Journal of Energy Storage 62 (2023) 106894

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Journal of Energy Storage

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Review article

Thermal behaviour and thermal runaway propagation in lithium-ion

battery systems – A critical review
Soumyoraj Mallick a, Debabrata Gayen b, *
a
Research Centre in Sustainable Energy, Queen's University Belfast, Belfast BT7 1NN, United Kingdom
b
Department of Mechanical Engineering, National Institute of Technology Durgapur, M. G. Avenue, Durgapur, West Bengal 713209, India

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: A large number of Lithium-ion battery packs are used for electromobility applications in power electric vehicles.
Thermal runway The battery cells are connected in series or in parallel depending upon the power requirements for types of
Thermal runway propagation cylindrical, pouch, and prismatic battery cells. Particularly under functioning condition of an electric vehicle,
Cooling techniques
several charging and discharging cycles in battery cells results in heat generation inside a particular cell which
Lithium-ion battery
have an influence in adjacent battery cells as well. Overheating can cause thermal runaway in one or more cell
Electric vehicles
and the heat transfers to adjacent cells which results in thermal propagation. The higher the number of cells the
higher chance of fire to propagate. To mitigate the thermal propagation in battery cells a number of prevention
techniques can be employed. This study provides an overview of the challenges associated with thermal runaway
to understand the internal defects within battery. In addition, generation, propagation of thermal runaway and
the parameters affecting thermal runaway within lithium-ion battery have been elaborated. The importance of
employing a number of cooling mechanisms or preventing strategies such as air cooling, heat pipe cooling,
hybrid cooling etc. for the prevention of fire have also been discussed. Based on those criteria several ad­
vancements of cooling strategies including fire-resistant coatings, use of additives, use of positive temperature co-
efficient materials, current interrupt devices, thermal fuse, insulation techniques have been introduced. More­
over, this study discusses on the mitigation strategies at system level by incorporating sensors and smart battery
management system to monitor, control and enhance the performance of the battery modules.

Abbreviations LFP Lithium Iron Phosphate

Li-Ion lithium ion
BMS battery management system LIB lithium-Ion battery
BTMS battery thermal management system MLT multi lumped-state thermal model
CFD computational fluid dynamics NCM nickel cobalt manganese
CT computed tomography NMC Nickel Manganese Cobalt Oxide
DoD depth of discharge OCV open circuit voltage
ECM equivalent circuit model PCM phase change material
EES electrochemical energy storage PTC positive temperature co-efficient
ELM extreme learning machine RVE representative volume specimen
ELMT extreme learning machine thermal SEI solid electrolyte interface
ESC external short circuit SoC state of charge
EVs electric vehicles SoD state of discharge
FEM finite element model TR thermal runaway
HEV hybrid electric vehicle XCT X Ray Computed Tomography
HP heat pipe
ISC internal short circuit

* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: debabrata.gayen@me.nitdgp.ac.in (D. Gayen).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.est.2023.106894
Received 10 November 2022; Received in revised form 5 February 2023; Accepted 9 February 2023
Available online 17 February 2023
2352-152X/© 2023 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
S. Mallick and D. Gayen Journal of Energy Storage 62 (2023) 106894

Units improving battery chemistry, energy density, and size of battery packs
as EV fleet (in Fig. 3) raises annually [3].
A Ampere A number of battery pack modules are typically used to power EVs.
C C rate These modules consist of thousands of cells interconnected using busbar
◦
C Degree Celsius joints and using cooling techniques like PCM/cooling plates, BMS and
cm centimetre outer casing. Small solid cylindrical cells, wider solid prismatic cells,
h hours and larger soft pouch or polymer cells are the three types of battery cells
J Joules used in EVs power supply unit [4], within a module, which are electri­
K Kelvin cally coupled and structurally held [5]. The three battery varieties (in
m metre Fig. 4) having different size, shape, and individual cell factors influences
M Moles the battery capacity and output power. The sizes of the three cell types,
Pa Pascals especially the prismatic and pouch cells, vary depending on the cell
s seconds manufacturer and automobile firms based on ISO/PAS 16898:2012 and
S Siemens DIN 91252:2016-11 standards [6]. On the other side, cylindrical cells
V Voltage contain spiral-wound internal component resembling a jelly roll which
W Watts consists of electrodes (cathode and anode), solid or liquid electrolytes
and separator.
Greek symbol For a requisite output power and driving range, the number of cells
inside a module and the number of modules within a pack required
β weight matrix maximum energy storage capability, amperage, and voltage. Individual
ρ density battery cells are linked in series (s) and parallel (p) connections (in
Fig. 5) to fulfil the demand. It was reported that a series connection
Subscript increase voltage and a parallel connection increase capacity and also
voltage is always greater for a series connection [6]. For power EVs, a
amb ambient precise combination of p and s connections are used. These battery packs
i number of layer are frequently subjected to tough working circumstances such as high-
j number of sub-models power consumption, variations in temperature, and vibration, all of
k time instant which necessitate the use of electrically and thermally efficient and
long-lasting cells [5]. For an example, Chevrolet Bolt EV – second gen­
eration used pouch type cells having 6 or 8 modules of battery packs and
1. Introduction
each of the module consisted of 24 or 32 cells. Each of the cell config­
urations is 96s2p which means 96 individual cells connected in series
The automotive industry is moving towards electrochemical energy
and placed parallel with another 96 cells which makes the total number
storage (EES) systems due to rapid changes in global industrialisation
of 192 cells [7]. On the other hand, Tesla Inc. preferred to use cylindrical
and escalating energy consumption. Climate change is one of the issues
cells for its lightweight and small size manufactured by Panasonic cor­
encouraging the shift towards Electric Vehicles (EVs). EVs are relatively
poration [8] and BMW preferred to use prismatic cells which are man­
expensive at this time. EVs sales have exploded, with increases in all
ufactured by Samsung SDI. Tesla Inc. used cylindrical cells of different
three major car markets: China, the United States, and Europe. In the
dimensions like 18,650, 21,700 and 46,800 of which the first two digit
first half of 2021, sales climbed by 160 % annual growth to 2.6 million
described the cell's diameter and third, fourth digit described its length
vehicles, accounting for 26 % of new vehicle sales worldwide. With 1.1
both in mm [8]. For several typical electric cars, Table 1 presents an
million electric cars purchased in the first half, China remained the
outline of batteries pack configuration for several EVs.
world's leading EV market, accounting for 12 % of global sales (in
Recently, a large number of EV explosions were reported. The ma­
Fig. 1). EVs have been less popular in the United States. Approximately
jority of cases were discovered due to source of the fire in batteries.
2,50,000 units were sold, making up only 3 % of total sales. However,
Some of the explosions were caused by accidents or collisions with other
Japan, Asia Pacific and rest of the globe are falling behind in EV sells [1].
objects, which produced a short circuit in the battery system. In some
Tesla Model Y, Chevrolet Bolt, Ford Mustang Mach-E are among the top
cases, the battery overheated and caught fire as a result of the internal
3 best-selling EV in the world at the moment (in Fig. 2) [2]. The tech­
short-circuit (ISC) when overcharging. Table 2 reported that several Li-
nology is still under development, most of the firms are focused on

Fig. 1. Change in approximate sales of EVs globally from 2020 (left) to 2021 (right).

2
S. Mallick and D. Gayen Journal of Energy Storage 62 (2023) 106894

Fig. 2. Sales of EVs in automobile sector with different models.

Fig. 3. Sales of EVs globally over a seven-year period.

Fig. 4. Schematic diagram of cell types used in EV applications: (a) cylindrical (b) prismatic, and (c) pouch.

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S. Mallick and D. Gayen Journal of Energy Storage 62 (2023) 106894

resistance and convection energy loss are the origin of heat generation.
Wang et al. [36] developed a resistance-based thermal model consid­
ering state of charge, battery temperature, and current on the battery
heat generation. Found that air velocity had on the maximum temper­
ature of the battery, also affected the temperature decrease rate. Xie
et al. [37] proposed a spatial temporal algorithm for state of charge and
state of temperature estimation of battery. Found good coverage per­
formance with disturbance. Panchal et al. [38] showed an analogous
study of temperature and velocity profiles inside micro-channel cooling
plates. They concluded that with increase in C-rate and ambient tem­
perature, the temperature contour of cooling plates also increased.

2. Outline and objectives

The current research on EV battery system requires further devel­

Fig. 5. Schematic of three parallel (left) and series (right) pouch cells (red: +ve
and black: − ve terminals). (For interpretation of the references to colour in this
figure legend, the reader is referred to the web version of this article.)
Ion battery explosions recorded across the world. In some situations, the
fire spread over time, making it easier to get the people out of the car.
However, in other cases, the fire caused injury to the occupants, and
some died as a result.
Among the recent studies, Feng et al. [27] revealed information on
lithium-ion battery (LIB) thermal runaway (TR) processes and reported
the redox reaction between the cathode and anode at high temperatures
was the primary source of heat during TR in cells. Lopez et al. [28]
examined the cell-to-cell TR propagation, reported that an increase in
inter-cell distance in a battery pack decreased TR propagation. Zhang
et al. [29] reviewed LIB thermal behaviour, TR modelling and discussed
the mechanisms of heat generation, dissipation, and accumulation
within a cell. Tran et al. [30] discussed a number of prognostic and
diagnostic approaches for LIB by modelling TR. Bais et al. [31] con­
ducted a numerical study using passive battery thermal management
system (BTMS) with RT-42 as PCM and concluded that 4 mm PCM
thickness is required for effective temperature control of battery cell.
Sekhar et al. [32] designed soft sensors based upon feed forward neural
networks and predicted distance to empty in Forced Escape EV. They
concluded that an optimal choice of prediction accuracy can help reduce
range anxiety of EV users. Kausthubharam et al. [33] investigated with a
low expansion electrode particle and observed that lithiation of an un­
constrained electrode particle lead to reduced concentration gradient of
Li-ions with increase in stress magnitude. Yalçın et al. [34] proposed a
novel scheme on convolutional neural network – artificial bee colony to
estimate heat generation rate and voltage. The proposed scheme resul­
ted in 1.38 % and 3.55 % root mean square error for heat generation rate
and voltage respectively. Mevawalla et al. [35] modelled the internal
impedance resistance of LIB at several temperatures, different discharge
rates and at a number of state of health and found that internal
opment in order to reduce the risk of fire and explosion. In general, EV
battery systems presume to be the source of the fire. It is inevitable that
as an EES system the batteries went through several stages of failure. The
stages can include solid electrolyte interface (SEI), metal dissolution,
lithium plating, separator melting or tearing, dendrite growth, gas
generation, increased temperature and pressure, cell component aging
of a cell to overcharging, over-discharging, ISC, external short-circuit
etc. Therefore, the battery cells are adversely affected, and it is prefer­
able to strive for maximum time for a fire to fully disseminate, which is
more feasible. Based on Engineering Village web-based information, in
Fig. 6(a–b) show how the number of referred journal articles in the field
of thermal behaviour and thermal propagation in Li-Ion battery systems
steadily increased since 2010 that reflects the interest and potential
improvement of using the battery system in the scientific community.
The hindrance in the pathway of achieving highly efficient thermal
management system can include cooling techniques like liquid cooling,
PCM cooling etc., sensors to continuous monitoring temperature
throughout the battery pack and an intelligent BMS.
The present review work provides an overview of thermal and me­
chanical characteristics occurring inside a cell under different factors, as
well as the safety strategies used to prevent the triggering of thermal
runaway and thermal management technology. The propagation of TR
from the primary cell to its adjacent cells have also been elaborated due
to the overheating of battery cells. Several developments in component
level such as electrode materials, electrolyte, separators have been dis­
cussed. For the avoidance of fire, it has also been debated the importance
of using a variety of cooling methods or preventative measures, such as
air cooling, heat pipe cooling, hybrid cooling, etc. Based on such re­
quirements, numerous improvements in cooling approaches have been
introduced, such as the use of additives, positive temperature coefficient
materials, current interrupt devices, thermal fuses, and insulating
techniques. This research also examines mitigating techniques at the
system level, including the use of smart battery management systems
and sensors to track, manage, and improve the performance of the
battery modules and main aims are given towards delay in thermal
propagation, importance of safety management.

Table 1
A summary of most selling cars worldwide in 2021 and its battery pack configurations.
Model name Modules Cells per Total number of Cells Cell Type Battery capacity Weight Manufacturer Ref.
module cells configuration (kWh) (kg)

Tesla Model Y TBA TBA TBA TBA Cylindrical 75 439 CATL [9]
Chevrolet Bolt EV 8 36 288 3p96s Pouch 57 435 LG Chem [10]
Ford Mustang – – 288 – Pouch 68 485 LG Chem [11]
Mach-E
Volkswagen ID.4 12 24 288 2p12s12s Pouch 82 309 LG Chem [12,13]
Nissan Leaf (2nd 24 8 192 2p96s Pouch 40 303 AESC [14]
gen)
Audi e-tron 36 12 432 – Pouch 95 715 Samsung SDI [15,16]

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S. Mallick and D. Gayen Journal of Energy Storage 62 (2023) 106894

