Pre Midterm:-

1. Specify the common scales formed in the oil field? ****

➢ Calcium carbonate, calcium sulfate, barium sulfate, strontium sulfate, iron
compounds and silica.
2. How the solubility is affected by changing the conditions? (table) ****
➢ Solubility increases by:
CaCO3 CaSO4 BaSO4 SCO4
Partial pressure increase - - -
Total Pressure increase increase - -
temperature decrease increase Increase up to 100oC decrease
PH decrease - - -
TDS Increase Increase up to Increase up to Increase up to
up to 150,000 PPM 100,000 PPM 175,000 PPM
200,000
PPM

Fe++ Fe+++

FeO (soluble ) Fe2O2 (soluble up to PH 4)

FeCO3 (soluble) Fe2(CO3)3 (soluble up to PH 7)

Fe(OH)3 (soluble up to PH 4)
Fe(OH)2 (soluble up to PH 8.5)

FeS (soluble) Fe2S3 (soluble up to PH 3)

3. Predicting scale formation (Tutorial)

4. How can you perform evaluation of the compatibility?
• Solubility calculations
• Compatibility Test
➢ Solubility calculations:
1. Obtain analyses of the waters to be mixed.
2. Calculate a composite analysis for the waters at various mixing ratios of
interest
3. Calculate average PH values for the various mixtures.
➢ Compatibility Test
Fresh samples of waters to be mixed, filtered to remove any suspended solids
and then, mixed in several ratios, then left aside to observe any precipitation
occurs. This test is quite useful for the detection of calcium, barium, strontium

1
 sulfate precipitation problems, don’t give accurate indication for CaCO3 or iron
compounds because both are quite sensitive to PH changes.

5. How to prevent scale formation? (titles) ****

➢ 1. Avoid mixing in compatible waters: split system and sequential injection
2. Water dilution: mixing with diluted water results in mixture more stable at
system conditions
3. PH control: lowering PH increase stability of iron compounds and carbonate
scales, also the water will be more corrosive (corrosion problems)
6. How to perform scale control chemicals?

To reduce or prevent scale formation when added in small amounts to scaling water
1. Scales first begin to form, very fine crystals from the water, the scale inhibitor
adsorbs onto the surface of the crystals while they are still very tiny and prevent
further growth.
2. Some scale inhibitor prevents scale crystals from adhering to solid surfaces such as
piping or vessels.
7. What are the mechanisms of working scales removal?
1. Dissolved gas removal: such as H2S, CO2 and O2 can be removed from the water by
chemical and mechanical means.
2. Water softening: such as ion-exchange used to prevent scale deposition from
injection water and remove scale forming cations such as Ca++
3. Nanofiltration remove divalent ions
8. What are the rules of inhibitor applications?

1.The inhibitor must be present in the water at the point where scale crystals begin to form
This means that the inhibitor must be applied upstream of the problem area.
2. The inhibitor must be present in the water on a continuous basis Therefore, continuous
injection of scale inhibitor is required.

9. What are the types of scale inhibitor?

➢ Most common types:
1. Phosphate esters: not recommended above 175oF, as there is danger of
hydrolysis, resulting less in effectiveness.
2. Phosphonates: more temp. stable than esters , protection up to 350 oF
3. Polymers: for high temperature applications up to 350oF
10. In which basis you are using scale inhibitors? (10 points) ****
➢ 1. Chemical composition of the scale
2. Severity of scaling
3. System temperature
4. Laboratory scale inhibitor performance tests
5. Effect of suspended solids

2
 6. Compatibility with other chemicals
7. Compatibility with water
8. Effect of dissolved ion on calcium sulfate inhibition
9. Effect of PH
10. Weather
11. Discuss a separate point from the last 10 points
➢ 1. Chemical composition of the scale: Compounds are effective for specific
scales.
2. Severity of scaling: The higher the saturation index, the more difficult it is to
inhibit scale formation.
3. System temperature: scale inhibitors become less effective as the
temperature increases.
4. Laboratory scale inhibitor performance tests: to determine percent inhibition
as a function of scale inhibitor concentration in order to measure relative
inhibitor effectiveness.
5. Effect of suspended solids: amount of suspended solids are present, higher
inhibitor concentrations will be necessary that scale inhibitors will adsorb onto
the surface of solids in the water.
6. Compatibility with other chemicals: added to the system such as oxygen,
corrosion inhibitors, or biocides, and no reaction occurs.
7. Compatibility with water: scale inhibitors will react with calcium, barium,
magnesium to form insoluble compounds.
8. Effect of dissolved ion on calcium sulfate inhibition: most scale inhibitors less
effective in inhibiting calcium sulfate scale formation when dissolved iron in
present of water, especially in phosphate esters and phosphonanes, possible to
compensate for this effect by increasing scale inhibitor concentration, will
require additional cost. If the source of iron is the producing formation, polymer
type scale inhibitor should be considered.
9. Effect of PH: less effective against BaSO4 scales at PH values below 6.
10. Weather: determine the pour point of any scale inhibitors and design the
chemical injection system to avoid freezing problems.

12. How can scale inhibitor can be applied? (Pump)

Organic scale inhibitors are supplied as liquids except for some polymers which are supplied in powder
form, powders are dissolved in water before they are applied.

