = ∞
Output impedance: 𝑅0 = 0
Bandwidth 𝐵𝑊 = ∞
Zero offset, 𝑣0 = 0 when 𝑣1 = 𝑣2 = 0
• Draws zero current from input 𝑖1 = 𝑖2 = 0
(because of infinite impedance at input; no loading at previous stage)
• Since gain → ∞, vd = 𝑣1 − 𝑣2 = 0
Voltage difference between inverting
and non-inverting terminals is zero
• Output voltage is independent of
current drawn from output (as 𝑅0 = 0)
Output can drive infinite devices.
3. Non-ideal OP-amp
• Ideal properties can never be realized in practice.
• Ideal case – only for simplified mathematics involved in Op-amp ckts
• Physical amplifier is non-ideal
𝐴𝑂𝐿 ≠ ∞; 𝑅𝑖 ≠ ∞; 𝑅0 ≠ 0.
Op-amp is voltage controlled voltage source:
𝑣𝑜 = 𝐴𝑂𝐿 𝑣𝑑 (Thevenin’s equivalent voltage source)
with 𝑅0 in series (Thevenin’s resistance).
• 𝑣𝑜 = 𝐴𝑂𝐿 𝑣𝑑
= 𝐴𝑂𝐿 𝑣1 − 𝑣2
• Op-amp amplifies difference between
inputs
4. Simple open loop operation

• Simplest way: Open loop – do not connect any part of output to
any part of input
• As 𝑣1 and 𝑣2 are applied at terminals:
non-inverting(+) and inverting(-)
• For infinite gain: 𝑣0 will be in
positive saturation (+𝑉𝑠𝑎𝑡 ) if 𝑣1 > 𝑣2
negative saturation (−𝑉𝑠𝑎𝑡 ) if 𝑣2 > 𝑣1
• Amplifier acts as:
switch or
voltage comparator or
zero crossing detector
5. Feedback in Ideal OP-AMP

• Use of OP-Amp is increased when negative feedback is given
and output is not driven into saturation
Circuit will behave linearly (as per input)
• Two realistic simplified assumptions while understanding operation
of the circuits:
- Current drawn by either of input terminals (non-inverting and
inverting) is negligible
- Differential input voltage 𝑣𝑑 between non-inverting and inverting
input terminals is zero
6.1 Inverting amplifier: Ideal case

• Most widely used - Inverting amplifier
• Output 𝑣𝑜 is fed back to inverting input terminal (-) through 𝑅𝑓 -𝑅1
network where 𝑅𝑓 is feedback resistor
• Input signal (ac or dc) is applied to
inverting input terminal(-)
through 𝑅1
• Non-inverting terminal(+)
is grounded

• For ideal: 𝑣𝑑 = 0, node ‘𝑎′ is at ground potential (not physical ground)
𝑣𝑖 −𝑉𝑎
• 𝑉𝑎 = 0, 𝑖1 = = 𝑣𝑖 /𝑅1
𝑅1
• Since op-amp draws zero current at input,
all current through 𝑅1 flows through 𝑅𝑓
𝑅𝑓
𝑣𝑜 = −𝑖1 𝑅𝑓 = −𝑣𝑖
𝑅1
• The same can be obtained
by applying KCL at ′𝑎′
• (𝑣𝑖 − 𝑉𝑎 )/𝑅𝑖 = (𝑉𝑎 − 𝑣𝑜 )/𝑅𝑓
• Closed loop gain of
inverting amplifier:
𝑣𝑜 𝑅𝑓
𝐴𝐶𝐿 = = −
𝑣𝑖 𝑅1

𝑣𝑜 𝑅𝑓
• Closed loop gain of inverting amplifier: 𝐴𝐶𝐿 = =−
𝑣𝑖 𝑅1
• Negative sign indicates phase shift of 180° between 𝑣𝑖 and 𝑣𝑜
• Inverting input terminal is at virtual ground
• 𝑅1 should be fairly large to avoid
loading effect
𝑍𝑓
• The same 𝐴𝐶𝐿 = −
𝑍1
if resistors are replaced by
impedances
Problem 1: Design a gain of -10 and input

resistance equal to 10𝐾Ω using op-amp.
• Gain of amplifier is negative :
Problem 1: Design a gain of -10 and input

resistance equal to 10𝐾Ω using op-amp.
• Gain of amplifier is negative : 𝐴𝐶𝐿 = −10
Hence the circuit is inverting amplifier
• 𝑅1 = 10𝑘Ω
• We know that for inverting amplifier: 𝐴𝐶𝐿 = −𝑅𝑓 /𝑅1
• Hence: −10 = −𝑅𝑓 /10𝑘 : 𝑅𝑓 = 100𝑘Ω (feedback resistor)
Problem 2: For the given circuit, if 𝑣𝑖 = 1𝑉; calculate