Table 2 remaining thermal and electrochemical energy releases into the envi­
Recent battery explosions recorded. ronment or into the adjacent cells because of the loss of stability. TR
Reference Date Place Incident propagates through a single cell's heat transfer properties of conduction,
convection, radiation, and excites its neighbouring cells and causes fire.
[17] July 1, South In the underground parking lot of the
2021 Korea Saesam village 3 complex in Boram-dong, With the increase in temperature the battery cell experiences several
Sejong-si, and a Hyundai Kona electric chemical transformations which includes electrolyte decomposition,
caught fire. reaction between electrolyte with anode and cathode material, solid
[18] June 18, South In Boryeong, Chungcheongnam-do, fire electrolyte interface (SEI) layer decomposition, and the reaction be­
2021 Korea broke out in a Kona EV parked near a
beach.
tween the binder and anode. Many of the reactions take place concur­
[19] June 14, France A renault zoe suddenly burst into flames, rently [40]. These occurrences eventually raise the battery's internal
2021 hurting two people, one of whom suffered temperature, which eventually results in TR. The safety vent fractures
significant burns. under high internal pressure to remove the gases generated, which then
[20] May 3, New A BMW i3-REx caught fire while
releases more gases that can cause a fire or external deflagration to the
2021 Zealand travelling between Picton and Nelson.
Flames spotted licking from under the battery [41]. The generation of heat due to chemical transformations are
back wheel arch after pulling over at the inevitable phenomenon. The only way to manufacture a safer battery
first safe area. The automobile utterly pack is by maximizing the delay time of TR to safely remove the occu­
obliterated. pants from an electric vehicle or for other applications. Also, a few re­
[21] January South A fire inexplicably broke out in Yucheon-
23, 2021 Korea dong, Dalseo-gu, and Daegu. The ignition
searchers have claimed that due to electrolyte and polyvinylidene
point discovered the battery below the fluoride binder decomposition, toxic compounds like hydrogen fluoride
car. (HF), phosphorus pentafluoride (PF5), and phosphoryl fluoride (POF3)
[22] January China According to Chinese media, a Tesla can be produced at high temperatures under harsh situations [42]. Alkyl
19, 2021 Model 3 detonated in an underground
fluoride, chemicals made of fluorinated phosphorous, alkyl difluor­
residential parking garage in Shanghai on
Tuesday. ophosphate (OPF2OR), and dialkyldifluorophosphate (OPF(OR)2) from
[23] October 18, South Hyundai motor confirmed a battery issue autocatalytic reaction are other dangerous gases. That is why it is
2020 Korea that resulted in a worldwide recall of important to minimize thermal runaway by enhancing battery compo­
77,000 Kona EVs by Korea's transport nents to prevent accidents [41].
ministry.
[24] October 17, South 14th Kona electric car fire happened in
2020 Korea Namyang-si, Gyeonggi-do at the electric 3.1. Effects of mechanical excursion on LIB cells
vehicle quick charging station.
[25] October 4, South In Sunday morning, a Hyundai Kona EV Mechanical impacts can cause destructive deformation and
2020 Korea erupted into flames while parked in the
displacement induced by applied force. Mechanical impediments often
underground parking lot of an apartment
in Daegu. occurs when a vehicle collides, the battery pack crushes or tears [43].
[26] August 10, Russia On a high-speed motorway in Moscow, a When a battery cell is subjected to mechanical impacts, it deforms me­
2019 Tesla Model 3 crashed with a truck and chanically first. Short circuit, temperature rise, gas generation, and
caught fire. increased pressure might result from a probable mechanical breakdown
of the separator or electrodes. The temperature rises sharply as ISC
3. Implications of thermal runaway of LIB cells progresses and can cause a fire in severe circumstances due to high
temperatures. ISC occurs when the internal separator fails. For locally
Thermal Runaway (TR) is a phenomenon that occurs when a me­ produced joule and heat discharge, the temperature begins to grow in
chanical, electrical, or thermal failure causes a temperature rise to this phase. Exothermic reactions occur when the temperature rises. TR
critical levels (in Fig. 7). The cell elements begin to decompose occurs when the heat generation rate exceeds the heat dissipation rate
exothermically at higher temperatures. The cell's rate of self-heating for an extended length of time. A huge volume of heat and gas can result
exceeds the rate at which heat can disperse, the temperature of the in a fire or an explosion [44].
cell increases exponentially, and stability decreases (in Fig. 8) [39]. All

Fig. 6. Published journal articles with respect to (a) Year and (b) Type of publication. Data collected from Engineering Village web-based information.

5
S. Mallick and D. Gayen
Fig. 7. TR related accidents in Li-Ion batteries.
Fig. 8. Accelerating rate calorimeter test for thermal stability of Lithium-Ion
batteries (T1: self-heating starting temperature, T2: critical temperature, and
T3: maximum temperature of sample during TR). Copyright ref. [39].
3.1.1. Consequences of collision and crush
Batteries mounted on the EV chassis are subjected to constant vi­
brations. Individual cells can be subjected to deformation after a colli­
sion or an accident, which has catastrophic implications for the entire
battery module [45]. In the majority of cases, the battery separator
breaks, resulting in ISC, and flammable electrolyte leaks, culminating in
a fire [43]. The study of the battery pack crush behaviour necessitates
research at material, cell, and pack scales.
During the key development stage of EVs in the previous decade,
most of the trials focused on the crashworthiness of EVs. Impact and
continuous loads had direct and indirect impacts on the entire system.
Sahraei et al. [46] performed unconfined and confined, through-
thickness compression, three-point bending, and hemispherical punch
indentation over nail indentation on pouch and bare Li-Ion cells. They
developed a FE model considering shell elements on LS-DYNA simula­
tion tool, obtained a significant matched with the existing results, and
reported thin pouch enclosure with low bending stiffness offer signifi­
cant strengthening property as battery shell. Greve et al. [47] conducted
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Journal of Energy Storage 62 (2023) 106894
radial crushing, local lateral indentation and global three point bending
on cylindrical cells at 0% SoC. Furthermore, a macro-mechanical FE
model developed and a stress-based Mohr-Coulomb criterion used to
accurately predict fracture and ISC in a cylindrical cell, concluded that
the rupture of a jelly roll fracture, ISC resulted in a voltage drop and an
increased cell temperature. Xia et al. [48] developed a FE model to
evaluate and compare experimental deformation of a separator under
both pure pinch and pinch-torsion test. The inclusion of the torsion
component resulted in a considerable rise in the maximum first principal
strain, resulting in ISC. Zhang et al. [49] tested on 18,650 cylindrical
cells to determine plastic and fracture properties, crack initiation and
crack propagation of shell casing using modified Mohr-Coulomb nu­
merical model. Results showed a comparison among performance of a
bare jellyroll, an empty shell casing, and a complete battery cell, and
reported that the metallic shell casing gave the highest mechanical
resistance. Zhang et al. [50] determined mechanical-electrical-thermal
response in LS-DYNA simulation based on a FE model and reported
that the model showed good correlation with the crush experiments and
accurately predicted the fracture of battery structure under indentation
test. Li et al. [51] conducted spherical head indentation on pouch,
prismatic cells and lateral indentation test on cylindrical cells and
concluded that the amount of inter-layers fractures increased with the
rate of open circuit voltage dropped. Goodman et al. [52] worked on the
development of internal cell defects in damaged cells which led to TR
due to continuous cycle by conducting three-point bending test, elec­
trical analysis, X-Ray Computed Tomography (XCT), destructive phys­
ical analysis and cross section analysis and reported that the short circuit
was caused by the electrode's natural expansion and contraction. Zhu
et al. [53] conducted a series of indentation tests on Li-Ion cells with
different capacities and SoC using XCT and concluded that irregular
strain-localisation modes (kinks, cusps, and buckles), radical mis­
matches in mechanical characteristics of distinct layers, and geometric
features of the indenter all contributed to cell separator tearing at
diverse sites, resulting in ISC. Sheikh et al. [54] conducted rod test,
circular punch test, three-point bend test and flat plate deformation test
at different SoC on 18,650 cylindrical cells, developed a numerical
simulation model in LS-DYNA and finally obtained displacement and
mean temperature at the short circuit, and mean maximum temperature
change and elaborated short circuit as propagation of failures.
S. Mallick and D. Gayen
3.1.2. Consequences of penetration
Another typical occurrence that can occur during EV collision is the
battery penetration. In contrast to crush behaviour, battery penetration
caused severe and instant ISC. It also resulted in external short circuit at
the same time damaging the outer casing of the battery packs [43].
Previous studies focused primarily on impact and continuous loads,
which had direct and indirect effects on the entire system. Maleki et al.
[55] performed small nail penetration, small indentation and cell pinch
test and observed with increasing cell capacity, the probability of TR
from ISC occurrences increased because the separator melted as the
temperature of the cell rises, leading to ISC. Lamb et al. [56] conducted
blunt rod test and sharp nail penetration test on commercially available
cells using CT imaging and revealed that the behaviour of cylindrical
and pouch cells differed based on the solid core and at high tempera­
tures, the findings became strongly reliant on the cell's internal struc­
ture. Spielbauer et al. [57] conducted a stepwise loading with various
impactors (nails, cylindrical, and hemispheric) cells and evaluated using
electron impedance spectroscopy (EIS) and CT. Results showed that
linked temperature increased with decrease in resistance in the EIS for
high measurement frequencies and separator and active materials
porosity decreased with increase in resistance connected with various
mechanisms. Xu et al. [58] conducted a series of nail penetration ex­
periments to study TR mechanism on pouch cells and studied influences
of SoC, penetration speed, penetration position, and nail diameter on
TR. Results showed that cells with a higher SoC and a bigger nail
penetration were more easily driven into TR and reach greater tem­
peratures. Li et al. [59] proposed a mechanical-electrochemical-thermal
numerical model and validated the proposed model with punch tests
with sharp cone, spherical punch and elliptical punch indentation. The
influences of SoC, indenter shape and size, and loads were studied on the
battery and stated that with sharp indenters create short circuits more
quickly than blunt indenters.
During an EV collision or accident, the battery pack frequently un­
dergoes a crush and penetration situation at the same time. Ali et al. [60]
proposed computational models for simulations on representative vol­
ume element (RVE) specimens and examined the micro buckling of
component sheets, macro buckling of the RVE specimens, and formation
of kinks and shear bands. Lai et al. [61] further improved the compu­
tational model of Ali et al. [60] and discussed about different compre­
hensive nominal stress-strain curves. Results showed that RVE
specimens were anisotropic and was dominated by the buckling of the Al
heat dissipater sheet under in-plane constrained compression. On the
other hand, a group of researchers from Beijing Institute of Technology,
China began modelling spring-mass damping systems to describe the
crash scenario of EVs, and they discovered that their models showed
more accurate results compared to RVE specimen models. Wenwei et al.
[62] proposed a model that can simulate mechanical behaviour of cy­
lindrical cells under continuous SoC. It was reported that the simulation
error was <4% for failure displacement while for average fitting error
the model under varied SoC was <3.91 % and findings revealed that
extreme displacement resulting in mechanical and electrical failure of
the battery. Wang et al. [63] proposed equivalent mechanical model of a
cylindrical Li-Ion battery, which consisted of spring-damping parallel
unit. Results showed that the average relative error in the mechanical
model under various SoC was <6.75 % and under various damaged
conditions, the average prediction error for failure displacement was <4
%. Yiding et al. [64] partner of Wang et al. [63] coupled a thermo-
electrochemical-mechanical model on the basis of structural damages
of Li-Ion cells and reported that ISC heat was the primary source of heat
at the hard short-circuit stage under mechanical damage scenario.
It has already established that mechanical obstacle was an equivalent
impact on the short circuit in all three types of battery cells namely
cylindrical, pouch, and prismatic. Continuous electron travel is
hampered by the crush or penetration, resulting in a rapid rise in tem­
perature. As a result, a voltage drop and a sudden temperature rise can
arise, potentially leading to a system failure. Computational models to
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Journal of Energy Storage 62 (2023) 106894
predict TR in LIB cells are proposed in addition to various experimental
studies. It is recommended to do further study in the future to construct a
kinematic thermo-electrochemical-mechanical interconnected model
that can predict ISC-induced TR caused by mechanical impediment.
3.2. Effects of electrical excursion on LIB cells
Electrical impediment is the next stage of mechanical impediment,
can be formed due to intercalation kinetics, SEI film decomposition,
reaction between electrode and electrolyte protective layer, electrolyte
breakdown into flammable gas, separator melt causing ISC etc. [65]. The
temperature rise is first accelerated by SEI layer decomposition and
interfacial interactions, increasing the probability of O2 release from
cathode materials [66]. Also, temperature impacts a battery's internal
resistance, or the rate of electrochemical reactions and transport. As a
result, at higher temperatures, a higher initial current developed and
more heat generated. These reactions eventually lead to TR, which
causes battery rupture and explosion because of interaction between
ambient oxygen and hot flammable gases of battery cells [67]. An
electrical short-circuit between the different cell components were not
always caused by mechanical failure across an element and an important
distinction made during determination of electrical resistance across
short-circuit. Whereas overall electrical system voltage drops when a
cell component fails mechanically.
3.2.1. Consequences of overcharge and over-discharge
Overcharging occurs when all the active material in a cell has con­
verted to a charged state and a battery is charged to a voltage greater
than a specified voltage. The voltage is dependent on the chemistry of
individual cells. Initially, a battery voltage progressively grew until it
surpassed the nominal cut-off voltage, indicating the start of an over­
charging method. After that, side reactions began to occur inside the
battery when it was overcharged above full SoC. Next, the battery
temperature grew even faster, and the battery began to swell. Lastly, the
separator broke after the ruptured shell resulting in TR (in Fig. 9). The
rate of heat production of battery is determined by overcharging current
density, which affects rate of heat generation per unit time and finally to
raise chances of explosion. Batteries undergo external short circuit, due
to the overcharge or over-discharge phenomena which is considered as
an electrical occurrence resulted in a sequence of unfavourable elec­
trochemical reactions. Due to inconsistency of the battery cells which is
considered as one of the many reasons of battery overcharging, can be
very dangerous due to storing excess energy into the battery cell. There
will be a risk of overcharging if the BMS cannot correctly monitor the
voltage of any individual battery cell.
Leising et al. [66] studied overcharge behaviour of prismatic cells
and reported the rate of charge to be a crucial parameter because
overcharged at low charge rates remained hermetic and overcharging at
high charge rates rupture occurred. Ren et al. [68] predicted interactive
electrochemical and thermal behaviours of LIB. Results showed that
electrolyte oxidation reaction and the reaction between deposited
lithium and electrolyte contributed the most to heat generation revealed
during the overcharge process and battery overcharge performance
improved by higher electrolyte oxidation potential and increased TR
onset temperature. Larsson et al. [69] performed different types of
damage test under overcharge condition for different types of LIB and
reported that Lithium Iron Phosphate (LFP) reduced thermal response
during overcharging tests due to its thermally stable cathode material.
Arai et al. [70] conducted overcharge experiment with pouch cells
composed of polypropylene separator, lithium metal oxide (LiCoO2)
positive electrode coated on Al foil, carbon negative electrodes coated
on Cu foil, and liquid electrolyte. Results showed that at a low current
rate at above the nominal value of cell voltage deposition of metallic Li
began and became saturated after 160% of charge and deposition of
metallic Li on graphite was easier to compare with hard carbon. Zhang
et al. [71] carried out different overcharge degrees on degradation and
S. Mallick and D. Gayen Journal of Energy Storage 62 (2023) 106894

Fig. 9. An overview of the overcharge side effects for Li-Ion batteries at each level. Copyright ref. [68].

TR behaviour of lithium-ion batteries. Results indicated that single
overcharge had little influence on cell capacity, but it degraded the
thermal stability.
The inclusion of electrolyte additives, on the other hand, improves
the output of Li-Ion cells. Zhang [72] used electrolyte additives of
different categories like LiPF6 salt stabilizer, Li decomposition improver,
SEI forming improver, cathode protection agent, safety protection agent,
and solvation enhancer. Lithium bis (oxalato) borate was found to be the
only multifunctional agent that improved LIB performance by assisting
and stabilizing SEI formation, reducing cathode material dissolution,
providing excellent overcharge tolerance, and facilitating Al passivation
in the electrolyte solution. Prithviraj [73] experimented overcharging
on Nickel Manganese Cobalt Oxide (NMC) and on LFP and reported with
adding an organic antioxidant Quercetin as an additive improved

Fig. 10. An overview of the over-discharge side effects for Li-Ion batteries at each level. Copyright ref. [74].