For surface facilities and injection wells, Inhibitors are applied by continuous injection using standard
pumps that need to be checked and maintained frequently to make sure that the proper amount of
inhibitors is injected, success of any scale inhibition program depends on the percentage of time in

3
which the pump is operating properly, scale inhibitors must be injected on a continuous basis to be
effective.

In water supply wells, scale problems are treated by continuous injection from the surface or by
squeezing the inhibitor into the water producing formation, choice of method depends on well
completion and nature of the problem.

13. Discuss monitoring scale efficiency. (coupons, visual, thermography…)

Minimum effective scale inhibitor concentration is often difficult to determine with precision,
commonly used methods include:
Pipe spools or nipples: short sections of pipe installed at various locations which maybe
removed and inspected for scale buildup, often used for corrosion monitoring. If scale is
present, thickness of spool can be measured or the scale can be scraped off and
weighed. Removing the spool depends on how easy it is to de-pressure the system, if it
is easy then we can remove the spool with ease, if it is not then a bypass around the
spool has to be installed so operation can continue while the spool is being removed.

Scale coupons: similar to corrosion coupons except that they are perforated with a
minimum of 6:8 holes. They are placed in the system with flat side facing direction of
flow to induce turbulence which makes scales tendencies more noticeable, coupon is
weighed before and after exposure to the fluid to determine the amount of scale.

Visual inspection: look for spots where scales might buildup in pipes and tanks. This
method is not quantitative but quite reliable.
Infrared thermography: used to measure surface temperatures of piping and vessels
handling hot produced fluids, scale formation makes external temperature lower as
scales have lower thermal conductivity than steel.
-Increased pressure drops in the system
- the flow rate must be measured.
Decreased injectivity: noticed by increasing injection pressure to maintain the rate, this
indicates that formation plugging has occurred which may be due to scale particles.

14. Scale identification.

The only reliable way is to obtain a sample of the scale or plugging solid and analyze it. Sampling of
scales is done as follows:
-for surface facilities: the system is opened and some of the scale is scraped out
-for injection wells: sample is obtained by backflowing the well or running a bailer

After a sample is obtained, field or lab scale analysis is performed to identify types of scale present, the
main difference is that field analysis is qualitative while lab analysis is quantitative, both analyses use
the same scheme.

4
 - the sample is soaked in a solvent to dissolve any hydrocarbon (check if the solvent color gets
darker)

- check if sample is magnetic (if strongly magnetic then it probably contains large amounts of
Fe3o4, if weekly magnetic then the amount of Fe3o4 is small or it may contain iron sulfide).

-the sample is placed in HCl (note color of acid, if it turns yellow then an iron compound is
indicated. Not any smell, H2S indicates FeS.

- Check solubility in water (NaCl is water soluble)

15. Scale classification and how to remove it? (each material is used to remove specific scale)

- scales are classified into hydrocarbons, iron compounds, salt, sand, silt and clay, barium
sulfate, calcium sulfate and calcium carbonate.

Scale removal:

Hydrocarbons: hydrocarbons are removed because they coat the scale particles and hinder the
action of scale removal chemicals. Hydrocarbon solvents are needed, the more asphaltic the oil
or deposit the more aromatic the solvent should be. These solvents can be emulsified in HCl acid
to improve its effectiveness.

Calcium carbonate: Hydrochloric acid is the cheapest and easiest way to remove it, a corrosion
inhibitor must be added and the life of the inhibitor should be considered, a surfactant is also
added to remove any oil film but prewashing with a hydrocarbon solvent is preferred for oil
removal unless the amount of oil is very small. Chelating agents such as EDTA may also be used
to remove calcium carbonate as they react with calcium ion to form a water-soluble complex
but their use is rare as their disadvantages include low efficiency and relatively high cost.

Calcium sulfate (gypsum): has low solubility in acids so converters are used to remove it from
water.

Inorganic converters: usually carbonates or hydroxides that react with calcium sulfate
to convert it to acid soluble caco3 or calcium hydroxide. After gypsum is converted, the
resulting compound is treated with hydrochloric acid treatment

Organic converters: such as sodium citrate, potassium glycollate and potassium acetate
, They react with calcium sulfate particles causing them to swell and soften so they may
be easily removed by flushing with water. They are expensive, require hours of contact
and should be checked on a sample before application.

-Chelating agents can also be used but they are expensive and have low efficiency, 10% sodium
hydroxide (caustic) solution can be used to dissolve an amount of gypsum equal to 12.5% of its
weight but it burns skin, Seawater with 55000 mg/L NaCl will dissolve three times as much
gypsum as fresh water at the same temperature.

5
 Barium sulfate: it can’t be chemically removed if it’s dense, several scale dissolvers are used to
dissolve thin layers of it. These scale dissolvers are chelating agents rather than dissolvers. The
solubility in these chelating agents is low compared to typical values for solvents. These
dissolvers reaction rates are very slow, they are expensive.

Iron compounds: hydrochloric acid is used to dissolve iron compounds, a corrosion inhibitor
should be added, an ion stabilizing agent is added to prevent precipitation of ion compounds
once the acid spends

Iron stabilizers

- Reducing agents: convert ferric ions to more soluble ferrous ions (e.g.
Erythorbic acid)

- chelating or sequestering agents: react with ferric ions to form a water-soluble

complex thus precipitation is prevented. (e.g. citric and acetic acids).

