English Tertiary Educationin Vietnam

See discussions, stats, and author profiles for this publication at: https://www.researchgate.
net/publication/345595464
Vietnamese foreign language policy in higher education
Chapter · June 2018

DOI: 10.4324/9781315212098-1
CITATIONS READS
6 2,107
2 authors:
Huong Lam James Albright

Thuyloi University The University of Newcastle, Australia
4 PUBLICATIONS 10 CITATIONS 52 PUBLICATIONS 461 CITATIONS
SEE PROFILE SEE PROFILE
All content following this page was uploaded by James Albright on 15 January 2023.
The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file.

English Tertiary Education
in Vietnam
As part of a long series of Vietnam’s policy objectives, English education has

been identified as key to improving the quality of its rapidly expanding tertiary
institutions and is crucial to the larger aim of modernising and internationalising
its economy. Bringing together a wide range of Vietnamese and foreign English
education scholars, and tertiary educational practitioners, this book documents
the significant progress and challenges in the realisation of Vietnam’s English
language policies as they are enacted in the higher education sector. Changes
to Vietnam’s higher education system remain unstable, unsystematic, and
insubstantial. This book provides insights into how recent Vietnamese government
policy is providing for a substantial and comprehensive renewal of Vietnam’s
tertiary education as part of their 2020 plan. Academics and students of English
education, language policy, and nation building within the context of increased
globalisation and marketisation in developing nations and Vietnam, in particular,
should find this book valuable.
James Albright is Professor of Education at the University of Newcastle, Australia
15032-1187e-2pass-r02.indd 1 6/5/2018 9:17:50 AM

Routledge Critical Studies in Asian Education
Series Editors: S. Gopinathan, Wing On Lee and
Jason Eng Thye Tan
Making Sense of Education in Post-Handover Hong Kong

Achievements and challenges
Edited by Thomas Kwan-Choi Tse and Michael H. Lee
English Education at the Tertiary Level in Asia

From policy to practice
Edited by Eun Sung Park and Bernard Spolsky
English-Medium Instruction in Chinese Universities

Perspectives, Discourse and Evaluation
Edited by Jing Zhao and L. Quentin Dixon
Rethinking Madrasah Education in a Globalised World

Edited by Mukhlis Abu Bakar
Policies and politics in Malaysian education

Education reforms, nationalism and neoliberalism
Edited by Cynthia Joseph
The Sustainability of Higher Education in an Era of Post-Massification

Edited by Deane E. Neubauer, Ka Ho Mok and Jin Jiang
Emigration, Employability and Higher Education in the Philippines

Yasmin Y. Ortiga
Literature Education in the Asia-Pacific

Policies, practices and perspectives in global times
Edited by Chin Ee Loh, Suzanne Choo and Chatherine Beavis
English Tertiary Education in Vietnam

Edited by James Albright
For the whole list please visit: www.routledge.com/Routledge-Critical-Studies-
in-Asian-Education/book-series/RCSAE
15032-1187e-2pass-r02.indd 2 6/5/2018 9:17:50 AM

English Tertiary Education
in Vietnam
Edited by James Albright
15032-1187e-2pass-r02.indd 3 6/5/2018 9:17:50 AM

First published 2019
by Routledge
2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN
and by Routledge
711 Third Avenue, New York, NY 10017
Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business
© 2019 selection and editorial matter, James Albright; individual
chapters, the contributors
The right of James Albright to be identified as the author of the
editorial material, and of the authors for their individual chapters, has
been asserted in accordance with sections 77 and 78 of the Copyright,
Designs and Patents Act 1988.
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or
reproduced or utilised in any form or by any electronic, mechanical,
or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including
photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval
system, without permission in writing from the publishers.
Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks
or registered trademarks, and are used only for identification and
explanation without intent to infringe.
British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data
A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
A catalog record for this book has been requested
ISBN: 978-0-415-79197-7 (hbk)
ISBN: 978-1-315-21209-8 (ebk)
Typeset in Galliard
by Apex CoVantage, LLC
15032-1187e-2pass-r02.indd 4 6/5/2018 9:17:50 AM

Contents
Acknowledgementsvii
Notes on contributorsviii
Forewordxii
1 Vietnamese foreign language policy in higher education:

a barometer to social changes 1
LAM THI LAN HUONG AND JAMES ALBRIGHT
2 Globalisation and Vietnamese foreign language education 16

THI THUY LE AND SHEN CHEN
3 Nation building and language in education policy 28

PHUONG ANH VU
4 Current challenges in the teaching of tertiary English

in Vietnam 40
TRINH THI THU HIEN AND MAI THI LOAN
5 Vietnamese higher education language planning and

university students’ career development 54
THUY BUI, THI THOM THOM NGUYEN AND AN DUC NGUYEN
6 Textbooks as cultural mediators: exploring representations

of culture in Vietnamese tertiary EFL textbooks 68
TRINH THI THU HIEN
7 General English for non-majors in higher education 86

LOAN THI LAM
8 EFL speaking assessment in Vietnamese tertiary education 102

NAM LAM
15032-1187e-2pass-r02.indd 5 6/5/2018 9:17:50 AM

vi Contents
9 Business students’ perspectives on the use of English
medium instruction in Vietnamese universities 119
LE THI THUY NHUNG
10 Rural students’ motivation for learning English:

implications for transition to tertiary education 132
CUONG PHAM AND CYNTHIA WHITE
11 Examining the motivation and achievement of Vietnamese

university students as they undertake English classes 145
TRUONG CONG BANG AND JENNIFER ARCHER
12 Learner autonomy in tertiary English classes in Vietnam 158

NHUNG BUI
13 Vietnamese EFL teacher training at universities: review of

the design and cultural aspect of the curriculum 172
MAI THI QUYNH LAN AND PHAM THI THANH THUY
Index185
15032-1187e-2pass-r02.indd 6 6/5/2018 9:17:50 AM

Acknowledgements
This book is the primarily work of many committed Vietnamese scholars. Its con-
ception rests within the ongoing dialogue held in the University of Newcastle’s
(Australia) School of Education Vietnamese doctoral student colloquium. Meet-
ing bi-weekly, this dedicated group of Vietnamese tertiary lecturers, for the most
part supported by their government, who have come from varied institutions
across the country, have shared their research in EFL policy, leadership, train-
ing, curriculum, pedagogy, and assessment. These students are often separated,
in whole or in part, from their families. They come to study in a country that is
very different from their own and place themselves under the supervision of other
scholars, who come from other academic traditions. They must learn to read,
write, revise, and edit in their second language at the same level of proficiency
as a native speaker. Their scholarship is a testament to their desire to improve
the outcomes and opportunities to be afforded to new generations of Vietnam’s
students. Joined by others, at home in Vietnam or studying elsewhere, they have
collaborated to produce this book. I have been honoured to be their editor. Any
errors are clearly mine.
I want to single out for individual thanks, my student, Lam Thi Lan Huong,
who has worked tirelessly to facilitate the communication among this book’s
many collaborators and completion of the manuscript. Huong returns to Viet-
nam this year after successfully concluding her doctoral studies. I appreciate and
acknowledge her diligence and hard work. All the book’s contributors owe her
a debt. I wish her well in her future teaching and research at Thuyloi University,
in Hanoi.
15032-1187e-2pass-r02.indd 7 6/5/2018 9:17:50 AM

Notes on contributors
An Duc Nguyen graduated from the MA program in TESOL at University of

Languages and International Studies, Vietnam National University, Hanoi.
She currently works as a university lecturer of English in a multi-ethnic, under-
served, and mountainous province, Son La, Vietnam. She has also served as a
teacher trainer for the National Foreign Languages 2020 Project since 2011.
Her research interests include EFL, English for community, employability,
minority, and CALL. As an active and enthusiastic language educator, she is
involved in community-based English projects to contribute to her province’s
socio-economic and educational development.
Cuong Pham is an English language lecturer at the University of Economics and
Law, Vietnam National University. He obtained his PhD in Applied Linguis-
tics from Massey University, New Zealand. Pham has a wide range of teach-
ing and research experience in both EAP and ESP contexts in New Zealand
and Vietnam. His research interests include language learning motivation and
emotion, learner agency, ecological systems theory, lifewide adaptive language
learning, and language learning and teaching in rural settings.
Cynthia White is Professor of Applied Linguistics, Massey University, New Zea-
land and has published widely on affect, agency, and identity in online language
learning and teaching, and in out-of-class settings for language learning. She
is on the Editorial Boards of eight international journals, including TESOL
Quarterly and is Associate Editor for Language Learning & Technology. She
has been plenary speaker at international conferences and workshops in Ger-
many, Thailand, Singapore, China, UK, Hawai’i, and Malaysia and has com-
pleted collaborative research projects with Oxford University, Open University
UK, and Nottingham University. Her most recent project concerns agency
and emotion in teacher narrative accounts of conflict in an L2 classroom.
Jennifer Archer works as an educational psychologist in the School of Education
at the University of Newcastle, Australia. She holds a PhD in educational psy-
chology from the University of Illinois. Her research interests lie in the field of
motivation, including achievement goals, attribution theory, the expectancy-
value model, and the way in which students’ motivation to learn is affected by
socio-economic status.
15032-1187e-2pass-r02.indd 8 6/5/2018 9:17:50 AM

Notes on contributors ix
Lam Thi Lan Huong is a foreign language lecturer at Thuyloi University, Hanoi,
Vietnam. Her research interests include intercultural communication, EFL
textbook evaluation, and language learning in non-major university contexts.
She holds her PhD in Education from the University of Newcastle, Australia.
Her thesis focuses on cultural representations in EFL textbooks and intercul-
tural competence in English learning.
Le Thi Thuy Nhung is currently a Division Head/Lecturer at the Department
of Foreign Languages, Banking University of Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam.
She completed her MA in TESOL Studies at the University of Queensland,
Australia and PhD in Education at the University of Newcastle, Australia. Her
research interests include but are not limited to TESOL, teacher professional
development, language policy, intercultural communication, and internation-
alization of higher education.
Mai Thi Loan is a Doctor of Applied Linguistics at the University of Languages
and International Studies, Vietnam National University of Hanoi. She earned
her PhD from Social Scientific Academy, Institute of Linguistics in Vietnam
in 2012. She has nearly 20 years of experience in teaching and conducting
research. Over the last years, she has published more than ten journal articles
in the field of linguistics, terminology, pedagogy, and EFL Teacher Educa-
tion. Currently, she is the Vice Dean of Faculty of English at the Univer-
sity of Languages and International Studies, Vietnam National University of
Hanoi. Her academic interests are applied linguistics, terminology, motivation
enhancement, learner autonomy, professional development, language teach-
ing, English in tertiary education, material development, and curriculum.
Mai Thi Quynh Lan is a researcher at the Institute for Education Quality Assur-
ance, Vietnam National University – Hanoi. She completed her PhD degree
in (Higher Education) Sociology at University of Queensland in 2015, under
scholarship of Vietnam Ministry of Education. She has been working in Edu-
cation Quality Assurance area for more than a decade. She is interested in
research on educational policy, graduate attributes, graduates’ employability,
and intercultural competence.
Nam Lam is a lecturer of English as a Foreign Language (EFL) at Vietnam Aviation
Academy. He also has experience as an examiner in oral language assessment for
the National EFL Examinations and many other language schools in Ho Chi Minh
City, Vietnam. He is doing his PhD in Education at the University of Newcastle,
Australia. His research interests include cooperative learning in EFL/ESL class-
rooms, and most recently language testing and assessment in tertiary education.
Nhung Bui is currently a lecturer of English at the Faculty of English for Special
Purposes of Foreign Trade University, Hanoi Campus, Vietnam. She gained
her MA in English Linguistics at the University of Languages and Interna-
tional Studies – Vietnam National University in 2008 and her PhD in Educa-
tion at the University of Newcastle, Australia in 2017. She has been involved
in a number of professional projects at the faculty and university level which
15032-1187e-2pass-r02.indd 9 6/5/2018 9:17:50 AM

x Notes on contributors
target enhancing the English subject curriculum, textbooks, and lecturers’
teaching methods. Her research interests include English teacher develop-
ment and learner autonomy in the context of teaching English as a Foreign
Language at the tertiary level in Vietnam.
Pham Thi Thanh Thuy has been a lecturer at the Faculty of English Language
Teacher Education, University of Languages and International Studies, Viet-
nam National University, Hanoi (ULIS, VNU) since 1989. She received her
Master’s Degree in English Language Teaching in 2001 and was promoted
to Senior Lecturer in 2005. Besides, she has been an active Master Trainer
in Primary English Language Teaching and has participated in a number of
Pre-service and In-service Teacher Training Programs in the National Foreign
Language Project 2020. Her recent research interests include Creative Writ-
ing, ET Methodology, TEYLs, and Cultural Studies.
Phuong Anh Vu is a lecturer in the Department of Foreign Languages, Acad-
emy of Journalism and Communication, Hanoi, Vietnam. She obtained her
MA TESOL from University of Languages and International Studies, Vietnam
National University, Hanoi and is doing her PhD in Education at the Univer-
sity of Newcastle. Her academic interests are mainly in language teaching,
English in tertiary education, educational policy, and the socially constructed
relationship between national culture and education.
Shen Chen is currently an associate professor in School of Education, Faculty
of Education and Arts at University of Newcastle, Australia. He had taught
in Melbourne University, Deakin University in Australia before he moved to
University of Newcastle in 1993. Since then, he has been a research fellow
and a visiting professor in Cambridge University, Warwick University, Uni-
versity of California, Berkeley, University of British Columbia, and Univer-
sity of Hong Kong. His contribution has been in the teaching and research
of language and culture and second language teacher education. He was the
recipient of the University Award for Excellence in Teaching in 1998 and
2012 as well as the Australian National Teaching Award in 2014. His estab-
lished record as an excellent researcher has been demonstrated by 12 funded
research projects with successful completion and 75 publications including
six books with high quality as well as professional consultancy provided in
Australia and abroad.
Loan Thi Lam is a lecturer at Khanh Hoa University, Vietnam where she spe-
cialises in educational foundations. Loan Lam’s teaching and research focus is
on English education, educational management and leadership, teaching and
learning, gender, social work, and office management. She is an IFP alumna
of the Ford Foundation International Fellowship Program since she obtained
a Master’s Degree of Non-formal Education and Training for Development
from the University of Reading, England. She is currently a PhD candidate
at the University of Newcastle, Australia. Her thesis focuses on leadership of
15032-1187e-2pass-r02.indd 10 6/5/2018 9:17:50 AM

Notes on contributors xi
women executive leaders in higher education in Vietnam and Australia. She
can be contacted at lamloanhtk@gmail.com.
Thi Thom Thom Nguyen is a teacher educator in the Faculty of English Lan-
guage Teacher Education, University of Language and International Stud-
ies, Vietnam National University, Hanoi (ULIS-VNU). She obtained her MA
(Applied Linguistics) in 2006 and has also been working as a Master Trainer in
Teacher Education in the National Foreign Languages 2020 Project in Viet-
nam. She is currently taking her doctoral degree at the University of Newcastle,
Australia. Her research interests include EFL Teacher Education, Intercultural
Communication, Language Policy and Professional Development.
Thi Thuy Le is currently teaching at the University of Languages and Interna-
tional Studies, Vietnam National University, Hanoi (ULIS-VNU). She was
awarded a degree of PhD at the University of Newcastle, Australia. Dr Le was
selected for the Solidarity Award by the Conference Committee at the 18th
World Congress of Applied Linguistics held in Rio de Janeiro in July 2017. She
was one of the 14 award winners, and the only winner representing A ustralian
universities. Her research interests lie in the areas such as intercultural com-
munication, EFL teacher education, and curriculum development.
Thuy Bui graduated from the doctoral program at the University of Hawai’i
at Manoa, USA. She held a position as a visiting scholar in the Department
of Education and Social work at The University of Sydney, Australia 2015.
She currently works as a senior academic manager and a researcher in Viet-
nam. Her main research interests include language policy and socio-economic
equity, engaged ethnography, youth ideologies and activism, and the intercon-
nection of globalization, language, and multilingual education.
Trinh Thi Thu Hien obtained her PhD in Education in 2016 at the Univer-
sity of Newcastle, Australia. She has been working as an English lecturer at
National University of Art Education (NUAE) in Vietnam since 2004. Her
research interest focuses on English language teaching and learning, specifi-
cally English language teaching pedagogy and material development for Viet-
namese tertiary teachers. She has conducted a number of studies at faculty,
NUAE and Ministry of Education and Training levels. She is currently partici-
pating in the project Developing EFL curriculum for Fine Arts students towards
Competence Based Approach (2017–2019), funded by Vietnamese Ministry of
Education and Training. She has published in the Asian EFL Journal and in
proceedings of international/national conferences.
Truong Cong Bang works as a lecturer in English at the University of Econom-
ics and Law (Vietnam National University) in Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam. He
holds a PhD from the University of Newcastle, Australia. His research interests
focus on motivational theories, particularly the constructs of expectancy-value
and self-efficacy.
15032-1187e-2pass-r02.indd 11 6/5/2018 9:17:50 AM

Foreword
English is a global language and an important means of international business

and trade among people from different national, cultural, ethnic, and linguistic
backgrounds. English is the mother tongue and official language in the Inner
Circle countries such as Australia, the United Kingdom, and the United States.
It is not the native tongue but an official language at an institutional level in
the Outer Circle countries such as Singapore, the Philippines, and India. In the
Expanding Circle countries such as China, Japan, or Vietnam, English is spoken
as a foreign language (Kachru, 1992). In addition to the immense contribution
of the dominance of English to Inner Circle and Outer Circle countries (Hu &
McKay, 2012; Phillipson, 1996; Schneider, 2011), the increasing number of
people speaking English in the Expanding Circle increases its significance, mak-
ing English truly a lingua franca (Dinh, 2014; Hu & McKay, 2012; McKay &
Bokhorst-Heng, 2008). In an era of international integration, having a workforce
fluent in English is a basis for social and economic development. English lan-
guage education, without exception, receives great attention in Vietnam (V. V.
Hoang, 2011; H. T. Le, 2012).
The introduction of English into Vietnam is not officially recorded (V. V.
Hoang, 2011). The English language was taught during French colonial rule.
English foreign language (EFL) teaching at that time was not well documented.
From reviewing the content of English textbooks by French authors of the colo-
nial period, such as L’anglais Vivant: Classe de sixieme and L’anglais Vivant
Classe de troisieme, it can be inferred that the grammar-translation method was
the prevalent methodology employed in the teaching of English at that time
(V. V. Hoang, 2011). Later, from 1954 to 1975, with the partitioning of the
country, EFL teaching and learning varied greatly. In South Vietnam, English
was the official foreign language due to the dominant influence of the US alli-
ance. In contrast, in North Vietnam, only some EFL classes were taught in big
towns and cities, with the goal of “know[ing] the USA and to fight against the
US invasion on the diplomatic front” (V. V. Hoang, 2011, p. 8). In 1975, Viet-
nam was re-unified and the country was reconstructed with Russian and Eastern
Bloc support. This period saw the decline of EFL education at secondary and
tertiary levels across the whole country (V. V. Hoang, 2011). Every year, only
a small number of Vietnamese teachers and interpreters were sent to English
15032-1187e-2pass-r02.indd 12 6/5/2018 9:17:50 AM

Foreword xiii
speaking countries, such as Britain, Australia, or New Zealand, for graduate stud-
ies in EFL teaching (Do, 1996).
The origin of this book is 1986 when Vietnam initiated an overall economic
reform named Doi Moi, opening the country to the outside world (Dang,
Nguyen, & Le, 2013). In line with this broad policy shift, English became the
main foreign language to be taught in Vietnam. Vietnamese educational reforms
introduced EFL teaching across primary to tertiary curricula (T. M. H. Nguyen,
2011). Since 1986, the rapid growth and expansion of English has been due
to the growth of international business and trade in the new market economy,
and the increasing number of foreign tourists coming to Vietnam. As English
has become an international language, Vietnamese EFL learners have desired to
use English as a medium of international communication (Ho, 2011). English
is taught in schools, universities, and the booming evening language centres
across the country. The development and expansion of English language centres
is fuelled by Vietnamese of all ages who attend English evening classes after day-
time work or study.
Since the introduction of English into the national teaching curriculum, the
quality of English teaching and learning at the primary, secondary, and tertiary
levels has been “problematic for recent governments of Vietnam” (Wright, 2002,
p. 225). The grammar-translation method in which “teacher and textbooks are
authoritative sources of knowledge” prevailed for a long time in English Lan-
guage Teaching (ELT) (Jin & Cortazzi, 1998, p. 102). The focus of English
teaching on grammar and vocabulary positions language as an object of study
rather than an effective means of communication (Maley, 1998). This tradi-
tional memory-based English teaching approach is “usually devoid of contextual
meaning and takes precedence over meaningful communication” (Maley, 1998,
p. 105). Further, as Vietnam belongs to the Expanding Circle of countries where
English is a foreign language (Kachru, 1992), learners have few opportunities to
use English outside the classroom. Also, limited class hours, large class sizes, and
teachers’ poor language proficiency and inappropriate teaching methods all con-
tribute to the learners’ difficulty with speaking and listening abilities (Gonen &
Saglam, 2012; Hoang, 2013; Phan, 2004). After four years of lower secondary
school and three in upper secondary school, students’ English language profi-
ciency is “limited within some basic tasks such as introducing oneself or describ-
ing some simple objects in the house” (H. T. Le, 2012, p. 66); they “failed to
use even common and simple sayings to communicate” (Khuong, 2015, p. 68).
Students may be very fluent in grammar and lexical items but show less confi-
dence in communicating with foreigners (Nguyễn, 2003). They learned to know
about the language, not to use it in communication.
Despite considerable efforts made by the Vietnamese government and the
Ministry of Education and Training (MOET) during the last few decades,
English education in Vietnam has failed to meet policy makers’ and learners’
expectations (Mai & Iwashita, 2012). With rushed development, and without
major changes and improvement in the curricula, methodology, and teaching
materials, English education in Vietnam has not fulfilled the main objectives of
15032-1187e-2pass-r02.indd 13 6/5/2018 9:17:50 AM

xiv Foreword
the national curriculum. The quality of EFL teaching and learning, in general,
has been inadequate to meet that necessary for the socio-economic development
of the country (V. V. Hoang, 2011; H. T. Le, 2012). MOET is determined
to “develop English language skills on a long-term strategic basis” (To, 2010,
p. 106). Given the important role of English and the urgent need for communi-
cative competence in language learning, the Vietnamese government and MOET
have made efforts to develop solutions to improve the quality of English teach-
ing and learning. For example, they have organised a series of international and
national conferences and seminars about English language education (H. T. Le,
2012). These efforts have also been acknowledged and reconfirmed through the
decisions and decrees regarding foreign language policy issued by the govern-
ment and MOET (Fry, 2009).
Since the late 1980s, English is a compulsory subject in the educational system.
The focus of primary and secondary EFL teaching and learning is grammar and
vocabulary and reading, and do not currently concentrate on the development
of communicative skills (Nguyen, 2008). Traditional teaching methods are main-
tained with a view that learning grammar in a systematic set of rules can enable
learners to use English proficiently. In each unit within Vietnamese EFL text-
books, grammar and reading comprehension sections seem to dominate, while
listening and oral skill practices are barely recognised (T.M.H. Nguyen & Q. T.
Nguyen, 2007; V. V. Hoang, 2011). This type of teaching and learning is main-
tained by both teachers and students to pass end-of-term exams or the National
Entrance Exam, which focuses on checking language knowledge rather than lan-
guage skills (V. V. Hoang, 2011, p. 16). As a result, many students can barely use
English in everyday communication (Nguyen, 2008; Nunan, 2003). For 7-year
program students, although they are expected to reach an upper-intermediate
level at the end of the course, their English proficiency is generally somewhere
between elementary and lower intermediate. Students from rural or disadvan-
taged areas who study the 3-year program attain poorer results.
The second origin of this book is in 2008 when MOET launched a wide-
ranging new education plan, National Foreign Language Project (NFLP) 2008–
2020, which reinforced the need for a systematic English education at the primary
level. Therefore, 2020, as the plan came to be called, implemented two programs
from primary to secondary schools: the 7-year program and the 10-year program
(T.M.H. Nguyen, 2011; V. V. Hoang, 2011; H. T. Le, 2012). English was a
compulsory subject at primary, lower, and upper secondary schools with three
hours a week. The 2020 plan demonstrated the Vietnamese government’s ongo-
ing desire to develop students’ English communicative competence. MOET has
only recently ‘refreshed’ the NFLP 2020 for 2017–2020 and issued guidelines
for the period 2017–2025. These changes are available only in Vietnamese and
may be viewed via this link: https://dean2020.edu.vn/vi/laws/detail/Quyet-
dinh-Phe-duyet-dieu-chinh-bo-sung-De-an-day-va-hoc-ngoai-ngu-trong-he-
thong-giao-duc-quoc-dan-giai-doan-2017-2025-60/; they are reflected in this
volume’s chapters.
In general, there is a strong culture of centralism in decision-making in Viet-
namese higher education, despite considerable education reforms since 1986.
15032-1187e-2pass-r02.indd 14 6/5/2018 9:17:50 AM