8
S. Mallick and D. Gayen
electrochemical characteristics by 92% after 350 cycles and also
explored with radiative heat flux, flame temperature, voltage, and sur­
face temperature for further investigation.
Over-discharging a battery to a point that its voltage falls below a
crucial threshold can be harmful or even catastrophic. Initially, due to
Li+ de-intercalation from anode into cathode, the voltage begins to
decrease fast. Cu foil oxidation follows, resulting in a fluctuating
voltage. Finally, the voltage drops to 0 V due to widespread state of
discharge (SoD), and Cu dendrites begin to cause short-circuiting (in
Fig. 10).
Over-discharge can occur due to the irregular capacity and voltage
drops on individual battery cells. In addition, the cells that are con­
nected in series become more prone to being over-discharged. BMS can
fail to observe minimal over-discharge occurrences with time which
results in a number of irreversible reactions in LIBs. Lai et al. [75] and
Wang et al. [76] studied the effect of Depth of Discharge (DoD) on cell
performance. Lai et al. [75] concluded cells with a DoD of <120%
engaged in self-repair behaviour which causes a drop in ISC and findings
revealed that a greater DoD resulted in a faster capacity degradation
rate. Whereas, Wang et al. [76] found noticeable capacity loss during
over-discharged to 112.5% DoD and further elaborated deposition of Cu
on ceramic-covered side of separators while DoD surpasses 108.3%.
Using, Neutron Imaging Technology, Ma et al. [77] studied influence of
over-discharge on battery performance deterioration, safety issues with
the help of electrochemical analysis and structural characterization
methods. Results showed that over-discharge behaviour deteriorated the
internal structure of traction batteries and served as a guide for testing
and evaluating the safety of traction batteries.
Overcharging and over-discharging often results in active material
degradation of LIB cells which limits the life cycle. A number of re­
searches have been conducted in series to investigate the thermal
characteristics of LIBs for overcharge and over-discharge prone cells.
Ouyang et al. [78] showed that temperature rise exacerbated and
required less time during overcharged/over-discharged of battery. Oca
et al. [79] reported that gas evolution increased the internal pressure
causing swelling and higher internal resistance. They reported that
faradaic and energy efficiency were 86.6% and 22.3%, respectively,
after the overcharge process of the pouch cell, which indicated the
abnormal behaviour of the cells.
Therefore, it can be concluded that both overcharging and over-
discharging have a considerable impact on causing a short circuit in a
single cell. Overcharging occurs when a cell is charged at a higher rate
than nominal rate, resulting in the deposition of metallic lithium on the
anode. Over-discharging, on the other hand, occurs when a battery is
discharged at a lower SoC, resulting in de-intercalation of Li-ions from
the anode to the cathode. Both instances result in battery cell swelling
and the production of gases. Overcharging is one of the most harmful
forms of electrical damage and one of the most common causes of Li-ion
battery safety accidents.
3.2.2. Consequences of external short circuit
The term ESC refers to battery that has been short circuited from the
outside. The battery test for fire or rupture uses a small value external
resistor, which results in a temperature rise [80]. ESC is frequently
caused by direct contact between cathode and anode of same cell by a
conductor. A LIB cathode and anode may come into contact during a
trial, testing or in practical applications, releasing heat reasonably
consistently and rapidly. This causes the cell to discharge fast, resulting
in significant amount of current and rapid generation of heat both within
the cell during external short. Extremely high internal temperatures
(180 ◦ C) might cause unwanted exothermic reactions in cells if the cell
temperature is not carefully monitored which can lead to fire and
explosion.
External shorting can easily happen owing to defective
manufacturing or irresponsible cell handling. Chen et al. [81] experi­
mented ESC tests on ten 18,650 cylindrical cells at different SoC and
9
Journal of Energy Storage 62 (2023) 106894
proposed ESC fault diagnosis algorithm where the first layer conducted
fault detection and the second layer gave a model-based diagnosis. Re­
sults showed that the error between the model and measured data was
<0.36 V in fault diagnosed within 5 s. Rheinfeld et al. [82] documented
influences of electrode loading and tab configuration on the ESC char­
acteristics by varying initial cell temperature, cell voltage and ESC
resistance for pouch type cells. Results showed that with lower electrode
loadings, counter-tab arrangements, current density distribution, and
higher initial cell temperatures speed up the short circuit, whereas
initial cell voltages and ESC resistances had only a small impact on the
short circuit dynamics. Again, Rheinfeld et al. [83] presented a multi­
dimensional and multi-physics model for ESC behaviour of Li-Ion cells
(cylindrical, prismatic, and pouch) at different convective cooling con­
ditions. Simulation results showed that for a low-resistance ESC with a
large ratio of cooling surface, thin cells kept electrode area within an
uncritical functioning frame of cell temperature and SoC. Xiong et al.
[84] presented online fault diagnostics for ESC of LIB pack and ESC
properties of 18,650 type NMC battery packs and single cells were
compared. The findings revealed that the approach detected ESC failures
in 3.5 s with a terminal voltage error of <25 mV, and diagnosed un­
available current information for a varied number of cells linked in se­
ries with a terminal voltage error of <48 mV and 60 mV. Yang et al. [85]
proposed a technique based on an Artificial Neural Network to estimate
the current of a short-circuited cell using just voltage information. Re­
sults indicated that the root mean squared errors (RMSE) between the
estimated and measured currents were 3.72 A and 6.61 A, while the
maximum estimation errors of temperature increase were 4.9 ◦ C and
7.3 ◦ C, respectively. Recently, Yang et al. [86] proposed an extreme
learning machine (ELM) based thermal (ELMT) model, studied tem­
perature behaviour of batteries under ESC conditions and compared the
ELMT model with a multi-lumped-state thermal (MLT) model using
generic algorithm. Results based on ELMT model showed better pre­
diction and fitting accuracy, the average RMSE of the fitting was 0.65 ◦ C
for the ELMT model and 3.95 ◦ C for the MLT model and the RMSE of the
prediction under new data set was 3.97 ◦ C for the ELMT model and
6.11 ◦ C for the MLT model.
{( 2 )[ ( )] }
∑
L
Tk+1 = βj
Ik Ri(j)
− Hk,j + Tamb 1 − exp −
hj A
Δt + Hk,j
j=1
hj A ρCp(j) V
(1)
{( 2 )[ ( )] }
Ik Ri(j) hj A
Hk,j+1 = − Hk,j + Tamb 1 − exp − Δt + Hk,j (2)
hj A ρCp(j) V
where Tk is the battery temperature at time instant k, β is the weight
matrix, Ik current at time instant k (=1, 2, …. N − 1), N denotes tem­
perature data, Ri is the total impedance inside the battery at ith layer, h is
the convection coefficient, A is the surface area, Hk, j is the output of the
jth sub-model in the hidden layer, Tamb is the ambient temperature, ρ, CP,
V, and Δt represent the density, battery specific heat capacity, volume,
sampling period, respectively. The subscript j denotes the sub-model
number (j = 1, 2, …, L).
As a result, it is possible to conclude that ESC can cause a significant
increase in the battery pack's internal temperature. The bulk movement
of Li-ions causes ESC, which may be regulated using external and in­
ternal resistances. Electrode loadings, current density distribution, and a
greater initial cell temperature are all known to speed up the short cir­
cuit. If the cell temperature is not closely monitored, extremely high
internal temperatures can trigger undesirable exothermic reactions in
cells, which can result in fire and explosion.
3.2.3. Consequences of internal short circuit
Various factors can induce an ISC in a battery. Primarily, due to
dendrite formation, internal defects, externally applied puncture or
deformation, and overheating can cause ISC to an overheated cell. The
heat from ISC can destroy the separator more and more, resulting in
S. Mallick and D. Gayen
generation of gases and a vicious cycle of short circuits. It has the po­
tential to cause a battery pack or module to failure or TR. TR suscepti­
bility is affected by the ISC spot's localised heating energy and duration,
separator shrinkage, melting point, and propagation, as well as the
overall cell temperature rise. To prevent thermal runaway propagation,
the following recommendations were made by Feng et al. [87]: (i)
raising the thermal runaway temperature's onset to above 470 ◦ C (ii)
lowering the electric energy released during internal short circuits (iii)
enhancing heat dissipation by raising the heat dissipation coefficient to
above 70 W/m2K and (iv) adding more thermal resistant layers between
adjacent batteries with a thickness of 1 mm and a thermal conductivity
of less further added thermal resistance between neighbouring batteries
as a precaution against propagation. Later, in another study, Feng et al.
[87] presented a model-based fault-diagnosis algorithm that trans­
formed the measured voltage and temperature to the intrinsic electro­
chemical status which can reflect typical ISC features. Estimated
equivalent short resistance with small error reflected the level of ISC by
the online fault diagnosis algorithm.
Internal shorts are usually irreversible since they are caused by in­
ternal defects such as solid electrolyte interface (SEI), metal dissolution,
lithium plating, dendrite growth etc. In some cases, external force and
internal inconveniences can result in separator tearing or melting that
can trigger ISC within a battery cell. ISC can be detected by employing
smart battery management system (BMS) and continuously monitoring
temperature among cells. Liu et al. [88] studied five triggering ap­
proaches which triggered with PCM, shape-memory alloys, artificially
induced dendrite growth, equivalent resistance and nail penetration.
The findings revealed that triggering mechanisms using PCM and shape-
memory alloys controlled to activate certain sorts of ISC, but it was
difficult to set up experimentally. Naha et al. [89] proposed an approach
based on advanced machine learning to detect ISC in real time based on
an equivalent circuit model. Results showed fault detection accuracy of
97%. Using symmetrical loop circuit topology, Pan et al. [90] detected
the ISC that happens in battery packs with parallel-series hybrid con­
nections and aimed to detect the ISC Ampere metres were used to extract
new signals that indicated the unbalanced current among the parallel
interconnected cells. ISC was evaluated using number theory and circuit
topology, and ISC experiments were used to validate the suggested al­
gorithm. This method accurately and efficiently detected the ISC failure.
Ren et al. [91] carried out relationship between ISC and TR of Li-Ion
battery through experimental and modelling approaches. Shrinkage of
the separator was shown to be the fundamental cause of ISC. Further­
more, TR was triggered by defined exothermic interactions between the
anode and the electrolyte, as well as the release of highly reactive ox­
ygen from the cathode. Lai et al. [92] reported a comprehensive study on
the mechanism of evolutionary process of ISC including modelling and
simulation experiments and methods for detection and diagnosis. Re­
sults showed that the development of big data and Artificial Intelligence
(AI) technology would promote the accuracy and timeliness of ISC
detection. Finegan et al. [93] used a low melting temperature wax be­
tween electrodes to initiate ISC and experimented using high-speed
radiography to record the onset and spread of TR. They indicated that
pressure could build up when the cell vent is blocked, so finding another
way to discharge would assist to avoid TR propagation. Additionally, it
was shown that cells that were penetrated vertically had higher interior
temperatures than cells that were penetrated horizontally. They
concluded that a vertical penetration may be more probable than a
horizontal one to cause TR in low state of charge cells [94]. Two key
indications of damaged batteries are capacity loss brought on by deac­
tivating components and current leakage brought on by ISC [95]. The
minor ISC can be mitigated by increasing the elongation of the separator
and reducing the damage area when the separator fractures. A suitable
microstructure that can aid in isolating the ISC and heat-generating
regions is needed to reduce the significant ISC and TR embrittling the
current collector [96].
As a result, it can be inferred that ISC can result in the production of a
10
Journal of Energy Storage 62 (2023) 106894
variety of gases, which can lead to battery failure. ISC happens mostly
because of internal defects such as solid electrolyte interface (SEI), metal
dissolution, lithium plating, dendrite growth, separator tearing or
melting, which results in a significant temperature increase. The number
of shorted electrode layers and short-circuit resistance both have a role
in the incidence of ISC. Location is also important in the formation of
ISC. ISC occurs in various circumstances due to external and internal
faults. By using a smart battery management system (BMS) and
continually monitoring cell temperature, ISC can be controlled.
3.3. Effects of thermal excursion on LIB cells
When a battery is subjected to thermal impediment, it suffers from
thermal shock or has an excessively high local temperature. Fires in
battery might develop during either electric car charging or rise in
temperature in surrounding area. If they are very close to or in touch
with a heated battery, or a spark, combustibles in the air near a defective
battery may ignite, setting everything around them on fire.
The design of a battery usually links to localise high-temperature
zones. As evidenced by a non-uniform temperature distribution found
(in Fig. 11) in a LIB under thermal shock, poor LIB design leads to
excessive impedance at the metal contacts or uneven heat dissipation.
Kriston et al. [65] conducted hard and soft ESC in 10 Ah pouch and 4.5
mAh coin Li-Ion cells incorporated with temperature signals, audio, IR
and visual video recordings. Also, they characterized the cell compo­
nents using SCM, XCT and 3D profilometry. They found that the
normalized external/internal resistance ratio to be the main influential
factor behind variable overheating phenomena within cells. Lopez et al.
[97] aimed to examine the influence of exothermic side reactions using a
thermal damage model on a single cylindrical cell at elevated temper­
ature and both the conventional and modified oven tests. Results
showed that damage reaction sequence identified as first SEI break­
down, negative-solvent, and finally positive-solvent and changed con­
vection condition for heater test to conventional test. Shurtz et al. [98]
suggested to use differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) and acceler­
ating rate calorimetry (ARC) for cell and component level safety eval­
uations and monitored decomposition behaviour using qualitative
empirical comparisons. Results showed improved designs and pre­
dictions for circumstances that are difficult to access experimentally.
Wang et al. [99] carried out local heating and uniform heating for high
specific energy NCM811 Li-Ion battery and reported that for uniform
heating of TR, the safety valve opened in a timely manner without an
explosion, no ISC, and hence no damage to the safety valve. It also re­
ported in other hand that local heating method generated TR, which
caused a major ISC, discharged electrolyte, material burnt furiously and
erupted, and the safety valve destroyed. Concluded that increased nickel
concentration in the positive electrode, would potentially enhance the
degree of damage during TR. However, Love et al. [100] attempted to
understand the nature of lithium dendrite growth by observing their
number, initiation time and growth rate at ambient and sub-ambient
temperatures: − 10 ◦ C, 5 ◦ C, and 20 ◦ C. The cells at 5 ◦ C short-
circuit the most quickly due in part to a favourable morphology at this
temperature, where dendrites originate swiftly at about 10 ◦ C. Edge
et al. [101] emphasized the coupling between the different mechanisms
and the different physical and chemical approaches. They concluded
that the at both electrodes, SEI layer growth, lithium plating, separator
breakdown, and particle fracture are the main causes of thermal abuse of
LIB.
The decomposition of positive electrode material, reaction with
electrolyte, and separator fault play an impact in developing TR. In re­
ality, the rate of heat emission from the electrode is frequently faster
than the rate of cooling. The exterior surface area and shape of a LIB
determine its heat dissipation. Radiative heat dissipation helps to relieve
part of the accumulated heat. However, a portion of the heat is retained
within the battery. If this heat is not dispersed, exothermic side reactions
can occur, potentially leading to TR.
S. Mallick and D. Gayen Journal of Energy Storage 62 (2023) 106894

Fig. 11. An infrared picture captured when a cell ruptured due to thermal impediment. Copyright ref. [65].