Salt: freshwater wash is used for this scale.

Sand, silt, and clay: usually present as occluded particles in scale deposits, once bulk scale
material is dissolved, these materials can be washed out.

16. Scale removal from surface lines.

It is usually accomplished by using chemicals and line scrapers “pigs”.
• Foam Pig: they are made with a hard rubber, plastic wrapper, or in brush form.
They can be pumped through lines in different diameters and they will deform
sufficiently to do its scraping job efficiently. They form a seal against inside of
pipes by compressing the foam but don’t seal from pressure differential.
• Gelled Plugs: gelled fluids can be injected into a line ahead of a conventional line
scraper to aid transport of large volume of solids to prevent it from blocking the
pipes.
17. Downhole Cleanout
Downhole cleanout usually consists of removing scale from the tubing, the perforations,
formation face, and pore spaces (fractures in formation matrix).
• Tubing: It’s basically the same as removal from surface lines, although pigs
cannot be used.
• Formation face or perforations: it involves a simple soaking operation with one
or more solvents.
In extreme cases, hydraulic fracturing may be the only way to penetrate the scaled
intervals.

6
18. In which basis do we classify the bacteria (titles, details, cocus, cocai,7aga cocus, basilias, Growth
factors). ****
1. Size: they are extremely small (about 0.5 Micrometer diameter)
2. Shape: I. Spherical shape: coccus (plural: cocci), a string of cocci is called a
streptococcus and a sheet or plane of cocci is called a staphylococcus.
II. Straight Rod: bacillus
III. Curved Rod
3. Growth: they can withstand temperature ranges of (-10 to 99oC), pH values of (0-
10.5), and O2 Concentrations of (0-100%). Their ideal growth conditions are at
temperatures less than 82oC and in pH range of (5-9)
4. Oxygen Requirements: I. Aerobic: Require O2 to grow
II. Anaerobic: grow best in the absence of O2.
III. facultative: grow in either absence or presence of O2.
19. What kind of problems that bacteria cause in oil field? ****
Bacteria can affect corrosion in several ways:
I. Generate hydrogen sulfide which increase corrosion.
II. Produce organic acids that initiate or accelerate corrosion on metal.
III. Produce enzymes that can increase the corrosion rate.
IV. Oxidize soluble iron in the water, causing it to precipitate and form deposits.
V. Combination of mentioned points.
It can also cause plugging due to the formation of biomass, generation of corrosion
products, or the precipitation of soluble iron in water.
20. 4 types of problems of SRB in oil field?
1. They can participate directly in the corrosion reaction and cause pitting.
2. The generation of H2S by bacteria can increase the corrosivity of the water.
3. In system which was originally free of H2S, it creates the possibility of sulfide
cracking and blistering of carbon steels.
4. Sour corrosion results in the formation of insoluble FeS which is an excellent
plugging material.
21. Effects of SRB in its growth (titles or details no numbers).******
1. Salinity: SRB are found in natural waters of all salinities from near zero to saturation.
Many types of SRB are salt tolerant and can grow in NaCl Concentrations up to
100,000 ppm. Higher concentrations Tend to limit growth.
2. Temperature: It can tolerate temperature ranges of (4-77oC)
3. pH: It can tolerate pH ranges of (5-9)
4. Pressure: It can tolerate pressures of at least 14,500 psi (100,000 kPa).
However, absolute values of temperature, pressure and pH required for the growth
of SRB in natural environments are impossible to state with any degree of certainty.
5. Nutrition: Question (22)

7
 6. Effect of dissolved Oxygen and Hydrogen Sulfide: Sulfate reducing bacteria are found
in oxygenated surface waters such as oceans. They are usually present in very small
numbers and do not multiply at an appreciable rate. However, if the water is initially
deaerated they then have an oxygen-free environment which is ideal for growth.
7. Reservoir souring: There have been a significant number of cases of “reservoir
souring” due to SRB activity. In each case, the reservoir fluids are initially sweet.
Injection of a sulfate-bearing water is initiated. Sometimes after breakthrough of
injection water in the producing wells, H2S appears and concentrations gradually
rise.
22. Nutrition?
Bacteria absorb their nutrients directly from the environment around them. Each cell
contains proteins called enzymes that break down nutrient molecules to extract energy.
A single living cell contains hundreds of different enzymes, each is an effective catalyst
for a specific chemical reaction but they actually work together in a coordinated manner
to produce the materials required for normal cell growth and metabolism. There are
some primary nutrients for SBR:
I. Carbon
II. Nitrogen & Phosphorus
III. Sulfate, Sulfite, Bisulfite or Thiosulfate Ions.

23. What kind of bacteria that affects the oil field? (iron oxidizing bacteria) (titles or details).

1)Sulphate Reducing Bacteria (SRB):

Details mentioned above

2) Iron-Oxidizing Bacteria:

Iron-oxidizing bacteria are able to oxidize soluble ferrous ions in the water to form ferric
hydroxide around them as they grow.
Iron bacteria can cause both corrosion and plugging.

3) Slime-Forming Bacteria:

Slime-forming bacteria are a general class of bacteria capable of producing dense masses of
slime on solid surfaces. They cause plugging and contribute to corrosion in the same ways as
iron bacteria.