Foreword xv
Line-management of ministries has been eliminated to increase institutional
autonomy, giving them the right to be responsible for training, research, human
resource management, and budget planning. However, reform seems to be a slow
and complicated process, which needs a longer time and great efforts from key
persons as well as a significant level of capacity building to achieve institutional
autonomy (Hayden & Thiep, 2010). In this context, the changes and diversifica-
tion in education entail both challenges and opportunities for EFL teaching and
learning across the country.
Readers may be interested in recent scholarship of note, including Grant
Harman, Martin Hayden, and Pham Thanh Nghi’s (2010) and Johnathan D.
London’s (2011) edited collections detailing the rapid expansion of Vietnam’s
higher education sector. More recently, Tran et al. (2014) have provided com-
mentary on some of the challenges and possible solutions facing Vietnam’s uni-
versities and colleges. Further, Pham Thi Hong Thanh’s discussion of educational
reforms in Confucian heritage cultures provides a compelling framework for
understanding many of the challenges presented by this volume’s contributors.
Vietnamese tertiary students learn English as their major or as a subject. In
the first category, where English is a discipline, students are trained to become
teachers, translators, and/or interpreters and researchers in English linguistics or
English teaching methodology. In these curricula, English is taught intensively
and comprehensively (Nguyen, 2008). Significant hours are allocated during the
4 years of an undergraduate degree, most of which are spent on language skills
and the rest on teaching methodology, linguistics, and English-speaking cultures
and countries. Graduates from these majors are expected to have a good com-
mand of the English language and its culture.
As a compulsory tertiary subject, MOET introduced a common national English
curriculum framework for this language, from 10 to 15 credits in undergraduate
programs, five to seven credits for graduate programs, and two to three credits
of self-study for doctoral programs (V. V. Hoang, 2011). Limited contact hours
may vary within this framework. Students’ exposure to English depends on each
educational specialisation, which may have a great deal or little association with this
language. For example, students from engineering block universities are allocated
with fewer English hours in their curriculum than students coming from economic
block universities. Students from these technical universities have extremely varied
starting levels in English. To enter these universities, students take the National
Entrance Exam in Mathematics, Physics, and Chemistry. As might be expected,
they do not pay attention to English learning during their upper secondary schools
but tend to focus on the required subjects for the National Entrance Exam. Their
English proficiency levels may vary from beginner to lower intermediate, depend-
ing on the 3-year or 7-year program that they have taken. To save labour and lower
expenses, many of these universities seek language programs for elementary (some-
times beginner) learners (H. T. Le, 2012, p. 66). The language knowledge and
skills that students are taught at secondary and high school (if any) are therefore
repeated during their undergraduate degrees.
English language education faces other constraints. The average class is large,
sometimes up to 65 students (Bock, 2000): classroom acoustic quality is poor,
15032-1187e-2pass-r02.indd 15 6/5/2018 9:17:50 AM

xvi Foreword
with just a blackboard and a cassette; curriculum does not meet the students’
needs, and motivation is directed at success on exams, not communication
(Hoang, 2013). In most cases at both institutional and national levels, exams
focus on only linguistic competence rather than communicative competence.
From the influence of such exams, English teaching and learning continues to be
grammar-based (Mai & Iwashita, 2012; Tomlinson, 2005). In this learning envi-
ronment, teachers and textbooks are the only language input in the classroom.
This low exposure to the target language decreases students’ learning motiva-
tion, and combined with limited contact hours in class, students’ language is
less likely to improve significantly. With few opportunities to use English outside
classrooms (D. M. Le, 2012), English competency “is still beyond the reach of
a majority of students at school, especially those from the rural or disadvantaged
areas” (H. T. Le, 2012, pp. 66–67). Many university graduates “are still unable
to carry out even a simple conversation in English” (Hoang, 2013, p. 77).
The aim of this book is to provide an understanding of how recent Vietnamese
government policy is providing for substantial and comprehensive renewal of
Vietnam’s tertiary education as part of the 2020/2025 plan. The book brings
together a wide range of mainly Vietnamese and some foreign English education
scholars and tertiary educational practitioners. Academics and students of English
education, language policy, and nation building within the context of increased
globalisation and marketisation in developing nations and Vietnam should find
this book valuable.
The collection is organised in increasing specificity. The early chapter provides
context. Chapter 1 presents an orientation to the important milestones through-
out its history that has led to the emergence of English language education and
significant changes and expansion in Vietnamese tertiary education. Chapter 2
focuses on the influence of globalisation on Vietnamese society since 1986.
Chapter 3 argues that language policy does more than just serve to produce effi-
cient individuals, skilled workers, and a sense of belonging but also contributes
to nation building. An overview, analysis, and understanding of issues related to
Vietnamese EFL higher education instruction is discussed in Chapter 4. The cen-
tral set of the volume’s contributions provide insight into those most affected by
Vietnamese English language policy and provision. The focus shifts in Chapter 5
to a study of the high level of uncertainty experienced by current Vietnamese
tertiary students regarding their English proficiency and its implications on their
employability. Chapter 6 presents research examining if, and to what extent, the
teaching of cultural competence by Vietnamese tertiary teachers is influenced by
textbook content. Chapter 7 provides policy analysis regarding general English
tertiary education for non-majors to identify possible explanations why tertiary
graduates are not meeting standards. Second language oral testing and assess-
ment is discussed in Chapter 8. Chapter 9 concerns Vietnamese business stu-
dents’ perspectives on the effectiveness of the implementation of English as the
medium of instruction in their programs. Rural students’ motivation to learn
English is examined in Chapter 10. A study of students’ expectations about how
they would perform on English exams is presented in Chapter 11. Chapter 12
15032-1187e-2pass-r02.indd 16 6/5/2018 9:17:51 AM

Foreword xvii
examines university lecturers’ attitudes towards learner autonomy in Vietnamese
tertiary EFL contexts. And, the collection ends with a review of Vietnamese EFL
teacher training in Chapter 13.
Lam Thi Lan Huong, Thuyloi University, Hanoi, Vietnam
James Albright, The University of Newcastle, Australia
References
Bock, G. (2000). Difficulties in implementing communicative theory in Vietnam.
Teacher’s Edition, 2, 24–28.
Dang, T. K. A., Nguyen, H. T. M., & Le, T. T. T. (2013). The impacts of globalisa-
tion on EFL teacher education through English as a medium of instruction: An
example from Vietnam. Current Issues in Language Planning, 14(1), 52–72. doi:
10.1080/14664208.2013.780321
Dinh, N. T. (2014). Culture representations in locally developed English textbooks in
Vietnam. Enacting English Across Borders: Critical Studies in the Asia Pacific, 143.
Do, T. H. (1996). Foreign language education policy in Vietnam: The reemergence of
English and its impact on higher education. (Doctoral Dissertation), University of
Southern California.
Fry, G. W. (2009). Higher education in Vietnam. In Y. Hirosato & Y. Kitamura
(Eds.), The political economy of educational reforms and capacity development in
Southeast Asia (pp. 237–261). Dordrecht and The Netherlands: Springer.
Gonen, S., & Saglam, S. (2012). Teaching culture in the FL classroom: Teachers’
perspectives. International Journal of Global Education, 1(3).
Harman, G., Hayden, M., & Nghi, P. T. (2010). Reforming higher education in Viet-
nam. Dordrecht and The Netherlands: Springer.
Hayden, M., & Thiep, L. Q. (2010). Vietnam’s higher education system. In Reforming
higher education in Vietnam (pp. 14-29). Dordrecht, Netherlands: Springer.
Ho, S. T. K. (2011). An intercultural perspective on teaching and learning in the Viet-
namese EFL classroom. University of Sydney Papers in TESOL, 6, 43–69.
Hoang, V. V. (2011). The current situation and issues of the teaching of English in
Vietnam. 立命館言語文化研究, 22(1).
Hoang, V. V. (2013). TRAO DOI /DISCUSSION: The role of English in the inter-
nationalization of higher education in Vietnam. VNU Journal of Foreign Studies,
29(1), 72–80.
Hu, G., & McKay, S. L. (2012). English language education in East Asia: Some
recent developments. Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development,
33(4), 345–362.
Jin, L., & Cortazzi, M. (1998). The culture the learner brings: A bridge or a barrier?
In M. Byram & M. Fleming (Eds.), Language learning in intercultural perspective,
approaches through drama and ethnography (pp. 98–118). Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press.
Kachru, B. B. (1992). Teaching world Englishes. The Other Tongue: English Across
Cultures, 2, 355–366.
Khuong, C. T. (2015). Teaching English grammar communicatively: Theories, prin-
ciples and implications in English teaching in Vietnam. International Journal of
English Language Teaching, 2(2), 68.
Le, D. M. (2012). English as a medium of instruction at tertiary education system in
Vietnam. The Journal of Asia TEFL, 9(2), 97–122.
15032-1187e-2pass-r02.indd 17 6/5/2018 9:17:51 AM

xviii Foreword
Le, H. T. (2012). ELT in Vietnam general and tertiary education from second lan-
guage education perspectives. VNU Journal of Foreign Studies, 29(1), 65–71.
London, J. D. (Ed.). (2011). Education in Vietnam. Singapore: Institute of Southeast
Asian Studies.
Mai, N. K., & Iwashita, N. (2012). A comparison of learners’ and teachers’ attitudes
toward communicative language teaching at two universities in Vietnam. University
of Sydney Papers in TESOL, 7, 25–49.
Maley, A. (1998). XANADU – “A miracle of rare device” – the teaching of English in
China. In J. M. Valdes (Eds.), Culture bound: Bridging the cultural gap in language
teaching (pp. 102–111). New York: Cambridge University Press.
McKay, S., & Bokhorst-Heng, W. D. (2008). International English in its sociolinguis-
tic contexts: Towards a socially sensitive EIL pedagogy. New York: Routledge.
Nguyen, H. C. (2008). Teaching and learning of foreign languages in Vietnam: The
current situation and some solutions. Social Sciences Information Review, 1(1),
43–52.
Nguyễn, P. S. (2003). Yếu tố văn hóa trong dạy-học và đánh giá năng lực ngoại ngữ.
VNU Journal of Science - Foreign Languages, 19(1), 15–23.
Nguyen, T. M. H. (2011). Developing EFL learners’ intercultural communicative
competence: A gap to be filled? From Defining EIL Competence to Designing EIL
Learning, 86.
Nguyen, T. M. H., & Nguyen, Q. T. (2007). Teaching English in primary schools in
Vietnam: An overview. Current Issues in Language Planning, 8(2), 162–173.
Nunan, D. (2003). The impact of English as a global language on educational policies
and practices in the Asia-Pacific region. TESOL Quarterly, 37(4), 589–613.
Phan, L. H. (2004). University classrooms in Vietnam: Contesting the stereotypes.
ELT Journal, 58(1), 50–57.
Phillipson, R. (1996). Linguistic imperialism: African perspectives. ELT Journal,
50(2), 160–167.
Schneider, E. W. (2011). English around the world: An introduction. Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press.
To, T. H. (2010). Insights from Vietnam. In R. Johnstone (Ed.) Learning through
English: Policies, challenges and prospects: Insights from East Asia (pp. 96–114).
Malaysia: British Council.
Tomlinson, B. (2005). The future for ELT materials in Asia. Electronic Journal of
Foreign Language Teaching, 2(2), 5–13.
Trần, L., Marginson, S., Đỗ, H., Đỗ, Q.,Lê, T., Nguyễn, N., Vũ, T., Phạm, T., &
Nguyễn, H. (2014). Higher education in Vietnam: Flexibility, mobility and practi-
cality in the global knowledge economy. New York: Palgrave Macmillan.
Wright, S. (2002). Language education and foreign relations in Vietnam. In J. W.
Tollefson (Ed.), Language policies in education: Critical issues (pp. 225–244).
Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
15032-1187e-2pass-r02.indd 18 6/5/2018 9:17:51 AM

1 Vietnamese foreign
language policy in
higher education
A barometer to social changes
Lam Thi Lan Huong and James Albright
Vietnam’s language policy demonstrates a close alignment to its socio-political

frames. Throughout its history, Vietnamese governments have had varied
responses to powerful foreign interventions. Historical shifts in Vietnamese
policy responses to dominant external powers have determined the instructional
medium used in its tertiary institutions. Commencing with the Chinese invasion
in 110 BC, Vietnam has managed the various foreign languages that have been
introduced into Vietnamese higher education. At present, the Vietnamese gov-
ernment’s current internationalisation policy affects its choice of English as the
official foreign language in its higher education system.
This chapter provides a history of Vietnamese foreign language policy in higher
education. Each period of Vietnamese history has led to socio-political changes.
In this chapter, we argue that its educational language policy is a barometer for
these socio-political changes. Vietnamese higher education has long been influ-
enced by external factors exerted by other dominant cultures (Fry, 2009; Hoa &
Tuan, 2007). Each change in Vietnam’s foreign language instruction and higher
education has reflected a shift in the social, economic, and political policy of the
country (Do, 1996; Pham & Fry, 2004). In its history, Vietnam’s foreign lan-
guage policy and higher education have been influenced by and shifted according
to the dominance of three countries: China, France, and Russia (Welch, 2010).
Post-independent Vietnam’s Doi Moi policy (1986), which opened the coun-
try to international commerce and engagement with the West, has once more
realigned its language policy. English is now the dominant foreign language of
Vietnamese higher education.
The influence of Chinese Confucianism

The first and most abiding influence in Vietnam’s higher education system came
from China. Confucian ideals remain central to Vietnamese culture and edu-
cation. China ruled Vietnam for a thousand years, from 111 BC to AD 938
and “Vietnamese education was in Chinese and followed the Chinese model”
for some time after that period (Wright, 2002, p. 226). During the Chinese
occupation of Vietnam, Mandarin and Chinese calligraphy became essential tools
for civil administration and other different areas such as economics and culture;
15032-1187e-2pass-r02.indd 1 6/5/2018 9:17:51 AM

2 Vietnamese foreign language policy
however, it was only taught to a few Vietnamese in service to the Chinese feudal
government (Giáp, 2006). Language during this period was an important instru-
ment of power and supported Chinese feudal rule in Vietnam.
After the country gained its first period of independence in AD 938, C hinese
economic and cultural influence remained strong (Hoa & Tuan, 2007). Mandarin
was used in daily life as a means of communication and for economic transactions
with Feudal China (Wright, 2002). To reinforce its newly gained independence,
Vietnam maintained and increased its use. Feudal China never abandoned its
intention to conquer Vietnam and turn Vietnam into a Chinese province. Dur-
ing the period of the Ly dynasty (1009–1225) and Tran dynasty (1225–1400),
Feudal China attempted to invade Vietnam several times.1 Vietnam’s Ly-Tran
dynasty’s (1009–1400) language policy promoted the continued use of Man-
darin as the official language of the country (Giáp, 2006). Mandarin was the
formal medium of instruction and the language of examination (Bianco, 2001;
Hac, 1993). Chinese Confucianism became an essential ideological tool for the
establishment of a centralised government following the imperial Chinese model,
as well as the basic principle of national governance (Đặc trưng tư tưởng văn hoá
thời Lý Trần, 2015). In alignment with its political and economic growth, Viet-
namese culture flourished with a Chinese voice. Important Vietnamese works of
art and literature from this period, written in Mandarin, taught and retaught over
the millennia, ensured that Confucianism remained deeply rooted in Vietnamese
culture (Fry, 2009) and its education system.
Chinese imperial rule and the strong influence of Chinese Confucianism on
Vietnamese education was reflected in the importance of learning and the respect
for teachers, scholars, and mentors (Fry, 2009; Hoa & Tuan, 2007; T. K. Q.
Nguyen, 2011; Welch, 2010). The Royal College (Quoc Tu Giam) – the oldest
recorded institution of higher education in Southeast Asia, which was built in
1076 – is illustrative of the importance of Confucianism in Vietnamese educa-
tion (Pham & Fry, 2004; Welch, 2010; Wright, 2002). This institution originally
provided “moral education and training to the sons of dignitaries” (Sloper & Le,
1995, p. 43). Gradually, the Royal College became an “incubator for bureau-
cratic scholars” who would work for the Vietnamese state (T. K. Q. Nguyen,
2011, p. 126). Every 4 years, male scholars from all walks of life and from all over
the country went through a civil service examination. This examination involved
several rounds, with progressively more difficult levels that reduced the number
of participants. Those male scholars who won regional exams would compete in
a final exam. Membership in ruling elites would be awarded to successful schol-
ars who would be assigned to important positions within the Vietnamese state
(London, 2011). The Tran dynasty (1225–1400) and its successors continued
to employ Mandarin in education. Again, the language of instruction and assess-
ment illustrated a strong tie to Vietnam’s political and social policy frames, and
was as a powerful tool of governing.
In the thirteenth century, scholars developed Nom letters or “southern script” –
a Vietnamese writing system largely based on Chinese calligraphy ( London,
2011, p. 8; Pham & Fry, 2004) – to record the language of the Vietnamese
15032-1187e-2pass-r02.indd 2 6/5/2018 9:17:51 AM

Vietnamese foreign language policy 3
nation. The development of Nom signalled a push for greater socio-cultural and
political independence from China and the strengthening of national identity.
Initially, Nom was just characters used to transcribe foreign words or proper Viet-
namese names that Mandarin could not express (Giáp, 2006). As the system of
Nom letters was further developed, the two writing systems were used simulta-
neously. Chinese calligraphy was used as the language of law and government,
while the Nom script was used for Vietnamese culture. By the thirteenth century,
Nom was popularised by the poet Nguyen Thuyen (later renamed Han Thuyen).
Some other classical Vietnamese authors who used Nom were Nguyen Si Co,
Tran Nhan Tong, Mac Dinh Chi, and Chu Van An (Đặc trưng tư tưởng văn hoá
thời Lý Trần, 2015). The Nom writing system was not fully developed until the
seventeenth century, which was marked with popular poems by Ho Xuan Huong.
However, during this period, Chinese calligraphy continued to be used by elite
bureaucrats. Seven hundred years after Chinese occupation, Mandarin and Chi-
nese calligraphy remained a profound influence on Vietnamese society.
In the seventeenth century, Vietnamese scholars, with the help of a French mis-
sionary, developed a “relatively simple Romanised Vietnamese script” known as
Quoc Ngu (Wright, 2002). In order to promote Christianity, French missionaries
developed Quoc Ngu to evangelise the Vietnamese. Many illiterate Vietnamese
were unfamiliar with Nom characters, which made it an ineffective means to pros-
elytise Christianity. The accessibility of alphabetic Quoc Ngu (Giáp, 2006) led to
its eventual adoption throughout Vietnam (Pham & Fry, 2004, p. 202). With the
introduction of Quoc Ngu, along with Vietnamese Nom and Chinese calligraphy,
the three writing systems co-existed in practice. Day-to-day, Vietnamese people
spoke mutually comprehensible dialects (Nguyen Nhu Phong, 1995, cited in
Wright, 2002). The employment of Quoc Ngu, although having many of the
advantages of the Latin alphabet, was confined to religious documents and com-
munication among Vietnam’s small Christian community (Giáp, 2006). Not until
two centuries later did Quoc Ngu become a useful tool of French colonialism.
The influence of French colonialism

In 1858, the French colonial regime assumed rule in Vietnam. The French Navy
first landed in Da Nang port and then invaded Saigon. In 1862, King Tu Duc
ceded Saigon and three neighbouring provinces to France. In 1869, France
occupied the next three provinces to form the Cochinchine colonial territory. By
1885, France invaded the remainder of Vietnam. France claimed “protection”
of northern and central Vietnam, where they continued to maintain the Nguyen
emperors (Thoi Phap thuoc, 2016). Under the French regime, three languages –
French, Vietnamese, and Mandarin – and four writing systems – French, Quoc
Ngu, Nom, and Chinese calligraphy – were used in Vietnam. Under colonial
rule, French became the premier language, weakening long-established Chinese
dominance in administration, economy, and education. “The elitist modern edu-
cational system which privileged the French language” replaced an educational
system that was still influenced by Chinese Feudal Confucianism (Pham & Fry,
15032-1187e-2pass-r02.indd 3 6/5/2018 9:17:51 AM

2004, p. 203). French colonialism also increased the importance of Vietnamese.
The French colonial language policy focused on assimilation, both in terms of
language and culture. This policy encouraged the Vietnamese to use the French
language and to accept French political and cultural influences, which supplanted
Mandarin and minimised the influence of Chinese culture in Vietnam.
The employment of French in government and education limited the use of
Mandarin and Chinese calligraphy (Giáp, 2006). To spread the use of French and
expand the influence of French culture, as a means of strengthening its colonial
regime, the colonial government in Vietnam had to use Vietnamese as a transla-
tion medium. To this end, the Vietnamese language and Quoc Ngu, formerly
confined to religious documents and used among Christian Vietnamese, gradu-
ally became a common medium of instruction. The French government permit-
ted the teaching of Quoc Ngu and the Vietnamese language in schools. Mandarin
was abandoned in village schools, as these schools were merged into provincial
schools that taught Quoc Ngu. In 1865, the Gia Dinh newspaper was established
to promote the policy of using Quoc Ngu (Vy, 2011). As an official newspaper
of the French colonial regime, it was a powerful tool to enlist the support of the
Vietnamese elites and masses. All government documents and correspondence
between the Nguyen dynasty and the French government were to be written in
Quoc Ngu (Giáp, 2006).
But, the colonial administration used Quoc Ngu and the Vietnamese language
as a translation medium with reluctance. Before the August Revolution in 1945,
Quoc Ngu was only taught in the first grade. In the second and third grade,
Quoc Ngu and the French language were taught in tandem. From grade four
to high school, French became the sole medium of instruction. The colonial
government intended that French be the privileged language in Vietnam. The
colonial education system was designed to train a small number of Vietnamese
to become functionaries. As a consequence, the higher education sector during
Vietnam’s colonial period was small (Kelly, 2000; Pham & Fry, 2004; Wright,
2002). Although French was the official language, this period was characterised
by “a mixed education system with French schools, Franco-Vietnamese schools
and Confucian feudalist schools and classes existing side by side” (Hac, 1991,
p. 6). Nevertheless, the official examinations for the whole education system were
administered in French by colonial authorities. French was required to “gain
access to social mobility” (Do, 1996, p. 32).
Between 1919 and 1942, the colonial administration established several ter-
tiary education faculties which specialised in Natural Sciences, Medicine, and
Agriculture. These faculties later constituted the first Southeast Asian university
in modern times, the University of Indochina (Pham & Fry, 2004; Welch, 2010;
Wright, 2002). This university also served Laotian and Cambodian students, two
other French colonies in the Indochina peninsula. As a tool of colonialism, the
University of Indochina did not enjoy a robust academic environment or insti-
tutional autonomy. The students did not have access to international sources of
scientific knowledge or technological innovation. Students were trained in the
basic skills essential to the purposes of French colonialism (Nguyen, 2011).
15032-1187e-2pass-r02.indd 4 6/5/2018 9:17:51 AM

French colonial language policy did not go unchallenged. Some Vietnamese
intellectuals considered Quoc Ngu and French instruction as a colonial imposi-
tion on Vietnamese society and culture and as a medium of Christian indoctrina-
tion. They sought to maintain the Chinese language and writing system. Other
Vietnamese intellectuals soon recognised the important role of Quoc Ngu in the
modernisation of their country. They embraced the effectiveness of education
via the medium of the mother tongue. In 1938, 95% of the Vietnamese popula-
tion was illiterate (Giáp, 2006). That year, an organisation to spread the use of
Quoc Ngu was founded to reduce illiteracy among Vietnamese people. Before the
August Revolution in 1945, this organisation helped lift 70,000 Vietnamese peo-
ple out of illiteracy (Giáp, 2006). This mass literacy campaign was an important
milestone in the development of Vietnam’s language policy.
The use of Chinese calligraphy, French, and Quoc Ngu played a role in the
development of Vietnam. While some Vietnamese intellectuals used Mandarin
and Chinese calligraphy to resist the imposition of French colonisation, the edu-
cation system had a role in preparing most of the Vietnamese revolutionary elite
and connecting the country to global political, economic, social, and cultural
flows. Other Vietnamese intellectuals promoted the use of Quoc Ngu as an effec-
tive means to popularise modernisation and develop a sense of national identity.
The employment of these three languages in educational policy demonstrated the
strong link between foreign language instruction, power, and culture in Vietnam
during this period.
Foreign language policy after the August Revolution

From 1945–1954, Vietnam underwent several important turning points. In
August 1945, the Revolution gave birth to the Vietnam Democratic Repub-
lic. Despite the formation of several colleges in revolutionary-held areas in the
North, the development of the tertiary sector during this period was slow. These
colleges offered essential fields of study such as Pharmacy, Medicine, or Pedagogy
(Fry, 2009). It was during this period that Vietnamese language was made the
medium of instruction in Vietnamese schools (Ministry of Education, 1990).
The first action of the Revolutionary government was to declare Vietnamese lan-
guage the official language of the nation.
The return of the French after the Second World War held back the develop-
ment of Vietnamese higher education. This period was characterised by Vietnam-
ese resistance to the resumption of French colonial rule. The French controlled
urban areas, where French was the official language of education; Vietnamese
Viet Minh – an organisation led by the Indochinese Communist Party founded
in 1941 – occupied mostly remote and rural areas and promoted the use of the
Vietnamese language. During this time, there were centres for teacher training
in Thanh Hoa, and Medicine and Pharmacy in Viet Bac (Sloper & Lê, 1995).
Although the provision of higher education in this period was retarded, the use
of the Vietnamese language as a medium of instruction marked an important
point in the language’s history. For the first time in the history of the nation,
15032-1187e-2pass-r02.indd 5 6/5/2018 9:17:51 AM

Vietnamese people had the right to use their own language for education, and
this represented an achievement in its struggle for independence. Language pol-
icy had demonstrated its vital role in social and political change.
The partition period 1954–1975 and influence of