4. Thermal runaway propagation
TR can spread from one cell to adjacent cells within a battery. Heat is
transferred through a combination of conduction, convection, and ra­
diation (Fig. 12). By adding PCM, heat pipes (HPs), or other cooling
technologies, as well as insulating the battery cell's inner case, the heat
transfer rate in battery cells can be slowed to arrest or delay TR
propagation.
4.1. Modelling
Several studies presented various models for the behaviour of TR in
battery cells for TR propagation within battery modules. Li et al. [103]
found that the melting of separator is the leading cause behind failure of
the LIB under heated condition. Huang et al. [104] discussed some
critical TR parameters of LIBs with different SOCs such as temperature,
voltage, mass loss, heat release rate, released gas during TR to minimize
the TR propagation. Further they elaborated that LIB with 100 % SOC
exhibits intense jet fire and combustion behaviour whereas for 50 % SOC
considerable amount of jet smoke. In addition, found that TR of LIB
module in series spreads faster compared to under connected condition
due to thermal conduction of pole connector. In a recent study Huang
et al. [105] found that performance of electrode materials also has sig­
nificant effects on TR propagation in LIB cells. They observed the violent
jet fire and combustion behaviour in the NCM module however a
considerable amount of white smoke was observed in the LFP module
and concluded that compared with NCM modules LFP modules are less
likely to suffer from TR propagation. Also, TR induced by overcharging

Fig. 12. Schematic of TR propagation model on prismatic cells. Copyright ref. [102].

11
S. Mallick and D. Gayen
is more risk and harmful than that induced by overheating, as over­
charged LIB cells release more heat, combustible gases and induce more
mass loss [106]. Huang et al. also found that heating power shows a
more significant impact attributed to the rapid deterioration of TR
behaviour and the peak heat release rate rises and under the conditions
of high SOC and high heating power, the time required for the ISC to
evolve from micro ISC to large-scale ISC is often very short [107]. It
directly impacts the electrode, and the electrode assembly, which is
supported by an internal mandrel, also provides a clear channel for
fluidized, broken-down materials to evacuate via the vent during TR.
The mandrel's apparent disadvantage is that excessive gas flow rates
might cause it to move independently of the electrode assembly and
occasionally pierce the crimp components. The mandrel can gain
enough speed to break through the top button of LIB cell of high-
capacity cells, where more gases are produced, and become a high-
velocity projectile outside the cell, which can be a serious safety risk
in battery systems. Bursting happens when the electrode assembly shifts
and clogs the vent, which was the major reason for cell rupture, also
when the electrode assembly does not maintain an opening to enable
enough gas flow to reach the vent. The internal pressure may increase
until it reaches the cell's burst-pressure in case the vent itself does not let
a sufficient flow of gas to escape [108].
4.2. Experiment
Numerous experimental methods have been described in order to
comprehend the behaviour of TR propagation and among which Li et al.
[103] studied on five LIBs utilising an extended volume accelerating rate
calorimeter revealed that the TR was initially activated on a layer close
to the front surface of the LIB before spreading to the whole battery. The
average propagation time inside a single LIB is 10s in a module with 100
% SOC and 39 s in a module with 50 % SOC. Additionally, the module
with 100 % SOC displayed severe combustion behaviour, which was
replaced by a substantial portion of smoke in the module with 50 % SOC.
Huang et al. [104] conducted experiments of four LIB cells and
concluded that TR propagation of LIB module in parallel is more
aggressive and risk than that of LIB module in series. When LIBs were
connected in parallel, the electrical connections not only provide a
thermal path but also a conductive path to other LIBs. The transfer of
electrical energy can exacerbate the spread of TR in LIB module. On
another study, Huang et al. [106] conducted experiments on LIBs
induced by overcharging and over discharging and found that TR
induced by overheating propagates faster than overcharged cells
because the temperature and temperature rate of cells directly causes
the heating power induced by overheating to be higher than that
induced by overcharging. In their study using large format LIBs, Huang
et al. [107] came to the conclusion that the influence of heating power
on TR behaviour was substantial. The peak heat release rate of TR
increased from 7.5 to 95.2 kW when the heating power was increased
from 400 to 700 W. Finegan et al. [108] experimented with ultra-high
speed synchrotron X-ray imaging at >20000 FPS and characterized
venting processes of six different cylindrical cells undergoing TR.
Identified the catastrophic cell failure, rupture and explosions and
further discussed the opportunities of incorporating a second vent at the
base which resulted to avoid the critical stages that lead to rupture. Feng
et al. [109] investigated TR with 6 battery modules and 47 thermo­
couples and observed a lower onset temperature and a shorter TR trig­
gering time due to side heating compared to pole heating. Also, they
found that 12 % of the total heat released in TR of a battery and
approximately one-tenth as much heat was transmitted through the pole
connector than through the battery shell. Gao et al. [110] studied a
module-to-module TR propagation in a multi-modular battery pack.
They concluded that TR initiated mainly at adjacent cells nearest to the
heater and due to the temperature development of the entire battery
pack. Borger et al. [111] studied the behaviour of TR which obtained the
solutions for TR, their propagation, and safe handling in an
12
Journal of Energy Storage 62 (2023) 106894
electrochemical system like the LIB system.
4.3. Suppression
Water is a great cooling medium because of its large heat capacity
and latent heat of vaporisation, which could be able to reduce or stop the
spread of TR to nearby batteries. Firefighting with water-based extin­
guishants is the most economical option. A number of water-based
suppressants are being used which includes water jet, water spray or
sprinkler, water with added surfactants, and water mist [112]. Liu et al.
[113] introduced dodecafluoro-2-methylpentan-3-one (C6F12O) sup­
pression and rapid water mist cooling system. They concluded that
water mist cooling at various working pressures resulted in the reduc­
tion in peak battery temperature. Ji et al. [114] established a finite
volume model for simulating the process of extinguishing LIB fire and
studied the effect of water mist on suppressing the battery fire. They
concluded that with increase in number of nozzles, the better spray flow,
and the earlier the spray start time, the better the fire extinguishing
effect.
5. Safety management strategy
Before being integrated into devices, newly manufactured Li-Ion
batteries should always be inspected for safety. The fundamental fac­
tor for LIB failures is the unregulated and undesirable generation of heat
and gas from diverse reactions occur inside a cell. The key focus should
stay on limiting heat generation, functioning at a safe energy, and
improving heat dissipation rate to regulate the TR phenomenon in LIBs.
Strategies to enhance safety management of LIBs include modifying
battery internal components and adding various cooling features.
Furthermore, BMS are frequently used to manage the internal temper­
ature. Still, the majority of cases suggest that these approaches delayed
but the risk of TR not eliminated.
5.1. Improvements to Li-Ion batteries safety using internal techniques
Cathode, anode and separator materials and electrolyte formulations
are continually being improved for enhanced battery performance.
Adding the proper additives to the electrolytes and using the right
separator material with the optimum porosity will assist to improve the
safety of LIBs. However, with the decrease in the onset temperature of
the cathode and anode materials degrades safety of LIBs.
5.1.1. Enhancement of cathode materials
Cathode material must be structurally and chemically stable to sus­
tain regulated chemical reactions during lithiation and de-lithiation.
Once the temperature climbed to the onset temperature of cathode
decomposition, exothermic processes start occurring at the cathode. The
most prevalent cathode materials used in today's commercial lithium-
ion batteries for EVs are LCO (LiCoO2), LMO (LiMn2O4), LFP
(LiFePO4), NCA (Li(NixCoyAlz)O2) and NCM (Li(NixCoyMnz)O2). The
degradation processes of such cathode materials discussed in this sec­
tion. The chemical kinetics gathered, compared and depicted (in Fig. 13)
energy release graph.
Doughty et al. [115] depicted a comparable study on thermal sta­
bility of several cathode materials for Li-Ion batteries and reported order
of thermal stability during TR process was LFP > LMO > NCM > NCA >
LCO, where LFP was the most stable cathode material (in Fig. 14). The
LCO is the first commercially available Li-Ion battery cathode material.
However, since the thermal stability of the LCO was inadequate, LIBs
with LCO cathodes are prone to TR, at high temperatures/overcharged.
Pure LCO cathode is no longer commonly utilised in EV batteries. LCO
had a layered structure with an operating voltage of ≤3.9 V. Feng et al.
[43] reported that Macneil and Dahn used DSC and ARC to examine the
kinetics reaction of the LCO (in Table 3) and showed activation energy
and pre-exponential factor was 1.235 × 105 Jmol− 1, and 6.67 × 1011
S. Mallick and D. Gayen Journal of Energy Storage 62 (2023) 106894

Fig. 13. Different cathode materials with their energy release diagrams. Copyright Ref. [43].

Fig. 14. Several cathode materials with their daily usage. Copyright Ref. [44].

13
S. Mallick and D. Gayen Journal of Energy Storage 62 (2023) 106894

s− 1, respectively. Table 4
The compositions of NCA (Li(NixCoyAlz)O2) cathode with x = 0.8, y Previous studies on NCA as cathode.
= 0.1 – 0.15, and z = 0.05 are the successful and commercialised Reference Description Enthalpy Onset
cathodes utilised in EVs among the numerous Ni-based layered oxide (J g− 1) temperature
systems in the form of NCA (in Table 4). As an example, the Tesla Model (◦ C)
S's battery cell showed that the NCA had a layered structure with an Julien et al. Li[Ni0.8Co0.15Al0.05]O2 charged to 941 170
operating voltage ≤3.8 V. [117] 4.2 V
The NCM cathode's thermal breakdown is less vigorous than that of Jo et al. Li[Ni0.81Co0.1Al0.09]O2 charged to 466 231
[118] 4.5 V
the LCO and NCA. Nickel (Ni) or Al can be used as replacement of Cobalt Huang et al. Li0.1[Ni0.8Co0.15Al0.05]O2 + 1 M 850 ± 100 160
(Co) in NCM cathode which might improve thermal stability while [119] LiPF6 + ethyl carbonate and
lowering the NCM cathode's available capacity. Nonetheless, Ni co- dimethyl carbonate (EC: DEC)
doping for Co intended to counteract some of the capacity loss during electrolyte
cycling. The concentration of Ni in NCM has a significant impact on its
thermal characteristics (in Table 5). During decomposition, the cathode
with a higher concentration of Ni in the NCM produces more heat and Table 5
NCM had a layered structure with an operating voltage ≤3.8 V. Jung Previous studies on NCM as cathode.
et al. [120] conducted on-line electrochemical mass spectroscopy for Reference Description Enthalpy (J Exothermic peak
stability of LiNi0.43Mn1.57O4 (LNMO), proved that NCM111, NCM6222 g− 1) temperature (◦ C)
and NCM811 released oxygen from the particle surface after threshold Feng et al. NCM111 252 211
voltage and produce mostly CO2 and CO, and showed no oxygen release [52]
at 5 V. Kim et al. Non-coated bare 160 325, 362, 458
The LMO's thermal stability reduces as the electrolyte concentration [121] NCM111
Chen et al. NCM111 charged to 910 265, 275, 305
increased. The LMO cathode's ideal electrolyte concentration was 0.5 M. [122] 4.6 V
LMO has a spinel structure with an operating voltage of ≤4.0 V. Ac­
cording to Wang et al. [123], the activation energy (in Table 6) of the
LMO cathode was 1.321 × 105 Jmol− 1 with a pre-exponential factor of
Table 6
2.09 × 1011 s− 1 and the exothermic process commenced at 152 ◦ C.
Previous studies on LMO as cathode.
In comparison to other cathode materials, the LFP cathode had
greater thermal stability. The LFP disintegration temperature was as Reference Description Enthalpy Temperature
(J g− 1) range (◦ C)
high as 310 ◦ C (in Table 7). LFP has an olivine structure with an
operating voltage of ≤3.4 V. Feng et al. [43] reported that chemical Feng et al. Decomposition of Li0.1Mn2O4 + 450 150–300
[116] electrolyte
kinetics of LFP with an activation energy and pre-exponential factor of
Wang et al. LMO (charged to 4.0 V) + 1 M 1203.4 90–250
118.7 kJmol− 1 and 6.71 × 1011 s− 1, respectively Table 8 showed that [123] LiPF6 + ethyl carbonate and
how high surface area ratio, consistent chemical characteristics, and dimethyl carbonate (EC:DEC)
excellent electrical and thermal conductivity, graphene employed to electrolyte
increase the performance rate and stability of LIBs. Yu et al. LMO/electrolyte + LiPF6 290 160–200
[124]
The requirement for LIBs with high energy density and power density
is steadily increasing. Ni-rich, Mn-rich, and Li-rich materials, as well as
carbon-coated LFP nanospheres and vanadium pentoxide, had all
discovered as novel cathode materials with high capacity and voltage. A Table 7
Previous studies on LFP as cathode.
battery's charge and discharge current are expressed as C-rate. Hou et al.
[127] obtained high capacity of 145 mAh g− 1 at a high rate of 10C Reference Description Enthalpy (J Temperature
g− 1) range (◦ C)
current density, also capacity retention of 70% at 0.1C current density
with inactive-Al3+ doped Ni-rich LiNi0.7Co0.15Mn0.15O2 electrode. Hu Yu et al. LFP + 1 M electrolyte with Li salt 256 225–325
et al. [128] noticed performance degradation of Li and Mn rich LMR [124]
Zaghib et al. LFP + 1.2 M LiPF6 + ethyl 439 50–400
[Li1.2(Ni0.15Co0.1Mn0.55)O2] using X-ray spectroscopic and 3-D electron
[125] carbonate and ethylmethyl
microscopic imaging techniques during charge-discharge cycles and carbonate (EC: EMC) electrolyte
reported that LMR cathode material was more thermally stable with Martha et al. Li0.05FePO4 290 190–285
Aluminium Fluoride (ALF3) coating. Yin et al. [129] classified inter­ [126]
granular cracks of Ni-rich cathodes into three types as per the crack
generation mechanism, summarized stabilization of the structure/
and electrochemical performance of Ni-rich cathodes.
interface of Ni-rich cathodes by surface coating, cation/anion doping,
Coating is an essential approach for improving thermal stability.
composition tailoring, morphology engineering and electrolytes opti­
When oxides such as MgO, Al2O3, SiO2, TiO2, ZnO, SnO2, ZrO2, and
mization and finally discussed about strategies to mitigate micro-crack
other materials coated on the surface of cathode materials such as LCO,
LMO, and LFP, the coatings prevent direct contact with the electrolyte
Table 3 solution, suppress phase transition, improve structural stability, and
Previous studies on LCO as cathode. reduce cation disorder in crystal sites. Consequently, while cycling, side
Reference Description Enthalpy (J Temperature reactions and heat production reduced. Hu et al. [134] examined
g− 1) range (◦ C) interfacial side reactions of cathode before and after MgO coating and
Feng et al. LCO + non-aqueous 265 – reported that surface film resistance was not increased by Li deposition,
[43] electrolyte but charge transfer resistance was increased by HF erosion, induced
Tin (Sn) doped LCO 146 178–250 surface phase transition caused capacity loss in Ni-rich cathode mate­
Decomposition of Li0.5CoO2 – ≥200 rials. Zhang et al. [135] claimed that rock salt heteroepitaxial interface
+ electrolyte
Feng et al. Decomposition of 450 220–500
improved electrochemical characteristics of materials with considering
[98] Li0.45CoO2 + electrolyte proper doping location and a strong oxygen network. Zhu et al. [136]