𝑖1 , 𝑣𝑜 , 𝑖𝐿 and Total current 𝑖𝑜 into output pin

𝑣𝑖 −𝑉 −
• 𝑖1 = =
𝑅1
𝑅𝑓
• 𝑣0 = − 𝑣𝑖 =
𝑅1
𝑣𝑜
• 𝑖𝐿 = =
𝑅𝐿
• Apply KCL at output:
𝑖1 + 𝑖𝐿 = 𝑖𝑜

𝑣𝑖 −𝑉 − 1−0
• 𝑖1 = = = 0.1𝑚𝐴
𝑅1 10𝑘
𝑅𝑓 100𝑘
• 𝑣0 = − 𝑣𝑖 = − 1 = −10𝑉
𝑅1 10𝑘
𝑣𝑜 10
• 𝑖𝐿 = = − = 0.4𝑚𝐴
𝑅𝐿 25𝑘
• Apply KCL at output:
𝑖1 + 𝑖𝐿 = 𝑖𝑜
0.1𝑚 + 0.4𝑚 = 𝑖𝑜
• 𝑖0 = 0.5𝑚 (Practical op-amp)
6.2 Practical Inverting amplifier

• Ideal closed loop gain: 𝐴𝐶𝐿 = −𝑅𝑓 /𝑅1
• Practical closed loop gain – calculate
using low frequency model of the given
circuit
•

circuit
• Include thevenin’s equivalent circuit for signal source

circuit
• The equivalent resistance at input, when
source is made zero is,
𝑅𝑒𝑞 = 𝑅1 ∥ 𝑅𝑖 ≡ 𝑅1
• Equivalent voltage is hence:
𝑣𝑒𝑞 ≡ 𝑣𝑖

circuit
• The equivalent resistance at input, when
source is made zero is,
𝑅𝑒𝑞 = 𝑅1 ∥ 𝑅𝑖 ≡ 𝑅1
• Equivalent voltage is hence:
𝑣𝑒𝑞 ≡ 𝑣𝑖

• 𝑅𝑒𝑞 = 𝑅1 ∥ 𝑅𝑖 ≡ 𝑅1 ; 𝑣𝑒𝑞 ≡ 𝑣𝑖
• Relate input and output as 𝑣𝑑 + 𝑖𝑅𝑓 + 𝑣0 = 0
• Output loop: KVL: 𝑣0 = 𝑖𝑅0 + 𝐴𝑂𝐿 𝑣𝑑
𝑣𝑜 = 𝑖𝑅0 + 𝐴𝑂𝐿 −𝑖𝑅𝑓 − 𝑣0
Rearranging 𝑣0 1 + 𝐴𝑂𝐿 = 𝑖 𝑅0 − 𝐴𝑂𝐿 𝑅𝑓
𝑖 = 𝑣0 1 + 𝐴𝑂𝐿 / 𝑅0 − 𝐴𝑂𝐿 𝑅𝑓
• Input loop KVL:𝑣𝑖 = 𝑖 𝑅1 + 𝑅𝑓 + 𝑣0
• Substituting for 𝑖
1+𝐴𝑂𝐿
𝑣𝑖 = 𝑣0 𝑅1 + 𝑅𝑓 + 𝑣0
𝑅0 −𝐴𝑂𝐿 𝑅𝑓

1+𝐴𝑂𝐿
• 𝑣𝑖 = 𝑣0 𝑅1 + 𝑅𝑓 + 𝑣0
𝑅1 +𝑅𝑓 +𝐴𝑂𝐿 𝑅1 +𝐴𝑂𝐿 𝑅𝑓 +𝑅𝑂 −𝐴𝑂𝐿 𝑅𝐹
𝑣𝑖 = 𝑣𝑜
𝑣𝑜 𝑅𝑜 −𝐴𝑂𝐿 𝑅𝑓
• 𝐴𝐶𝐿 = =
𝑣𝑖 𝑅𝑜 +𝑅𝑓 +𝑅1 1+𝐴𝑂𝐿
• Only when 𝐴𝑂𝐿 ≫ 1, 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑅1 ≫ 𝑅𝑂 + 𝑅𝑓 :
Near ideal case:
𝐴𝐶𝐿 = −𝑅𝑓 /𝑅1