Russia and the United States
The historical milestone of the Dien Bien Phu victory and the Geneva Treaty of
1954 ended French neo-colonialism on the Indochina peninsula. French was no
longer an official language of Vietnamese education (Nguyen, 2011). In accord-
ance with the Geneva Treaty, Vietnam was separated into two states under the
patronage of the two rival military blocs. This initial temporary separation lasted
longer than was originally planned because the Southern Vietnamese government
refused to hold elections. As the subsequent civil war between the North and the
South escalated, most young people were enlisted to fight. Education was given a
low priority, as resources were reserved for the war. Higher education institutions
moved to safe areas in the mountains or forests. This period marked a difficult
stage in the country’s development and a standstill in education (Wright, 2002).
The two Vietnamese states followed different policy orientations in line with
their alliances: the North with the USSR and Chinese, and the South with the
United States and her allies (Denham, 1992). These political divisions had a
great influence on the foreign language policies of the two states. There were two
different systems of higher education, each “politically allied with a world super-
power” (Hoang, 2011, p. 8). With the assistance from the USSR and the Eastern
Bloc, the educational system in the North was influenced by the Soviet education
model. The Vietnamese language became the medium of instruction across all
educational levels, while Russian and Chinese were promoted as the predominant
foreign languages taught in its system (Bianco, 2001; T. H. Do, 1996; Pham &
Fry, 2004). Thousands were sent to Russia and China to study, and returned to
hold important positions in the Vietnamese government. In the North, English
instruction was limited to a few classes in towns or large urban areas (Nguyen
Ngoc Quang, 1993, p. 1).
In South Vietnam, the US alliance promoted English foreign language edu-
cation “in relation to political and economic cooperation with other capitalist
societies” (Do, 1996, p. 36). As an American ally, the South adopted the US
education model (Fry, 2009; Nguyen, 2011). Consequently, English became the
predominant foreign language (Wright, 2002). French retained its status due to
several factors. The French government continued to economically and politically
support Saigon, and French-educated elites held key positions within its govern-
ment. For example, important members of the University of Saigon, a leading
university, received their education in France during this period (Do, 2006). Alli-
ance Francaise, a non-profit organisation devoted to promoting French language
and Francophone cultures, was encouraged to develop the French language and
a French school system in South Vietnam. However, this school system only
served the elites and wealthy urban people, as a mark of social distinction from
the Vietnamese masses. Yet despite the continued presence of French within the
15032-1187e-2pass-r02.indd 6 6/5/2018 9:17:51 AM

educational system, the country’s policy encouraged the rise of English in Viet-
namese education.
The presence of thousands of American educators, civilians, military officers,
and soldiers in Saigon underscored the need for English to facilitate communica-
tion between Saigon’s population and Americans. Hundreds of English classes
were organised in response to this need. Foreign language centres mushroomed,
attracting many ordinary people who needed to communicate with the Ameri-
cans in their daily life. Because of this high demand, English became the main
foreign language taught at schools and in higher education. The English lan-
guage increased its popularity through “the availability and free supply of English
textbooks and teaching equipment” (Do, 1996, p. 38), as well as the spread of
English language mass media to serve the needs of US soldiers, their allies, and
the local population (Hoang, 2011). English was used not only in classrooms,
but also at work and in the streets. English was used in some specialist newspa-
pers and magazines. The Allied Armed Force Radio broadcasted world news in
English, and the US government set up a TV channel for news and movies in
English (H. T. Do, 2006). English was, therefore, promoted and spread widely
as a means of communication and as a policy tool for the American-supported
government in the South. The promotion of Russian and Chinese in the North
and English in the South during this period reflected the differences in social and
political directions of the two states. This situation was maintained throughout
the Civil War and lasted until the reunification in 1975.
The influence of Soviet communism

after the 1975 reunification
After the country’s reunification in 1975, the Soviet Union maintained and
strengthened its position as an important political, economic, and educational
ally of Vietnam. The flow of aid, material, and advisors from the Eastern Bloc to
Vietnam increased (Wright, 2002). As part of this alliance with the Soviet Union,
Russian became the main foreign language across all educational levels. The two
systems of education in North and South Vietnam were unified to align with the
Soviet education model in the North. This educational model emphasised applied
sciences and specialised knowledge. During this period, approximately 70 higher
education institutions were established (Fry, 2009; Welch, 2010). Influenced
by its central command economy, the Vietnamese higher education system also
became strongly centralised. Thirteen ministries jointly held responsibility for
all higher education public-sector institutions. As the Russian language became
the official foreign language in the national teaching curriculum approved by the
Ministry of Education and Training (MOET), thousands of language students
and teachers were sent to the Soviet Union to study Russian (Do, 1996; Hoang,
2011). The use of the Russian language quickly increased across the country:
Bookstalls in the cities are filled with Russian language works that are inex-
pensive because they are heavily subsidised. . . . Soviet films are common fare
at movie theatres throughout the country, and Soviet science and education
15032-1187e-2pass-r02.indd 7 6/5/2018 9:17:51 AM

films are used widely in the schools. Television has perhaps the greatest
impact in introducing the Vietnamese to the USSR.
(Pike, 1987, pp. 214–217)
The Russian language maintained its dominance in education and in workplaces

in the North, and was also widely introduced into the South. Teachers of Russian
from Language Departments in the North were sent to universities and col-
leges in the South. As Russian became the dominant foreign language across the
country, French and English lost their status. Higher education enrolments in
English in the South dramatically decreased during this period (Hoang, 2011).
Yet, because English was well established in the South, it was not completely
dropped from the curriculum (Do, 1996). Even when schools were nationalised,
there were not enough Russian teachers for all schools to switch from teaching
English to Russian, and so English continued to be taught in some classes in
urban areas where there was a shortage of Russian teachers. Hundreds of private
English centres were closed (Do, 2006).
During the period of 1975–1986, Vietnam was politically isolated from the
world. Its economy stagnated. Other communist countries restricted their aid
to Vietnam as their domestic difficulties increased with the collapse of the East-
ern Bloc. Vietnam urgently needed to reestablish its own independence. For the
development of the nation, the Sixth National Congress of Vietnamese Commu-
nist Party in 1986 decided to change its political and economic paradigm.
The Doi Moi policy and the trend of

international integration
The year 1986 saw comprehensive political and economic reform in Viet-
nam with the launch of an open-door policy named Doi Moi (George, 2010;
Hayden & Thiep, 2007; Hoang, 2011; Le, 2012; T. K. Q. Nguyen, 2011; Tuyet,
2011; Van Khanh & Hayden, 2010; Wright, 2002). Doi means renovation and
Moi means renewal. This reform referred to “the country’s policy of opening
up to the outside world, mostly in terms of foreign investment and the global
market” (Huong, 2010, p. 100). The adoption of Doi Moi moved the coun-
try from bilateral to multilateral relationships across the political landscape and
economy (D. Nguyen & Sloper, 1995; Tien, 2012; Wright, 2002). Following
this important policy landmark, Vietnam became a member of the Association
of South East Asian Nations (ASEAN) in 1997, and joined the World Trade
Organisation (WTO) in 2007. Vietnam changed significantly, moving from a
centrally planned economy to a multi-sector, commodity-based one that oper-
ated with market mechanisms under state control. The implementation of the
policy encouraged more foreign investment into the country and strengthened
the trend towards internationalisation (D. Nguyen & Sloper, 1995). After years
of isolation and economic stagnation, the country became more integrated with
an international economic, political, cultural, and development system. Instead
of restricting its relations to socialist countries, Vietnam decided to expand its
15032-1187e-2pass-r02.indd 8 6/5/2018 9:17:51 AM

relations to many countries regardless of their political systems (Tien, 2012).
Vietnam’s openness resulted in an increasing number of countries with which it
had trade and investment relations. “After ten years of liberalisation, Vietnam had
developed trade relations with more than 100 countries and direct investment
from more than 50 countries” (Wright, 2002, p. 239). As a result, the number of
English-speaking tourists and business travellers increased. The country adopted
a market-oriented economy, which bid “a farewell to the subjective, obsolete
conservatism of the past” (Do, 1996, p. 45). Doi Moi impacted on Vietnamese’s
foreign language provision.
In response to these changes in socio-economic policy, the Vietnamese
higher education sector adopted important reforms. Central to these reforms
was higher education being transformed to “satisfy the increasingly diverse
demands of various sectors of the new economy, and to prepare competent
human resources for the nation’s industrialisation, modernisation and global
integration” (Nguyen, 2011, p. 129). The higher education system expanded
the number and variety of its institutions. The establishment of private sector
higher institutions was encouraged (Kelly, 2000). For example, Thang Long
University, the first non-government higher education institution, was estab-
lished on a trial basis in 1988. Following this, other private institutions were
quickly opened. These private higher institutions rapidly expanded to meet the
population’s demand to be trained and qualified for a changing employment
market (George, 2010). In spite of these rapid changes, the Soviet model con-
tinued to underpin the Vietnamese higher education system (Hayden & Thiep,
2007). The state had official control over the performance of all higher educa-
tion institutions, even those within the non-public sector. This governmental
authority was implemented through various ministries, some with responsibili-
ties across the system and others with line-management responsibilities for dif-
ferent universities and colleges (Hayden & Thiep, 2010; Kelly, 2000; Welch,
2010). This centralisation had an important impact on foreign language provi-
sion across the education system.
In line with the country’s political, social, and economic reforms, English
reemerged as the major foreign language across the whole education system.
English was introduced across teaching curricula and became one of the employ-
ment criteria for government bureaucrats (Do, 1996; Hoang, 2011). English
language learning accelerated due to the influx of investment capital to Vietnam
from capitalist countries. English emerged as the most common means of com-
munication at the workplace with foreign partners (Do, 1996; Hoa & Tuan,
2007). In response, English language education experienced significant growth
during the early 1990s, with private language centres springing up across the
country (Denham, 1992; Do, 1996; Hoa & Tuan, 2007; Pham & Fry, 2004).
Some 99.1% of all junior secondary schools taught English, and English also
became one of the five compulsory subjects in the final national exams (Hoa &
Tuan, 2007). As a result, the use of Russian dramatically decreased due to a fall in
demand. The Doi Moi policy was an important milestone that marked dramatic
changes in the Vietnamese history of education.
15032-1187e-2pass-r02.indd 9 6/5/2018 9:17:51 AM

English and the internationalisation of higher education

in contemporary Vietnam
During the past few decades, the provision of English language education has
strongly developed in Vietnam, both in terms of quantity and quality. It is esti-
mated that about 90% of foreign language learners have studied English (Do,
2006). English is introduced to the curriculum in the third grade across the
whole country,and is taught in high schools for at least 3 hours a week. During
their tertiary education, students study English as their major or as a part of their
study program. In addition to this, various language centres offer a wide range
of courses, programs, or types of training to serve the learning needs of different
types of students. Other foreign languages, for example, French, Chinese, and
Japanese, are also available as options. Most students choose to learn English to
qualify for better jobs, to be eligible for promotions, or to undertake overseas
study. English is now widely used at schools, in higher institutions, at work, or
in everyday communication as millions of foreign tourists and business people
come to Vietnam, who often bring their families and contracts with them for the
further development of businesses.
The Vietnamese government’s policy seeks to boost English learning and
teaching on a long-term basis in order to effectively compete in international
markets and achieve sustainable economic growth. Decision 1400-QD-TTg tar-
geted the improvement of foreign language teaching and learning in the national
educational system for the 2008–2020 period, in conjunction with MOET’s
project entitled, Reforming and Improving the Effectiveness of Teaching and
Using E nglish in Vietnam’s National Education System, 2008–2020 (Hoa, 2011;
Huong, 2010; Le, 2012; Manh, 2012). This project’s goal was critical and com-
prehensive change in English teaching and learning across the entire education
system. By 2020, Vietnamese high school, college, and university graduates were
expected “to be able to use English to communicate confidently and be able
to study and work in a multi-lingual and multi-cultural environment; thus bet-
ter enabling young Vietnamese people to contribute to the industrialisation and
modernisation of the country” (Huong, 2010, p. 106). The National Foreign
Language Project 2020 (NFLP 2020) demonstrates the government’s strong
determination to improve English education in Vietnam.
With this goal of reforming the higher education system, MOET permitted
selected Vietnamese universities to implement its Advanced Program (Tran et al.,
2014). The goal of this project was to import American programs, curriculum,
courses, materials, and teaching styles. One of the most important advantages of
these programs was the use of English as a medium of instruction. This require-
ment meant that sufficient levels of English proficiency were compulsory for
teachers and students in these programs. For the first few semesters, foreign lec-
turers from American universities taught courses in these advanced programs,
and then Vietnamese teaching staff gradually took over these roles. Vietnam-
ese lecturers involved in these advanced programs were sent to their counter-
part universities in the United States for a semester to learn about the subjects
15032-1187e-2pass-r02.indd 10 6/5/2018 9:17:51 AM

that they were responsible for delivering. This project was initiated in 2006 with
ten programs across nine universities, and a budget of up to US$40 million for
the first three years (MOET, 2008). As such, advanced programs in Sciences,
Technology, Business, and Agriculture from high-ranking American universities
have been implemented at Vietnamese universities with English as a medium of
instruction. In 2008, the second phase of this project was extended to a broader
number of universities (Tran et al., 2014).
The second phase of the project broadened its focus to include education
institutions beyond the United States. In addition to American higher institu-
tions, this phase also included the participation of some universities from the
United Kingdom and Australia. Among the 17 advanced programs developed
between 2006 and 2008, 14 were implemented in partnership with American
universities and three with UK universities (Anh, 2009). Many of these universi-
ties have agreed to award 3+1 or 2+2 degrees to Vietnamese students pursuing
advanced programs. In other words, after two or three years studying advanced
programs, these students are sent to their counterpart universities to study and
gain their degrees if they satisfy the English and subject requirements. The imple-
mentation of these advanced programs has provided several university lecturers
and advanced program students with opportunities to study at American higher
institutions. Although this has not been fully documented, it appears that most
graduates from these advanced programs either have more opportunities to fur-
ther study abroad, or better employment prospects, thanks to their fluency in the
English language and these highly valued degrees.
In addition to these international arrangements, the last two decades have also
witnessed another decisive change in Vietnamese higher education. Through the
implementation of advanced programs or joint programs, Vietnam has become
a partner in educational cooperation instead of an educational importer. This
new status has also been reinforced by the establishment of foreign-owned cam-
puses in Vietnam (Tran et al., 2014). Vietnamese government leaders have now
recognised the advantages of opening the education sector to foreign investors,
and have turned Vietnam into an attractive destination for transnational educa-
tion. Since the first fully foreign-owned university, the Royal Melbourne Institute
of Technology (RMIT), was licensed to establish its campus in Vietnam in the
year 2000, there have been an increasing number of these foreign-owned uni-
versity campuses in Vietnam. Such campuses are located mostly in political, eco-
nomic, and cultural centres such as Hanoi or Ho Chi Minh City. In addition to
RMIT Vietnam, there is the Asian Institute of Technology (AIT) from Thailand,
Vietnamese–German University from Germany, Roger Williams University Cam-
pus from the United States, and Troy University Campus, also from the United
States (Tran et al., 2014).
Recently, Harvard University has received nearly $17 million from Congress
and $2.5 million from the US State Department to establish a private university
in Ho Chi Minh City. The foundations for this new university were established
nearly two decades ago when the Fulbright Economics and Teaching Program
(FETP) was established by the Ash Center, in partnership with the University of
15032-1187e-2pass-r02.indd 11 6/5/2018 9:17:51 AM

Economics, Ho Chi Minh City and Harvard Kennedy School (Fulbright Univer-
sity Vietnam, 2015). The not-for-profit Fulbright University Vietnam is expected
to provide academic freedom, innovation, and an association with Harvard itself
in order to meet with the country’s pressing need for highly qualified gradu-
ates. The US policy makers consider this university to be an important step in
the establishment of foreign relations and academic exchange between the two
countries. Fulbright University aims to enrol 2000 students in the first five years
of operation (Fulbright University Vietnam, 2015).
The implementation of advanced programs in Vietnamese higher education,
and the establishment of foreign-owned university campuses in Hanoi and Ho
Chi Minh City, has reinforced the trend for internationalisation of education.
The use of English as a medium of instruction in both advanced programs and
at these foreign-own university campuses has strengthened the increasing role of
English in education within an era of international integration. Although Viet-
nam has formed education partnerships with many countries, American advanced
programs and American university campuses outnumber those of other countries.
These numbers reflect an increasing trend of educational cooperation with the
United States as an educational partner of Vietnam. At the same time, these
numbers emphasise the special status and popularity of English, particularly when
it is used as a medium of instruction in these programs and at these university
campuses.
Conclusion
A brief overview of important milestones throughout the history of Vietnamese
education has confirmed the influence of external factors from dominant coun-
tries, particularly on foreign language instruction. Foreign language instruc-
tion is described as “a barometer of social changes in Vietnam” (Wright, 2002,
p. 243) and has had an important role to play in the economic, political, and
cultural development of the country. Being a small country with rich natural
resources, Vietnam has experienced near continuous control by different exter-
nal forces, including invasions, protracted wars, and separation. With regards to
higher education and foreign language policy, until recently the general tendency
throughout its history was to “conform to Vietnamese attitudes toward nations
associated with those languages” (Gayle, 1994, p. 1, cited in Do, 1996, p. 33).
From Chinese feudalism to French colonialism and Soviet Union socialism, each
period of higher education and foreign language instruction not only reflected
the economic and political policies of Vietnam, but also profoundly changed the
cultural landscape of the entire country. The adoption of the Doi Moi policy in
1986 represented an important turning point. This dramatic change in political
and economic policy resulted in dramatic changes to the whole society, especially
in education and foreign language policy. In addition, the internationalisation
of the curriculum, as well as the establishment of foreign-owned university cam-
puses in Vietnam in recent years, reflects the current unique status of E nglish
in Vietnamese higher education. In the process of international integration,
15032-1187e-2pass-r02.indd 12 6/5/2018 9:17:51 AM

Vietnam has gradually become less dependent on other influential nations in the
educational sector. Instead of being an educational importer, Vietnam has spec-
tacularly become a partner in educational cooperation with powerful nations. In
the process, English as an international language has become the key to success
for many Vietnamese.
Note
1 Vietnam won against Nam-Han invaders twice, defeated 30,000 Tong invaders
twice, and triumphed over the Nguyen-Mong invaders three times (Đặc trưng tư
tưởng văn hoá thời Lý – Trần, 2015)
References
Anh, N. T. (2009). The internationalization of higher education in Vietnam: National
policies and institutional implementation at Vietnam National University, Hanoi
(pp. 2–37). Global Institute for Asian Regional Integration (GIARI). Tokyo:
Waseda University Global COE Program
Bianco, J. L. (2001). Viet Nam: Quoc Ngu, colonialism and language policy. Lan-
guage Planning and Language Policy: East Asian Perspectives, 159–206.
Đặc trưng tư tưởng văn hoá thời Lý – Trần. Retreived from http://luutruvn.com/index.
php/2015/10/23/tieu-luan-cao-hoc-dac-trung-tu-tuong-van-hoa-thoi-ly-tran/
Denham, P. (1992). English in Vietnam. World Englishes, 11(1), 61–69.
Do, H. T. (2006). The role of English in Vietnam’s foreign language policy: A brief his-
tory. Paper presented at the 19th annual EA Education conference.
Do, T. H. (1996). Foreign language education policy in Vietnam: The reemergence of
English and its impact on higher education. Los Angeles: University of Southern
California.
Fry, G. W. (2009). Higher education in Vietnam. In Y. Hirosato & Y. Kitamura (Eds.)
The political economy of educational reforms and capacity development in Southeast
Asia (pp. 237–261). Dordrecht, Netherlands: Springer.
Fulbright University Vietnam. (2015, October 29). Retrieved from http://ash.
harvard.edu/news/fulbright-university-vietnam
George, E. S. (2010). Higher education in Vietnam 1986–1998: Education in transi-
tion to a new era? In G. Harman, M. Hayden, & T. Nghi Pham (Eds.) Reforming
higher education in Vietnam (pp. 31–49). Dordrecht, Netherlands: Springer.
Giáp, N. T. (2006). Chính sách ngôn ngữ ở Việt Nam qua các thời kỳ lịch sử. document
en ligne. Retrieved from http://ngonngu. net/ [consulté le 10 octobre 2015].
Hac, P. M. (1991). Education in Viet Nam 1945–1991. Hanoi, Vietnam: MOET.
Hac, P. M. (1993). Education in Vietnam: Situation, issues, policies. Hanoi, Vietnam:
MOET.
Hayden, M., & Thiep, L. Q. (2007). Institutional autonomy for higher education in
Vietnam. Higher Education Research & Development, 26(1), 73–85.
Hayden, M., & Thiep, L. Q. (2010). Vietnam’s higher education system. In Reform-
ing higher education in Vietnam (pp. 14–29). Dordrecht, Netherlands: Springer.
Hoa, N. T. M. (2011). Primary English language education policy in Vietnam:
Insights from implementation. Current Issues in Language Planning, 12(2),
225–249.
15032-1187e-2pass-r02.indd 13 6/5/2018 9:17:51 AM

Hoa, N. T. M., & Tuan, N. Q. (2007). Teaching English in primary schools in
Vietnam: An overview. Current Issues in Language Planning, 8(2), 162–173.
Hoang, V. V. (2011). The current situation and issues of the teaching of English in
Vietnam. 立命館言語文化研究, 22(1).
Huong, T. T. (2010). Insights from VIETNAM. In R. Johnstone (Ed.), Learn-
ing through English: Policies, challenges and prospects. Insights from East Asia
(pp. 96–114). Malaysia: British Council.
Kelly, K. (2000). The higher education system in Vietnam. World Education News
and Reviews, 13(3), 5–6.
London, J. D. (2011). Education in Vietnam. Singapore: Institute of Southeast Asian
Studies.
Manh, L. D. (2012). English as a medium of instruction at tertiary education system
in Vietnam. The Journal of Asia TEFL, 9(2), 97–122.
Ministry of Education. (1990). 45 Years of educational development in Vietnam.
Hanoi, Vietnam: Education Publishing House.
MOET. (2008). Quyết định về việc phê duyệt Đề án 'Dạy và học ngoại ngữ trong hệ
thống giáo dục quốc dân giai đoạn 2008 - 2020' (Decision to approve plan on ‘Teach-
ing and Learning Foreign Languages in the National Educational System for Period
2008–2020’). Viet Nam: Hanoi.
Nguyen, D., & Sloper, D. (1995). Socio-economic background of Vietnam since
1986: Impact on education and higher education. Higher Education in Vietnam:
Change and Response, 26–40.
Nguyen Ngoc Quang. (1993, May). English teaching and learning in the system of
continuing education in Vietnam. Paper presented at the International TESL Con-
ference, Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam.
Nguyen, T. K. Q. (2011). Globalization and higher education in Vietnam. Journal of
Interdisciplinary Studies, 23(1/2), 117–136.
Pham, L. H., & Fry, G. W. (2004). Education and economic, political, and social
change in Vietnam. Educational Research for Policy and Practice, 3(3), 199–222.
Pike, D. (1987). Vietnam and the Soviet union: Anatomy of an alliance. Boulder, CO:
Westview Press.
Sloper, D., & Lê, T. C. (1995). Higher education in Vietnam: Change and response.
Singapore: Institute of Southeast Asian Studies.
Thoi Phap thuoc. (2016). Retreived from https://theodonglichsu.net/home/
thoi-phap-thuoc/
Tien, N. Q. (2012). English-Vietnamese code-switching in tertiary educational con-
text in Vietnam. Asian Englishes, 15(2), 4–29.
Trần, L., Marginson, S., Đỗ, H., Đỗ, Q.,Lê, T., Nguyễn, N., Vũ, T., Phạm, T., &
Nguyễn, H. (2014). Higher education in Vietnam: Flexibility, mobility and practi-
cality in the global knowledge economy. New York: Palgrave Macmillan.
Tuyet, H. T. (2011). Primary teachers’ understanding of the pedagogical approaches
in the compulsory textbooks for teaching Vietnamese language. (Doctoral thesis), La
Trope University, Australia.
Van Khanh, D., & Hayden, M. (2010). Reforming the governance of higher educa-
tion in Vietnam. In G. Harman, M. Hayden, & T Nghi Pham (Eds.), Reforming
15032-1187e-2pass-r02.indd 14 6/5/2018 9:17:51 AM

Vy, T. N. (2011). Ho so Gia Dinh Bao. Retreived from http://tuoitre.vn/tin/chinh-
tri-xa-hoi/phong-su-ky-su/20110620/ho-so-gia-dinh-bao/443112.html
Welch, A. R. (2010). Internationalisation of Vietnamese higher education: Retrospect
and prospect. In G. Harman, M. Hayden, & T. Nghi Pham (Eds.), Reforming
Wright, S. (2002). Language education and foreign relations in Vietnam. In Lan-
guage policies in education: Critical issues (pp. 225–244). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence
Erlbaum Associates.
15032-1187e-2pass-r02.indd 15 6/5/2018 9:17:51 AM

2 Globalisation and
Vietnamese foreign
language education
Thi Thuy Le and Shen Chen
Foreign language education (FLE) in Vietnam is more than a pedagogical issue.