14
S. Mallick and D. Gayen Journal of Energy Storage 62 (2023) 106894

Table 8
Previous studies on graphene based cathodes.
Reference Description Temperature (◦ C) Transmission capacity (mAh g− 1) Charge-discharge cycles Capacity retention (%)

Zhou et al. [130] LiFePO4/rGO 20 110 – –

LiFePO4/rGO 30 86 – –
LiFePO4/rGO 60 70 – –
Liu et al. [131] LiFePO4 + 1 wt% Graphene 20 108 600 –
Kim et al. [132] Amino-modified LiFePO4 + rich rGO 10 105 950 91.4
Amino-modified LiFePO4 + rich rGO 50 85 950 –
Tang et al. [133] LiFePO4 and 5 wt% 3D graphene foam 0.2 158 – –
LiFePO4 and 5 wt% 3D graphene foam 10 109 – –

prepared LFP coated NCM-LFP composite based pouch cell Li-Ion bat­ 5.1.2. Enhancement of anode materials
teries using high-speed dispersion and mechanical fusion methods and Graphite or carbon-based material is now the most popular anode
reported NCM-LFP electrode discharge capacity of 149.9 mAh g− 1 at 5C used in Li-Ion batteries for EVs, while Lithium Titanate Li4Ti5O12 (LTO)
current density, about 76.4% of the capacity retention at 0.1C current is another frequent anode. Since the potential required for Li insertion
density. into LTO (1.5 V vs Li/Li+) is higher than Graphite (0.1 V vs Li/Li+), the
To overcome the TR issue of battery cells, certain unique solutions voltage of the full cell with LTO anode is reduced for a given cathode
were developed that did not compromise capacity or capacity retention material, and the energy density of Li-Ion with LTO is consequently
rate. Li et al. [137] employed a new positive-temperature-coefficient limited when compared to the graphite cell. Li plating in the anode
(PTC) material, poly (3-Octylpyrrole): poly (styrenesulfonate) (P3OPy: mostly generated by electrical and thermal damage and is another key
PSS)/carbon composite, and used as conductive matrix of cathode to issue for degrading Li-Ion cell performance. Some new anode materials
enhance thermal stability of Li-Ion batteries. It was reported that LCO- have drawn a lot of attention because of their large capacity and high
P3OPy electrode exhibited two exothermic peaks at the delayed tem­ voltage (in Fig. 15 and Table 9).
peratures of 271 ◦ C and 301 ◦ C with heat generation of 670 J g− 1. Wang It was reported that Si has the highest capacity and low discharge
et al. [138] proposed single crystal cathodes (SCC) to improve cycling potential, and improves conductivity, capacity, capability, and stability
performance and safety of SCC-based LIBs because of their good crys­ of anode but it showed almost 400% volume fluctuation during cycling
tallinity, high mechanical strength, high reaction homogeneity, small which known as Pulverisation. Ma et al. [141] presented pyrolytic car­
specific surface area, excellent structural stability, high thermal stability bon coated nano porous Silicon (nSi) anode for the battery and obtained
and high-capacity retention. specific capacity of 1080.2 mAh g− 1 at 1C current density after 1000
The existing works reported that LFP showed the best thermal sta­
bility compared to other cathode materials used in LIBs. Due to its
Table 9
distinct structure, graphene with LFP has unique features and can New anode materials with their large capacity [140].
employ as an efficient cathode material. In some cases, Ni, Li, Mn-rich
Anode material Capacity (mAh g− 1)
cathode materials showed better specific capacity and voltage than
LFP. However, low-temperature oxygen release, vigorous interface re­ LTO 175
Graphite 372
actions, and substantial local heat generation hamper their broad ap­
SiOx/C 645
plications. The further work will to improve its performance by Metal Oxide (MO) where M is Co, Ni, Cu and Fe 700
considering major aspects (electrolyte film-forming additives, high- Stibium (Sb) 720
voltage electrolyte additives and element doping) and major parame­ Tin (Sn) 992
ters (temperature range, exothermic peak temperature, capacity, Germanium (Ge) 1200
Silicon (Si) 4140
charge-discharge cycles and capacity retention rate).

Fig. 15. Several anode materials with their specific capacity and Li+ potential. Copyright ref. [139].