8
4) Other Types of Bacteria

There are many other types of bacteria but, SRB, iron bacteria, and slime formers constitute the
major sources of microbiological problems.

24. Chemical control of micro-organisms (what type of chemicals)? (Titles of chemicals)******

Classification by Function

1. Bactericide: A chemical which kills bacteria.

2. Bacteriostat: A chemical which inhibits or retards growth of bacteria.
3. Biocide: A chemical which kills other forms of life in addition to bacteria.
4. Biostat: A chemical which retards or inhibits the growth of other life forms in addition to
bacteria.

Classification by Chemical Composition

Inorganic Chemicals:
1.Chlorine
2.Chlorine Dioxide

Organic Chemicals:
1.Aldehydes
2.Quaternary “Quats” ammonium compounds
3.Amines

25. Forms of Chlorine?

1) Liquid Chlorine:
Liquid chlorine is supplied in steel cylinders. The chlorin evaporates as it leaves the cylinder and
is added to the water as a gas with a chlorinator.

2) Hypochlorite Generators:
Hypochlorite (OCI-) can be produced in chloride-containing waters by electrolysis. The brine is
passed through a special electrolytic cell called a hypochlorite generator, which contains two
electrodes, an anode and a cathode. Hydrogen ions are converted to hydrogen gas at the
cathode and chloride ions are converted to OCI- ions at the anode.

3) Hypochlorite Solutions:
Liquid hypochlorite solutions such as sodium hypochlorite are available and can be injected
with a conventional chemical pump.

9
 26. How can you select the chemical and evaluate it concerning the microbiology? (titles, details)

1)Kill or control:
Decision whether to use bactericide or a bacteriostat is dictated by the type of bacteria
involved.
Sulfate reducers requires a bactericide since a total kill is desired while bacteriostat is often
used for their control.

2)Resistant strains:

• Resistant strains which become resistant to a particular biocide which results in the
evolution of a bacteria which is difficult to kill.
• The apparent creation of a “resistant strain” is evidenced by the fact that a given biocide
gradually stops to be effective. The most common explanation is often referred to as
“selective adaptation.”
• This means that certain members of the bacterial population are easily killed by a given
biocide, while other types of bacteria are not.
• This phenomenon does not always occur. However, because it is possible, it is usually a
good idea to select a minimum of two biocides. Then, if a given chemical starts to show
decreased effectiveness, alternating treatment with a second.

3) Compatibility with Water and Other Chemicals:

Make sure that the chemical is compatible with your water. Some will precipitate or “salt out”.
Also, compatibility with oxygen scavengers and corrosion or scale inhibitors must be
established.

4) Time-Kill Tests:

It takes time for any bactericide to kill the bacteria present. Therefore, it is wise to determine
what length of time is necessary for a particular chemical to do its job at several chemical
concentrations. A specific method for sulfate reducers is spelled out in NACE Standard TM0194.
It is important to know the time-kill relationship, especially where batch treatment is utilized.

5) Treatment Method:

• The treatment method must also be considered. If the bactericide is to be continuously

injected an initially high concentration is usually required to bring the bacterial
population under control; then lower chemical concentrations can usually be effective
once the bacterial population has been brought under control.

10
 • If batch treatment is used, a high concentration slug is pumped through the system,
and the object is a total kill.
• In most cases, organic biocides are injected on a batch basis because of improved cost-
effectiveness over continuous injection.
• Since immunity is not a problem with chlorine, it is usually injected on a continuous
basis. Concentrations are kept as low as possible in order to minimize any increased
corrosivity, as well as for economic reasons.

27. Kill time test time and how?

Mentioned in Question 25

28. Chemical application (how to apply the chemical for micro biological contaminants)? (titles,
details) ****

1)Clean the System:

The first rule of successful use of bactericides is to clean the system. A thorough cleaning job is
necessary and has only one purpose: to remove all obstacles between the bactericide and the
bacteria.
No chemical can kill bacteria if it cannot contact them.
1. Clean out the injection lines and tubing, using solvents, acid and line scrapers if necessary.
2. Open all tanks, vessels and filters, and manually clean out all accumulated sludge and
scale.
3. Backflow all injection wells.

2) Eliminate Stagnant or Low Velocity Areas:

Examine the possibility of eliminating stagnant or low velocity areas by changes in system
design, since bacteria grow more rapidly in slowly moving or stagnant waters.

3)Sterilize the System:

The bacteria must now be killed. A high concentration slug of bactericide, with sufficient
residence time to kill the bacteria, is used. Don’t forget that this means the lines, tanks, filters
and injection wells. However, it also means the water source.

4) Institute Treatment:

At this point “normal” treatment, either continuous or batch, can be instituted. The chemical
should be added as near to the water source as possible. It should be added in an area where
good mixing is possible.

11
Injection into the water intake line or downstream of the supply pump are common locations.

29. How to evaluate the chemical treatment programs?

1. Inspection of the chemical injection points to ensure that the chemical is the one you
selected, and that it is being injected into the system at the proper concentration.
2. Estimation of specific families of planktonic bacterial population in water samples using
culturing methods.
3. Estimation of total planktonic population in the water using ATP.
4. Estimation of the sessile bacterial population using a Robbins Device for collection.
5. Measurement of H2S concentrations.
6. Visual examination of the water and suspended solids measurements.
7. Internal inspection of the system for deposits and corrosion.