The teaching of foreign languages is a political, social, and cultural activity, and
decisions over which methods to use can only be answered with reference to
the local socio-political and cultural environment. This chapter aims to provide
insights into the situation of Vietnamese FLE in light of globalisation. The chap-
ter focuses on the influence of globalisation on Vietnamese society since 1986,
when Doi Moi, the policy of innovation, was adopted. Recent changes in FLE,
especially English as a Foreign Language (EFL) teaching and learning, will be
discussed with an emphasis on the role of English in formal and informal educa-
tion systems.
Globalisation and FLE

Globalisation is a multifaceted process, which refers to “the intensification of
social, political, economic, and cultural ties across borders” (London, 2010,
p. 361). This trend offers developing countries both opportunities for coopera-
tive development and challenges in the preservation of national assets. How to
respond to the pressures of globalisation is an important issue for policy makers
and educators. Western and Asian tertiary education scholars have shared the
view that reforms that are designed to improve the quality of English teaching
and learning should be a priority (Lam, 2011). The challenges of globalisation
push Asian countries, in general, and Vietnam, in particular, to improve their
higher education institutions to meet international standards, which would allow
them to compete with developed countries.
Globalisation has both positive and negative economic, political, cultural,
and education impacts on Vietnamese society. Vietnam has enjoyed an eco-
nomic revival, with increased economic growth and international recognition.
Globalisation has enabled Vietnam to develop trade and cooperation with many
countries and to engage with international organisations and non-governmental
organisations (NGOs) in the field of education. Vietnam has access to funding
sources from international agencies such as the World Bank, Asian Develop-
ment, UNICEF, and ODA-Japan, as well as forms of bilateral overseas develop-
ment assistance (P. L. Huong & Fry, 2004). Globalisation has helped Vietnam
15032-1187e-2pass-r02.indd 16 6/5/2018 9:17:51 AM

Globalisation 17
enhance its integration into every aspect of late modernity. Vietnamese students
and teachers now have more opportunities to interact with global educational
policy and discourses. In turn, these global educational flows have placed pres-
sures on the national education system to improve students’ and teachers’ E nglish
proficiency. Current tertiary education policy posits that Vietnam’s future rests
on knowledge workers using English to participate in nearly every aspect of the
globalised world.
Yet, challenges have resulted from the processes of globalisation. One of par-
ticular significance is that contacts with world cultures have affected Vietnam’s
national culture. Outside cultures may clash with the nation’s existing value sys-
tem. The traditional culture values may ignore or undervalue the deep-rooted
cultural values of the Vietnamese people. Globalisation has made possible English
becoming the dominant foreign language in Vietnam and English has made pos-
sible the processes that have opened its economy, politics, culture and education
to the world. English language educators in Vietnam have become more con-
cerned about the issue of communication with diverse cultures. In the context of
Vietnam today, the role of English as an international language contributes to the
demand for intercultural communication, and this is between Vietnamese learn-
ers and English native speakers or non-English speakers.
English is increasingly recognised as an international language (EIL). E nglish
owes its position as an EIL to the historical, political, and economic power of
the English-speaking countries, especially the United States (Clyne & Sharifian,
2008). The globalisation of English has challenged the assumption that the
ability of non-native speakers of English to understand native speakers would
automatically help them to comprehend other fluent non-native speakers. The
native-speaker (NS) model in EFL is open to question. The spread of English as a
medium of intercultural communication has bolstered the native-speaker model,
which reflects British and American linguistics, sociolinguistics, discourses, and
strategic norms, in English language classrooms in countries where English is
learned as second or foreign language. Several studies have investigated teachers’
and students’ beliefs about the NS model (e.g. Kuo, 2006; Mollin, 2006; Sewell,
2009; Sifakis, 2005; Timmis, 2002). These studies show that NS norms domi-
nate EFL teachers’ beliefs. And, many EFL students are oriented towards a NS
standard and desire to approximate this standard as closely as possible.
The NS model may not satisfy learners’ needs (Alptekin, 2002; Álvarez, 2007;
Byram, 1997; Canagarajah, 2006; McKay, 2002, 2003; Nunn, 2007a, 2007b,
2011). The English-speaking world cannot ignore the co-existence of the many
different English varieties that are used by non-native speakers. Learners of
English are now expected to be able to accommodate English speakers from
different linguistic and cultural backgrounds, with greatly varying levels of com-
petence in particular speech situations (Mollin, 2006). Kachru (1989) divided
the English-speaking world into three groups, which he termed the Inner Circle,
Outer Circle, and Expanding Circle. The Inner Circle refers to countries where
English is spoken as the first/indigenous language (e.g. the United Kingdom,
the United States, Canada, Australia, and New Zealand), or what may be termed
15032-1187e-2pass-r02.indd 17 6/5/2018 9:17:51 AM

18 Globalisation
“norm-providing” countries. The Outer Circle and Expanding Circle include
countries where English is learned as an ESL and EFL, respectively. The situation
is complicated when we consider the diverse purposes for learning English in the
Expanding Circle countries. For example, there are learners who need to dem-
onstrate a degree of English mastery to secure a place in an education program,
or to gain employment within their own countries or abroad (Ha, 2007; Kuo,
2006). Also, there are those learning English as a means of intercultural commu-
nication. The NS model becomes inadequate because it does not acknowledge
the existence of the various forms, varieties, and functions of English from the
Outer and Expanding Circles.
The notion of EIL recognises the diversity of native English. It empowers
non-native English teachers in EFL contexts. While English in the Inner Circle
countries (Kachru, 1989) is equated with greater power or a sort of superior
status, and English native speakers assert their ownership of English, the value of
EIL may be seen in actual intercultural communication practices. Through such
intercultural interactions, non-native speakers of English assert their intelligibil-
ity, thereby claiming an equal status with English native speakers. It has been
widely accepted among scholars and language educators that English is not a
means for learners from non-English speaking countries to acquire English cul-
tures. Rather, it is a means to express their own culture to each other and to those
from English-speaking countries (Kachru, 1987) or a means for promoting their
own culture and identity to the world (Ha, 2013; Hashimoto, 2000).
English represents a symbolic domination of the EFL context, largely because
of its dominance in local and international communication (Yeh, 2013). English
has become a dominant (foreign) language in many Asian countries, and this is
thanks to its promise to bring opportunities such as jobs, social status, heightened
international profile, and competition. In other words, it has become an empow-
ering language. Language policies in Asian countries aim to promote English
as a dominant and powerful language. In common with many Asian countries,
Vietnam considers English a dominant symbolic resource.
Status of the English language

The dominant position of the English language in Vietnam was promoted with
the introduction of the Doi Moi policy in the late 1980s. The adoption of the
policy marked Vietnam’s attempt to become politically, economically, and cultur-
ally integrated with the wider world, and also represented a fundamental change
in the outlook of Vietnamese leaders (Abuza, 1996). This movement led to other
significant changes across political and administrative spheres (London, 2010)
and bid a farewell to the obsolete conservatism of the past (Thinh, 1996). This
new economic policy attracted foreign investment and increased scientific and
technical links with many countries, regardless of their political and economic
differences.
English proficiency is increasingly significant for realising many Vietnamese
students’ dreams of overseas study. Numbers of Vietnamese tertiary students
15032-1187e-2pass-r02.indd 18 6/5/2018 9:17:51 AM

Globalisation 19
choose English-speaking countries such as Australia, the United States, and the
United Kingdom (UK). They must meet English requirements to receive an
offer, obtain a student visa, and successfully navigate their studies (listening to
lectures, discussing, presenting, and completing assignments). Recently, more
Vietnamese tertiary students have been attracted to study in Asian countries,
but English is still necessary for intercultural communication, as this helps them
adjust to learning and living in these countries. English may also remain the
medium of instruction in these countries, as well.
Vietnam’s access to the World Trade Organisation (WTO) has facilitated
increasing numbers of foreign, private education providers investing in Vietnam
(London, 2010). Accordingly, in addition to Vietnamese students travelling
abroad to seek academic excellence, an increasing number have chosen to study
at foreign schools within Vietnam, where often English is used as a medium of
instruction. This growing influence of English as an international language brings
“prestige in the domains that requires its proficiency” (Kachru, 1986).
The current popularity of EFL learning is partly the result of a history that dates
back to the 1954–1975 period. At that time, English received widespread support
in the South, because those competent in English were offered recruitment oppor-
tunities and higher salaries (D. T. Huong, 2004, p. 71). After the commencement
of the Doi Moi policy in 1986, Vietnam witnessed a great increase in demand for
English across all aspects of life. Indeed, in the decade of 1996–2006, English
developed with “an unprecedented speed” (Thinh, 2006, p. 8). The Vietnamese
public recognises that English is of practical use. This pragmatic use of English
shapes learners’ attitudes towards learning English. Learners are instrumentally
motivated (Thinh, 2006), because, as an international language, English may ena-
ble them to access international knowledge and skills in science and technology.
The Vietnamese government has made significant investments in English lan-
guage education. To keep pace with global trends and to prepare Vietnamese
learners for participation in the national and international arena, many English
Language Teaching (ELT) projects have been proposed in Vietnam. For exam-
ple, the project of “Foreign Language Education in the Vietnamese Educational
System for the 2006–2010 Period” was carried out by the Vietnamese Ministry
of Education and Training (MOET). English is now considered the most impor-
tant foreign language in the educational system and is taught as early as grade
3. Students are assessed according to a proficiency framework developed by the
Association of Language Testers in Europe (ALTE). On September 30th, 2008,
the Vietnamese Prime Minister issued Decision No 1400/QD-TTg on Approv-
ing the 10-year National Project for “Teaching and Learning Foreign Languages
in the National Formal Educational System in the Period of 2008–2020” (the
National Foreign Languages 2020 Project, hereafter referred to as the Project).
The general aim of the Project was for most Vietnamese learners to be able to
use foreign languages, mainly English, effectively in communication, study, and
work in an integrated, multilingual, and multicultural environment; such profi-
ciency would in turn contribute to the industrialisation and modernisation of the
country (MOET, 2008).
15032-1187e-2pass-r02.indd 19 6/5/2018 9:17:51 AM

20 Globalisation
In response to the increasing social demand for teaching and learning English
at a primary level, many foreign-owned/invested or private educational institu-
tions have opened, (T. T. T. Huong, 2010), which are often located in Hanoi
and Ho Chi Minh City. These schools offer English as a medium of instruction
for pre-school children and university students. Instructors that are recruited to
teach in these schools need to satisfy the teaching MOET requirements for pri-
mary EFL teachers (Nguyen, 2011).
The requirements for international primary schools are even higher. Teachers
are required to be either native teachers of English, or to have attained a high
standard of English proficiency. Their teaching has to be considered engaging
and unique. In addition, there are criteria regarding teachers’ personal character-
istics, because these are considered important when working with children. Suc-
cessful candidates are generally believed to be the most competent. As a result,
they receive better salaries and training opportunities, especially overseas profes-
sional development. International primary school students receive more exposure
to native English speakers and are likely to be more confident when communi-
cating with English speakers. Of course, this type of schooling is expensive and
not many parents can afford its fees. As such, these schools benefit only a small
segment of the Vietnamese population.
At a tertiary level, EFL is an important instructional focus. English is increas-
ingly used in content-based language instruction learning (CLIL), where stu-
dents learn core subjects such as mathematics, physics, chemistry, and some other
specialised subjects in English. This perspective is promising by enabling “the
killing two birds with one stone”: students achieve the content-related objectives
and are filled with real and meaningful communication in English. However,
the use of English as the mode of instruction is challenging Vietnamese tertiary
instructors as they must teach both the subject matter and English. In face of
the demands for curriculum coverage, teachers face the risk of either failing to
promote the English proficiency or their subject matter.
Tertiary English language programs group learners as either English majors
or non-English majors. The former category includes students who are trained
to be teachers and translators/interpreters. The latter category includes students
who study fewer hours of English, over a 4-year period, as a subject to help them
upgrade their general English proficiency (T. T. T. Huong, 2010) and accom-
modate their learning in specialist areas.
In Vietnam, there are two separate systems for ELT training. Three-year college
programs are responsible for training lower secondary (year 6 to year 9) English
teachers, whereas 4-year university programs take charge of upper secondary
(year 10 to year 12). At a university level, English language teacher training pro-
grams grant a Bachelor’s degree in ELT. After graduation, student teachers work
as English teachers within the secondary school system, but normally at an upper
secondary level. Students are allocated four academic years (eight semesters)
to complete their Bachelor degree. During this training period, students have
to complete three strands of knowledge to earn enough credits for graduation:
foundation knowledge, subject-matter knowledge, and professional knowledge
15032-1187e-2pass-r02.indd 20 6/5/2018 9:17:51 AM

Globalisation 21
(teaching methodology and a 6-week practicum in the final semester before grad-
uation). The 4-year program is usually structured into two stages. The first stage
focuses on basic language skills and grammar, whereas the second stage’s focus is
on professional knowledge such as linguistics, literature, culture, and English lan-
guage teaching methods. At a university level, the Vietnam MOET is responsible
for building the curriculum framework; this serves as a compulsory design guide
for curriculum development in both public and private universities.
English language teacher education has been affected by English education
instructional policies, as well. Attempts to improve English teaching methods have
been made in order to standardise learners’ English proficiency to overcome the
pedagogical legacy of the traditional methods in language learning, with its focus
on grammar, translation, and drills, which still has a strong hold on Vietnamese
ELT. As teachers play an essential role in enhancing their students’ English lev-
els, policy makers have paid increasing attention to the improvement of English
teacher training. Nevertheless, the government’s efforts are largely limited to
in-service teacher training programs. Vietnam has experienced a boom in both
online and on-campus programs in English teacher training and has hosted many
ELT conferences. Several projects involving teacher training have been supported
by the British Council and MOET. One of them was the VTV Project (Vietnam
English Teacher and Trainer Network), which aimed to develop networks for
training key English teachers at secondary and tertiary levels in the provinces and
cities. Founded in 2000, in 20 provinces and cities, and then rolled out across the
country, this project attracted much attention, thanks to its significant influence
and use of learner-centred and context-based methods (British Council, 2013).
English has become privileged in Vietnam’s education system, but the teach-
ing of English, particularly ELT and English language teacher training, are not
yet adequate (Hiep, 2005; Ho, 2011; Nguyen, 2013; Tomlinson, 2004; Tran &
Duong, 2015; Nguyen, 2005). Many unresolved issues concerning curriculum,
methodology, and textbooks remain. In response to these weaknesses, many stu-
dents turn to private English language centres to meet their needs. The increas-
ing demand of students to improve their communicative skills has caused these
centres to mushroom across the nation. They range from widely recognised cen-
tres, such as the British Council, American Apollo, Language Links, and Access,
to a diverse range of language schools, the language centres of universities, and
private enterprises throughout the country.
In English centres, English native teachers are privileged over local teachers,
and receive more income than local teachers. Their recruitment process is not as
strict. They are required to have a Bachelor degree, a TESOL (Teaching English
to Speakers of Other Languages) certificate, and a CELTA (Certificate in English
Language Teaching to Adults) certificate. The number of English native teachers
in English language centres has increased. Some have questioned the quality of
these language centres, expressing concerns about the quantity of these native
English teachers, who may lack formal second language teaching qualifications,
and their loose oversight by MOET (Carmichael, 2002). Many language centres
in Vietnam also employ non-qualified teachers (Ha, 2017). These “teachers”
15032-1187e-2pass-r02.indd 21 6/5/2018 9:17:51 AM

22 Globalisation
are sometimes tourists or native-English native students. Even without adequate
teaching qualifications, they are employed for short-term contracts. Although
these “teachers” are role models for English pronunciation, which is not the only
measure of a teacher’s competence, their main duty is to facilitate communica-
tion classes.
New directions for ELT in Vietnam

Becoming a member of the ASEAN community and establishing diplomatic
relations with the United States has increased Vietnam’s profile in the world.
Vietnam’s foreign policy defends its political independence and sovereignty,
while encouraging “open door”, multilateral, and diverse external relationships
(Elliot, 2012). Vietnam attempts to balance itself between two powerful coun-
tries, the United States and China. Although the United States has ceased to
be as dominant as it was in the 1950s, when its economy and military strength
outweighed the combined force of all other countries in the world (Elliot, 2012),
it has remained an extremely powerful nation. In the meantime, China has been
increasing its power. Vietnam’s relations with China, predicated on its national
interest rather than socialist solidarity, has played a crucial part in its national
security decisions.
Vietnam’s core strategic policy concern remains national security. The nature
of international relations is experiencing novel transformations. In the new world
order, no matter how powerful it may be, no country can dominate all the other
countries. In other words, the world has become multipolar, rather than bipolar
or tripolar as it was in the past. The large powers may still play important or
even decisive roles, but the last few decades have also seen the rise of small and
mid-sized countries. Their strength may come from their economy, politics, mili-
tary, science/technology, population, cultural heritage, and natural resources.
Together, they all contribute to the fate of the world. As a mid-sized country,
Vietnam has proved itself to be a proactive member of the world community. The
issue of how to manage Vietnam’s relations with the outside world and to create
socio-economic advantages, needs to be addressed by the Vietnamese education
system. This is especially the case in foreign language education, which is sup-
posed to empower the individual and society.
Vietnam’s concern with the influence of Western culture is the fear of losing
its national identity, especially in the context of globalisation, when many of its
cultural values tend to be challenged by dominant Western trends. Vietnam has
experienced many historical struggles and successfully deployed “nationalism”
as a powerful weapon against military and cultural invasion. As such, its nation-
hood and Vietnamese language and culture have remained relatively secure. The
strength of its nationalism and national identity form some of the most significant
parameters of Vietnamese politics and society (Salomon & Ket, 2007). Through-
out its history, the issue of identity has always played a crucial role in political
policy and Vietnam’s relation with foreign countries. Language is not only a
means of intercultural communication: it defines the identity of the speaker who
15032-1187e-2pass-r02.indd 22 6/5/2018 9:17:51 AM

Globalisation 23
uses this language. English dynamically contributes to identity formation at all
levels and in a myriad of ways. In Vietnam the increasing privilege of English
language learning challenges the preservation of national cultural identity. Thus,
Vietnam needs to find a balance between its internationalisation agenda and the
building and development of national identity.
Within Vietnam’s economic, political, and cultural global integration and
engagement, English is a means to connect Vietnam with the world. The question
becomes whether the English language can be considered as a tool for national
development and cultural enrichment. In other words, the issues are how English
can be taught in a way that facilitates change, but also maintains Vietnam’s tradi-
tions and how it is used to represent it to the world, while promoting its distinc-
tive culture and identity. English should be considered as a medium to raise the
Vietnamese people’s awareness of their own identities; similarly, English should
be used as a mode for representing Vietnamese thoughts and values in the inter-
national context. Through learning English, Vietnamese learners can understand
and know how to preserve their national cultural identity, particularly as this is
challenged by globalisation and an invasion of Western values. It is necessary for
English to serve the twin aims of enhancing and preserving Vietnamese values.
This may point to the need to include the core identities of Vietnam in language
pedagogy, such as a sense of nationalism, a sense of patriotism, a belief that eve-
ryone’s fate is ordained, and a desire for saving “face”. These are portrayed by
Ngoc (1998) as four “F” values, namely, “Fatherland”, “Family”, “Fate”, and
“Face”. These elements are intertwined and influence one another.
Yet, it is impossible for Vietnamese values and traditions to remain unchanged.
Vietnam, as an open and welcoming country, is likely to experience changes in its
culture and national identity. Maintaining tradition and encouraging change are
two fundamental goals of Vietnamese education in general and English language
education in particular. The Vietnamese government wants to foster good citi-
zens who represent the best aspects of its traditional identity, but at the same time
needs citizens who are prepared to change if such changes are in the best interests
of Vietnam. In any country, changes happen on the foundations of learning and
an understanding of traditions or national identity. This applies to Vietnam, too.
Teaching a foreign language, particularly English, must necessarily address some
questions: what are Vietnamese core values and national identity? How are they
to be preserved?
The world is shrinking and becoming more interdependent. Any country’s
ability to establish, maintain, and master relationships with the outside world
will play as criteria for measuring its power in the world. Navigating these rela-
tionships and balancing powerful countries’ influence on Vietnamese society is a
central issue that is becoming increasingly complicated. Awareness as well as the
skills for handling power relations should be included in foreign language educa-
tion, especially in ELT.
ELT no longer considered native speakers as the sole owners of the English
language; English was no longer the property of the Inner Circle countries
(Pishghadam & Zabihi, 2012). Unfortunately, ELT teachers in Vietnam place
15032-1187e-2pass-r02.indd 23 6/5/2018 9:17:51 AM

24 Globalisation
a privilege on acquiring, conforming, and approximating the native norms of
English. The time has come for Vietnamese teachers to shift into new paradigms
in treating the issue of culture in English foreign language education. English
should be considered as a basic educational requirement, rather than simply as a
desirable accomplishment (Maurais & Morris, as cited in Her, 2007). Learners of
English should not be regarded as mere imitators or followers of English cultures
and values. Instead, they need to use English as a means to express their ways
of thinking. The role of English as a global language, one used across diverse
cultures, requires English educators to not only be culturally and linguistically
competent users, but also for curriculum designers to have an international and
multicultural focus (Nault, 2008). This radical idea has aroused Vietnamese
researchers’ interest in how to address culture when teaching English, and has
created heated discussions about what culture(s) and how to teach in this area.
Conclusion
Globalisation has affected Vietnamese foreign language education so profoundly
that it has shaped new directions in culture teaching. It has also shifted the goals
of ELT to meet the demands of the new context. In a globalised and diversified
world, the questions of NS or non-native speaker (NNS) models, native teacher
or non-native teacher, or native culture or nonnative culture become less impor-
tant. What increasingly matters is how to enhance Vietnamese students’ capacity
for effective communication in intercultural contexts, and how to train teach-
ers who know how to navigate diverse cultures and multiple identities. As such,
there is a growing call to reform FL education, as well as the ELT curriculum,
in Vietnam.
In the new millennium, the knowing of cultural facts is not as important as
the understanding of and sensitivity to multiple identities. The move towards
intercultural awareness in foreign language teaching and learning, which ena-
bles understanding, sensitivity, and awareness to other “foreignness”, has become
evident at a global level. The raising of intercultural awareness provides foreign
language learners capacities to manage tensions, to create mutual understanding
among nations, and to enhance every country’s integrity. For these socio-political
purposes, the teaching of culture should be innovated by introducing intercul-
tural awareness to Vietnamese EFL education.
Teachers are central to the education process, and any new model of English
language education will stand little chance of success without the direct participa-
tion of teachers. This paper advocates that Vietnamese teachers need to change the
way they teach. Teachers should not be expected to act in an authoritarian manner,
particularly when teaching foreign languages. As learning a language is a creative
process, overemphasis should not be placed on teachers’ roles as moral educators
and as authoritative sources of knowledge, as a Vietnamese saying: “first learn the
morality, then learn the knowledge”. The aim of Vietnamese education to produce
teachers who act as moral guides or role models, which has been inscribed in the
Education Law of Vietnam (Ha, 2008; Linh, 2013), needs to be revised. The glo-
balised teaching context requires new teaching roles to emerge.
15032-1187e-2pass-r02.indd 24 6/5/2018 9:17:51 AM

Globalisation 25
References
Abuza, Z. (1996). The politics of educational diplomacy in Vietnam: Educational
exchanges under Doi Moi. Asian Survey, 36(6), 618–631.
Alptekin. (2002). Towards intercultural communicative competence in ELT. ELT
Journal, 56(1), 57–64.
Álvarez, I. (2007). Foreign language education at the crossroads: Whose model of
competence? Language, Culture and Curriculum, 20(2), 126–139. doi:10.2167/
lcc330.0
British Council. (2013). Mạng lưới giáo viên và giảng viên tiếng Anh tại Việt Nam
(Vietnam English teacher and trainer network). Retrieved 12 July, 2013 from www.
britishcouncil.org/vi/vietnam-english-teacher-vttn- network.htm
Byram, M. (1997). Teaching and assessing intercultural communicative competence.
Clevedon, UK: Multilingual Matters.
Canagarajah, S. (2006). Changing communicative needs, revised assessment objec-
tives: Testing English as an international language. Language Assessment Quarterly,
3(3), 229–242.
Carmichael, S. (2002). An expose of what is an English teacher. Asian EFL Journal,
4(1).
Clyne, M., & Sharifian, F. (2008). English as an international language: Challenges
and possibilities. Australian Review of Applied Linguistics, 31(3), 1–16.
Elliot, D. W. P. (2012). Changing worlds: Vietnam’s transition from the cold war to
globalization. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Ha, M. (2017). Giáo viên nước ngoài dạy Tiếng Anh: ‘Lỏng’ quản lý, ‘thả nổi’ chất
lượng. Retrieved May 27, 2017 from www.baomoi.com/giao-vien-nuoc-ngoai-
day-tieng-anh-long-quan-ly-tha-noi-chat-luong/c/22179616.epi
Ha, P. L. (2007). Toward a critical notion of appropriation of English as an
international language. Journal of English as a lingua franca, 1, 48–60.
Ha, P. L. (2008). Teaching English as an international language: Identity, resistance
and negotiation. Clevedon, UK, Tonawanda, NY and North York, ON: Multilin-
gual Matters.
Ha, P. L. (2013). Issues surrounding English, the internationalisation of higher edu-
cation and national cultural identity in Asia: A focus on Japan. Critical Studies in
Education, 54(2), 160–175. doi:10.1080/17508487.2013.781047
Hashimoto, K. (2000). ‘Internationalisation’ is ‘Japanisation’: Japan’s foreign lan-
guage education and national identity. Journal of Intercultural Studies, 21(1),
39–51.
Her, J-H. (2007). The globalization of English: Its impact on English language educa-
tion in the tertiary education sector in Taiwan. (Doctoral dissertation), University
of Waikato.
Hiep, P. H. (2005). Imported communicative language teaching: Implications for
local teachers. English Teaching Forum, 43(4), 2–9.
Ho, S. T. K. (2011). An intercultural perspective on teaching and learning in the
Vietnamese EFL classroom. University of Sydney Papers in TESOL, 6, 43–69.
Huong, D. T. (2004). ELT at tertiary level in Vietnam: Historical overview and assessment
of current policies and practices. (Doctoral dissertation), La Trobe University, Australia.
Huong, P. L., & Fry, G. W. (2004). Education and economic, political, and social
change in Vietnam. Education Research for Policy and Practice, 3, 199–222.
Huong, T. T. T. (2010). Insights from Vietnam. In Teaching English (pp. 96–114).
Hanoi, Vietnam: British Council.
15032-1187e-2pass-r02.indd 25 6/5/2018 9:17:51 AM