15
S. Mallick and D. Gayen
charge-discharge cycles and a capacity retention rate of 83.7%. Wang
et al. [142] experimented with reduced Graphene Oxide (rGO) and
double-faced adhesive tape and derived carbon composite (Si +
rGO@DFAT-C) as Si anode and acquired specific capacity of 1536 mAh
g− 1 at 0.1C current density, electron stability of 968.1 mAh g− 1, at 0.5C
current density after 200 charge-discharge cycles with 73.3% capacity
retention. Table 10 demonstrated impressive performance of novel
materials such as phosphorus, tin, bismuth, and graphene and reported
that those novel materials have not only high specific capacity, but also
retained that capacity after numerous charge-discharge cycles.
Altogether, graphite has employed in many instances due to its
simplicity of availability and economic efficiency whereas LTO was safer
and showed better cycle stability and long operational life. Silicon
nanowire has grabbed significant attention with improved conductivity
and specific capacity. A wide range of novel materials like phosphorous,
tin, graphene and bismuth employed to find out better performance in
LIB. Anode performance like electrode volume change, solid-electrolyte
interphase formation, electron and ion transport, electrode atom/
molecule movement can also be improved using doping and coating.
Anode materials for LIBs are still in the early stages of development and
the best can obtain for LIBs.
5.1.3. Enhancement of separator materials
A porous polymer film serves as a separator. Its purpose is to phys­
ically separate the cathode from the anode while allowing ions to travel
between them. Xiong et al. [146] showed that Polyolefin-based porous
membranes were structurally brittle and thermally unstable and used as
traditional separators. Zhang et al. [147] reported that PE (poly­
ethylene) and PP (polypropylene) were the most often utilised
Polyolefin-based porous membranes as commercial separators and was
melting temperatures of around 130 ◦ C and 170 ◦ C, respectively. It also
showed that tri-layer PP/PE/PP separator had a comparable collapse
temperature and as a result researchers designed PE or PP-based sepa­
rator with a ceramic layer (in Table 11) to improve the collapse tem­
perature even further. Orendorff et al. [148] showed that at high
temperatures, most of the separators shrink which violated the safety
standards with the increase in chances of ISC. They proposed that shut
down of separators through pore sealing can be a feasible attempt to
enhance safety in LIB cells.
New materials and topologies for separators have been discovered,
which can substantially increase battery safety, and some separators can
even function normally at high temperatures. Xiang et al. [153] pre­
pared Al2O3 inorganic separator which showed high porosity of 70%
and good mechanical strength. Results were obtained the ionic con­
ductivity of 3.45 mS cm− 1, electrolyte uptake of 200% at room tem­
perature (20 ◦ C). Liang et al. [154] incorporated electrospinning
process to prepare Poly(vinylidene fluoride-hexafluoropropylene)
(PVDF-HFP) as shell and Polyacrylonitrile (PAN) as core separator
(PAN@PVDF-HFP) which showed excellent wettability, high electrolyte
uptake capacity and no shrinking or melting over 250 ◦ C in presence of
liquid electrolyte. Carvalho et al. [155] presented a novel membrane
made of Silicon Oxide (SiO2) and Hydroxypropyl Guar Gum which had
porosity of 52% resulted in superior wettability, high thermal stability,
no dimensional shrinkage at high temperature (≤240 ◦ C), and high
Table 10
Performance obtained from novel anode materials.
Description of anode material Specific capacity Charge-discharge Current
(mAh g− 1) cycles density (C)
Red Phosphorous Porous Carbon 965.2 1100 1 70
(RP-PC)
Li2O + [NiFe2O4/SiO2] 370 50 0.1
composite aerogel
[C3H5N2]3[Bi2I9] (IMB) 450 250 0.1
[C2H4N3S][BiI4] (ADB) 520 250 0.1
[C3H5N2S][BiI4] (ATB) 230 250 0.1
16
Journal of Energy Storage 62 (2023) 106894
electrolyte uptake in presence of organic liquid electrolyte. Lv et al.
[156] made Cellulose Nanofibrils (cNFs) reinforced pure Cellulose Paper
(CP) as separator using facile filtration process which was 100%
biodegradable, obtained tensile strength of 49 MPa for CP-20 (20 wt. %),
ionic conductivity of 0.71 mS cm− 1, dimensional stability till 150 ◦ C,
and 19.52◦ contact angle (superior wettability). Gao et al. [157] pre­
pared a Lithiated Nafion (Li-Nafion)-garnet ceramic Li6.25La3Z­
r2Al0.25O12 (LLZAO) composite solid electrolyte (CSE) separator and
acquired highest ionic conductivity of 0.23 mS cm− 1 at 30 ◦ C with 10
wt. % LLZAO.
As a result, the separator is one of the most crucial members of Li-Ion
cells, and selection the optimum separator is one of the most difficult
tasks. Thermal and mechanical stability are the two main factors influ­
encing the performance of separator. Parameters affecting a separator
performance are ionic conductivity, shutdown temperature, wettability,
mechanical strength etc. It is always better to used layered separators
compared to commercially available Celgard separators. The ceramic
coatings can assist keeping the separator in good shape and prevent it
from collapsing. The most often used ceramic materials for coating are
Al2O3 and SiO2. The threshold temperature of ceramic-coated separator
can reach 200 – 260 ◦ C. For exposing the TR processes using the
separator collapse temperature, the energy release diagram, which
controls the moment of ISC, is crucial. New types of separator's materials
and geometries have discovered, which may substantially increase
battery safety, and can even use at high temperatures.
5.1.4. Enhancement of electrolyte materials
Due to the obvious severe flammability of traditional liquid organic
carbonate-based electrolytes, Li-Ion batteries frequently ignited and
exploded when exposed to air. The organic solvents are the main cause
behind flame combustion process which results in TR in battery system
[158]. Furthermore, this electrolyte's low thermal stability leads to
breakdown and interactions with active electrode materials. Pure Ethyl
Carbonate (EC) is an organic solvent with a high melting point and
viscosity at room temperature. To generate acceptable electrolyte-
solvent systems, primarily dimethyl and/or diethyl carbonate (DMC
and/or DEC), linear aliphatic carbonates, combined with EC to form
excellent conducting media for Li-ion batteries. To form the electrolyte,
Lithium Hexafluorophosphate (LiPF6) with minor proportion is added as
conducting salt [43]. This reaction had an adverse effect on the thermal
stability of lithiated graphite and charged cathodes. Kawamura et al.
[159] discovered that the breakdown product PF5 attacked the O2 in the
C–O bond, speeding up the electrode decomposition. Table 12 showed
different exothermic peaks and heat generation results for different
electrolyte mixtures.
The disadvantages of carbonate-based electrolytes considerably
reduced if the flammability point or decomposition temperature raised,
or fire-redundant chemicals introduced to reduce liquid electrolyte
flammability. Free radical reactions make up most of the combustion
process. As a result, adding a radical additive to the electrolyte can
significantly reduce electrolyte flammability. Zeng et al. [160] experi­
mented with 0.8 M LiPF6 salt, with Dimethyl Phosphonate (DMMP) as
baseline electrolyte and Fluoroethylene Carbonate (FEC) (10 vol%) as
electrolyte additive. In presence of SiO/LFP electrodes and this
Capacity retention Columbic Lithiation Reference
rate (%) efficiency (%) potential (V)
70.4 0.7 [143]
– 98 – [144]
– – 0.6 [145]
– – 0.6
– – 0.6
S. Mallick and D. Gayen
Table 11
Description of several layered and coated separators for Li-Ion batteries.
Separator name Ionic conductivity
(mS cm− 1)
PP (Single layered) 1.00
PE (Single layered) 0.82
Polydopamine (PDA)-treated SiO2-coated PE
0.98
separator (PE-SiO2@PDA)
PP/PE/PP (Tri-layered) 0.84
PE coated PI nonwoven composite separator (PE-
1.34
PI-S)
Ceramic-coated separator modified with phenol
0.65
formaldehyde resin (CCS@PFR)
Table 12
Heat generation of several electrolyte mixtures.
Electrolyte Heat generated Exothermic peak Reference
(J g− 1) temperature (◦ C)
LiPF6 + PC: EC: DMC – 250 [115]
(1:1:3)
1 M LiPF6 + PC: DMC (or 375 230 [159]
EC: DMC) (1:1)
1 M LiPF6 + PC: DEC (or 515 280
EC: DEC) (1:1)
LiPF6 + EC: DEC: EMC >210 >350 [160]
(1:1:1)
electrolyte the Li-Ion cell showed three strong exothermic peaks of 110 ◦
C, 130 ◦ C, 180 ◦ C with excellent safety and high non-flammability
properties. Gao et al. [161] used 1 M LiPF6, with EC:EMC (3:7) as
baseline electrolyte and boron-based Lithium Difluoro(oxalato)borate
(LiDFOB), conjugated polymer-based 3-hexylthiophene (3HT) as elec­
trolyte additives. In presence of Li/NMC 622 electrodes and celgard
separator obtained high energy density and reduction in the catalytic
decomposition of the electrolyte solvent. Nikiforidis et al. [162] used
0.1 M LiPF6 with EC:EMC as baseline electrolyte and 1,1,2,2 Tetra­
fluoroethyl 2,2,2-trifluoroethyl ether (TFE) as additive NMC111/
graphite pouch cell and obtained high specific capacity of 165 mAh g− 1,
Coulombic efficiency of 99.3%, and capacity retention of 85% after 700
cycles from the pouch cell.
Using Lithium bis(trifluoromethane) sulfonimide (LiTFSI) salt
influenced ionic conductivity, demonstrated great contact with elec­
trodes, and high thermal stability of Li-Ion batteries, whereas LiPF6 was
prone to fail at high temperatures, which is a major drawback. Zhou
et al. [163] fabricated Polymer Plastic Crystal Electrolyte (PPCE) sepa­
rators and used Succinonitrile (SN)-additives with LiTFSI salt with
different weight ratios as Plastic Crystal Electrolyte (PCE) in LTO/PPCE/
LCO cell. Results obtained as ionic conductivity of 0.6 mS cm− 1 at 0 ◦ C.
Xu et al. [164] mixed different mass ratios of Poly(vinylidene fluoride-
co-hexafluoropropylene) (PVDF-HFP), 1-ethtyl-3-methylimidazolium
bis(trifluoromethanesulfonyl)imide ([EMIM][TFSI]), LiTFSI dissolved
in 2,2-(ethylenedioxy) bis(ethylamine) (DMF) and prepared Gel Poly­
mer Electrolyte (GPE). For GPE, Results obtained as conductivity 2.1 mS
cm− 1 at 30 ◦ C, columbic efficiency of 99%, initial discharge capacity of
163.7 mAh g− 1, and retention capacity 88% after 80 cycles at 0.1C
current density. Yang et al. [165] experimented with dual salt 0.6 M
LiTFSI and 0.4 M Lithium difluoro(oxalato)borate (LiODFB) in EC +
DMC (2:3) as carbonate electrolyte and reported that the dual salt car­
bonate electrolyte showed a decomposition temperature rate of 271 −
292.7 ◦ C and activation energy was 50.43 kJ/mol.
Beside LiPF6 and LiTFSI salts, a few novel electrolytes have employed
which showed considerable performance for the Li-Ion cells. These
electrolytes not only showed better ionic conductivity than LiPF6 and
Journal of Energy Storage 62 (2023) 106894
Electrolyte Shrinkage Temperature domain (TD) & melting point Reference
uptake (%) (MP) or fracture point (FP) (◦ C)
129 Shrank at 200 (MP) [149]
175 ◦ C
82.3 % at
54 135 (MP)
170 ◦ C
[150]
80 0 % at 220 ◦ C 230 (FP)
Shrank at
54 130–160 (TD)
170 ◦ C
[151]
400 – 120–200 (TD)
73 0 % at 300 ◦ C 300 (FP) [152]
LiTFSI salts but also resulted in high-capacity retention rate after several
cycles. Chen et al. [39] experimented with four different types such as
NASICON-type Li1.5Al0.5Ge1.5(PO4)3 (LAGP), Li1.4Al0.4Ti1.6(PO4)3
(LATP), perovskite-type Li3xLa2/3-xTiO3 (LLTO), and garnet-type
Li6.4La3Zr1.4Ta0.6O12 (LLZO) of non-flammable ceramic solid electro­
lytes in presence of highly reactive metallic Li using ARC technique.
Results showed that the sequence of highest oxygen release was LAGP >
LATP > LLTO > LLZO and thermal stability in the order of LAGP <
LATP < LLTO < LLZO. Gulino et al. [166] used composition of Lithium
Borohydride (LiBH4) with different vol% of MgO to prepare solid-state
LiBH4-MgO Composite Electrolyte (CE) and obtained highest ionic
conductivity of 0.29 mS cm− 1 at 20 ◦ C and acquired specific capacity of
50 mAh g− 1 up to 30 cycles for CE53. Jaumaux et al. [167] took a
mixture of Lithium Nitrate (LiNO3) with 1,5-pentanediol (PD) diluent as
Water-in-salt (WIS) electrolyte to developed a cell with Mo6S8/LMO
electrodes and obtained ionic conductivity of 0.17 mS cm− 1 with high
cycling stability over 250 cycles and 98.53% Coulombic efficiency at 1C
current density.
Consequently, electrolyte is among the most crucial components of
LIBs. It must have qualities that prevent active cathode material from
decomposing on the anode. The primary criteria-impacting electrolyte
include high temperature, electrode reactivity, gas production, and so
forth. The LiPF6 electrolyte improved the Li-Ion cells ionic conductivity
and rate capabilities. In terms of thermal stability, the LiTFSI-LiODFB
dual-salt electrolyte outperforms the LiPF6 electrolyte. The use of
solid-state electrolytes, which have excellent structural and thermal
stability, can help to reduce some of these negative impacts. The most
commonly reported electrolyte additives are microscopic molecules
such as phosphorus and fluorine species, as well as ionic liquids, with an
addition level of around 10 vol% in the baseline electrolyte. Electrolytes
mostly chosen in terms of their chemical activity with electrode mate­
rials, and these are still in the early stages of development.
5.2. Improvements to Li-Ion batteries safety using external techniques
Battery thermal manage systems (BTMSs) controls and regulates LIB
operation within a certain temperature range using cooling or heating
features. BTMSs are also required to have the capability of containing
temperature rise in the early stages of thermal runaway events. To
develop the heat transfer rate inside a module or pack level battery
system, a few cooling system approaches are used. Air cooling systems,
liquid cooling systems, PCM material cooling systems, heat pipe cooling
systems, and a variety of different combinations are among the cooling
solutions available on the market. For continually monitor heat gener­
ation within a cell, cooling solutions calibrated and deployed with BMS
in a module or battery pack. The key objective of applying cooling so­
lutions in the battery system is to increase the TR delay time. However,
the addition of cooling technologies often results in increase in weight to
the battery modules. To optimize the issues a suitable cooling technique,
17
S. Mallick and D. Gayen
need to be incorporated depending upon the battery module. The
cooling functionality of BTMSs will be strongly investigated in this
section.
5.2.1. Use of air-cooling techniques
Air cooling offers the advantages of being simple and straightforward
to install, as well as being inexpensive. In commercialised Honda Insight
2000 and Toyota Prius 2001, showed a series of studies to analyse the
dynamic properties of battery systems. The battery systems in these two
car types used a large number of Nickel Metal Hybrid (NiMH) battery
cells and were air-cooled. Pesaran et al. [168] stated thermal manage­
ment system that used air as heat transfer medium, reported as simpler
than one used in liquid cooling and also reported an air thermal man­
agement system was sufficient for parallel-connected battery cells,
however liquid-based systems might be required for series connected
battery cells to provide optimal thermal performance. Zolot et al. [169]
conducted simulation based trials and validated with high voltage NiMH
battery packs with US06 dynamometer. Simulation based results re­
ported that temperature distributions vary with vehicle circumstances,
however the distributions was usually around 3 − 4 ◦ C for a mix of fans
and controlling battery usage. Mahamud et al. [170] numerically ana­
lysed thermal management for Li-Ion battery using a lumped-
capacitance thermal model and a flow network model in two-
dimensional computational fluid dynamics (CFD) simulator. Results
reported that the reciprocating flow could lower the cell temperature by
around 4 ◦ C and the highest cell temperature by 1.5 ◦ C for a duration of
120 s. Wang et al. [171] tried to improve heat transfer rate in 5 × 5 cubic
structure. Results concluded that airflow speed above 1 m/s was
required to increase in ambient temperature, during no forced airflow
condition, high temperature area located in the middle part whereas
highest temperature points occurred on the outermost cells and if the
cooling fan stopped working, temperature in the battery module
increased drastically and a backup cooling system was required. Tong
et al. [172] numerically coupled 1-D thermal-electrochemical model
with a 2-D thermal-fluid conjugate model for forced convection air-
cooling of a LIB module. Results showed that the cooling performance
depends on the inlet velocity of air, cell arrangement, cell-to-cell dis­
tance, and presence of reversal airflow and concluded the temperature
fluctuation of the battery module reduced or a more uniform tempera­
ture distribution across cells achieved with the rising of inflow air ve­
locity or lowering the cell distances.
Jiaqiang et al. [173] investigated thermal performance of 18,650
battery module using different air-cooling strategies, by changing lo­
cations of inlet and outlet air flow and adding baffle. Results showed that
the temperature distribution of inlet and outlet on different sides was
uniform with better thermal performance. Yang et al. [174] proposed
and applied novel radiator with bionic surface structure to battery
module and cooled by an axial air-cooling system. Results showed that
the thickness and height of radiator could effectively reduce maximum
temperature whereas surface structure or shape and length had negli­
gible performance on cooling system. Wang et al. [175] proposed forced
air-cooling with open cell Al foam to improve the heat dissipation of
battery thermal management system (BTMS). Results showed that
metallic foam could greatly minimize battery temperature rise as
compared to a pure air-cooled system, reduced the average surface
temperature of batteries and recommended to use T-shape Al foams. Li
et al. [176] experimented for a U-type air-cooling BTMS and numerically
modelled eighteen airflow configurations to identify optimized design.
Results concluded the non-uniformity temperature distribution and
airflow rate significantly improved by dividing the battery cells into
three groups and cooling each group separately, which accomplished
simply by inserting baffles in the inlet and outlet manifolds.
It discovered that if the thickness of a battery module surpasses a
particular amount, the battery temperature might rise significantly
under high discharge rates. Furthermore, due to the low heat conduc­
tivity of polymer, air-cooling was insufficient to cool the battery core.
18
Journal of Energy Storage 62 (2023) 106894
Therefore, air cool may only be adequate for parallel and series HEVs
require a more efficient heat transfer medium. A thermal management
approach based on reciprocating airflow incorporated to prevent tem­
perature inconsistency inside a battery pack.
5.2.2. Use of liquid cooling techniques
Liquid cooling techniques employed in passenger vehicles for better
mass, volume, cost, functionality, performance, maintenance, and
safety. Direct-contact liquids transfer heat at a considerably faster rate
than air and can reach 1.5 to 3 times air-cooling performance. To in­
crease safety and heat dissipation, the performances of water or water/
glycol solutions can achieve >3 times than air-cooling. Jarrett et al.
[177] created a serpentine-channel cooling plate, assessed its properties
using CFD, determined pressure drops, temperature uniformity and
average temperature, and performed numerical optimization, which
revealed a single design to fulfil the requirement of both pressure and
average temperature. Chen et al. [178] conducted experiments with air-
cooling, direct liquid cooling (DLC), indirect liquid cooling, and fin
cooling for LIB system. Results showed that fin cooling added the extra