• 𝐴𝐶𝐿 = =
• Loop equation in input and output

−𝑣𝑑 = 𝑖 𝑅𝑓 + 𝑅𝑜 + 𝐴𝑂𝐿 𝑣𝑑
• For finding 𝐼𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑅𝑖𝑓
𝑣𝑑 𝑅𝑓 +𝑅𝑜
• 𝑅𝑖𝑓 = = (Taking magnitude)
𝑖 1+𝐴𝑂𝐿

• 𝐴𝐶𝐿 = =
• Output impedance without 𝑹𝑳 (without load)
• Find open circuit output voltage 𝑣𝑜𝑐
Find short circuit output current 𝑖𝑠𝑐
• 𝑣𝑜𝑐 = 𝑣𝑜 = 𝐴𝐶𝐿 𝑣𝑖 = 𝑣𝑖

• 𝐴𝐶𝐿 = =
• Find open circuit output voltage 𝑣𝑜𝑐
Find short circuit output current 𝑖𝑠𝑐
𝑅𝑜 −𝐴𝑂𝐿 𝑅𝑓
• 𝑣𝑜𝑐 = 𝑣𝑜 = 𝐴𝐶𝐿 𝑣𝑖 = 𝑣𝑖
𝑅𝑜 +𝑅𝑓 +𝑅1 1+𝐴𝑂𝐿
𝑣𝑖 −0 𝑣𝑖
• Short circuit case: 𝑖𝐴 = =
𝑅1 +𝑅𝑓 𝑅1 +𝑅𝑓
• 𝑣𝑑 in terms of input voltage
𝑣𝑑 = −𝑖𝐴 𝑅𝑓
𝐴𝑂𝐿 𝑣𝑑 −0 𝐴𝑂𝐿 𝑖𝐴 𝑅𝑓
• 𝑖𝐵 = =−
𝑅𝑜 𝑅𝑜

• 𝐴𝐶𝐿 = =
𝑅𝑜 −𝐴𝑂𝐿 𝑅𝑓 𝑣𝑖
• 𝑣𝑜𝑐 = 𝑣𝑖 ; 𝑖𝐴 =
𝑅𝑜 +𝑅𝑓 +𝑅1 1+𝐴𝑂𝐿 𝑅1 +𝑅𝑓
𝐴𝑂𝐿 𝑖𝐴 𝑅𝑓
• 𝑣𝑑 = −𝑖𝐴 𝑅𝑓 ; 𝑖𝐵 = −
𝑅𝑜
𝐴𝑂𝐿 𝑅𝑓
• 𝑖𝑠𝑐 = 𝑖𝐴 + 𝑖𝐵 = 𝑖𝐴 1 −
𝑅𝑂
𝑣𝑖 𝑅𝑂 − 𝐴𝑂𝐿 𝑅𝑓
=
𝑅1 +𝑅𝑓 𝑅𝑂
𝑣𝑜𝑐
• 𝑅𝑜𝑓 = =
𝑖𝑠𝑐

• 𝐴𝐶𝐿 = =
𝑅𝑜 −𝐴𝑂𝐿 𝑅𝑓 𝑣𝑖
= 𝑣𝑖
; 𝑖𝐴 = 𝑅1 +𝑅𝑓
𝐴𝑂𝐿 𝑖𝐴 𝑅𝑓
• 𝑣𝑑 = −𝑖𝐴 𝑅𝑓 ; 𝑖𝐵 = −
𝑅𝑜
𝐴𝑂𝐿 𝑅𝑓
= 𝑖𝐴 + 𝑖𝐵 = 𝑖𝐴 1 −
𝑅𝑂
𝑣𝑖 𝑅𝑂 − 𝐴𝑂𝐿 𝑅𝑓
=
𝑅1 +𝑅𝑓 𝑅𝑂
𝑅𝑂 𝑅1 +𝑅𝑓
=