26 Globalisation
Kachru, B. B. (1986). The alchemy of English: The spread functions and models of non-
native Englishes. Australia, NSW: Pergamon.
Kachru, B. B. (1987). World Englishes and applied linguistics. Paper presented at the
8th World Congress of Applied Linguistics, Sydney, Australia.
Kachru, B. B. (1989). World Englishes and applied linguistics. Studies in the Linguis-
tic Sciences, 19, 127–152.
Kuo, I-C. (2006). Addressing the issue of teaching English as a lingua franca. ELT
Journal, 60(3).
Lam, T. L. (2011). The impact of Vietnam’s globalization on national education poli-
cies and teacher training programs for teachers of English as an international lan-
guage: A case study of the University of Pedagogy in Ho Chi Minh City. (Doctoral
dissertation), Alliant International University, San Diego, CA.
Linh, L. T. (2013). Teachers as moral guides: A case study of Vienamese pre service
teachers of English in contemporary Vietnam. (Doctoral dissertation), Monash Uni-
versity, Australia.
London, J. D. (2010). Globalization and the governance of education in Vietnam.
Asia Pacific Journal of Education, 30(4), 361–379.
McKay, S. L. (2002). Teaching English as an international language. Oxford: Oxford
University Press.
McKay, S. L. (2003). EIL curriculum development. RELC Journal, 34(1), 31–47.
MOET. (2008). Educational development policy 2006–2010. Hanoi, Vietnam: MOET.
English curriculum framework. Hanoi, Vietnam: MOET.
Mollin, S. (2006). Euro-English: Assessing variety status. Tubingen: Narr.
Nault, D. (2008). Going global: Rethinking culture teaching in ELT contexts. Lan-
guage, Culture and Curriculum, 19(3), 314–328.
Ngoc, P. (1998). Ban sac van hoa Vietnam. Hanoi, Vietnam: NXB van hoa thong tin.
Nguyen, H. T. M. (2011). Primary English language education policy in Vietnam:
Insights from implementation. Current Issues in Language Planning, 12(2), 225–
249. doi:10.1080/14664208.2011.597048
Nguyen, T. L. (2013). Integrating culture into Vietnamese university EFL teaching:
A critical ethnographic study. (Doctoral dissertation), Aukland University of Tech-
nology. Retrieved from http://hdl.handle.net/10292/5975
Nguyen, T. T. (2005). Incorporating culture into English language teaching in Viet-
nam. (Doctoral dissertation), University of Melbourne.
Nunn, R. (2007a). Competence and teaching English as an international language.
Journal of English as an International Language, 1, 11–24.
Nunn, R. (2007b). Redefining communicative competence for international and local
communities. Journal of English as an International Language, 2, 7–49.
Nunn, R. (2011). From defining to developing competence in EIL and intercultural
communication. Journal of English as an International Language, 6(1), 21–46.
Pishghadam, R., & Zabihi, R. (2012). Crossing the threshold of Iranian TEFL.
Applied Research in English, 1(1), 57–71.
Salomon, M., & Ket, V. D. (2007). i mi, education and identity formation in contem-
porary Vietnam. Compare: A Journal of Comparative and International Education,
37(3), 345–363.
Sewell, A. (2009). World Englishes, English as a lingua franca, and the case of Hong
Kong English. English Today, 25(1), 37–43.
Sifakis, N. C. (2005). Pronunciation issues and EIL pedagogy in the periphery: A sur-
vey of Greek state school teachers’ beliefs. TESOL Quarterly, 39(3), 467–488.
15032-1187e-2pass-r02.indd 26 6/5/2018 9:17:51 AM

Globalisation 27
Thinh, D. H. (1996). Foreign language education policy in Vietnam: The reemergence
of English and its impact on higher education. (Unpublished doctoral dissertation),
University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA.
Thinh, D. H. (2006). The role of English in Vietnam’s foreign language policy: A brief
history. Paper presented at the English Australia Conference 2006 – Reevaluating
methodologies: How we teach, who we teach, Perth, WA.
Timmis, I. (2002). Native-speaker norms and international English: A classroom
view. ELT Journal, 56(3), 240–249.
Tomlinson, B., & Dat, B. (2004). The contributions of Vietnamese learners of English
to ELT methodology. Language Teaching Research, 8(2), 199–222.
Tran, T. Q., & Duong, T. M. (2015). Intercultural language teaching: Rethinking
the objectives of English language education in the Vietnamese context. English for
Specific Purposes World, (46).
Yeh, L-M. (2013). World Englishes and identity construction: A qualitative analysis of
two Taiwanese EFL undergraduates’ viewpoints. Asia-Pacific Education Researcher,
22(3), 327–340.
15032-1187e-2pass-r02.indd 27 6/5/2018 9:17:51 AM

3 Nation building and
language in education policy
Phuong Anh Vu
In addition to its primary role as a mode of knowledge transmission, language,

throughout history, has been attributed with other political, social, and economic
responsibilities. During colonisation, Asian, American, and African schools’ lan-
guage instruction was a tool for assimilating cultures and minds (Altbach & Kelly,
1984; Thiong’o, 1986). Since the rise of the modern nation-state, first in Europe
and then on other continents, during the nineteenth and twentieth centuries,
language has been the binding glue for the realisation of imagined communities
(Anderson, 1990). Throughout historic waves of globalisation, and particularly
in our current intensified period, language instruction is increasingly perceived as
making a substantial contribution to national and international economic devel-
opment. Within this context, governments have attended closely to language
policy. Vietnam is no exception.
In response to the increasing global demands for greater economic integra-
tion, Vietnam’s Doi Moi policy (1986) pivot has affected political, economic,
and social change. Vietnamese language policy was aimed at transformation. This
chapter analyses the extent to which this policy shift has influenced the recon-
struction of language instruction in relation to Vietnamese national identity as
expressed in its tertiary education policy. I argue that Vietnamese policy on lan-
guages has always been an integral part of its nation-building project.
I begin with a brief discussion of the construction of language policy in Viet-
nam, from the nation’s declaration of independence in 1945 to post Doi Moi in
1986. Since Chapter 1 presented an account of the development of languages in
Vietnam, this chapter focuses on the relationship of languages to the grand plan
of nation building after the birth of Vietnam as a modern nation-state. I analyse
three major policy documents: the Law of Education (1998), the Law of Educa-
tion (2005), and the Law of Higher Education (2012). My analysis addresses
the construction of Vietnamese as the core language of instruction, within an
official pragmatic shift in foreign language education to English, as the coun-
try has increasingly integrated into the world economy over the last 30 years.
This gradual yet dramatic shift reveals an historic policy strategy by a succes-
sion of Vietnamese administrations in a program of nation building and promo-
tion. My analysis considers political and economic development contexts in that
development. I conclude with a discussion of the challenges and implications
15032-1187e-2pass-r02.indd 28 6/5/2018 9:17:51 AM

Nation building and language 29
of Vietnam’s language policy and argue that the policy consistently serves the
educational purposes of promoting a sense of collectiveness among individuals,
within the project of nation building, and producing efficient skilled workers for
economic development. The policy also represents the challenge of balancing
what is being constructed as the desired knowledge, and what signifies a politics
of identity and equity, when the country is increasingly embracing globalisation.
Historical background
Language policy, like any other, does not simply start from scratch: the analysis
of language policy cannot be carried out apolitically or ahistorically. This analysis
of language policy in Vietnam, thus, should be performed under a full aware-
ness of the country’s long history of multi-colonisation, the political and ideo-
logical regime of socialism, and its position as a developing or semi-peripheral
country in the world economy system.
The important role of language in the nation-building process has been
reflected in many studies (Anderson, 1990; Gellner, 1983; Hobsbawm, 1996).
The ideology of one language – one people – one nation promoted since the
Second World War has given rise to the language policies of many newly inde-
pendent African and Asian countries. When viewed as an indispensable factor in
nation building in the postcolonial period, language policy has combined recu-
perative attempts to forge a national identity with the rationalist goals of enabling
and standardising communication (Blommaert, 2009). Language policy and lan-
guage planning, consequently, have been an inseparable part of nation-building
projects. In post-independence African nations, for example, many have retained
their coloniser’s language as an official language to resolve tensions among com-
peting ethnic groups over language policy (Bray, Clarke, & Stephens, 1986).
The adoption of colonial languages, in these cases, has helped unify the various
nations. In Asia, the selection of national languages is more varied. In Malay-
sia, for example, Malay became the medium of tertiary education. Both Tagalog
and English are recognised as official languages in the Philippines. Hong Kong
and Taiwan are among those who chose English as the single official language and
language of instruction.
In 1945, at independence, Vietnamese was adopted as the official language of
government and the language of instruction in all educational institutions (Pham,
1998). As noted in earlier chapters in this collection, French colonial govern-
ments actively assisted in the development of the Vietnamese writing system and
its adoption in the colonial educational system. The promotion of Vietnamese in
education, however, was dissimilar to language policies pursued in other French
colonies in West Africa between 1918 and 1938 (Kelly (1984). While French,
and no indigenous languages, was promoted in those countries, Vietnamese lan-
guage was first employed by the French government “as a means to train minor
native functionaries and to filter out incendiary ideas emanating from Paris”
(Marr, 1981, p. 137). Its patriotic potential, inadvertently, was then perceived by
the Vietnamese intelligentsia as a means of being independent from other foreign
15032-1187e-2pass-r02.indd 29 6/5/2018 9:17:51 AM

30 Nation building and language
languages. Vietnamese, consequently, was considered “an essential component”
(Marr, 1981, p. 138) of national cultural identity in building and strengthening
the nation-state. The adoption of Vietnamese as the official language at inde-
pendence broke linguistic ties to China and to France. It signalled the “end to
French colonisation and linguistic dominance” with the aim of “unify(ing) the
country’s sense of national identity” (Phan, Vu, & Bao, 2014, p. 234). Chinese,
French, Russian, and later English, when used in Vietnam, came to be treated as
foreign languages.
Early language policy in Vietnam was framed in terms of Marxist-Leninist con-
cerns of balancing multiple ethnic and national identities within the socialist state.
Nationality policy promoted under the Soviet-styled regime attempted to unify
ethnic groups sharing no past memory or history within the nation-building pro-
ject (Slezkine, 1994). Unity would be realised as characterising the promotion
of collective assets being developed, while ethnic particularities were maintained
to ensure the support of minorities. Vietnam is home to 54 ethnic groups, with
about 100 spoken languages belonging to different linguistic families, includ-
ing Austroasiatic, Hmong-Mien, Austronesian, and Sino-Tibetan (Lavoie, 2011;
T. G. Nguyen, 2006). Being well aware of this diversity, the Vietnamese govern-
ment employed a “fairly open” (Phan et al., 2014) language policy having regard
to minority languages, while simultaneously working to advance Vietnamese lan-
guage as the official language.
Vietnamese language policy between 1945 and 1986 clearly demonstrates an
official attempt to consolidate national unity among ethnic groups. The Viet-
namese Constitution of 1960 stated that minority ethnic groups have the right to
study in their own languages (Article 15), the right to preserve their traditional
customs, to use their languages and writing systems, to develop their cultural
identity (Article 3), and to use their languages in court (Articles 66 and 102).
These rights were reconfirmed by the Constitution of 1980 (Articles 5 and 60).
Since independence, Vietnamese governments have incorporated minority lan-
guages in the national curriculum as compulsory subjects in primary education,
both in bilingual and multilingual areas of the country (Archibald, 1988; Bui,
2003). Vietnamese was first pronounced the national language in the revised
Constitution in 2014.
Also, contributing to the formulation of Vietnamese language policy has been
the country’s relative position in the world economic system. From a world sys-
tem theory perspective, Vietnam is a developing country and a semi-peripheral
country. Vietnam’s economic development is contextualised within intensely glo-
balised trading, science, and technology flows. Governments regularly consider
international languages, particularly English, as “a symbol of internationalisa-
tion” (Duong & Chua, 2016), or “a means to economic progress” (Tupas &
Sercombe, 2014).
In many nations, whether they have a legacy of colonialisation or not, English is
promoted as key to national development (Altbach, 1998). Singapore, for exam-
ple, recognises Mandarin, Malay, and Tamil as national languages; but English is
the language of governance and education (Rappa & Wee, 2006, p. 27). Japan,
15032-1187e-2pass-r02.indd 30 6/5/2018 9:17:51 AM

having no colonial heritage, promotes English as “the window to the world”
(Altbach, 1998). Nation building is increasingly conjoined to both economic
development and English, respectively.
Foreign languages have always been included in the Vietnamese national cur-
riculum. Among the commonly taught languages are Russian, Chinese, French,
and English. As discussed earlier in this volume, changes to preferred foreign lan-
guage status have reflected shifts in reframing of the Vietnamese national project
(Pham, 1998). Understanding Vietnamese politics and socio-economic responses
to changing global developments is key to understanding the (re)construction of
language policy since independence. Most recently, the Doi Moi policy pivot has
brought marked changes to all aspects of Vietnamese life, including language
policy.
Doi Moi and the language of instruction in

Vietnamese education
Vietnam faced significant challenges in the 1990s. National income averaged
at 0.4% growth during the 5-year plan of 1976–1980 (Cheng, 2002), and the
inflation rate was estimated to be over 700% in 1986 (Mallon & Irvin, 2001).
Politically, among the Vietnamese populace the Party’s leadership was being
questioned. The country’s financial hardship was perceived as the Party’s failure
(Cheng, 2002). Accordingly, during the Sixth Communist Party Congress of
Vietnam in 1986, a new policy, Doi Moi, was introduced as a “renovation of the
country”, aimed at improvement in the social and economic conditions being
experienced by the population.
The Doi Moi policy pivot brought changes to every aspect of Vietnamese life.
The most dramatic changes were the introduction of a multi-sectorial economy,
the appearance of domestic private enterprises, and the development of direct for-
eign investment, mostly into what were formally public ventures (Collins, 2009,
p. 38; Tonnesson, 2001, p. 119). These changes were enabled by Vietnam’s
increasing integration into the regional and international economic and political
environments. The market economy in Vietnam, however, remains under State
control; and the political regime continues to be controlled under the one-party
rule of the Vietnamese Communist Party (VCP). Accordingly, the central role
of the State and the VCP has remained as strong as ever (Jonsson, 2007, p. 38;
London, 2006, p. 8), leaving Vietnam one of the few socialist countries remain-
ing in the world.
Since the adoption of an open market approach in Vietnam in 1986, the educa-
tion sector has been experiencing significant reforms. Some of the changes that
have taken place include: narrow specialisations in university education giving way
to broader and multiple academic fields; the partial abolition of state subsidies in
all educational levels apart from primary level; the introduction of tuition fees
beginning in the tertiary level; more university autonomy in finance and manage-
ment; and increased privatisation in the provision of education (Huong & Fry,
2004). A new Law of Education (1998) was promulgated to guide these reforms.
15032-1187e-2pass-r02.indd 31 6/5/2018 9:17:51 AM

This policy was replaced in 2005 to meet demands for an increased integration
into the world economy; and further policy changes to develop a mass tertiary
education system led to the Law of Higher Education (2012).
These reforms heightened the Vietnamese government’s concerns about
national unity. Vietnam’s re-integration into the world economy after more than
10 years of economic isolation, with limited political relations and economic
transaction with other countries in the Socialist Bloc, had isolated the nation. The
collapse of the Soviet Union in 1990–1991 resulted in the official understanding
that global integration, to some extent, posed both an opportunity and a threat
to Vietnamese independence.
In the Vietnamese government’s attempt to reinforce national culture, Viet-
namese was consistently reasserted as the official language. The Law of Educa-
tion (1998) confirmed, “Vietnamese language is the official language used in
the schools” (Article 5). Vietnamese language was affirmed as an effective tool
of cultural identity that helped promote community solidarity. The promulgation
of Vietnamese as the means of instruction in all sectors guaranteed the promo-
tion of shared cultural and civic values. The promotion of Vietnamese as the
language of instruction was aimed at bringing together citizens from diverse lin-
guistic groups and cultures across remote areas of the country into a single politi-
cal entity.
With the considerable expansion of the higher education system over the years
of 1998–2005, the Law of Education (2005) was a further attempt by the State
to directly link language policy to the national education objectives of producing
loyal citizens. While still confirming Vietnamese as the official language used in
schools and all other educational institutions, Article 7 of the 2005 Education
Law opened the possibility of using a foreign language as the language of instruc-
tion, depending on educational goals and the specific requirements of the curric-
ulum. For the first time, foreign languages were mentioned in the education law,
although languages such as Russian, French, Chinese, and English had previously
been taught in Vietnam from the founding of its tertiary sector. Given the his-
tory of teaching of foreign languages in Vietnam, this official acknowledgement
represented a shift in the perception of foreign language instruction as an integral
part of the national project.
The recognition of foreign languages, particularly as languages of instruction,
had important implications for the development of education. The increased use
of foreign languages in universities in imported educational programs was strongly
encouraged as part of the government’s desire to promote international coopera-
tion to modernise Vietnamese education. This increase in the use of imported
curricula reflected the penetration of international agencies such as the World
Bank (WB) or the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisa-
tion (UNESCO) in Vietnamese education. It must be noted that the WB-funded
higher education projects stimulated the adoption of imported foreign programs,
which helped standardise competing Vietnamese tertiary curricula (Dang, 2009).
The promotion of tertiary foreign language instruction also targeted a greater
economic integration of the nation’s future labour force. Higher education was
15032-1187e-2pass-r02.indd 32 6/5/2018 9:17:51 AM

expected to provide effective workers ready for their participation in the domestic
economy (especially in joint ventures with foreign capital) and in the interna-
tional economy (providing workers overseas).
The Law of Education (2005) thus conveyed different meanings for the devel-
opment of national education. On the one hand, it re-emphasised Vietnamese as
the official instructional language, which affirmed the government’s strong desire
to construct a linguistic identity among the people. On the other hand, its rec-
ognition of foreign language study in schools revealed a greater awareness of the
nation’s integration into the world economy and a deeper concern for economic
competitiveness and labour productivity.
The above-mentioned government concern may be partially explicated through
a brief look at the Vietnamese economic context. Since the Doi Moi reform,
Vietnam has experienced greater economic variability. After the application of
an open-door economic policy as part of Doi Moi, the country officially joined
the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) Free Trade Area in 1995.
During the early years of economic integration, Vietnam was able to weather the
Asian economic turmoil of 1997–1998 with minimal impact (Vuong, 2014). Its
economic boom starting in 2002 was escalated by its official admission into the
World Trade Organisation (WTO) in 2007 and then subsequently slowed down
by the Global Financial Crisis of 2008, leaving the country’s economy unstable.
Vietnam being fully integrated into the world economy, to some extent, would
result in its increasing exposure to world economic turbulence. This economic
crisis put greater pressure on the development of the national education system.
Ongoing reforms promoted foreign language education, chief of which was Pro-
ject 2020 (Decision 1400/QD-TTg dated 30/9/2008). The Project, indeed,
privileged English over other foreign languages to be taught in schools as a com-
pulsory subject.
In the process of reforming the tertiary sector, the Law of Higher Education
in 2012 was introduced as a response to the growing need to promote national
unity and strengthen the economy. Before 2012, Vietnamese linguists, sociol-
ogists, and educators had expressed concerns about the social position, func-
tion, and construction of the Vietnamese language. Their perception was that
the increasing use of foreign languages in educational institutions also reflected
their wider use in every aspect of life. Vietnamese cultural conservatives saw this
development as a potential threat to the Vietnamese language. M. T. Nguyen
(2009), for example, noted that there existed a blurring of Vietnamese and other
languages, a mixed use of languages, or the creation of a new “language” among
users, especially the young. Consequently, the reaffirmation of the status of the
Vietnamese language in the Law of Higher Education (2012) is understandable.
Article 10 confirmed Vietnamese as the official language of instruction in tertiary
institutions. Although not given official status as the national language until 2014
by the revised Constitution, as noted previously, various earlier law documents
did stipulate Vietnamese as the official language of instruction.
This recent policy, however, has not resolved the tension between Vietnamese
and English education. The 2012 Higher Education Law renewed the push for
15032-1187e-2pass-r02.indd 33 6/5/2018 9:17:51 AM

foreign language learning in tertiary institutions. Article 10 ceded institutional
autonomy to “make decisions on the teaching and learning in foreign languages
in schools”; but, the article was constructed with some ambiguity. It left the
criteria and process for language choice to be guided by later policy documents.
This policy indeterminacy had also been evident in the earlier Law of Education
(2005). The general nature of the direction provided in the Law of Education
(2005) and the Law of Higher Education (2012) might be perceived as a reflec-
tion of the intent behind the policy. This intent might be identified in the Prime
Ministerial Decision No. 72/2014/QD-TTg dated December 17th, 2014. This
document was the first of its kind that provided institutional guidance for the
teaching and learning in foreign languages. It promulgated the overall objective
of the national scheme on foreign languages as:
by 2020, most young Vietnamese graduates of professional secondary

schools, colleges and universities will have a good command of foreign
languages, this will enable them to independently and confidently commu-
nicate, study and work in a multilingual and multicultural environment of
(world) integration; and to turn foreign languages into an advantage of the
Vietnamese in their service of national industrialisation and modernisation.
The document repeatedly revealed the Vietnamese government’s high ambi-

tion towards foreign language education. English, as explicitly identified in Pro-
ject 2020, was expected to become a strong point of the Vietnamese workforce
by 2020. A roadmap was sketched out to help realise this goal. Project 2020
required that both basic and major attainment levels should be met by 20% of
national, provincial, and other strategic university students by 2010. Further, this
percentage was to be increased every year until all universities, nationwide, would
have implemented intensive language training by 2020. A timeframe of 12 years,
from 2008 to 2020, was also set for policy implementation.
The policy of English education, with its high goal for language proficiency
among Vietnamese students within such a short timeframe, has revealed persistent
problems in the system. First is the pace of policy change in Vietnam. The coun-
try seems to be in a hurry of “economically catching up” with other countries in
the world. The better Vietnam becomes integrated into the world economy, the
more pressure for economic development the Vietnamese government seems to
perceive. As the result, the government has come out with many new laws, new
programs, and new projects at a faster pace than the system and the people might
absorb. Second, funding has remained a challenge to the accomplishment of the
expected changes proposed by the government. For instance, the adoption of the
European framework in assessing English proficiency in Vietnam, the plan of pro-
fessional development, the roadmap to raise standards in term of the proficiency
of English teachers and standards of graduate proficiency of students, all require
considerable financial support to be implemented nationwide. Third, Vietnamese
laws and policy tend to be left with loose guidance. Lack of detailed guidance on
how to interpret and implement new laws or policy may result in the “failure” of
15032-1187e-2pass-r02.indd 34 6/5/2018 9:17:51 AM

the project. These issues may also be attributed to the Minister of Education and
Training’s admitting in 2016 that the Project 2020’s goals were “unachievable”.
Although difficulties in policy implementation are persistent and unavoidable,
the Vietnamese government has expressed a consistent effort in improving the
English proficiency among tertiary students. December 2017 witnessed the gov-
ernment’s approval of Refreshed 2020 Project for the period of 2017–2025.
This refreshed project, in re-emphasising the significance of foreign language
competence to national economic development, extends the timeframe of imple-
mentation to the year 2025. In addition, this renewed project directly calls for
the participation and financial contribution from both individuals and organisa-
tions, within the country and overseas, to the national scheme of making foreign
languages an advantageous trait of Vietnamese people.
Language policy of English: challenges and implications

The importance of English to Vietnam’s economic development after Doi Moi
has been acknowledged at policy level. The introduction of Doi Moi in 1986 was
to recover a stagnant economy and pre-empt the possibility of any political insta-
bility that might pose challenges to the VCP leadership. Up to now, it may be said
that Doi Moi has been successful in terms of people’s improved living standard
and of the nation’s political stability. In this process, English has been increas-
ingly embraced as a part of the nation’s trajectory of development. The officially
acknowledged status of English in Vietnam, particularly its linguistic role in the
nation’s education system, reveals some challenges.
It is important for Vietnamese governments to balance a language policy that
is ideologically aimed at creating loyal citizens and imbuing a sense of unity
among learners, while pragmatically equipping them with linguistic competen-
cies that are economically directed to produce an efficient and effective national
and global workforce. In the first place, language policy is aimed at creating a
sense of nationhood among the people. After many years of colonisation and
fragmentation of the nation, the central task for Vietnamese governments has
been to form a new country and unify a diverse population who have historically
been politically divided. As a result, Vietnamese language has been consistently
promoted. It has been constructed as the sole linguistic bond to unify people of
different ethnic groups under the project of nation building.
Another major task of Vietnamese governments has been to create a Vietnam-
ese “socialist person”. To help construct this type of citizen that fits the ideal of
socialist ideology, language policy is an important issue to call upon. French and
English were no longer the languages of instruction in tertiary institutions in
the North and South Vietnam, respectively, after 1975. Instead, Russian became
the major foreign language to be taught. Importantly, Vietnamese language has
all along been considered the official means by which to produce “Vietnamese
socialist” citizens. The compulsory use of Vietnamese language in the educa-
tional system, understandably, is expected to help learners of different ethnici-
ties and backgrounds to absorb the targeted knowledge. The reinforcement of
15032-1187e-2pass-r02.indd 35 6/5/2018 9:17:51 AM