30. Define what is corrosion cell ( what does it consist of?)

The corrosion cell consists of: anode, cathode, electrolyte, and electron conductor.
• Anode: Electrode at which oxidation occurs
• Cathode: Electrode at which reduction occurs
• Electrolyte: The electrolyte conducts current from the anode to the cathode. (Water is
an electrolyte)
• Electron conductor: The electrodes must be connected by something which will
conduct electrons.
31. What are the factors that affect corrosion rate? ****
I. Nature of metals: Metal Composition and impurities:
• For example, steel is an alloy of iron and carbon. As a result of reacting of iron
with carbon iron carbide is produced which has a lower tendency to corrode
then pure iron.
• The Fe3C and the pure iron are in intimate contact, so when the steel is placed in
water (an electrolyte), the electrical circuit is complete and current flows
through thousands of tiny microcells on the steel surface. The pure iron acts as
the anode and corrodes, while the Fe3C acts as the cathode.
II. Water Composition:
1. Conductivity of water: pure water is less conductive and hence less corrosive.
2. pH of Water: corrosivity increase as pH decreases
3. dissolved gases: O2 , CO2 , H2S
a. Carbon dioxide: decrease pH of water
b. H2S: Decrease pH of water
4. Organic acids
III. Effect of physical variables:

12
 1. Water temperature: corrosion rate usually increases with temperature (speed
the reactions) …. Yet it may drop after a while due to the evolution of dissolved
gas from solution
2. Pressure of system: corrosion rate increases with pressure as more gas goes into
solution
3. Water velocity: *low velocity→ deposition of solids leading to the creation of
concentration cells and bacterial growth beneath deposits
*Very High velocity →may speed up transportation of
dissolved gases and hence increase corrosion rate.
32. What are the forms of corrosion?
1. Galvanic corrosion
2. Concentration cells
3. Erosion-corrosion and impingement
4. Cavitation
5. Hydrogen damage
6. Corrosion fatigue
7. Microbiologically influenced corrosion
8. Fretting corrosion
9. Electrolytic corrosion
10. Chloride stress cracking
11. Selective leaching

33. Corrosion control methods****

1. Alter material composition: use corrosion resistant metals (expensive!) or plastic
material (can't be used for high pressure and temperature).
2. Alter electrolyte composition: change water composition by removing gases or mixing
water…
3. Physical alteration of system: change pipe diameter which result in velocity change,
and institution of line pigging and vessel clean out to reduce solids deposition.
4. Isolate the metal from the electrolyte: plastic and cement coatings and linings
5. Chemical inhibitors
6. Cathodic protection
34. What are the recommended procedures that should be followed for sampling of routine water
analysis? ****
Sample Containers in the form of clean plastic bottles with tightly fitting plastic caps are
recommended for routine water samples. Recommended sample Volume for routine
analysis is 500 mL. Once you have a representative water flow, Routine sample analysis is
carried out by rinsing the bottle out 3 times, then place the end of the hose at the bottom
of the bottle and let the bottle overflow for an estimated 10 volumes, then slowly pull out
the hose and quickly cap it to minimize 1) Oxygen contamination and 2) the escape of
dissolved gases.

13
35. Why magnesium ions decrease the amount of CaSo4 and CaCo3 scales? ****
Magnesium ions decrease the amount of CaSO4 scales. They do so by forming “ion pairs”
with the sulfate ion. Essentially, the magnesium ion has the ability to form a compound
which remains in solution. The sulfate ions which are tied up with magnesium are not
available to form sulfate scales.
36. Why in sampling of sample for oil in water analysis we do not rinse or overflow the bottle with
the water to be sampled? ****
Because Oil will tend to adhere to the bottle wall and separate from the water. If the bottle
is filled more than once, oil from each filling is likely to stay in the bottle, giving
erroneously high results. Alternately, free oil may be carried out of the bottle by
overflowing, giving low results.
37. Why the calcium ions Concentration is very important to be measured in oil field waters? ****
The calcium ion is of major importance because it readily combines with
bicarbonate, carbonate or sulfate ions and precipitates to form adherent scales or
suspended solids
38. Define the ions and physical properties that are important from corrosion and plugging stand
point. ****

14
Chapter (6): -
39. What are the factors that affect mechanical removal of any gas from solution? [Zy Dalton
Law]
➢ The mechanical removal of any gas from solution is governed by three factors.
I. Dalton’s Law of Partial Pressures: -
• The total pressure exerted by a gas mixture is the sum of the
pressures exerted by the individual components.
[Pt=P1+P2+P3+……+Pn]
• The partial pressure of a particular component in a gas mixture is
equal to the mole fraction of the component present in the gas
mixture multiplied by the absolute system pressure.
[Pi=Pt*Mole Fraction]
II. Henry’s Law: -
• Henry says that the amount of a particular gas dissolved in a liquid is
directly proportional to its partial pressure in the gas above the
liquid. [C=KP]
Where C: is the concentration of gas in liquid, K: is a constant, P: is
pressure of gas above the liquid
III. Temperature: -
The solubility of gases in water decreases as the water gets hotter.