weight, air cooling consumed the most parasitic power, indirect liquid
cooling had the highest maximum temperature difference point. Rao
et al. [179] studied liquid cooling based thermal management system for
cylindrical LIB module and concluded system was preferable with var­
iable contact surface than the system with constant contact surface.
Shang et al. [180] designed a liquid cooling system for Li-Ion batteries
with changing contact surface and optimized mass flow rate, inlet
temperature, and the width of cooling plate using single factor analysis
and the orthogonal test for the thermal performance of battery. Results
showed the best cooling performance at an intake temperature of 18 ◦ C,
a cooling plate width of 70 mm, and a mass flow rate of 0.21 kg/s.
Chen et al. [181] developed fluid-solid coupled heat dissipation
model using CFD and thermal parameters. Results acquired that the
temperature decrease was 1.87 ◦ C less, with the same input power, and
the temperature variation regulated within a limited range of 0.35 ◦ C.
Later on, another study, Chen et al. [182] proposed a neural network-
based regression model based on 81 sets experimental data depending
on the maximum temperature, temperature standard deviation, and
energy consumption. Results showed that the SoC of the battery module
enhanced by 0.5 after 15 min with an energy consumption of <0.02 J,
and maximum temperature and temperature standard deviation ac­
quired within 33.35 ◦ C and 0.8 ◦ C, respectively. Tan et al. [183] pro­
posed a novel DLC system based on a Hydrofluoroether (HFE-6120)
coolant for fast charging battery packs. Results showed that mass energy
density improved up to 20.3%, and power consumption reduced by
95.3% with a multilayer structure and cross-flowing configuration, and
reported the maximum temperature difference and temperature stan­
dard deviation reduced by 18.1% and 25%, respectively. Duan et al.
[184] carried out a numerical study for 3D temperature distribution of a
battery cooling system and evaluated effect of channel size and inlet
boundary condition on the temperature field. Results showed that the
width of cooling plate channel had a significant impact on the maximum
temperature in the battery module and heat transfer capability of the
battery system increased with raise in intake water-flow rate. Akbarza­
deh et al. [185] conducted a comparative study between air and liquid
type thermal BMS for high-energy LIB module using CFD simulations.
Results reported that the average temperature of the liquid-cooled
module was roughly 3 ◦ C lower than the air-cooled module with a
power consumption of around 0.5 W. Rui et al. [186] experimentally
and numerically studied synergy of heat dissipation beneath the battery
module with thermal insulation between neighbouring cells with the
purpose of preventing TR propagation. Results obtained the flux peak
between the TR cell and surrounding cells by the liquid cooling plate and
reported the maximum value dropped from 885.7 W to 848.2 W.
The use of separate laying battery modules, immersing battery
modules, jacket around a module and separate tubing around a module
for direct connections as a heat sink were all suggested as ways to
S. Mallick and D. Gayen
accomplish liquid cooling. The key characteristics that determine the
performance of liquid cooling approach are optimized with proper
choice of temperature uniformity, channel geometry and pressure drop,
and average temperature. However, to address the aforementioned is­
sues, significant efforts undertake to optimize cooling systems and also
this compensates by more complex system design, added weight, and
increased space occupancy.
5.2.3. Use of PCM cooling techniques
PCM has gotten a lot of interest in the EV market because of its
consistent heat dissipation. The heat created during discharge and
retained as latent heat often used during charge, with only a tiny amount
transmitted to the environment. When the battery allowed to rest or
when its temperature falls below the PCM's melting point, the stored
heat transmitted to the module. Khateeb et al. [187] carried out a
comparative study among natural convective cooling, presence of Al
foam, using PCM and combining PCM and Al foam. Results showed the
use of combination of Al foam and PCM could effectively influence
temperature drop about 50% than only use of Al foam has cooling
techniques. Sabbah et al. [188] conducted various numerical simula­
tions for PCM LIB cooling for different operating temperatures,
discharge rates, and ambient temperatures. Results concluded that air-
cooling was a poor thermal management process for keeping cell tem­
perature within a desired operating range without consuming consid­
erable fan power. Qu et al. [189] developed a 2D transient model for
commercial LIBs and experimented with PCM of paraffin saturated in
metallic copper foam and reported that the metallic foam improved
conductivity and heat absorption. Karimi et al. [190] proposed a com­
parable simulated approach to study a cylindrical LIB system and re­
ported that the metal matrix-PCM composite reduced the maximum
temperature differential between the battery surface and the PCM
composite by up to 70%, while composites containing Silver (Ag)
nanoparticles outperformed other composites in terms of thermal per­
formance. Wang et al. [191] used Cu foam and Paraffin composite as
PCM and performed experimental and numerical study to investigate
thermal performance of LIB packs. Results showed that battery tem­
perature was in a desirable range under 4C discharge rate at 42 ◦ C,
thickness of the heat conducting sheet had the biggest influence on the
battery temperature, and maintained the maximum temperature of the
battery pack below 52 ◦ C.
Koyama et al. [192] proposed a PCM system based on Trimethylol­
ethane (TME) hydrate which demonstrated great efficiency and heat
transfer process stability. Results showed that at a mass fraction of 0.60,
the maximum equilibrium temperature was 29.6 ◦ C, and the strongest
dissociation heat was 190.1 kJ kg− 1 for TME. Yang et al. [193] proposed
a novel distribution of expanded graphite/paraffin composite PCM
units, which reduced the temperature rise and improved the tempera­
ture uniformity at a high discharge rate of 5C. Huang et al. [194] con­
ducted experiments with flexible form-stable composite SBS@PA/EG
with Styrene Butadiene Styrene (SBS) as supporting material, paraffin
(PA) as PCM and Expanded Graphite (EG) as thermal conductivity
enhancer. Results obtained during the 5C discharge procedure, the
maximum temperature was below 46 ◦ C and temperature difference
was controlled within 4 ◦ C. Wang et al. [195] experimented numerically
and experimentally with PCM as cooling technique for pouch LIB cell.
Results showed decrease in maximum temperature/temperature differ­
ence at the end of discharge, good heat storage capability and temper­
ature equalization capability and reported thermal management
performance of the PCM unit improved by increasing its thickness. Luo
et al. [196] proposed electric-conductive composite PCM (CPCM) for
thermal management of LIB for harsh environment. Results showed that
during high-rate discharge, the CPCM lowered the battery temperature
from 77 ◦ C to 43 ◦ C at 3C current density and the battery temperature
was kept between 20 ◦ C and 55 ◦ C during discharge process.
Rather than using air or liquid to cool, PCMs outperformed the
competition by using their substantial latent heat during the liquid/solid
19
Journal of Energy Storage 62 (2023) 106894
phase transition. This would be more ideal for heat-sensitive batteries
with a notable reversible heat effect like LIB and Li-polymer batteries.
The weak heat conductivity of PCM, on the other hand, may result in a
near-adiabatic environment after melting. Heat transfer rate or dissi­
pation rate, as well as heat uniformity at high discharge rates, are the
major factors that influence PCM performance. However, the perfor­
mance of PCM enhanced for use of supporting materials such as Al or Cu
foam, as well as a thermal conductivity enhancer. At the present, further
work will do to use PCM to extend the TR time.
5.2.4. Use of heat pipe cooling techniques
A heat-transfer device like heat pipe uses thermal conductivity to
achieve effective heat transmission between two solid contacts. Heat
pipes rarely found in commercial battery packs. Wu et al. [197] designed
heat pipe with an aluminium fin to increase temperature and maintain a
consistent temperature distribution throughout the battery's surface.
Zhao et al. [198] studied the thermal growth of LIB with a heat pipe and
wet cooling BTMS. They investigated high-rate operation of LIB with
two different battery sizes (3 Ah and 8 Ah) at various cooling end
lengths, and found that the system was superior for managing battery
temperature due to its capability, low weight, and compactness. Behi
et al. [199] proposed a thermal model of LTO cell considering natural air
cooling, forced fluid cooling, and flat heat pipe-assisted method to
identify the most critical zone of the cell in terms of heat generation. The
results showed that the single heat pipe provided up to 29.1% of the
required cooling load in the 8C discharging rate whereas liquid cooling
system embedded heat pipe showed better performance of 32.6%.
The use of flat heat pipes as a thermal management technique has
received a lot of attention. It has demonstrated promising heat unifor­
mity across the whole battery system. Tran et al. [200] employed an
effective and low-energy method for flat heat pipe to cool a battery
module built for an EV application. Results showed that addition of heat
pipe lowered the thermal resistance of a common heat sink by 30%
under natural convection and 20% under low air velocity cooling and
reported that the cell temperature kept below 50 ◦ C which was
impossible using only heat sink. Mei et al. [201] studied liquid-cooled
thermal management system based on a flat heat pipe and reported
effectiveness of temperature distribution uniformity influenced by
changing coolant flow rates, coolant inlet temperatures, discharge rate.
Heat pipes also used in a LIB module or pack in several other ways.
Ye et al. [202] conducted experiments under sealed conditions with
constant current of 18 A and measured with and without micro heat pipe
arrays (MHPAs) during charge-discharge cycles. Experiments and cal­
culations demonstrated that the battery's stability and safety improved
throughout the continuous charge-discharge cycle by improving high-
energy efficiency, an easy-to-manufacture technique, and compact­
ness. Feng et al. [203] used non-destructive temperature equipment and
strain gauges simultaneously to monitor temperature and strain of
18,650 LIB pack with a heat pipe cooling device (HPCD) and reported
that the strain decreased in discharge progress after the pack is equipped
with HPCD and had the same trend of temperature change in charge-
discharge cycle process. Kleiner et al. [204] experimentally and
numerically investigated a novel heat pipe based terminal cooling
concept in addition to conventional bottom cooling and reported that
jelly roll temperature decreased by a maximum of 4.3 ◦ C and thermal in-
homogeneities reduced by uneven aging. Alihosseini et al. [205]
developed coupled simulation model for LIB cooling with a heat pipe.
Results showed that battery surface temperature regulated below 40 ◦ C
with forced convection in the condenser portion, but temperature
distributed uniformly throughout the battery surface.
The heat transfer rate determined between a heat pipe and a test
battery. Heat dissipation in a HEV battery pack managed using pulsating
heat pipes. Under a variety of cooling conditions and inclined locations
of heat pipes significantly reduce the thermal resistance for both forced
and natural convection compared to old conventional heat sinks. The
cooling performance influenced by pipe shape, power inputs, filling
S. Mallick and D. Gayen
ratios, pipe material, fluid type, and inclination angles. Presently, more
research requires where heat pipe can use to increase delay time of TR.
5.2.5. Use of fin cooling techniques
Any external element projecting into the flow of a moving fluid
referred to as a ‘fin’, which is normally employed to extract heat from its
host. Fins use alone or in combination with other materials to create an
appropriate thermal management system. Zhao et al. [206] studied
experimentally and numerically (based on CFD simulation) for optimize
performance of a novel cooling plate with non-uniform pin-fins. Results
demonstrated that a non-uniform pin fin design with optimal power
consumption, weight, and temperature standard deviation reduced by
29.84%, 29%, and 17.43%, respectively. Liu et al. [207] carried out a
thermal management system for cylindrical LIB based on vapour
chamber combined with fin structure. Results showed that the vapour
chamber significantly reduced increase in average temperature and
enhanced temperature distribution uniformity and the temperature
control effect became more effective as the dissipation area increased. Li
et al. [208] proposed an air-cooling heat dissipation method for battery
modules with herring bone fins and long sleeves. Optimization result
enhanced the heat dissipation impact of the battery module and kept the
cooling cost within the desired range.
As a result, fins in a BTMS demonstrate high heat transfer uniformity.
Pin fins, oblique fins, and herring-bone fins used to achieve a high level
of heat homogeneity and dissipation rate. Fins can use in EV battery
packs by modifying the fin structures or combining them with other
strategies. More study requires determining whether fins can be utilised
to improve the TR delay duration.
5.2.6. Use of hybrid cooling techniques
Even though all available cooling technologies have inherent limits,
researchers attempted to improve overall performance by combining
more than one way. Examples include an optimized heat pipe system
and PCM with air and liquid cooling, which showed a significant amount
of heat absorption capacity. However, it has a low thermal conductivity
therefore PCM combining with other cooling technologies to improve
heat conduction in a logical fit. Xie et al. [209] proposed novel CPCM
based thermal management system coupled with air cooling in order to
sustain temperature rise and temperature distribution within desirable
range of LIB. Results showed that effective thermal management ach­
ieved with just 100 m3/h of air flow rate at 4C charge-discharge cycles,
and the system kept the maximum temperature of the battery pack
below 49.2 ◦ C for six charge-discharge cycles. Wang et al. [210] sug­
gested an integrated cooling technique for LIBs with a liquid cooling
plate and internal gas cooling to tackle the thermal issue, using CFD and
investigated the effects of flow field characteristics with various as­
sembly configurations, gas circle turbulence intensity, and liquid cool­
ing conditions on temperature control performance. Results concluded
that temperature uniformity and temperature control efficacy improved
by 2.42 times and 2.61 times. An et al. [211] proposed a novel thermal
management system based on paraffin (RT44HC)/EG CPCM coupled
with liquid cooling to maintain the temperature rise and difference
within a desirable range, using CFD. Results showed that the maximum
temperature lowered by 2.1 ◦ C as compared to pure paraffin PCM and
the maximum and initial temperatures remained constant on char­
ge–discharge operations at a reduced liquid flow velocity of 0.04 m/s.
Kiani et al. [212] fabricated passive cooling system with saturating Cu
foam and paraffin as the PCM, numerically and experimentally inte­
grated with an active cooling system and alumina nanofluid. Results
showed that nanofluid cooling enhanced the battery's operational
duration by 200 s (VF 1 % nanoparticle) and 900 s (VF 2 % nano­
particle), respectively, as compared to a water-based cooling system at
Reynolds number (Re) 420. Yang et al. [213] proposed a composite
thermal management system integrated with mini-channel liquid cool­
ing and air cooling. They investigated effects of inlet water flow rate,
amount of cooling tube and mini-channel, tube space, water flow
20
Journal of Energy Storage 62 (2023) 106894
direction, and spacer combination on the thermal performance, exper­
imentally. Results showed that the highest temperature lowered with
additional air-cooling at a velocity of 4 m/s and for automatic regulation
of fan the maximum temperature differential managed within 5 K.
Zhang et al. [214] proposed a novel hybrid BTMS based on PCM and
liquid cooling. Results demonstrated that the high thermal conductivity
of PCM was helpful in lowering battery temperature, but it could also
induce TR.
Due to low energy consumption and extended duration cycle sup­
port, the combination of heat pipe and PCM has also gotten a lot of
attention. Jiang and Qu [215] assembled a thermal management module
with a sandwich structure consisting of a battery, PCM and heat pipe.
Results showed the guarantee for safe battery temperature, low energy
consumption, and sufficient module energy density in long-time cycling.
Results reported the heat transfer coefficient in the condenser to be
range from 30 W/m2K to 60 W/m2K with an optimal thickness ratio of
0.17 and PCM melting point to be at least 3 ◦ C higher than environ­
mental temperature. Lei et al. [216] integrated PCM, heat pipe and
spray-cooling, and offered both heating and cooling services on demand
for LIB. Results suggested design succeeds in keeping average surface
temperature increase under 8 ◦ C for a large discharge current of 24 A
and room temperature of 40 ◦ C, and the greatest temperature differ­
ential on the battery surfaces kept to <2.6 ◦ C. Chen et al. [217]
developed a computational model to study the performance of BTMS
with PCM and heat pipe (HP) and examined the effects of ambient fac­
tors, HP and PCM parameters on system performance. Results suggested
that with the increase in PCM thickness and convective heat transfer
coefficient, the maximum temperature in the battery pack could lower
while temperature difference could higher. Karimi et al. [218] studied a
hybrid BTMS experimentally and numerically, suggested to use a Hybrid
TMS (HTMS) with PCM and six flat HPs to keep the temperature profile
below 40 ◦ C for 1400s at a high current rate of 150 A. The results
showed that the HTMS is a very effective cooling system, as it lowered
the temperature by 35% when compared to natural convection and 15%
when compared to the heat pipe thermal management system.
It was discovered that by employing hybrid or integrated cooling, TR
propagation from a defective cell to neighbouring cells could be effec­
tively reduced. Since, HP must be cooled by timely and effective heat
transmission must function in conjunction with air or liquid cooling. HP
and PCM used to improve thermal homogeneity and heat flux rate by
lowering the power consumption of air-cooling. Thermal insulation is
currently considered as the countermeasure to TR. However, thermal
insulation fails at blocking all excess heat as the energy density of LIBs.
Moreover, the propagation inhibition requires the insulation material to
be sufficiently thin to avoid sacrificing the energy density of the battery
module and should have suitable thermal conductivity to meet the heat
dissipation requirements under normal operating conditions [219]. Li
et al. [220] introduced non-flammable phase change materials
(NFPCMs) with flexible silica nanofiber mats and stored in the firewalls
to eliminate potential negative impacts on the electron/ion pathway and
side reactions. During the TR of the LIB, the thermal-triggered NFPCMs
are released locally; thus, effectively lowering the temperature and
suppressing the combustion of battery modules. The pure silica nano­
fiber mats possessed the insulation ability to suppress the cell-to-cell
heat transfer, providing continuous thermal protection for other batte­