Vietnamese language status by the State, thus, has been intentionally to maintain
both national and ideological values.
After Doi Moi, Vietnamese governments have found themselves increasingly
presented with the challenge of making that “Vietnamese socialist” person eco-
nomically competitive in a globalised world. To accomplish this task, the com-
mand of English has become a widely appointed requirement for Vietnamese
people and for Vietnamese students. While the status of the Vietnamese lan-
guage has remained a policy priority in national education as the core language of
instruction, English has increased in importance. Everywhere else in the world,
English linguistic dominance has been well researched (Pennycook, 1994). In
Vietnam, policy makers are also aware of this dominance. Although English is not
likely to be made the official second language in Vietnam for ideological reasons,
it has been both explicitly and implicitly announced as the major foreign language
to be taught in schools and universities. As already mentioned, plans to improve
the competence level of English among teachers, students, and officials have been
sketched out (The Prime Minister, 2008). These have placed high demand upon
the educational system to provide quality instruction in English.
Language policy in Vietnam thus has reached beyond simply unifying the
country’s minorities and majorities and constructing the political ideology. In
opening the country to the world and embracing globalisation, English has been
adopted as a targeted potential means of economic development. This might be
identified in the general policy frame of the recent policy, in terms of what edu-
cational goals are prescribed in Article 5 of the Law of Higher Education (2012):
a Training human resources, improving people’s knowledge, fostering talents;

doing science and technology researches to create knowledge and new prod-
ucts serving socio-economic development, assuring national defense and
security and international integration; and
b Training students that possess political quality, ethics; possess knowledge and
professional practical skills, possess capability of researching and applying
science and technology corresponding to their level of training; have good
health; possess creativity and professional responsibility and adaptability to
the working environment; have a sense of serving the people.
The three educational tasks of ensuring national unity, imbuing ideological

values, and embracing globalisation, in short, have constituted a challenge for
the government. The challenge that remains is how to arrive at compromises
between maintaining the national and ideological value of the Vietnamese lan-
guage and, at the same time, balancing the economic value of English for national
development.
The development of language policy in Vietnam has implications for the issue
of educational equity. When Vietnamese language is prescribed as the means of
instruction in all educational institutions, there may be limited access to tertiary
education by students coming from minority ethnic groups. Although the Law
of Education in 1998 and the Law of Education in 2005 opened the possibility
15032-1187e-2pass-r02.indd 36 6/5/2018 9:17:51 AM

of using minority languages at the tertiary level, the Law of Higher Education in
2012 excluded this by not mentioning the use of other ethnic languages, apart
from the Vietnamese language, as the language of instruction. The promotion of
English as a favourable foreign language taught in schools, an “advanced” means
of instruction, and a desired quality of the future labour workforce of Vietnam
has extended the boundaries of the equity issue in the country.
The issue of educational equity may be observed among groups of students
from different ethnic, geographical, and economic backgrounds. To students of
minority ethnicities, the increased level of command of English as a standardised
requirement for tertiary students has restricted their access to higher education.
This is due to their having to master the Vietnamese language and manage to
have a good command of English at the same time. The linguistic barrier poten-
tially both discourages them from, and imposes limits to, their further study.
Students from geographical locations such as rural areas or remote mountain-
ous areas also find themselves in a disadvantaged position compared with their
peers living in big cities or urban areas. In big cities, it seems to be easier for
learners to have access to good studying facilities such as language course books,
computers, films in English, language centres for extra tuition etc. Meanwhile,
the lack of teachers of English remains a problem in many rural areas in Vietnam.
From this background, the goals of Project 2020 may be perceived as being
unrealistic – particularly when it required the implementation of this foreign
language project in all 63 cities and provinces of Vietnam, regardless of the wide
variety of educational backgrounds.
Last, but not least, is the educational inequality between students of economi-
cally advantaged and disadvantaged groups. Even among students of the majority
ethnicity living in a big city, the affluent ones benefit the most. Since education is
no longer free in Vietnam, English tuition, English books, and other educational
facilities necessary for the study of English might cost a prohibitive amount of
money that is only affordable to a small group of advantaged learners. While
financial support from the government remains an issue, disadvantaged students
are left with little opportunity of access to English.
The educational inequity also carries implications to policy development in
Vietnam. Being a socialist country, the Vietnamese government commits to
guaranteeing equality among ethnicities and among people of different back-
grounds. However, policy for promulgation of English inadvertently provokes
greater inequity, particularly to students of minority groups who are also likely to
live in rural or mountainous areas and experience financial hardship. The policy
on English language, along with the required and standardised competence in
English for tertiary education, may potentially impact access to education for
certain groups of students in Vietnamese society.
In short, the development of language policy in Vietnam since Doi Moi has
revealed a consistent commitment to education for the country’s project of nation
building. The main educational objectives in this project remain the reinforcing
of national unity among the diverse population, creating loyal Vietnamese citi-
zens, and at the same time, producing an efficient and productive labour force
15032-1187e-2pass-r02.indd 37 6/5/2018 9:17:51 AM

for the nation’s economic development. In this project, English has increasingly
been embraced by the Vietnamese government as a potential means for advanc-
ing the national economy. However, the government’s support to English edu-
cation has also entailed challenges to the nation’s political system and socialist
ideology. How to maintain the balance between the national, ideological, and
economic issues has become a major task for the Vietnamese government within
the process of opening the country to the world and embracing globalisation.
Moreover, the policy on language retains some implications on the issue of edu-
cational equity. Striving for better equality in educational access among students
from different backgrounds remains a continuing challenge that the Vietnamese
educational system needs to address.
References
Altbach, P. G. (1998). Comparative higher education: Knowledge, the university, and
development. Hong Kong: Comparative Education Research Centre and The Uni-
versity of Hong Kong.
Altbach, P. G., & Kelly, G. P. (Eds.). (1984). Education and the colonial experience
(2nd rev. ed). New Brunswick: Transaction Books.
Anderson, B. (1990). Imagined communities: Reflections on the origin and spread of
nationalism. London: Verso.
Archibald, D. (1988). An evaluation of the multigrade and bilingual education pro-
ject in Vietnam. Human Rights Education in Asian Schools, 101–114.
Blommaert, J. (2009). Language policy anf national identity. In T. Ricento (Ed.), An
introducation to language policy: Theory and method (pp. 238–254). Hoboken, GB:
Wiley-Blackwell.
Bui, K. T. (2003). Multilingual education in the community of minority peoples of
Vietnam. Paper presented at the Language Development, Language Revitalization
and Multilingual Education in Minority Communities in Asia, Bangkok, Thailand.
Bray, M., Clarke, P. B., & Stephens, D. G. (1986). Education and society in Africa.
London: Edward Arnold.
Cheng, G. M-H. (2002). “Culture for development and development for culture is the
ideology of the day”: The politics of culture in Vietnam’s post-1986 transition. (Doctor
of Philosophy), University of California Press. Retrieved from //catalog.hathitrust.
org/Record/007249281; http://hdl.handle.net/2027/uc1.31822032071052
(3045417)
Collins, N. T. (2009). Economic reform and employment relations in Vietnam. Hobo-
ken, GB: Taylor and Francis.
Dang, Q. A. (2009). Recent higher education reforms in Vietnam: The role of the World
Bank. Paper presented at the Working papers on university reform, Copenhagen.
Duong, V. A., & Chua, C. S. (2016). English as a symbol of internationalization
in higher education: A case study of Vietnam. Higher Education Research &
Development, 35(4), 669–683. doi:10.1080/07294360.2015.1137876
Gellner, E. (1983). Nations and nationalism. London: Basil Blackwell.
Hobsbawm, E. (1996). Language, culture, and national identity. Social Research,
63(4), 1065–1080.
Huong, P. L., & Fry, G. W. (2004). Education and economic, political, and social
change in Vietnam. Educational Research for Policy and Practice, 3, 199–222.
15032-1187e-2pass-r02.indd 38 6/5/2018 9:17:51 AM

Jonsson, K. (2007). Authoritarian states in Southeast Asia in tiems of globalization:
Vietnam, Cambodia, Laos and Myanmar. In T. Chong (Ed.), Gobalization and
its counter-forces in Southeast Asia (pp. 21–50). Singapore: Institute of Southeast
Asian Studies.
Kelly, G. P. (1984). Colonialism, indigenious seociety, and school practices: French
West Africa and Indochina, 1918–1938. In P. G. Altbach & G. P. Kelly (Eds.),
Education and the colonial experience (pp. 9–32). New Brunswich: Transaction
Books.
Lavoie, C. (2011). The educational realities of HMong communities in Vietnam: The
voices of teachers. Critical Inquiry in Language Studies, 8(2), 153–175. doi:10.
1080/15427587.2011.571348
London, J. D. (2006). Vietnam: The political economy of education in a “socialist”
periphery. Asia Pacific Journal of Education, 26(1), 1–20.
Mallon, R., & Irvin, G. (2001). Systemic change and economic reforms. In
C. Brundenius & J. Weeks (Eds.), Globalization and Third-World socialism: Cuba
and Vietnam (pp. 153–176). London: Palgrave Macmillan.
Marr, D. G. (1981). Vienamese tradition on trial: 1920–1945. Berkeley, CA: Univer-
sity of California Press.
Nguyen, M. T. (2009). Protecting Vietnamese, an issue of integration period. Lexi-
cography and Encyclopedia, 2.
Nguyen, T. G. (2006). The application of Vietnamese linguistics. Hanoi, Vietnam:
Vietnam National University Press.
Pennycook, A. (1994). The cultural politics of English as an international language.
London: Longman.
Pham, M. H. (1998). Vietnam’s education: The current position and future prospects.
Hanoi, Vietnam: The Gioi Publishers.
Phan, L. H., Vu, H. H., & Bao, D. (2014). Language policies in modern-day Viet-
nam: Changes, challenges and complexities. In P. Sercombe & R. Tupas (Eds.),
Language, education and nation-building: Assimilation and shift in Southeast Asia
(pp. 232–244). London: Palgrave Macmillan.
The Prime Minister. (2008). Decision approving the scheme on foreign language
teaching and learning in the national education system in the 2008–2020 period.
(No.1400/QD-TTg). Hanoi, Vietnam. Retrieved from https://thuvienphapluat.
vn/van-ban/Giao-duc/1400-QD-TTg/83815/tieng-anh.aspx?tab=1
Rappa, A. L., & Wee, L. (2006). Language policy and modernity in Southeast Asia:
Malaysia, the Philippines, Singapore, and Thailand (Vol. 6). New York: Springer.
Slezkine, Y. (1994). The USSR as a communal apartment, or how a socialist state
promoted ethnic particularism. Slavic Review, 53(2), 414–452.
Thiong’o, N. W. (1986). Decolonising the mind: The politics of language in African
literature. London: James Currey.
Tonnesson, S. (2001). Vietnam in the Asian crisis. In C. Brundenius & J. Weeks
(Eds.), Globalization and third-world socialism: Cuba and Vietnam (pp. 168–196).
London: Palgrave Macmillan.
Tupas, R., & Sercombe, P. (2014). Language, education and nation-building in
Southeast Asia: An introduction. In P. Sercombe & R. Tupas (Eds.), Language,
education and nation-building: Assimilation and shift in Southeast Asia (pp. 1–21).
London: Palgrave Macmillan.
Vuong, Q. H. (2014). Vietnam’s political economy: A discussion on the 1986–2016
period. CEB-ULB WP, 14(010), 33. doi:10.2139/ssrn.2439809
15032-1187e-2pass-r02.indd 39 6/5/2018 9:17:51 AM

4 Current challenges in the
teaching of tertiary English
in Vietnam
Trinh Thi Thu Hien and Mai Thi Loan
The quality of Vietnamese EFL education has been subject to much recent evalu-
ation (Ho, 2009; Hoang, 2010; Nguyen, 2007; Vu, 2007). This chapter argues
that the improvement of English education is crucial to Vietnamese economic
and its political development. The chapter aims to provide an overview and initial
analysis of the current situation of Vietnamese tertiary EFL instruction, followed
by challenges affecting teachers’ and students’ classroom practices. Finally, it pre-
sents some recommendations for improving EFL education in order to better the
integration of Vietnam in a globalised community.
Vietnamese tertiary EFL education

Vietnamese EFL education is a national strategy period 2011–2025 goal (Prime
Minister, 2012, 2017). English is taught as a compulsory subject across primary
to tertiary education. Students must obtain standardised English proficiency at
each stage attained. English mastery is based on the Common European Frame-
work of Reference (CEFR), which includes six levels (MOET, 2014; Prime Min-
ister, 2014). The English proficiency requirement for each educational level is
presented in Table 4.1. Primary school students should attain level 1 after 5 years
of English education; lower secondary and vocational training students, level 2.
Students graduating from upper secondary schools, non-English major colleges/
universities are required to achieve level 3; tertiary students level 4 or 5 after com-
pleting their studies at Vietnamese English major colleges or universities (Ho Chi
Minh People Committee, 2014; Mai, 2014; MOET, 2014).
The goal of Vietnamese EFL education aims to prepare students to become
competent English users who can “study and work in a multilingual and mul-
ticultural environment of integration” (Prime Minister, 2008, p. 1). All Viet-
namese high degree students must meet the English proficiency requirements.
Students graduating from Master Programs require level 3 English competence;
those completing doctoral training, level 4. Students taking English entrance
exams must meet at least 50% of these requirements. Currently, at many Viet-
namese tertiary institutions, students can submit an equivalent international or
local English certificate for all graduate programs.
15032-1187e-2pass-r02.indd 40 6/5/2018 9:17:51 AM

Current challenges 41
Table 4.1 English proficiency requirement for students in Vietnamese educational
system
Level 6
Level 5
Level 4
Level 3
Level 2
Level 1
Non-English major
Non-English major
English proficiency
Vocational training
university students
university students
Lower secondary
Upper secondary
college students
college students
school students
school students
school students
Primary school
English major
English major
students
English-major colleges and universities prepare students to become English

teachers or interpreters. Because there is a common proficiency requirement for
initial students, these students are required to have entrance English tests. Their
start-up English levels may be varied as some may just meet the entrance require-
ments, while others may well exceed them, depending on their backgrounds.
Non-English major institutions do not offer a degree in English studies. The
initial students do not have to take English entrance tests but other subjects,
depending on their majors. There is also a considerable difference in these non-
English major students’ English competence, according to the research findings
by Hoang (2008) and Le (2013). The majority of them have elementary English
level, which is equivalent to level 1 rather than level 3 as required after graduat-
ing from upper secondary schools. As a result, many higher institutions have to
provide English programs from elementary level up to lower or upper intermedi-
ate levels.
The curriculum is divided into two stages: (1) General English focused on
listening, speaking, reading, and writing to develop proficiency; (2) theoreti-
cal subjects appropriate to students’ majors such as Methodology, Translation,
Pragmatics, Cross Culture etc. for English-major students and Economics,
Construction, Fine-Art, Cultural Management, Law, Informatics etc. for non-
English-major students.
The total number of requisite units in English is 20, including General English
(GE) and English for Specific Purposes (ESP). The GE course, which focuses
15032-1187e-2pass-r02.indd 41 6/5/2018 9:17:51 AM

42 Current challenges
on improving the four basic modes (reading, writing, speaking, and listening)
and providing students with the general knowledge necessary to master English,
accounts for 14 to 15 units. The ESP course, which focuses on learning vocabu-
lary and reading skills development, accounts for four to five units. There are
no common English teaching materials for non-English major students. Con-
sequently, Vietnamese teachers and students use various textbooks and learning
resources.
Curriculum planning for Vietnamese tertiary EFL instruction focuses on the
purposes of assisting students to
have a good command of a foreign language which enables them to inde-

pendently and confidently communicate, study and work in a multilingual
and multicultural environment of integration; to turn foreign languages into
a strength of the Vietnamese people to serve national industrialization and
modernization.
(Prime Minister, 2008, p. 1)
This orientation informs the policy goal of developing communicative skills for
Vietnamese students. As demonstrated previously, EFL teaching and learning
is promoted in the Vietnamese educational system. English proficiency enables
those who wish to learn abroad or work and live in an English-speaking envi-
ronment in Vietnam or in other countries (Duong, 2011; Hoang, 2010). As a
result, the curriculum makes a strong case for English learning and intercultural
learning. The curriculum aims to develop students’ four English skills and set up
a foundation for the improvement of these skills at a higher level. However, the
real EFL teaching and learning quality cannot help students obtain the required
English level or assist them in strengthening their language proficiency. Vietnam-
ese students cannot communicate with English-speaking people in the most com-
mon cases or use English socially in the workplace (Duong, 2011; Kieu, 2010).
Current challenges
Vietnamese EFL education has made significant progress; however there exist
many challenges which affect classroom practice. A recent study was conducted
at English-major and non-English major institutions in Hanoi, the capital city
of Vietnam. There were 20 teachers from the English Faculty at these universi-
ties who agreed to participate in the research. All of the teachers were female
and had a wide range of experience, from 13 to 21 years. They were trained
as EFL teachers at either University of Languages and International Studies or
Hanoi University. Of the 15 EFL teachers, 13 of them hold Master’s degrees
as their highest qualification. At the data collection time, there were two teach-
ers awarded doctoral degrees in EFL teaching and two teachers doing doctoral
courses in linguistics. Survey questionnaires and face-to-face interviews were two
strategies employed to construct the data for the study. The findings indicate six
common challenges faced by EFL teachers. These challenges relate to the culture
15032-1187e-2pass-r02.indd 42 6/5/2018 9:17:52 AM

of teaching and learning in the Vietnamese EFL context, large-sized classes, lack
of teaching facilities, inappropriate materials, students’ low motivation, and the
testing-oriented system. Further, this study found that cultural factors related to
a Confucian education philosophy, time constraints, students’ low and unequal
English proficiency, and their limited knowledge in the field of ESP teaching
affect EFL teachers’ work at non-English major institutions.
Teaching and learning culture

EFL teachers must negotiate the Vietnamese traditional and Western educational
learning economies. Asian education privileges teachers as the authoritative trans-
mitters of knowledge (V. C. Le, 2011) and students as “passive, rote learners”
(Pennycook, 1998, p. 162) who prefer listening and compliance (Kyung Soon &
Angela, 2006). Constructivist Western teachers and students are normatively dif-
ferent: teachers act as facilitators who provide guidance and promote communi-
cation; students develop independent and competitive learning strategies (V. C.
Le, 2011; Lewis & McCook, 2002). These two educational traditions exist in
Vietnamese EFL classrooms. Cultural differences in English teaching and learn-
ing methodologies challenge Vietnamese EFL teachers and students.
Lecturing is still the most popular technique Vietnamese EFL teachers employ
(V. C. Le, 2011). Students are highly dependent on these lectures and are given
few opportunities to practice English communication skills. English lessons tend
to emphasise the development of language knowledge, but do not address “pro-
fessional or common skills such as team work, oral and written communication
in English, project management, problem solving methods, initiative-taking, life-
long learning, etc.” (Director, Doughty, Gray, Hopcroft, & Silvera, 2006, p. 11).
This pedagogy does not develop students’ independent and critical-thinking
skills. Yet, some Vietnamese EFL teachers involve students in varied and engag-
ing classroom activities such as discussion, paired and group work, and presenta-
tion. However, these teaching methods are not appreciated as being effective,
especially by non-English major students, who as passive learners are unfamiliar
with what these pedagogies ask them to do and are reluctant to express their ideas
or raise questions.
Vietnamese students’ learning is limited to the classroom context (T. M. H.
Nguyen, 2007). Teachers generally organise EFL lessons where students are pro-
vided opportunities to practice their English with other students. Furthermore,
they bring students to the world of English-speaking people by utilising authentic
documents such as pictures and posters or by providing them with opportunities
to learn about foreign cultures by watching movies, reading stories etc. By doing
this, teachers support students in building an English intercultural learning envi-
ronment. However, similar culture-based activities that are designed to enhance
students’ independent learning outside English classrooms are overlooked. Viet-
namese students are not familiar with communicating in English, have difficulty
gaining access to other cultures, and have little contact with foreigners. As a
result, students have a lack of practical skills and strategies with which to facilitate
15032-1187e-2pass-r02.indd 43 6/5/2018 9:17:52 AM

appropriate interactions in English. English, much like any other academic sub-
ject, tends to be taught and used only inside the classroom. As a result, the quality
of the teaching in EFL classrooms is low. After completing a course, students are
often still unable to use English to communicate effectively.
Vietnamese tertiary EFL teachers focus on teaching linguistic elements.
They divide instruction to cover separate linguistic elements, such as: Gram-
mar, Vocabulary, Reading, Writing, Listening, Speaking, and Pronunciation.
They provide practicing activities and exercises aimed at developing students’
mastery of grammatical structures and syntactic rules. EFL teachers are flexible
and responsive in adjusting their teaching to offer students guidance in learn-
ing grammar, appropriate pronunciation, new vocabulary etc. across the four
language modalities – listening, speaking, reading, and writing. However, they
develop students’ linguistic competence rather than communicative competence.
The teachers rarely provide students with opportunities to practice their English
skills through student-centred activities.
English teaching tends to be conducted with the aim of deepening students’
understanding about language elements. Thus, we would argue that Vietnamese
teachers’ teaching practices do not meet the requirement of teaching both lin-
guistic and communicative competence required by Communicative Language
Teaching (CLT) pedagogy. CLT is basically focused on acquiring the necessary
skills to communicate and participate in teaching techniques such as role play
and real situations. Teachers act as the guides and students take the initiative of
language learning; language is used “productively and receptively in any unre-
hearsed situations” (Brown, 1994, p. 245). However, EFL teachers of this cur-
rent study did not focus on providing students with opportunities to use their
studied language for communicative purposes. Most frequently used classroom
activities such as lectures, sentence making, and exercise practicing limited teach-
ers to “engage students in the pragmatic, authentic, and functional use of lan-
guage for meaningful purposes” (Brown, 1994, p. 245).
Large EFL classes

Large classes negatively affect Vietnamese EFL teaching and learning (Ming &
Jaya, 2011). Vietnamese tertiary EFL classes are crowded (Le, 2011; Trinh,
2016). On average, class sizes are 30 students in practical English language sub-
jects and about 60 students in theoretical English language subjects at English-
major colleges/universities. The number of students in EFL classes at non-English
major institutions varies from 50 to 80. Teachers have difficulty in managing
these large classes and providing students with opportunities to practice English
through student-focused activities such as discussion, group work, pair work etc.
Crowded EFL classes hinder teachers from employing more engaging teaching
methods and limit the communication between teacher and students. There was
not enough time (see later section) for teachers to employ communicative tech-
niques; their focus is on providing information through lecturing.
15032-1187e-2pass-r02.indd 44 6/5/2018 9:17:52 AM

EFL student are restricted to acquiring linguistic knowledge rather than par-
ticipating in communicative activities. The findings indicate that Vietnamese EFL
teaching and learning focuses on teachers’ participation rather than students’
involvement. There is not much opportunity for students to take the initiative in
EFL classrooms. CLT English learning is a way of knowing and understanding
communicative interactions, together with the strategies to negotiate and adjust
to different communications (Castro, Sercu, & García, 2004). It would be bet-
ter for Vietnamese teachers to go beyond the stage of just providing students
with information. It is more beneficial for students to have opportunity to learn
EFL via practicing and experiencing themselves in the world of native English
speakers.
Lack of teaching facilities

The conditions for Vietnamese EFL instruction are inadequate, due to a lack
of teaching facilities and self-study support materials. Various classes are not
equipped with computers, loudspeakers, and projectors. The classrooms are nar-
row with a large number of students in each. The teaching materials are simply
comprised of textbooks, blackboards, chalk, and cassette players. More impor-
tantly, reference works and publications about English-speaking countries are not
available for either teachers or students at non-English major institutions. These
factors hinder language teaching and learning in the Vietnamese higher educa-
tion system.
Specifically, Vietnamese EFL teachers are facing the inconvenience of employ-
ing technology-based activities in English lessons. As the teaching facilities are
unavailable, EFL teachers tend to organise students with lectures or discussions.
They simply spend time engaging their students in non-technology based activi-
ties. They rarely design classroom tasks “for which the technology served as a
visual aid or used the tool to do similar non-technology based activities in a more
efficient manner” (Hollebrands, McCulloch, & Lee, 2016, p. 273). The utilisa-
tion of teaching facilities, such as televisions, CD players, projectors etc. allows
them to present a realistic depiction of foreign countries, through which their
students could obtain a more relative understanding of people’s cultural practices
or behaviour. However, they have limited opportunities with which to enable the
creation of a technology-based learning environment.
Inappropriate English teaching and learning materials

Within the Vietnamese context, textbooks are the most commonly used teaching
resources. Vietnamese teachers base their lesson plans mainly on the textbook
content. As noted earlier, there are no common English teaching materials for
non-English major students. Teachers utilised various kinds of textbooks, among
which some of them were used officially while others were employed as sup-
plementary materials. The content of their currently used textbooks focuses on
15032-1187e-2pass-r02.indd 45 6/5/2018 9:17:52 AM

providing students with opportunities to develop their linguistic competence
rather than allowing them to engage in more interactive and experiential learn-
ing activities for the development of communicative competence. The textbook
information was dated as it reflected past issues, which happened before the pub-
lication year. Further, these textbooks were limited to the provision of cultural
knowledge related to English-speaking countries rather than students’ local and
international target cultures.
The same challenge about the teaching materials was found among English-
major universities. It is reported that the most challenging problem about the
teaching materials is institutionally composed textbooks. These textbooks are
extracted from numerous sources to meet students’ needs and the school cur-
riculum. They do not have clear sources of references. Teachers using these books
were ashamed and frustrated as they always remind students not to plagiarise,
while they do not set good examples for them to follow. Further, these compiled
textbooks’ content is unsuitable and outdated. There are too many theories in
the textbooks, which confuses students. Many of these theories are unessential
and difficult to understand, and there are no practical exercises to apply these
theories. Besides, these textbooks lack culturally appropriate topics and Vietnam-
ese content. There are no parts about the Vietnamese country, people, economy,
culture, and society.
Students’ low motivation