• 𝐴𝐶𝐿 = =
𝑅𝑂 𝑅1 +𝑅𝑓
𝑅𝑂 𝑅1 +𝑅𝑓 𝑅𝑜 +𝑅𝑓 +𝑅1
= = 𝑅1 𝐴𝑂𝐿
𝑅𝑜 +𝑅𝑓 +𝑅1 1+𝐴𝑂𝐿 1+𝑅 +𝑅
𝑜 𝑓 +𝑅1
• Numerator is 𝑅𝑜 ∥ 𝑅1 + 𝑅𝑓
Therefore is smaller than 𝑅𝑜
• Output resistance with feedback is
always less than 𝑅𝑜
𝐴𝐶𝐿 → ∞, 𝑅𝑜𝑓 → 0
6.3 Ideal non-inverting amplifier

• When ac of dc is applied to non-inverting
terminal and feedback is given as shown
the circuit amplifies without inverting input.
• Negative feedback system: Output is
fed back to inverting terminal
• We know 𝑣𝑑 = 0, Voltage at ′a’ is 𝑣𝑖
• 𝑅𝑓 and 𝑅𝑖 form potential divider w.r.t 𝑣𝑜
𝑅1
• 𝑣𝑎 = 𝑣𝑖 = 𝑣𝑜 (No current flows into opamp)
𝑅1 +𝑅𝑓
𝑣0 𝑅1 𝑅𝑓 𝑅𝑓
• 𝐴𝐶𝐿 = = + =1+ Gain can be adjusted to unity of more
𝑣𝑖 𝑅1 𝑅1 𝑅1
• Input resistance of non-inverting amplifier is extremely large
6.4 Voltage follower (non-inverting amp)

• When 𝑅𝑓 = 0, 𝑅𝐿 = ∞
• 𝑣𝑜 = 𝑣𝑖 (both in magnitude and phase)
• Output follows input voltage exactly
• Hence it is called voltage follower
𝑅𝑓
• 𝐴𝐶𝐿 = 1 + = 1 + 0 = 1 (unity gain)
𝑅1
• Input impedance is very high (MΩ)
• Output impedance is zero
• Used as buffer (zero current drawn from
source) for impedance matching to match
high impedance source to low impedance
load
6.5 Practical non-inverting amplifier
𝑅𝑖
+
6.5 Practical non-inverting amplifier

• KCL at input of equivalent of non-inverting using low frequency equivalent
circuit
𝑣𝑖 − 𝑣𝑑 𝑌1 + 𝑣𝑑 𝑌𝑖 + 𝑣𝑖 − 𝑣𝑑 − 𝑣𝑜 𝑌𝑓 = 0
• KCL at output node −
𝑣𝑖 − 𝑣𝑑 − 𝑣𝑜 𝑌𝑓 + 𝑣𝑜 − 𝐴𝑂𝐿 𝑣𝑑 𝑌𝑜 = 0
• On solving: 𝑅𝑖
𝑣0 𝐴𝑂𝐿 𝑌𝑜 𝑌1 +𝑌𝑓 +𝑌𝑓 𝑌𝑖
• 𝐴𝐶𝐿 = = +
𝑣𝑖 𝐴𝑂𝐿 +1 𝑌𝑜 𝑌𝑓 + 𝑌1 𝑌𝑖 𝑌𝑓 +𝑌𝑜
• And when 𝐴𝑂𝐿 → ∞
𝑌1
𝐴𝐶𝐿 → 1 +
𝑌𝑓
𝑅𝑓
• =1+ (ideal)
𝑅1
Problem 1: design an amplifier with gain of +5

using only one amplifier
Problem 1: design an amplifier with gain of +5

using only one amplifier
• Gain positive-> Non-inverting amplifier
𝑅𝑓
• 𝐴𝐶𝐿 = 1 +
𝑅1
• With 𝑅1 = 10𝑘Ω
𝑅𝑓
• 5=1+
10𝑘
• 𝑅𝑓 = 40𝑘Ω
Problem 2: For the given circuit: 𝑅1 = 5𝑘Ω; 𝑅𝑓 = 20𝑘Ω, 𝑣𝑖 = 1𝑉. Load

resistor of 5𝑘Ω is connected at output. Calculate 𝑣0 , 𝐴𝐶𝐿 , iL (load
current), 𝑖𝑜 𝑜utput current indicating proper direction of flow