40. What are the factors that affect dissolved oxygen gas removal by gas stripping tower?
[Perforated-Trays-Packing Towers] ******
➢ The amount of dissolved oxygen removed from a given water in a gas stripping
tower is a function of several variables: -
• Dissolved oxygen concentration in inlet water.
• Number of theoretical trays.
• Gas/water ratio.
• Tower pressure.
• Water temperature.
➢ Note that the efficiency of oxygen removal increases as:
• Tower pressure decreases.
• Water temperature increases.
• Gas/water ratio increases.
• As the number of trays in tower increases.

15
41. What are the design aspects that should be considered in packed tower and trayed
columns?
• One factor is the foaming tendency of both underground and sea water. In packed
towers this foam fills the void spaces and causes flooding, this requires that vapor-
liquid ratios, and packing types and sizes, should be different than those employed
in ordinary hydrocarbon stripping towers.
• In trayed columns, tray design must be altered to provide lower than normal gas
slot velocities to prevent undue foaming. Down-comers should be designed for low
velocity. A tray spacing of less than 20 inches is not recommended. Even with the
optimum design the overall efficiency is low [7-15%], which means that to produce
good results we may need up to 20 trays which results in a tower height of 15
meters which limits application.

42. What are the types of Oxygen-Oxygen Sulphite scavengers and their properties?

43. What are the factors that affect sulphite reaction? ******
➢ PH: -
• This is the most important variable affecting the rate of the sulfite-oxygen
reaction. When any of the sulfite oxygen scavengers are dissolved in water,
they will ionize to produce varying amounts of SO, HSO3 and SO3 depending
on the pH of the solution. Since only SO3* reacts with oxygen, pH is very
important as it dictates the percentage of the product available to react. At
pH values below 4.5, the sulfite scavengers will not react with oxygen.
Reaction rates are not appreciable until pH values exceed 6.0. Further
increases in reaction rate occur with pH up to a maximum in the 8.5-10.0 pH
range, with a rapid decrease in rate above pH 10.5.
➢ Temperature: -
The rate at which scavengers react with oxygen increases as the water gets hotter.

16
 ➢ Calcium Ion: -
A high calcium ion concentration in the water leads to the precipitation of the
sulfite ion as calcium sulfite hemihydrate thus reducing the amount of sulfite
available to scavenge oxygen.
➢ Hydrogen Sulphide: -
In general, sulfite oxygen scavengers will not be effective if there is more than 5
ppm H2S present in the water. This is due to the fact that H2S can reduce the
concentration of natural or added catalysts by precipitating them as sulfides. In
addition, they can interfere with the basic sulfite-oxygen reaction.
➢ Treating Chemicals: -
Both inorganic and organic treating chemicals can adversely affect the reaction rate
between sulfite scavengers and oxygen. Some of the known offenders:
I. Chlorine
• Oxygen scavengers will react with chlorine. When possible, chlorine should
be added downstream from the point of scavenger injection. The distance
between the scavenger and chlorine injection points should be sufficient to
allow the scavenger-oxygen reaction to reach completion before arriving at
the chlorine injection point.
II. Chelating Agents
III. Biocides
• Aldehydes, which are commonly used as biocides, react with sulfite
scavengers to give an insoluble product.
IV. Scale Inhibitors
• Most corrosion inhibitors, biocides, and scale inhibitors are complex
mixtures, and their effect on scavenger reaction rates varies greatly.
However, any of these chemicals can interfere and should be selected with
care. If possible, they should be added downstream of the scavenger.

44. How does [PH-Temperatures-Calcium-etc..] affect chemical reaction between oxygen and
oxygen sulphite scavengers? ******
[As 43]

45. How can you exclude the oxygen from the system? [Gas Blanket-Etc.] (Mmkn yygy in
details aw la2) ******
➢ Gas Blankets — Water Storage Tanks: -
• All tanks handling air-free water should be blanketed with an oxygen-free
gas, such as natural gas or nitrogen. Oil blankets should not be used. Oxygen
is much more soluble in oil than in water and will rapidly diffuse through an
oil layer.

17
 ➢ Gas Blankets — Wells: -
• Both supply wells and producing wells may need to be gas blanketed to
prevent oxygen entry. One of the favorite places for oxygen entry is around
or through the power cable to a down-hole electric pump.
➢ Pumps: -
• Oxygen often enters injection through pump suctions, especially where a
net positive suction head is not maintained. It is recommended that all
centrifugal pumps handling air-free water be equipped with pressurized
suction seals.
➢ Valve Stems and Connections: -
• All valve stems and connections such as flanges are likely points for air
entry. They must be maintained leak-free.

46. How can we monitor dissolved oxygen?

➢ Through: -
I. Scavengers: -
• The only safe way to determine how effectively you are doing the job is to
measure the oxygen content of the water at the point of interest. This can
be especially critical when attempting to determine how far upstream to
inject the oxygen scavenger, or how much catalyst to use.
II. Exclusion: -
• Similarly, only good oxygen measurements taken through a system can tell
you whether or not oxygen is being successfully excluded. Because of the
fact that oxygen entry is often cyclic, it is highly desirable to use a recording
oxygen meter.
III. Measurement Techniques: -
• There are several types of dissolved oxygen meters on the market with
sufficient sensitivity to measure ppb range. Although portable models are
available, oxygen meters are used primarily as permanently installed,
continuous analyzers in large water treatment plants.