English-major students do not put a great investment in learning although
English is considered their job-oriented subject. Based on the findings, EFL
teachers show a tendency to motivate students and make their EFL lessons easy
to understand. They first give clear instructions and explain relevant theories.
They then create opportunities for the students to work in pairs and in groups
to exchange ideas and express themselves. However, because young learners do
not have much exposure to the real life and practical experiences, they cannot
meet teachers’ requirements in performing their tasks. These tasks sometimes
greatly pressure students and they become frightened of communicating with
their teachers. Besides, EFL teachers’ fast speed of speaking is considered a factor
which prevents students from profiting from knowledge and understanding the
lessons. These teachers just keep talking without caring about the learners’ learn-
ing needs and degree of taking in the knowledge. As a result, students exhibit low
motivation in learning.
Similarly, non-English major students do not attach much importance to
English although it is a compulsory subject. They learn English passively and
uninterestedly in order to complete the course as part of their programs. They
devote little time and effort to English learning. The moral economy of Vietnam-
ese classrooms and the shortage of teaching facilities contribute to EFL students’
lack of motivation. Vietnamese students enjoy listening to their teachers. They
are afraid to make mistakes or to lose face in class. They tend to be silent and are
hesitant to work out problems. They also expect the teacher to know everything
15032-1187e-2pass-r02.indd 46 6/5/2018 9:17:52 AM

about the subject and to control the class. With regards to teachers, they are used
to traditional teaching methods which focus on providing students with informa-
tion. Furthermore, traditional Vietnamese EFL teachers lack teaching aids and
reference materials with which to promote communicative competence. They
have limited opportunities to use authentic sources from foreign communities
to help students to be involved in realistic cultural experiences. Because teach-
ers restrict their utilisation of visual aids, they cannot provoke students’ interest,
curiosity, and creativity, which consequently allow them to improve their learning
outcomes.
Testing-oriented system
As noted, Vietnamese students have opportunities to learn English from primary
to tertiary level. They can also learn English at many foreign language centres.
A problematic issue in Vietnamese EFL education is that the primary purpose
of learning English is simply getting a language certificate but not improving
English competence. In the current Vietnamese education system, students have
to face many examinations, and thus learning is characterised as an “examination-
focused” activity (Trinh, 2005, p. 15). Students are accustomed to sitting for
examinations and may “achieve the highest scores in the exams but fail to show
their excellence in the real life performance” (Hoang, 1999, p. 79, cited in S. T.
Le, 2011). Examinations in English focus on grammar and vocabulary and are
mostly constructed in written form. This kind of test-oriented system hinders
teachers from teaching English for communicative purposes, as well as improving
Vietnamese students’ English proficiency.
Vietnamese EFL students must take the tests every semester. Teachers assess
their language proficiency based on their performance on these tests. Teachers
follow the curriculum assigned by the university or by MOET in order for stu-
dents to pass the examinations (S. T. Le, 2011). They use a set of English tests
to assess grammar and vocabulary presented in the textbooks. Although there is
a link among teaching, learning, and assessment, knowledge in the examinations
is more challenging than those provided in textbooks. As a result, teachers and
students place more emphasis on linguistic knowledge rather than communica-
tive strategies to enable students to do the tests well. Besides, students do not
have much time for exam revision and consolidation, which makes them always
stressed due to exam pressure. Teachers do not have enough time to cover both
the language curriculum and to develop students’ communicative competence.
They also must mark a huge quantity of students’ assignments and final tests,
which constantly puts great pressure on them, especially those working with large
classes and in charge of many classes simultaneously.
We have presented six common challenges faced by EFL teachers either teach-
ing at English or non-English major institutions. EFL teachers working with
non-English major students seem to have more challenges in their teaching pro-
fession as they are facing four more difficulties as described in greater detail as
follows.
15032-1187e-2pass-r02.indd 47 6/5/2018 9:17:52 AM

Cultural factors
Vietnam is a socialist country with different cultural values than English-speaking
countries. Collectivism and Confucian philosophy in education influence the
national school system (P. M. Nguyen, Terlouw, & Pilot, 2006; Tran, 2012). All
educational policies and activities are made top down from the highest author-
ity. There are three levels within the Vietnamese hierarchical educational system,
among which the Ministry of Education and Training (MOET) has the highest
power. The second level includes tertiary institutions, and the classroom is allied to
the lowest level. The MOET issues educational guidelines; the institutions follow
the guiding principles; and the teachers and students make use of these guidelines.
Teachers and students experience and understand most teaching and learning pro-
cesses; however, their opinions and feedback are not appreciated. There is a lack
of two-way interaction, which influences the development of education. Currently,
EFL teachers and students lack support from the universities and the MOET. They
are not provided with opportunities to develop communicative English teach-
ing and learning. There are no programs to assist students in promoting English
competence except 150-period GE and 45-period ESP programs defined by the
MOET. There are no professional development activities such as seminars, con-
ferences, or workshops for teachers in order to improve their teaching practices.
When asked for suggestions for the university and the MOET, teachers referred
to their teaching obstacles and wished to be supported in developing their EFL
teaching practices, such as creating a communicative English teaching and learning
environment, taking opportunities for teacher professional development etc. It is
concluded that Vietnamese cultural values with top down decision making contrib-
ute to the difficulty in the process of developing EFL instruction.
Time constraints
The time allocated for English is limited (see Table 4.2). GE is introduced using
five periods a week for 30 weeks in three semesters, for a total of 150 periods. ESP
is taught five periods a week for 9 weeks in one semester, for a total of 45 periods.
Students at the Vietnamese tertiary level in general begin to study English after
they have completed a 7-year English program in schools with the total of 700
Table 4.2 Allocated time for the English subject
Type of English Amount of allocated Total

training time
Periods Hours
GE 5/week/30 weeks 150 112.5

ESP 5/week/9 weeks 45 33.75
TOTAL 195 146.25
15032-1187e-2pass-r02.indd 48 6/5/2018 9:17:52 AM

periods (Hoang, 2008; MOET, 2008). As each period is 45 minutes long, the
total amount of English contact hours is 146.25 hours per academic year. Apart
from English, the students take many other courses each academic week, and the
total number of lectures for students ranges from 35 to 40 periods a week. The
school day lasts for more than 8 hours. Because students have limited time to study
English in classrooms, an increasing number of students join additional private
English evening classes. This is common for university students in Ho Chi Minh
City where 51% of all students take extra English courses (Vu & Nguyen, 2004).
Students’ low and uneven English proficiency

Vietnamese tertiary students had low English competence. Despite spending up
to 7 years learning English at lower and upper secondary schools, they obtain
a limited English level. Few students have basic grammatical knowledge while
almost all of them are at beginning level.
Vietnamese tertiary students come from different places in the country, which
contributes to differing English abilities. Those who live and learn in big cities
such as Hanoi, Ho Chi Minh, Da Nang etc. are assumed to have better English
mastery compared with those in rural areas. In EFL classes, it is difficult for
teachers to conduct teaching and learning activities. When dealing with a spe-
cific textbook content, some students could understand the knowledge provided
while others could not. Non-English-major students do not have to test English
in their entrance exams, which results in a disparity of English abilities. Many
universities decide to classify students’ start-up English levels to make it easier for
teaching and learning by group levels. However, such a teaching model has not
been deployed in some universities due to their management system, while in oth-
ers the implementation of these English classes is not appropriate. The common
prospect of Vietnamese tertiary EFL education can be still understood to include
students with unequal English levels and having them in the same class. This fact
brings some negative consequences as follows: (1) it demotivates students who
have sound English competence because they have to re-start learning English
from the beginning level; (2) it worries students who have limited English abili-
ties because they may feel inferior to their friends; and (3) EFL teachers find it
hard to organise classroom activities, especially taking care of each student.
Teachers are not trained to teach ESP

Beside teaching GE, EFL teachers are responsible for teaching ESP. Almost all
EFL teachers find it hard to teach ESP. They are trained to work as EFL teach-
ers whose duties are to develop students’ English proficiency. They have limited
knowledge in ESP courses such as English for IT Students, English for Fine Art
Students, or English for Students of Mathematics. They do not completely under-
stand specialised terminologies provided in ESP textbooks. They therefore have
to spend more time and effort increasing their knowledge in the students’ profes-
sional field and designing lessons. Some teachers decide to adjust the textbook
15032-1187e-2pass-r02.indd 49 6/5/2018 9:17:52 AM

content or use supplementary materials; however, they struggle with text selec-
tion for adaptation. Not being experts in the students’ specific area, they can-
not determine which kind of text should be revised. Further, the modified text
should not be too difficult as neither teachers nor students have a high level of
specialised knowledge. Also, the text must not be too easy as students may lose
their motivation.
Recommendations for EFL teaching

and learning in Vietnam
In this chapter, we have provided a discussion about factors causing the poor
quality of Vietnamese tertiary EFL education. Based on these challenges, to
improve the teaching and learning of English in Vietnamese higher institutions,
we present some recommendations as follows:
The culture of teaching and learning in the Vietnamese context is not effec-
tive for certain shy and passive learners. To solve the problem, teachers should
become friendlier with the students to be able to understand the students’ needs
and wants as well as their learning styles. Teachers should also have suitable
techniques to check the students’ thorough understanding of the lessons and
have proper adjustments in their teaching methods. Another solution is that the
combination of both the learner-centred approach and teacher-centred approach
should be adopted, although the learner-centred should be more favoured and
widely applied than the teacher-centred. The teachers can also resort to varied
motivation-enhancing strategies and create small projects for the students to par-
ticipate to develop self-learning strategies and express themselves confidently.
The process of teaching and learning English in the Vietnamese context focuses
on examinations. Students are used to taking tests and teachers’ assessments of
students’ English proficiency are based on their performance in these tests. The
suggestion is that the knowledge in the exam should be closely connected with
the knowledge during the process of teaching and learning. Exam questions
should evoke students’ creativity, critical thinking, and problem-solving skills
instead of just checking students’ rote memorisation of the learned knowledge.
Final tests can be replaced by other forms of assessment such as writing essays,
writing assignments, doing projects, making portfolios, or making presentations.
Another recommendation is that testing methods should be renovated by allevi-
ating the number of regular tests and assignments in one subject. Instead of hav-
ing to take the exam right after finishing the subject, students should have time
for better revision for the exam. In addition, the lecturers should be financially
supported when marking a great number of essays, portfolios, projects, and other
kinds of assignment. In light of the CLT pedagogy, the teaching of the English
language requires teachers to assess students’ linguistic and cultural competence
(Skopinskaja, 2009). It is necessary for educational authorities and policy mak-
ers to be aware of the need to provide teachers with instructions about teaching
and learning assessment from a CLT perspective. These issues may help teachers
change their ways of teaching and assess students’ learning outcomes to meet the
aim of developing students’ English communicative competence.
15032-1187e-2pass-r02.indd 50 6/5/2018 9:17:52 AM

The large-sized classes and the lack of modern technology such as computers,
loudspeakers, and projectors make it difficult for the teachers to manage the class
and organise group learning activities. To tackle these troubles, it is essential to
restrict the number of students to about 20 in each class as this will be conveni-
ent for both teachers and students to apply new teaching and learning methods.
Apart from chalks, blackboards, and cassette players, more sophisticated and
modern facilities such as computers and projectors should be installed in all the
classrooms. It is necessary to improve teaching and learning facilities to support
EFL education in ways that provide teachers and students with opportunities to
make their lessons more meaningful and motivating by making use of visual aids
and the application of modern technology. Students can obtain much more infor-
mation than they can without visual support, and consequently they can enhance
their understanding of a new concept and improve their learning outcomes.
At the university level, it is recommended to define English proficiency required
for each learning stage (English proficiency requirement after each semester) to
help students obtain appropriate English mastery required by the MOET. There
should be a department which oversees classifying students’ start-up English lev-
els and testing their after-course English abilities.
There should be a supportive environment for EFL teachers and students in
teaching and learning English upon CLT pedagogy. The policy makers at both
the university level and national level need to provide their teachers with oppor-
tunities to improve their professional qualifications and capacities, as well as their
pedagogical knowledge and skills. To make this support possible, educational
authorities and policy makers should send EFL teachers to national or interna-
tional professional development programs that are related to the teaching and
learning of English language in the globalised world and will introduce teachers
to new teaching goals, practical techniques, and teaching materials etc. Further,
they need to make sure all teachers are informed about these programs so that
they will not miss opportunities to update their knowledge and teaching meth-
ods. Although EFL teachers at English-major institutions have various priorities
for professional development activities from the board of school administrators, it
is recommended that more workshops, conferences, and activities for the teach-
ers to exchange experiences and improve teaching methodology continue to be
organised.
References
Brown, H. D. (1994). Principles of language learning and teaching (3rd ed.). New
Jersey: Prentice Hall Regents.
Castro, P., Sercu, L., & García, M. d. C. M. (2004). Integrating language-and-culture
teaching: an investigation of Spanish teachers’ perceptions of the objectives of for-
eign language education. Intercultural Education, 15(1), 91–104.
Director, S. W., Doughty, P., Gray, P. J., Hopcroft, J. E., & Silvera, I. F. (2006).
Observations on undergraduate education in computer science, electrical engineering,
and physics at select universities in Vietnam. Retrieved from Vietnam https://home.
vef.gov/download/Report_on_Undergrad_Educ_E.pdf
15032-1187e-2pass-r02.indd 51 6/5/2018 9:17:52 AM

Duong, T. T. U. (2011). Một số góp ý về việc giúp sinh viên phát triển kỹ năng nói
tiếng Anh ở Trường Đại học Kinh tế TP.HCM để đáp ứng yêu cầu của nhà tuyển
dụng (Some suggestions for students to develop English speaking skill at the Univer-
sity of Economics Ho Chi Minh City in order to meet the requirement of employers).
Paper presented at the Nâng cao hiệu quả dạy và học tiếng Anh tại đại học Kinh
tế TP.HCM (Enhancing the effectiveness of English teaching and learning at the
University of Economics Ho Chi Minh City), Trường Đại học Kinh tế TP.HCM
(University of Economics Ho Chi Minh City). Retrieved from http://bnn.ueh.
edu.vn/hoi_thao_26_10_2011.htm
Ho Chi Minh People Committee. (2014). Quyết định số 384/GDĐT-VP về chuẩn
đầu ra Tiếng Anh của học sinh, sinh viên TP. HCM (Decision No 384/GDĐT-VP on
standardised English competence of Ho Chi Minh City students). Ho Chi Minh City:
Ho Chi Minh Department of Education and Training.
Ho, S. T. K. (2009). Addressing culture in EFL classrooms: The challenge of shifting
from a traditional to an intercultural stance. Electronic Journal of Foreign Language
Teaching, 6(1), 63–76.
Hoang, T. (1999). Learner’s fondness for knowledge revisited? Giáo dục và Thời đại
(Education and Times Newspaper).
Hoang, V. V. (2008). Những yếu tố ảnh hưởng đến chất lượng đào tạo tiếng Anh
không chuyên ở Đại học Quốc gia Hà Nội (Factors affecting the teaching quality
for non-English major students at Ha Noi National University) Tạp chí Khoa học
ĐHQGHA (Journal of Science, Ha Noi National University), 24, 22–37.
Hoang, V. V. (2010). The current situations and issues of teaching of English in
Vietnam. Ritsumeikan Language Culture Study, 22(1), 7–18.
Hollebrands, K., McCulloch, A. W., & Lee, H., S. (2016). Prospective teachers’ Incor-
poration of technology in mathematics lesson plans. In M. Niess, S. Driskell, &
K. Hollebrands (Eds.), Handbook of research on transforming mathematics teacher
education in the digital age (pp. 272–292). Hershey, PA: IGI Global.
Kieu, H. K. A. (2010). Use of Vietnamese in English language teaching in Vietnam:
Attitudes of Vietnamese University teachers. English Language Teaching, 3(2),
119–128.
Kyung Soon, L., & Angela, C. (2006). Korean college students in United States:
Perceptions of professors and students. College Student Journal, 40(2), 442–456.
Le, S. T. (2011). Teaching English in Vietnam: Improving the provision in the private
sector. (Doctoral dissertation), Victoria University.
Le, V. C. (2011). Form-focused instruction: A case study of Vietnamese teachers’ beliefs
and practices. (Doctoral dissertation), University of Waikato.
Lewis, M., & McCook, F. (2002). Cultures of teaching: Voices from Vietnam. ELT
Journal, 56(2), 146–153.
Mai, N. K. (2014). Towards a Holistic approach to developing the language pro-
ficiency of Vietnamese primary teachers of English. Electronic Journal of Foreign
Language Teaching, 11(2), 341–357.
Ming, C., & Jaya, S. G. (2011). Factors affecting the implementation of communi-
cative language teaching in Taiwanese college English classes. English Language
Teaching, 4(2), 3–10.
MOET. (2008). The project: Teaching and learning English language in the national
education system from 2008 to 2020. Hanoi, Vietnam: Education Publishing House.
15032-1187e-2pass-r02.indd 52 6/5/2018 9:17:52 AM

MOET. (2014). Khung Năng Lực Ngoại Ngữ 6 Bậc dùng cho Việt Nam (Vietnamese
6-level foreign language competence framework). Ha Noi, Vietnam: Education Pub-
lishing House.
Nguyen, P. M., Terlouw, C., & Pilot, A. (2006). Culturally appropriate pedagogy:
The case of group learning in a Confucian Heritage Culture context. Intercultural
Education, 17(1), 1–19. doi:10.1080/14675980500502172
Nguyen, T. M. H. (2007). Developing EFL learners’ intercultural communicative
competence: A gap to be filled? Asian EFL Journal, 21, 122–139.
Pennycook, A. (1998). English and the discourse of colonialism. London: Routledge.
Prime Minister. (2008). Quyết định số 1400/QĐ-TTg phê duyệt đề án “Dạy và học Ngoại
ngữ trong hệ thống Giáo dục Quốc dân giai đoạn 2008–2020” (Decision No 1400/
QĐ-TTg on the approval of the project “Teaching and learning English language in the
National education system from 2008 to 2020”. Hanoi, Vietnam: MOET.
Prime Minister. (2012). Quyết định số 711/QĐ-TTg về việc phê duyệt “Chiến lược phát
triển giáo dục 2011–2020” (Decision No 711/QĐ-TTg on education and training
development period 2011–2020). Hanoi, Vietnam: MOET.
Prime Minister. (2014). Thông tư số 01/2014/TT-BGDĐT Ban hành Khung năng
lực ngoại ngữ 6 bậc dùng cho Việt Nam (Circular No 01/2014/TT-BGDĐT issued
in relation to Vietnamese 6-level foreign language competence framework). Hanoi,
Vietnam: MOET.
Prime Minister. (2017). Quyết định số 2080/QĐ-TTg về việc phê duyệt điều chỉnh, bổ
sung đề án dạy và học ngoại ngữ trong hệ thống giáo dục quốc dân giai đoạn 2017–
2025 (Decision No 2080/QĐ-TTg on the approval of revising and supplementing the
project on teaching and learning English language in the National education system
period 2017–2025). Hanoi, Vietnam: MOET.
Skopinskaja, L. (2009). Assessing intercultural communicative competence: Test con-
struction issues. Pays Riverains de la Baltique, 6, 135–144.
Tran, T. T. (2012). Is the learning approach of students from the Confucian heritage
culture problematic? Educational Research for Policy and Practice, 12(1), 57–65.
Trinh, Q. L. (2005). Stimulating learner autonomy in English language education:
A curriculum innovation study in a Vietnamese context. (Doctoral dissertation),
University of Amsterdam.
Trinh, T. T. H. (2016). Achieving cultural competence in Vietnamese EFL classes:
A case study from an intercultural communicative competence perspective. (Dotoral
dissertation), University of Newcastle, Australia.
Vu, T. P. A. (2007). Học Tiếng Anh 10 năm không sử dụng được: Đâu là nguyên
nhân và có chăng một giải pháp (Ten years for learning English at school but stu-
dents cannot use the language: What are the reasons and what are the solutions?).
Viet Bao. Retrieved from http://vietbao.vn/Giao-duc/Hoc-tieng-Anh-10-nam-
trong-truong-khong-su-dung-duoc-Kiem-tra-danh-gia-dang-la-khau-yeu-nhat/
40224569/202/
Vu, T. P. A., & Nguyen, B. H. (2004). Năng lực Tiếng Anh của sinh viên các trường
đại học trên địa bàn TP. HCM trước yêu cầu của một nền kinh tế tri thức: Thực trạng
và những giải pháp (English competence of tertiary students in Ho Chi Minh City:
Current situation and solutions). Ho Chi Minh: University of Science and Vietnam
National University Ho Chi Minh City.
15032-1187e-2pass-r02.indd 53 6/5/2018 9:17:52 AM

5 Vietnamese higher
education language
planning and university
students’ career
development
Thuy Bui, Thi Thom Thom Nguyen
and An Duc Nguyen
The expansion of English language education (ELE) has been motivated via per-
sistent and questionable assumptions regarding the role of English in preparing
university students for the job market (Seargeant & Erling, 2013; British Coun-
cil, 2014). The diversification of the economy in Asia is the impetus for the rise
of English language education reforms (Erling, 2014; Coleman, 2011). Students
are required to learn English to foster their employability (Erling, 2014). Facil-
ity in English is central to achieving more desirable jobs (Aslam, M., De, A.,
Kingdon, G. & Kumar, R., 2010; Grin, 2001; Ku & Zussman, 2010). Various
studies in Afghanistan, Bangladesh, India, Iran, Nepal, Pakistan, and Sri Lanka
have explored the extent to which university students were prepared in learn
English to advance their careers (Coleman, 2011; Erling & Seargeant, 2013).
Research on the relationship between English language policy planning and Viet-
namese students’ employability is scant given recent extensive ELE reforms.
The global expansion of English has powerfully driven wide-ranging Vietnam-
ese language policy shifts. The current policy promotes English as a competitive
edge that supports the nation’s socio-economic development. English education
is mandated for all students. Since the 2000s, English has been emphasised as
the vital skill-set necessary for Vietnamese students to fully participate in the
twenty-first century, which will enable them in achieving success, privilege, and
high status in regional and global employability (Nguyen, T. T. T., forthcoming).
Calling on data from a recent mixed method study in four universities in dif-
ferent sub-regions across North Vietnam, this chapter describes the role that
the current Vietnamese English language policies play in fostering university
students’ employability. Between September and December 2016, we delivered
surveys to 527 full time undergraduate in 20 different majors such as Sewing
and Fashion Technology, Accounting, Economics, Information Technology,
Physics, and Mathematics (See Table 5.1). Most of the participants (97.9 %)
had learned English for more than 7 years prior to their university enrolment.
They all took 14-credit-hour English courses at their university and were
required to meet their institutional English requirements as per graduation
15032-1187e-2pass-r02.indd 54 6/5/2018 9:17:52 AM

Vietnamese higher education 55
Table 5.1 General information on the research sites and participants
University Number of Number Majors of students surveyed

full-time of students
students surveyed
University 1 10,000 123 Sewing and Fashion Technology, Accounting,

Economics, Information Technology
University 2 10,000 142 Physics, Mathematics, Mathematics-English
Pedagogy, Information Technology, Primary
Education, Nursery Education, Tourism,
Vietnam Studies – Cultural Tourism
University 3 15,000 132 Agriculture, Economics, Electro-mechanics
University 4 5,000 130 Economics, Biology-Chemistry, Mathematics,
Information Technology, Environment
criteria. We also invited three EFL lecturers and five students from each of the
four universities to voluntarily participate in individual semi-structured inter-
views (n = 32). Each interview was within 15 to 20 minutes and accomplished
outside classroom hours.
Both the quantitative and qualitative data analysis indicated lecturers’ and stu-
dents’ perceptions regarding students’ employability capacity. Students tended
to show their lack of confidence in their English skills for employability as well
as their poor command of career-related skills performed in English. Grounded
on Bourdieu’s social reproduction theories and the notions of development and
a review of the Vietnamese policy frame for tertiary ELE and employability, we
discuss a mismatch between university students’ English language learning and
employability. When current tertiary English programs fail to address students’
needs for improving their English skills and soft skills required for their future
career such as debating and presenting in English, students tend to lose oppor-
tunities to possess Bourdieu’s linguistic capital. Students can hardly access other
related capitals to take full advantage of their potential, leading to a question of
how they can set a secured foundation for their individual future and multifac-
eted developments, let alone the goal of national development as targeted in the
policy.
This chapter is therefore organised in two sections and advances three related
arguments. We first review the current policy frame for tertiary ELE and employ-
ability, then discuss the application of Bourdieu’s social reproduction theories
and the notions of development to Vietnamese language policies. These reviews
set foundations for our further discussions regarding (1) disconnect between
English language programs and employability, (2) disconnect between English
language programs and career-related skills, and (3) facilitating students’ employ-
ability, as presented in the sections that follow.
15032-1187e-2pass-r02.indd 55 6/5/2018 9:17:52 AM