ries. In general, the design of the battery management system (BMS)
plays an essential role for active safety [221], which includes, for
instance, positive temperature coefficient (PTC) devices, thermal man­
agement systems (TMS) [222], current interrupt devices (CID), forced
cooling systems (FCS) [223], and division of a battery pack into different
sub-packs. BMS has been designed to protect each cell from over-
voltage, undervoltage, overtemperature and overcurrent [224]. Not
only the TR propagation prevention and early warning technology have
been incorporated into battery industry, but the blocking technology on
cell-to-cell TR propagation have gradually gained public awareness,
given the failure cases in electric energy stations and EVs.
S. Mallick and D. Gayen
6. Protection methods for thermal runaway
Several protection methods are used in each battery module, at both
the cell and system levels, to impede TR and diminish its damaging ef­
fects for LIB module.
6.1. Protection methods against cell level LIB system
Safety has been implemented at the cell level by incorporating
ceramic-coated separators, cut-off devices, and additives. Using active
electrode materials, electrolytes, and separators, Zhang et al. [29] pro­
posed several coating and doping methods for exploring safety mecha­
nism of LIB cell. Results showed that LFP was the best thermal stability
cathode materials compared to other materials, cathode materials rich
in Li, Mn, and Ni gave high capacity and voltage, and reported graphene
blended with LFP gave optimum output. In addition, several novel
anode materials used, especially Silicon provided the maximum capacity
but gave worst downside of volume change during recycling. Several
low-cost materials such as phosphorous and bismuth used to reduce cell
costs. The primary objective of anode safety research was the generation
and stabilization of the SEI layer [140]. The separator is a crucial part of
LIBs since it limits direct contact of anode and cathode while supplying
adequate lithium-ion transport. Layered coatings are preferable
compared to bare PP and PE separators because of their strong ionic
conductivity. To increase the structural stability and performance of
LIBs, a few new inorganic and cellulose sheets currently employed. TR
occurrence observed because of melting of separator and this issue
resolved by using of separators having low shrinkage rate and high
melting point. A shutdown separator used to stop ionic transport be­
tween the electrodes and to shut down micropores in a film in the event
of an overcharge or high temperature misuse, prevented short circuit
current [44].
Meanwhile, to improve battery safety, the electrolyte must also be
thoroughly researched. Several ionic liquids, shutdown additives, redox
shuttle additives, flame retardant (FR) additives [40] and overcharge
additives [40] employed with stable electrolyte salts, LiPF6 or LiTFSI to
enhance the performance of LIBs. So far most of FR additives [40] used
in the liquid electrolytes are based on organic phosphorus compounds
and their halogenated derivatives. Typical organic phosphorus com­
pounds are trimethyl phosphate, dimethyl methyl phosphonate, 4-iso­
propyl phenyl diphenyl phosphate, tris(2,2,2-trifluoroethyl) phosphite,
triphenylphosphate, cresyl diphenyl phosphate, diphenyloctyl phos­
phate, alkyl phosphate, hexamethylphosphoramide, tributylphosphate,
tris(2,2,2-trifluoroethyl) phosphate [40]. On the other hand, fluorinated
propylene carbonates and methyl nonafluorobuyl ether have been
studied as the non-phosphorus FR [40]. Succinonitrile was reported as
the electrolyte additive and can reduce the amount of gas emitted at
high temperature, increase the onset temperature of exothermic re­
actions and decrease the amount of exothermal heat. The reduction in
flammability with the addition of these FRs has to be realized at an
expense of the other performances such as ionic conductivity of the
electrolyte and reversibility of the cell [40]. On the other hand, over­
charge additives are classified into redox shuttle additives and shutdown
additives. The thianthrene derivatives, polysulfide, 2,5-ditertbutyl-1,4-
dimethoxybenzene, polytriphenylamine, 4-tertbutyl-1,2-dimethoxyben­
zene, 3-chloroanisole, 2,2,6,6-tetramethylpiperidine-1-oxyl, diphenyl­
amine and so on were explored as redox shuttle additives. The shutdown
additive will terminate cell operation permanently. The cyclohexyl
benzene, biphenyl, xylene, cyclohexylbenzene and the others have been
investigated as shutdown additives [40].
Development of ideal cell level cooling technologies such as safety
vents, thermal fuse, positive temperature co-efficient (PTC), current
interrupt device (CID) is in process. When a certain pressure is achieved,
safety vents are built to release the internal pressure of prismatic and
cylindrical cells, which expand and bulge during pressurisation [40].
Since the electrolyte evaporation and gas expansion made the vent
21
Journal of Energy Storage 62 (2023) 106894
opening in an endothermic action, it can cool the cell and minimize the
further temperature rise while the safety valves open and enable gases to
leave and avoid cell collapse [225].
A thermal fuse is a wire made of a fusible alloy that has the resistance
and thermal properties to melt when a certain current passes through it.
In the event that the battery is exposed to high temperatures, it will
permanently shut down [226]. In most cases, this happens during a
short-circuit where a huge amount of current suddenly flows out of the
battery. Whenever short circuit current passes through the fuse element,
excessive Joule heat is generated, which in turn melts the fuse element
and shutdown the Lithium-ion battery. The melting temperature of most
thermal fuses is 30 − 50 ◦ C above the battery working temperature
[227].
A polymer often used in PTC devices that has conductive particles
and completes a circuit in the permissible temperature gradient. PTC
materials break the circuit when the temperature increases over the
threshold by raising cell resistance [228]. Thus, upon activation, the
PTC element's resistance soars, precipitously lowering the current and
limiting the cell's ability to generate heat. PTC devices primarily consist
of ceramic PTC and conductive-polymer PTC components. Non-linear
PTC thermistors based on composites of polymers and conductive par­
ticles are conductive-polymer PTC devices. However, when the unsafe
reactions occur at a rapid pace, these PTC could be unable to react. The
PTC electrode, on the other hand, has typical electrochemical behaviour
at room temperature but exhibits a significant rise in resistance between
100 − 130 ◦ C. For rechargeable lithium batteries, this PTC behaviour of
the electrode acts as a thermal shutdown switch with a current-limiting
effect. The thermal shutdown and ceramic separators, among other
battery separators, are very crucial for boosting lithium-ion battery
safety. It must be able to shut down the battery at a temperature lower
than that at which thermal runaway occurs, and the shutdown must not
cause mechanical integrity to be lost [229 – 231].
When an undesirable excessive internal pressure develops within a
LIB, a CID is often utilised to safeguard by stopping the battery circuit.
Depending on the chemistry, capacity, and abuse level, a large quantity
of internal gases is produced if an unfavourable circumstance (such as
over-temperature, short circuit, and overcharge) occurs, which may
undermine the safety of a LIB. The welding point is used to position and
connect this CID to the PTC's reverse. The bottom of the CID is then
coupled with the aluminium sheet from the cathode layer to allow
current to pass to the external circuit. CIDs are frequently employed in
prismatic and cylindrical LIB. However, while the pouch's flexible shell
has been partially used to safely relieve internal pressure, the remaining
problem is ensuring that the damaged battery does not negatively
impact the neighbouring battery [41].
A novel local water-in-salt also showed excellent performance, but it
had high salt cost, poor wettability, high viscosity, and environmental
hazards. Ruiz et al. [225] studied intrinsic thermal properties of solid-
state electrolyte and used as a natural barrier for the avoidance of ISC,
which is a promising solution to the electrolyte to manufacture LIB cells.
Different functional components have been developed to enhance the
intrinsic safety of batteries, including novel separators [232], redox
shuttles [233], electrolyte additives, current collectors [234], cathode
doping [235], and electrode coating [236]. In addition, it is necessary to
design optimized LIB cell components and cell-level safety mechanisms
to reduce the spread of heat inside a battery module or pack, to stop
overcurrent and overpressure in adverse circumstances.
6.2. Protection methods against system level LIB system
Hermann et al. [237] studied battery safety concerns at a system-
level by shielding the battery system from any external impacts,
restricted the spread of TR inside the battery system, and promptly
discharged energy when TR transpired. Berdichevsky et al. [238] pre­
sented a solution for preventing TR propagation by combining
temperature-measuring devices with regulators. In addition, Straubel
S. Mallick and D. Gayen
et al. [239] presented various disengaged conditions of overheat, short
circuit, overcharge-discharge and mechanical crush by using fusible link
wires and adjustable frangible components in battery modules or packs.
Mardall et al. [240] designed battery pack's exhaust vents to enable
quick gas release, with directional ventilation and customizable ports
depending on the amount of gas release. Peng et al. [241] tested a
protection device for LIB module that consists of a cover plate and a
shape memory alloy, and the module created a short circuit that allowed
the stored energy to be released.
Researchers employed some devices for battery modules to monitor
its temperature and patented their work for further implementation in
real life applications. Hu et al. [242] used composite heat conduction
plate and designed a battery module with a protection mechanism to
prevent TR. In order to relieve internal pressure, Ma et al. [243]
developed a PTC shutdown layer between cell connections to avoid short
circuits from LIB battery modules. It was reported that the protective
layer could protect all external heat, outgassing, and explosion of other
battery cells. Mayer and Whitehead [244] proposed a two-stage control
method where the first step used as a contactor to isolate the modules
from the other components and second step was for continue pressure
rise until the module burst to release generated gas. Bandhauer and
Farmer [245] used liquid-vapour phase shift heat removal theory to
develop a fire suppression device and reported that TR event detected by
passive or active sensors for inert high-pressure refrigerant evacuated
from the battery pack through a specifically engineered channel. Wilke
et al. [246] adopted PCM material and observed the surrounding cell's
peak temperature had dropped by 60 ◦ C and indicated a successful
prevention of TR propagation inside LIB pack. Arora et al. [247] studied
on strategic placement and mechanical design for safety concerns that
considered sufficient strength and stiffness to survive front, side and rear
impacts.
In order to prevent TR, Tesla Motors developed a range of measures,
such as thermal barrier plates in the battery pack, fire retardant com­
pounds on the cell surface, and multi-layer thermal barriers between the
battery pack and the passenger compartment [248]. In addition, Krolak
et al. [249], suggested a cooling process in the case of a TR by circulating
cooling liquid among the battery cells and attached temperature sensors
on each batter cells to monitor the heat uniformity. Chaoyang et al.
[250] designed a water-based fire extinguisher for extinguishing flames
and decreasing temperatures, as well as a water container to prevent
electric shock events, as part of battery pack fire extinguishing
equipment.
The inherent safety of a cell assessed on a cell-by-cell basis. As a
result, the most effective strategy to increase LIB safety would be to
improve material and manufacturing technique. In addition, there are a
variety of safety designs and technologies aimed at improving system-
level safety protection capability. The primary concept based on how
to handle the released energy when TR occurs. Feng et al. [251] reported
two methods of energy discharge, which include stopping the flow of
heat energy and releasing electrochemical energy through other chan­
nels. It is still a challenge to develop battery systems with realistic
hardware and software in order to increase overall safety.
7. Future scope
Researchers and engineers have the opportunity to overcome the
safety issues connected with LIBs in their final mile. Mitigation measures
can use by changing in material, cell, and system levels, which ensure
the total safety of LIBs. Chemical, mechanical, electrical, and or thermal
mitigation solutions are acceptable as long as they include one or more
of the following failure mitigation steps.
• Lower the likelihood of damage circumstances.
• Eradicate damage conditions once they occur.
• Improve the thermal stability of the battery cell against damage
conditions.
22
Journal of Energy Storage 62 (2023) 106894
• Limit the energy release in a TR situation.
• Identify possible TR and warn at an early stage.
• Minimize spread risk and confine the harm of TR to a small region.
As a result, everybody can contribute their own ways to improving
the safety of LIBs. There are a few domains, which require further
investigation and developments, which are written as follows:
• The majority of study focuses on the multiple outputs of modifying
the internal cell components of LIBs, such as electrodes, electrolyte,
and separator. As a result, relevant factors that produce overheating
on the electrode surfaces must be evaluated.
• Till date, research has restricted to electrode materials based on their
surface area or porosity. Incorporation of surface coatings can
separate the direct interaction between electrode and electrolyte that
can result in drastic improvement in the electrolyte-electrode inter­
action [252].
• The safety difficulties connected with electrolytes might be to
replace flammable organic solvents with inherently nonflammable
solid electrolytes. In addition, various additives, safe solvents and
lithium salts such as fluorinated electrolyte, can assist to decrease the
flammability of the electrolyte in LIB [253].
• In the safety design of BTMS, effective heat dredging solutions should
be addressed. Only a few researches have conducted on the heat
movement through sensible channels. Further evaluation on heat
blocking to prevent rapid heat conduction from activating TR in
nearby cells and minimization of heat buildup inside the failure point
can significantly improve heat uniformity. Consequently, quick heat
dissipation or cooling techniques are preferred to decrease cell
temperature in LIBs [251].
• A few studies reported that materials that release negative reactions
to overheated zones should considered as smart materials for safety
design of LIBs. Thermal-responsive materials are preferred as smart
materials for limiting ionic transport, raising electric resistance, and
releasing a poisoned reagent that can suppress TR at specified tem­
peratures [254].
• The application of advanced artificial intelligence and data-driven
approaches can useful for predicting on-board issues based on
uploaded data to the cloud for TR remote diagnostics, early warning,
and active mitigation. This early detection and warning can help to
avert possible incidents and the risk of field failure [255]. However,
the use of integrated reduced-order models and sensors in battery
module, the future BMS will be more sophisticated in monitoring the
internal state of LIBs.
• The performances of LIB module can drastically improve with the
incorporation of fire suppression device, which works based on
phase-transfer heat removal theory. The studies on fire suppression
device will not only minimize the heat removal but also can be useful
to make safer LIB module.
8. Conclusion
Given the inherent multi-physical aspect of the application to meet
an expanding demand for EVs, an interdisciplinary approach is needed
to address battery pack safety. TR in battery packs is a dependent var­
iable which needs to be handled with severity and reliability since it
affects the lifespan of the battery pack or module. In order to maximize
delay time to TR propagation, a standardised control mechanism must
be devised. A comprehensive review of various studies on the TR gen­
eration, propagation and minimization was carried out and the obser­
vations from the existing literature review are as follows.
8.1. Thermal runway and its propagation
• The majority of previous research has shown that external force or
impact can cause structural deformation and internal stress resulted
S. Mallick and D. Gayen
to increase in temperature in all the individual cells, as well as a large
likelihood of TR propagation from a single cell to its adjacent cells.
• A number of studies have been carried out on the subject of over­
charging of LIBs, leads in side reactions and heat generation in one
cell that spreads to its neighbouring cells and finally limit the ap­
plications of LIBs.
• Various studies pointed that over-discharging can be harmful, even
catastrophic for a LIBs due to voltage falling below a crucial
threshold. The irregularity in voltage and capacity of individual cells
make it difficult to monitor minor over-discharge using BMS, which
is also a limiting factor for LIBs modules.
8.2. Safety management strategy and protection methods against thermal
runaway
• Few publications published on thermal stability of LFP cathode and
LTO anodes as internal components of LIB, which are often used to
make safer LIB cells. However, the incorporation of PTC materials as
cathode and Si embedded anode are still rare for experimental works.
• A number of studies have reported that the addition of electrolyte
additives such as stabilizer salts, Li decomposition improver, safety
protection agent and solvation enhancer in liquid electrolytes can
improve the inflammable property as well as the performance of LIB
cells.
• There is hardly any work reported experimentally to date in
obtaining the performance of solid state electrolyte in manufacturing
LIB cells and employing the module to run an EV. Eventually,
development of solid-state electrolytes to manufacture LIB cells can
heavily improve the performance of LIB modules.
• Very few researchers studied the functionality of separators, which
work at high temperatures, and reported that the influences of
thermal and mechanical stability are the two main factors for better
performance of separators. Further research on layered separators in
manufacturing LIB cells can highly resist the flammability and
minimize TR in battery modules.
• Some researchers included more than one external cooling technol­
ogy or hybrid cooling technology to achieve better temperature
uniformity in LIBs that delays the TR propagation. Incorporation of
more than one cooling or hybrid technology has resulted in a heavier
battery module.
Declaration of competing interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence
the work reported in this paper.
Data availability
Data will be made available on request.
Acknowledgement
Mr. Soumyoraj Mallick and Dr. Debabrata Gayen are whole heartedly
thankful to Queen's University Belfast UK, and National Institute of
Technology Durgapur, India for providing immense support, sugges­
tions, and all the resources to accomplish this research work. Both the
authors thank the esteemed reviewers for their valuable comments and
suggestions.
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