47. How to remove H2S from water? [Mechanical Removal-Chemical Removal (Aldehydes-
chemical oxidizers)]
• Mechanical Removal:
In order to mechanically remove sulfide from water, it must be in the form of a
dissolved gas. You cannot gas-strip an ion. Hence, stripping efficiency improves as
the pH decreases.
Gas stripping: can be carried out with natural gas, providing the pH of the water can
be reduced to a value of 6.0 or lower by upstream addition of acid.

18
 Aeration: may be used to remove H2S from water. This procedure saturates the
water with air which often causes as many problems as it solves.
• Chemical Removal of Hydrogen Sulfide from Water:
Chemical oxidizers: The oxidizers most commonly used in oilfield waters include
chlorine, chlorine dioxide, and hydrogen per-oxide, the use of oxidizers as hydrogen
sulfide scavengers is normally limited to the removal of a few ppm of HS. (can be
extremely corrosive to steel if used in sufficient quantities).
Aldehydes:
Acrolein: is a powerful biocide as well as hydrogen sulfide scavenger (incompatible
with oxygen scavengers, and many corrosion inhibitors and scale inhibitors)
Formaldehyde: Formaldehyde (CHO) will also react with hydrogen sulfide. However,
the removal efficiency is typically much less than acrolein.

48. How to remove CO2? [Mechanically]

Mechanically: The amount of CO; which can be stripped from water depends upon water
pH just as in the case of HS
• Aeration: may also be used to remove CO2. As CO2 is removed, the PH rises, and
carbonate scale can form.
• Vacuum Degasification: This process has been used to remove CO, from water. It
can be used indirectly for scale control by lowering the pH to 4 or 5

49. Mention different types of filters. ******

1. Conventional Graded Bed Filters
2. High Rate Deep-Bed Filters
• Upflow Filters
• Downflow Filters
• Multimedia Filter
3. Dual Flow Filter
4. Cartridge Filters
50. What are the characteristics of each filter (Theory of filtration- media-flow rate-
backwash-filtration flow direction-chemical use-advantages-disadvantages) [Especially
Conventional Graded Bed Filter-Up Flow Filter-Down flow Filter (blzat multimedia filter)-
D-well flow filter-Cartilage filter (material of construction of cartilage flow filter).

• Answer in excel file

19
51. What are the variables that should be measured in filter evaluation and selection and
why?
It is impossible to theoretically predict filter performance. The only rational way to select a
filter is to conduct comparative on-site performance testing interest.

-- All filters should be tested simultaneously to ensure that each unit is evaluated under
identical
conditions. The following variables should be measured as a function of time:
* Particle size distribution upstream and downstream of the filter.
* Suspended solids concentrations upstream and downstream of the filter.
* Pressure drops across the filter versus flow rate.

- These measurements will make it possible to evaluate particle size removal efficiency, the
dirt capacity of the filter, and filter life.
52. How to monitor filter performance?
Filter performance can be monitored by:
• Turbidity measurements
• Suspended solids content
• Water quality measurements

Normally, turbidity measurements are sufficient for routine performance. However, determination
of suspended solids, particle size distributions and/or water quality should be made periodically to
actually, measure filter performance.
53. Calculate theoretical oxygen demand for an aqueous stream containing 0.5 mole% acetic
acid (CH3COOH). Assume molar density of waste stream is 56 kmol/m3.******

20
Chapter (7): -
54.Summary of the main items to be considered in water Source selection (points & in
details)

1) Corrosion: The corrosivity of each water should always be measured if possible, if

meaningful measurements cannot be made, then a “guesstimate” of relative corrosivity
of the various water can be made
Three reasons to maintain effective corrosion control:
1. Acceptable service life for the equipment
2. Minimize the generation of suspended solids
3. Prevent loss of water to environments (to avoid pollution).

2) Solids generation: corrosion products constitute the primary source of suspended solids
generated, suspended solids deposition accelerates the corrosion rates, provides hiding
place for bacteria and shields the pipe surface from contact with corrosion inhibitors and
or biocides. Which results in poor water quality and injection well plugging
3) Scaling Tendency: scaling calculations should be made to determine the probability of
scale formation for each water. (ph ,HCO3 CO3)measurements are important for accurate
calcium carbonate scale calculations.
4) Water compatibility: if two or more water must be mixed on the surface before injection,
scaling calculations and computability tests should be performed.
5) Suspended solids: the suspended solids concentration, the particle size distribution, and
the nature and composition of the solids have an important influence on the plugging
tendency of a water.
6) Water quality: water quality testing can be carried out on each water using membrane
filters or core samples.
7) Bacteria: bacterial analysis should be made; bacteria problems can develop in injection
systems using an initially sterile water
8) Oil content: oil content should be examined, oil in the water can result in decreased
injectivity when combined with suspended solids as iron sulfide.
9) Formation sensitivity: some formations contain clays which swell upon contact with low
salinity water, can result in reduced permeability and injectivity.