• (i) 𝑣𝑜 = 1 + 𝑅𝑓 /𝑅1 =
𝑣𝑜
• (ii) 𝐴𝐶𝐿 = =
𝑣𝑖
𝑣𝑜
• (iii) 𝑖𝐿 = = (When 𝑅𝐿 is connected at 𝑉𝑜 and ground)
𝑅𝐿
𝑣𝑖 𝑣𝑜 −𝑣𝑖
• (iv) 𝑖1 = = =
𝑅1 𝑅𝑓
• (v) current into the OpAmp = 𝑖1 + 𝑖𝐿
• =

• (i) 𝑣𝑜 = 1 + 𝑅𝑓 /𝑅1 = 1 + 20𝑘/5𝑘 = 5𝑉
𝑣𝑜 5
• (ii) 𝐴𝐶𝐿 = = =5
𝑣𝑖 1
𝑣𝑜 5𝑉
• (iii) 𝑖𝐿 = = = 1𝑚𝐴
𝑅𝐿 5𝑘Ω
𝑣𝑖 𝑣𝑜 −𝑣𝑖
• (iv) 𝑖1 = = = 0.2𝑚𝐴
𝑅1 𝑅𝑓
• (v) current into the OpAmp = 𝑖1 + 𝑖𝐿
• = 1𝑚 + 0.2𝑚 = 1.2𝑚𝐴
• Current flows outwards to output
from Opamp output junction
Problem 3: Calculate 𝑉0 if 𝑉𝑖𝑛 = 1𝑉

Problem 3: Calculate 𝑉0 if 𝑉𝑖𝑛 = 1𝑉

• Circuit is non inverting OM SHANTI BABA JI!!!
THANK YOU SOO MUCH!!!
1𝑘
• 𝑉𝐴 = 1𝑉 = 0.5𝑉
1𝑘+1𝑘
• Output voltage: 𝑉𝑜 = 1 + 𝑅𝑓 /𝑅1 𝑉𝐴
50𝑘
= 1+ 0.5𝑉 = 3𝑉
10𝑘

AE - 4.1 Operational Amplifiers - Characteristics

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AE - 4.1 Operational Amplifiers - Characteristics

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4.

1 Operational amplifier, Ideal and Nonideal characteristics of OP-AMP

4.1Operational amplifier, Ideal and Non-ideal

Module:4 Operational Amplifier Characteristics and

R >10kΩ and capacitors: 0.1 𝑡𝑜 10𝜇𝐹

2. IDEAL Operational Amplifier

2. IDEAL Operational Amplifier

4. Simple open loop operation

5. Feedback in Ideal OP-AMP

6.1 Inverting amplifier: Ideal case

6.1 Inverting amplifier: Ideal case

6.1 Inverting amplifier: Ideal case

Problem 1: Design a gain of -10 and input

Problem 1: Design a gain of -10 and input

Problem 2: For the given circuit, if 𝑣𝑖 = 1𝑉; calculate

Problem 2: For the given circuit, if 𝑣𝑖 = 1𝑉; calculate

Problem 2: For the given circuit, if 𝑣𝑖 = 1𝑉; calculate

6.2 Practical Inverting amplifier

6.2 Practical Inverting amplifier

6.2 Practical Inverting amplifier

6.2 Practical Inverting amplifier

6.2 Practical Inverting amplifier

6.2 Practical Inverting amplifier

6.2 Practical Inverting amplifier

• Loop equation in input and output

6.2 Practical Inverting amplifier

6.2 Practical Inverting amplifier

6.2 Practical Inverting amplifier

6.2 Practical Inverting amplifier

6.2 Practical Inverting amplifier

6.3 Ideal non-inverting amplifier

6.4 Voltage follower (non-inverting amp)

6.5 Practical non-inverting amplifier

6.5 Practical non-inverting amplifier

Problem 1: design an amplifier with gain of +5

Problem 1: design an amplifier with gain of +5

Problem 2: For the given circuit: 𝑅1 = 5𝑘Ω; 𝑅𝑓 = 20𝑘Ω, 𝑣𝑖 = 1𝑉. Load

Problem 2: For the given circuit: 𝑅1 = 5𝑘Ω; 𝑅𝑓 = 20𝑘Ω, 𝑣𝑖 = 1𝑉. Load

Problem 2: For the given circuit: 𝑅1 = 5𝑘Ω; 𝑅𝑓 = 20𝑘Ω, 𝑣𝑖 = 1𝑉. Load

Problem 3: Calculate 𝑉0 if 𝑉𝑖𝑛 = 1𝑉

Problem 3: Calculate 𝑉0 if 𝑉𝑖𝑛 = 1𝑉

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