55.What are the primary problems which might be anticipated with injection water?
why we have to maintain effective corrosion control? *********
1) Seawater:
1. saturated with oxygen (very corrosive)
2. contains suspended solids and marine organisms which should be filtered.
(amount varies with location and depth)
3. contains aerobic bacteria and sulfate reducing bacteria
4. fouling must be prevented in the intake systems

21
 5. CaCO3 scale often forms in injection wells and in heat exchange equipment.
6. High concentration of sulfate.
7. Reservoir souring is likely. Impact of H2S on the design must be considered
before construction

2) Fresh surface water:

1. saturated with oxygen (corrosivity varies with water composition)
2. contains suspended solids which must be removed (seasonally variable)
3. Aerobic bacteria are usually encountered, uncommon to find sulfate reducers.
4. Downhole scale formation is often minimal due to low dissolved solids
5. Maybe in compatible with the formation water
6. Can cause clay swelling and loss of injectivity (if formation contains sensitive
clay)
3) Produced water.
1. Usually contains dissolved H2S and /or CO2
2. Usually contains suspended solids.
3. Oil carryover is a frequent problem]
4. Various types of bacteria, including sulfate reducing bacteria are often present.
5. Scale formation is possible. Scales in injection systems is unlikely unless there
are incompatibility problems due to mixing with another water, most scale
problems in the production system.

4) Subsurface source water

1. Maybe not corrosive depending on composition. (Providing it is free of dissolved
oxygen)
2. Maybe scale forming
3. If fresh, formation sensitivity should be considered.
4. Various types of bacteria, including sulfate reducing bacteria can be a problem.
5. May contain suspended solids. Normally not a problem.
6. Watch for incompatibility with formation water.

• Three reasons to maintain effective corrosion control:

1. Acceptable service life for the equipment
2. Minimize the generation of suspended solids
3. Prevent loss of water to environments (to avoid pollution).

56.Draw the plants of any of the mentioned System and what things should be
considered concerning these Systems?

1. Surface water:

22
Both sea water and fresh water should be deoxygenated before injection, economically
method for corrosion control, corrosion inhibitor is not usually required

• Seawater injection systems:

• Vacuum deaerator or gas stripping tower or combination can be used to remove

dissolved oxygen from seawater.
• Corrosion Control: Seawater is routinely deaerated prior to injection
• Velocity effects: A minimum velocity of 3 ft/s [1 m/s] is generally
recommended.
• Biological Control: “Chlorine” (chlorine or a hypochlorite solution) is usually
injected into the bottom of the lift-pump casing to control both marine fouling
and bacterial growth upstream of deaeration.
• Fresh surface water injection systems:

• Water storage tank should be equipped with gas blanket

• Vacuum tower can be substituted for gas stripper tower
• Filters, storage tanks and gas stripping tower should be coated internally
• If water is expected to form scale, scale inhibitor can be applied upstream injection
pump.

23
 • Sample points should be located between every piece of equipment.

2. Subsurface waters:
• Produced water injection systems

• Corrosion rates can be maintained at very low values with corrosion inhibitors
• Corrosion rates, bacterial counts, and oxygen concentration must be carefully
monitored
• Velocities should be maintained in excess of 3 ft/s [1 m/s]
• Continuous injection of a scale inhibitor will be required if scale formation occurs in
the injection wells.
3. Shallow oxygenated supply-well injection systems:

• Water storage tank should be equipped with gas blanket

• Both water storage tanks should be internally coated.
• Biocide and/ or scale control chemical may be required
• Water from supply well rarely need filtration

24
• Sample point should be located between every equipment

57.Mention “Inspection & Analysis techniques” (points & in details)

1) Iron: An increase in iron content in water indicates corrosion and decrease in iron
content indicates deposition of iron compounds.
2) Calcium, Barium, Strontium: A decrease in the concentration of any of these ions
indicates scale formation.
3) Bicarbonate, Carbonate: decrease in the concentration of these ions indicates
deposition of CaCO3 unless the PH is changing.
4) Sulfate: A decrease indicates sulfate scale deposition.
5) Temperature: changes in temperature effect scale formation and corrosion rates.
6) Scaling calculations: a complete water analysis should be carried at each sample
point and then CaCO3 and sulfate scaling tendencies can be calculated at each point.
7) H2S: an increase in H2S concentration through the system indicates the presence of
sulfate reducing bacteria, and decrease in it indicates the presence of oxidizing
agents in the system.
8) Suspended solids: an increase in suspended solids can be indicative of corrosion,
scale formation, or bacteria.
9) Turbidity: increased turbidity indicates increased plugging solids
10) Water quality measurements: the material on the membrane filter should be analyzed
to determine the nature of the solid.
11) Oil carryover: in produced water, the water coming from the treater should be
checked for oil content. Pump lubrication is a common source of oil contamination.
12) Bacteria counts: counts of sulfate reducing bacteria and general bacteria should be
count.
13) Visual inspection: look for signs of trouble, look for any signs of oxygen entry any
leaks? Any plugging? Wellhead injection pressure?

25
 58.Draw flow diagram of fresh surface water(river) injection system******

59.What are the important issues that should be considered in the above-mentioned
plat design ******?
(Q3)

Chp.2
60.What concerns should be taken during sampling of (wellhead, tank, system, surface
water) ******
• Wellhead: take wellhead samples from wellhead not from heat treater or at the tank.
• Tank: sample it at several levels top, middle and bottom
• System: take sample when the system operates normally, it is often most convenient to take
samples when the system is shut down, make sure the flow rate is normal.
• Surface water: water composition of surface water (especially turbidity, oxygen concentration
and microbiological population) may change with the time of the year , take sample at several
points over a period of several months.

26