56 Vietnamese higher education
Tertiary English language education and employability

As discussed in previous chapters, prominent political and economic shifts of
the nation since the time of Doi Moi (Renovation) have posed various English
language policy reforms in Vietnam. Under the socialist-oriented market econ-
omy and with a strong attempt to save the country from potential economic
isolation after a 10-year period (1975–1985), Doi Moi decentralises the state’s
power over private and local enterprises and foster multi-dimensional domestic
and international collaborations. Such a less authoritarian, more multifaceted,
multi-segmented model of governance (McCargo, 2004; Gainsborough, 2010)
has flourished in wide-ranging education and language reforms, including the
rapidly growing demand to learn English in Vietnam (Bui, T. T. N. & Nguyen,
2016). The National Foreign Languages Project 2020 (hereafter referred to as
the 2020 project) launched in 2008 has received noticeable attention, as it is
by far the most marked language reform of the nation. The project puts a great
emphasis on equipping young Vietnamese citizens with English language skills
for the strong development of both national and regional employability, as well as
job competitions, especially in the context of the Association of Southeast Asian
Nation’s (ASEAN) economic integration (Government of Vietnam, 2008).
This policy calls for great innovation in ELE across all education levels and
disciplines. To prepare for the English expansion, the state has fostered a series of
top-down strategic activities ranging from establishing national language testing
centres, developing intensive English programs for both teachers and students
at colleges and universities, and offering intensive courses in English for spe-
cific majors such as engineering, tourism, business, finance, and technology (Plan
808/KH-BGDĐT, 2012). Pedagogically, the national language policy reforms
encourage student-centred approaches to be widely applied in the English cur-
riculum, stimulating students’ creativity and engagement in the learning process.
As part of the 2020 project and in the newly arisen context of a competence-
based approach in assessment, university graduates have been trained to own a
certified level of English, equivalently ranging from B1 – CEFR for English non-
majors – to C1 for English majors. Institutional provision of English language
programs and standardised qualifications aim at catering for a higher demand
of both domestic and international labour forces. The policy has also facilitated
innovative curriculum and English teacher education, especially sending teachers
abroad in collaboration with regional and international counterparts to promote
English in the nation (Bui, T. T. N.& Nguyen, 2016).
Though aspirational, this policy seems ambitious in its objectives, thus leaving
a vague impact on the students’ employability. After two thirds of the time frame
(2008–2016), the 2020 project was reported to be infeasible in terms of over-
spread and “loud” goals, with much less than 50% of the set tasks being fulfilled.
Representatives of the Ministry of Education and Training admitted that most
English language teachers were under- standardised. Teachers’ poor instructional
quality resulted in students’ poor English competencies, which could hardly sat-
isfy the purposes of employability (Luong, 2016). The goals of the 2020 project,
15032-1187e-2pass-r02.indd 56 6/5/2018 9:17:52 AM

accordingly, have been re-considered with a prolonged timeline up to the year
2025 suggested, with the newly lesson-drawn modifications targeting to enhance
English for employability for 100% of non-English major graduates, 90% of voca-
tional students, and 60% of employees in public sectors (Hoang, 2016). This
fact resulted in a re-emphasis of the connectedness between ELE education and
employability, stated in an official refreshed version of the 2020 project, called the
2025 project, launched by the Vietnamese government in late December 2017.
The 2025 project addresses three general goals: (1) renovating foreign languages
education in the national education system, continuing to implement new for-
eign language programs at all levels, and improving learners’ foreign languages
competence to meet the study and work demand; (2) strengthening the competi-
tiveness of human resources in the integration period, contributing to the pur-
pose of national development; and (3) establishing a nationwide foreign language
foundation for general education in 2025 (Government of Vietnam, 2017).
Despite the intensive emphasis on English, researchers (e.g. Tollefson, 2013;
Phillipson, 2012) and scholars focusing on the role of ELE (e.g. Ferguson,
2013; Seargeant & Erling, 2013) express their great concern for the vitality of
English for career development because the notion of English in development
is largely contested, complex, and controversial. Thus, to understand the role
of the current ELP to the students’ development, in the following section, we
utilise Bourdieu’s social reproduction theories and the notion of development as
a theoretical foundation for our study.
Applying Bourdieu’s theories of social reproduction

and the notions of development to Vietnamese English
language policies
Studies unravelling cross-disciplinary relationships between inequality and power
widely employed social reproduction theories developed by critical theorist,
Pierre Bourdieu. Bourdieu maintains that education discourses – including edu-
cational mandates, curriculum, and evaluation systems – function as a de facto
mechanism to legitimate social inequalities because they often reward students
from the dominant groups with legitimised knowledge and skills to obtain socio-
economic and political distinctions (Grenfell, 2012; Hanks, 2005). Insufficient
academic distinctions sanctioned and naturalised by the dominant discourse may
lock working-class students into low social and economic ramifications (Kramsch,
2008).
Social reproduction is largely operated through the intersection of censorship,
symbolic power, capital, field, and habitus (Grenfell, 2012). Educational discourses
critically establish habitus – a well-recognised and transposable d
isposition – that
one must possess to develop successful ways to being, seeing, and obtaining social
status. Habitus further embodies ways of communicating, socialising, and under-
standing forms and formalities that are legitimised by the expectations of upper
class members (Hanks, 2005). Along with habitus, Bourdieu holds that cultural
capital, the independent form of knowledge, dispositions, and aesthetic codes,
15032-1187e-2pass-r02.indd 57 6/5/2018 9:17:52 AM

critically fabricates cultural reproduction. Therefore, success or failure in the edu-
cation system is contingent on individual gifts one possesses. Linguistic capital,
which is formed through cultural capital, functions as a symbolic power author-
ised by a certain dominant cultural milieu. Linguistic capital sanctions certain
ways of speaking while de facto silencing others, intimidating or censoring other
speeches. An effect that Bourdieu alludes to is “censorship naturalization” – “the
muting of critique and individual expression according to what is rewarded or
sanctioned in the field” (Hanks, 2005, p. 76).
Bourdieu’s (1991, p. 97) social reproduction theory represents structured
social spaces formed by discourse and social activity. Social reproduction theory
suggests critical implications around the need for students to be aware of knowl-
edge, dispositions, language, and literacy as situated practices manifesting larger
systems of power relations, both in their education system and the society at large
(Grenfell, 2012; Kramsch, 2008).
Notions of development
In promoting English for personal and national development, several scholars
hold that the concept of development is contested, multi-layered, and trans-
formed over time. In the late 1940s, while the term development was funda-
mentally limited to economic growth, new perspectives of human development
and social change have been greatly inclusive (Coleman, 2010). Development
embodies a process to improve economic and social needs in terms of good gov-
ernance, human rights, welfare, freedoms of social and economic engagement,
employability, health care, and civil rights (e.g. Coleman, 2011; Bruthiaux 2002).
Development is also defined as freedom to accommodate voices and choices,
which gives rise for participation in planning and implementing interventions for
human beings (Seargeant & Erling, 2013).
Development has been intrinsically linked to education in a sense that educa-
tion offers the knowledge economy for national development. Scholars argue
that language proficiency and literacy programs function as the heart of advanc-
ing human capital and sources for development into other disciplines, which sig-
nificantly fosters wide-ranging economic and social dimensions and functions as
an essential source of high income, better health care, and environmental protec-
tions (Coleman, 2010; Kirkpatrick & Sussex, 2012; Seargeant & Erling, 2013).
Similarly, English has been promoted as a vital literacy instrument for ameliorat-
ing socio-economic and cultural capital for people (Seargeant & Erling, 2013).
Notions of development and Bourdieu’s theories of social reproduction offer
a crucial framework for the interpretation of employability development in the
current Vietnam English language policies. In this chapter, we see that both the
theories and the notion of development are interrelated. While cultural capital,
especially English language capital that students gain from the current ELP, can
help accumulate other social gifts such as power, economic benefits, and political
distinctions, the notion of development is not restricted to economic develop-
ment but highly and inclusively secures one’s rights, privileges, health, education,
15032-1187e-2pass-r02.indd 58 6/5/2018 9:17:52 AM

and social well-being. We utilise the theories and the concept of development
to draw implications as to whether the current English language policies endow
students with sufficient linguistic capital to obtain employability advantages and
other forms of capital in life. We question whether there is any strong form of
English language capital produced by the current ELP to support students, or
whether such English language policies greatly disadvantage them in employabil-
ity. Building from the notion of development and the social reproduction theo-
ries, we assume that if students possess a strong form of English language capital,
such capital can offer an interpretation to their future employability and develop-
ment. In other words, English language capital can help give rise to students’
other and abundant forms of capital, which enables them to negotiate social,
educational, and economic advancement. In this chapter, we further discuss this
assumption via our research findings presented in the following section.
Disconnect between English language programs

and employability
Our analysis of the data indicated that English language programs played a mini-
mum role in supporting students’ English for employability skills. A large per-
centage of students (greater than 70% to 80%) were uncertain of their abilities
to accomplish various activities in English such as listening to different topics
(14.04% and 67.74% for “very unconfident” and “unconfident”, respectively),
collecting information (29.41% and 48.01%), answering phone inquiries (20.49%
and 58.44%), and ability to understand human resource documents (22.96% and
54.65%) in English (See Table 5.2). Moreover, students were very uncertain of
handling other activities at the workplace including understanding schedules,
reading comprehension, reading information on the company websites, and cre-
ating documents, letters, reports, and invoices in English.
Students’ limited English for employability skills was explained by various fac-
tors from the university English programs themselves to the issues related to
students’ learning. Both the lecturers and students interviewed tended to agree
that the lack of an emphasis on communicative teaching hindered most of the
students from communicating in English effectively or taking over various tasks
in English. A student of economics indicated a reality of his English:
I am not confident with my English for employability because our English

program in Vietnam does not focus on educating students for communica-
tive skills but on grammar and theories. Moreover, I did not learn English
systematically when I was young so I am afraid of re-learning it.
Other students encountered the same issue with communicating in English

because they did not feel confident, and they failed to respond naturally. Conse-
quently, students did not feel confident about job environments which require
English. An expression of a math student further explained students’ uncertainty
about their communication skill. He confessed: “I am not confident with my
15032-1187e-2pass-r02.indd 59 6/5/2018 9:17:52 AM

Table 5.2 Student’s English skills and English as an employability skill
1 – Very 2 – Unconfident 3 – Confident 4 – Very 5 – Not sure
unconfident confident
15032-1187e-2pass-r02.indd 60
n % N % n % n % n %
I English skills
1 Ability to collect information 155 29.41 253 48.01 72 13.66 8 1.52 39 7.40
2 Ability to listen to different topics 74 14.04 357 67.74 51 9.68 7 1.33 38 7.21
3 Ability to communicate 108 20.49 281 53.32 60 11.39 26 4.93 52 9.87
4 Ability to answer phone inquiries 108 20.49 308 58.44 59 11.20 10 1.90 42 7.97
5 Ability to do presentations 115 21.82 253 48.01 80 15.18 22 4.17 57 10.82
6 Ability to introduce yourself 62 11.76 229 43.45 161 30.55 22 4.17 53 10.06
7 Ability to answer interview questions 113 21.44 285 54.08 59 11.20 19 3.61 51 9.68
8 Ability to comprehend readings 86 16.32 236 44.78 127 24.10 18 3.42 60 11.39
9 Ability to understand timetables and job-related agendas 96 18.22 264 50.09 86 16.32 13 2.47 68 12.90
10 Ability to read information regarding companies online 86 16.32 286 54.27 94 17.84 17 3.23 44 8.35
11 Ability to understand human resource policies 121 22.96 288 54.65 47 8.92 12 2.28 59 11.20
12 Ability to create documents, for example, letters, 112 21.25 271 51.42 66 12.52 10 1.90 68 12.90
instructions, annoucements, forms, and email
II English as an employability skill
13 Ability to work with colleagues in groups 105 19.92 281 53.32 71 13.47 13 2.47 57 10.82
14 Ability to solve problems 117 22.20 291 55.22 55 10.44 9 1.71 55 10.44
15 Ability to share, collaborate, support, and cooperate 96 18.22 295 55.98 69 13.09 13 2.47 54 10.25
16 Ability to use information technology 106 20.11 272 51.61 82 15.56 17 3.23 50 9.49
17 Ability to do business in English 85 16.13 272 51.61 93 17.65 16 3.04 61 11.57
18 Ability to function as a leader 112 21.25 268 50.85 72 13.66 14 2.66 61 11.57
19 Ability to debate 136 25.81 285 54.08 47 8.92 10 1.90 49 9.30
20 Ability to find good jobs 138 26.19 263 49.91 59 11.20 8 1.52 59 11.20
21 Ability to work with people worldwide 140 26.57 266 50.47 54 10.25 12 2.28 55 10.44
22 Ability to search for scholarships to study abroad to 128 24.29 240 45.54 40 7.59 7 1.33 112 21.25
develop your professionalism
6/5/2018 9:17:52 AM
English for job related purposes in the future because my English skills are not
enough for communication”.
The students’ responses greatly echoed the lecturers’ perspectives that their
students’ English was limited. The lecturers were sceptical about students’ capa-
bility to function at a workplace that requires English. They reflected that “most
students think that their English is not sufficient for employability purposes”, or
“only a small number of students have enough English knowledge and skills for
English-related jobs”. As a result, students must go back to their university to
“relearn English” to meet their job requirements.
Summarising, it seems that the English programs played a fragile role in help-
ing both the lecturers and students feel confident about students’ English for
employability. Such uncertainty was rather complex and contingent on wide-
ranging issues including program development, students’ unsystematic English
language education, lack of environment to practice communicative English, and
students’ low motivation to learn the subject.
Disconnect between English language programs and

career-related skills
The English language programs seemed to insufficiently prepare students to per-
form career skills in English when the students’ level of certainty about per-
forming career skills in English was rather low. Students indicated they were
largely incapable of debating (25.81% and 54.08%), solving problems (22.2%
and 55.22%), and working with people worldwide (26.57% and 50.47%). Besides
these activities, most of them were incapable of performing many other career-
related skills including group work, interpersonal skills, using technology, leader-
ship, finding good jobs, and searching for scholarships in English.
Accomplishing career skills in English such as these seemed to be unachiev-
able when both the lecturers and students encountered various challenges. While
lecturers indicated that students “are lazy” and “do not want to talk”, many
students faced problems with the lack of vocabulary to express their ideas and
making mistakes in speaking. Consequently, students’ performance of skills such
as problem solving, group work, debate, and leadership performed in English
only ranged from insufficient to average level. A lecturer’s response further high-
lighted students’ career skill performance:
Students are unable to work in groups effectively so sometimes we must ask

them to prepare topics in both Vietnamese and English. Students do not
want to talk. With problem solving skill, students do not attempt to think
because they are familiar with lecturers providing options for them to choose
from. Therefore, they can’t think about solutions and even if they have some
solutions, they are unable to express them in English.
Commenting on the students’ debating or presentation skills, she further

added that “students do not want to talk because their vocabulary is limited.
They speak slowly and have many repetitive phrases or sentences”.
15032-1187e-2pass-r02.indd 61 6/5/2018 9:17:52 AM

Regarding the students’ ability to communicate with people in the workplace
and worldwide in English, all students asked indicated that they were not con-
fident as their English and communicative skills were inadequate. The students’
expressions further showed the similar trend in terms of the students’ communi-
cative skills in the workplace. Sharing the same perspective, almost all the lectur-
ers were ambivalent about the students’ ability to communicate with others in
English in their workplace. A lecturer in business management reflected:
I think students can only function some simple conversations in English.

Only a small number of students can work effectively with people in the
region and worldwide in English.
When students are not confident about their English ability, they are not able
to perform soft skill activities such as debating, presentation, working in groups,
and showing their role as a leader in English effectively. The reasons for all this
resulted from the students’ English ability and teaching pedagogies embedded
in their English courses. Thus, while this study exclusively focuses on the role of
English with the students’ career development, its implication has been drawn
from not only English programs but also ways of doing education at the tertiary
level. We will discuss this in more detail in the implications at the end of this
study.
Facilitating students’ employability

Our further inquiry into improving students’ English as an employable attribute
obtained several suggestions from both the students’ and lecturers’ perspectives.
Recommendations elicited from our study place a great emphasis on appropri-
ate teaching methods, diversifying language programs, and offering multiple
skill-based courses for job applications at the institutions. Students’ requests
illuminated their needs for having meaningful, practical, and hands-on teaching
pedagogies as well as opportunities to practice job interviews. Talking about the
institutional language program improvement, a student recommended:
We need to practice our communicative skills. Also, the university programs

are unpractical and the teaching methods are not very easy to understand.
Thus, we need to be offered with more practical, comprehensive, and impres-
sive lectures.
Regarding teaching methods, the lecturers stressed the importance of offering

appropriate teaching methods that are “appropriate with students’ needs, ages,
and soft skills” and “help students to be more active learners”.
In addition to improving teaching methods, it is essential to devote more time
in teaching students more about listening and speaking skills because students
“have learned mainly reading and writing” in their secondary and high schools.
More activities such as English clubs and interacting with employers would offer
15032-1187e-2pass-r02.indd 62 6/5/2018 9:17:52 AM

students ample opportunities to sharpen their English and English-related skills.
Likewise, structuring institutional English programs with diverse soft skill courses
and job searching workshops would help students feel more prepared with their
English skills for their future employment. This reflection manifested many other
students’ need to be equipped with more skill courses. This student expressed:
“We need to practice soft skills such as communication, debating, and technology
much more in our university”.
Suggestions from the lecturers and students further highlighted the need to
have a program development division in each university which can “collabo-
rate with companies to know their demands for employees” to “tailor programs
according to employers’ needs”. This division will ease the lecturers’ burden in
terms of time constraints while supporting them in incorporating “employment
scenarios” and information on the labour market in their teaching. A lecturer of
automobile major recommended adding English for job interviews in her institu-
tional curriculum and improving assessment tools to better aim at outcome-based
assessment. For example, students’ English competence should also be officially
measured in terms of communicative skills, not just “lexico-grammar oriented
tests”.
Another possible explanation for students’ incapability to communicate in
English after over 7 years of learning was students’ unawareness of the impor-
tance of learning the language when they entered their programs. Therefore, it
is essential to stress both the importance of learning English and promoting the
habit of learning English among students in a responsible, persistent, and system-
atic manner to benefit their employability skills.
Improving English teaching and learning in the context of this study seems to
be challenging, complex, and involves multiple stakeholders. Such recommenda-
tions further imply that many aspects such as teaching methods, program devel-
opment, students’ needs, and employers’ requirements need to be taken seriously
into account to improve English for students’ career development.
Discussion
Our purpose of the study is to contribute to the dearth of the literature that
uncovers students’ English for their future career’s development, especially in the
context of wide-ranging educational and language shifts such as have occurred in
Vietnam. The students’ striking lack of both English and English-related skills for
employability indicates the very fragile role of English language education policy
in both individual and the national development. Aligning the research results
with Bourdieu theories suggests various issues with the current English education
policies. Bourdieu views educational mandates, curriculum, and discourses as a
mechanism to endow or sanction students’ culture capital and other abundant
resources for them to obtain an approval as legitimate individuals in their society.
However, such institutional language programs fail to offer them solid English
language proficiency – a concrete language capital that can operate as a good
indicator for their future employability. Specifically, if we equate students’ English
15032-1187e-2pass-r02.indd 63 6/5/2018 9:17:52 AM

ability with Bourdieu’s perspective of habitus (a well-recognised and transposable
disposition), students seem to be unable to utilise their English to negotiate,
communicate, or socialise in ways that are expected by employers, their society,
and beyond. Their English knowledge is unable to function as an individual gift
or a secured linguistic capital, authorising them with knowledge, dispositions,
and ways of seeing and being in their social world.
Aligning with Bourdieu’s theories further suggests evidence of educational
inequalities stemming from loosely regulated, contested, and structured English
programs. They largely de facto censor students’ cultural capital while likely steal-
ing their valuable time and energy for other meaningful and practical educational
activities. Educational discourses, or the language programs in this context to
be specific, may mute students’ multiple opportunities when their goals, pro-
grams, and teaching and learning activities are still incomprehensive, contested,
and controversial.
We can also see a strong correlation between Bourdieu’s perspective and the
notion of development. If Bourdieu’s language capital is considered as a powerful
mechanism for other successful socio-economic and educational opportunities to
thrive, being employed opens individuals to a secure foundation for their future
and multifaceted developments. As we have discussed earlier in the chapter that
the notion of development is getting inclusive and employability is a great indi-
cator for individual and state development initiatives, we can imply that such an
initiative to boost Vietnamese students’ English as a strength for multifaceted
development is rather worrisome and problematic regardless of the well-intended
policy discourse. In other words, while a priority target of university education is
having students being employed or self-employed to secure their economic pur-
poses, which can help their educational, political, and social well-being to flour-
ish, the current language programs at the universities could significantly hamper
students and the nation from obtaining intended goals in development.
Another purpose of the study is to offer some responsible and rigorous rec-
ommendations for policy makers, lecturers, and associated stakeholders to work
towards promoting programs to enhance students’ English and employability
capacities. First, we strongly suggest the need for a systematic English education
from the primary level onwards. This will address the burning issue raised by
both the lecturers and students that students’ English is still poor even though
they have studied the language for at least 7 years. Although most students could
gain some benefit from their English language programs at a tertiary level, this
still cannot compensate for their lack of pre-existing basic English knowledge
from their primary level. This deficiency results from unsystematic and problem-
atic instruction quality offered at the lower levels as many lecturers and students
indicated (Bui, T. T. N., forthcoming). Thus, in the tertiary context, students
seem to struggle to either acquire or revise their English with other courses’
requirements and the need to fulfil credits for graduation. This is evidenced by
our results which show that more than 75% of the students were not confident in
performing a job using English.
15032-1187e-2pass-r02.indd 64 6/5/2018 9:17:52 AM

Second, the students need to be offered effective orientation and guides to
help them realise the importance of English as well as a mindset of life-long
language learning. Since it usually takes a tremendous amount of time for a stu-
dent to be proficient in English, students need to learn it in a more frequent and
strategic manner. We support the students’ comments that lecturers should guide
students to self-study and suggest lecturers help students to become key agents
of their own learning (Bui, T. T. N., forthcoming). Scholars such as Luke (2008)
and Darling-Hammond (2009) highlight the importance of multi-literacies in
language teaching and learning. Thus, it is vital for lecturers to guide students to
mobilise abundant online materials including websites, videos, magazines, and
films as resourceful tools to enhance their English and soft skills. On the other
hand, obtaining English proficiency seems to be insufficient for students to enter
the job market when their socio-economic background knowledge is limited.
This matter was apparent from the data and could further jeopardise students’
opportunities to compete in the demanding job market and improve their socio-
economic well-being (Erling, 2014; Hamid, 2015). We urge educators and their
associates to re-conceptualise what it means to provide English as well as general
education for youth. We suggest the state, the institutions, and educators rethink
and reposition the goal of education. This would create more complete individu-
als who possess not only knowledge and skills in English but also sound socio-
political, educational, and economic foundations to make contributions on the
individual, national and international scales.
Finally, promoting sound English programs to secure students’ career development
requires a collaborative, sustainable, and supportive relationship between universities
and employers in fields related to their majors. Building from the suggestions of both
the lecturers and the students in the study, we suggest the institutions establish a
career development unit which collaborates well with employers to gain knowledge,
insights, skills, and demands. Such a unit should function as a plausible ground for
program developers, lecturers, and their associates to structure, sustain, and develop
diverse skill-based courses to prepare students for job markets (Ku & Zussan, 2010;
Lee, 2012). We also recommend institutional provision of more career-orientation
workshops as well as internship programs integrated in the university English lan-
guage programs. This provision addresses students’ pressing needs for more extra-
curricular activities and better understandings of the labour market requirements.
Students will benefit more from hands-on experiences and have more opportunities
to build relationships with companies and employers (Pooja, 2013). We believe that
English as an employability skill for development should be developed in a system-
atic, collaborative, diverse, and conscientious approach to meet the ever-demanding
requirements of both domestic and international employers. This involves tremen-
dous effort and active engagement of a range of stakeholders in this context: the
students themselves, the institutions, and the tertiary governance, to collaboratively
build a highly skilled workforce. When comprehensively and rigorously structured,
institutional English language programs under the current national language policy
will promote this workforce development.
15032-1187e-2pass-r02.indd 65 6/5/2018 9:17:52 AM

References
Aslam, M., De, A., Kingdon, G., & Kumar, R. (2010). Economic returns to schooling
and skills - An analysis of Pakistan. Cambridge, UK: University of Cambridge.
Bourdieu, P. (1986). The forms of capital. In: J. Richardson (Ed.), Handbook of theory
and research for the sociology of education (pp. 241–258). Westport, CT: Greenwood.
Bourdieu, P. (1991). Language and symbolic power. Cambridge: Polity Press.
Bruthiaux, P. (2002). Hold your courses: Language education, language choice, and
economic development. TESOL Quarterly, 36(3), 275–296.
Bui, T. T. N., & Nguyen, T. M. H. (2016). Standardizing English for educational and
socio-economic betterment: A critical analysis for English language policy reforms
in Vietnam. In R. Kirkpatrick (Ed.), English language education policy in Asia
(pp. 363–388). Switzerland: Springer International Publishing.
Coleman, H. (2010). The English language in development. London: British Council.
Coleman, H. (Ed.). (2011). Developing countries and the English language: Rhetoric,
risks roles and recommendations. London: British Council.
Darling-Hammond. (2009). The flat world and education: How America’s commit-
ment to equity will determine our nation’s future. New York: Teachers College Press.
Erling, J. E., & Seargeant, P. (2013). English and development: Policy, pedagogy, and
globalization. Bristol, UK: Multilingual Matters.
Erling, E. J. (2014). The roles of English in skills development in South Asia: Policies,
interventions and existing evidence. London: British Council.
Ferguson, G. (2013). English, development and education: Charting the tensions.
In E. Erling & P. Seargeant (Eds.), English and development: Policy, pedagogy, and
globalization (pp. 21–44). Toronto, Canada: Multilingual Matters.
Gainsborough, J. (2010). Vietnam: Rethinking the state. London and New York: Zed
Books and Silkworm Books.
Government of Vietnam. (2008). Decision 1400/QD-Ttg on the approval of the pro-
ject “Teaching and Learning Foreign Languages in the National Education System,
Period 2008–2020”.
Government of Vietnam. (2017). Decision 2080/QD-Ttg on the refresh of the project
“Teaching and Learning Foreign Languages in the National Education System,
Period 2017–2025”.
Grenfell, M. (2012). Bourdieu, language and education. In M. Grenfell, D. Bloome,
C. Hardy, K. Paul, K. Rowsell, & B. Street (Eds.), Language, ethnography and edu-
cation: Bridging new literacies and Bourdieu (pp. 50–70). New York: Routledge.
Grin, F. (2001). English as economic value: Facts and fallacies. World Englishes, 20(1),
65–78.
Hamid, O. (2015). English and employability, mobility and development. Retrieved from
www.britishcouncil.org.bd/sites/default/files/bc_think_piece_obaid_hamid_08_
10_2015.pdf
Hanks, W. F. (2005). Pierre Bourdieu and the practices of language. Annual Review
of Anthropology, 34(1), 67–83. doi:10.1146/annurev.anthro.33.070203.143907
Hoang, P. (2016). Đề án ngoại ngữ gần 9400 tỷ sau 8 năm làm được những gì.
Retrieved from http://vnexpress.net/tin-tuc/giao-duc/de-an-ngoai-ngu-gan-9-
400-ty-sau-8-nam-lam-duoc-nhung-gi-3470788.html
Kirkpatrick, A., & Sussex, R. (2012). English as an international language in Asia:
Implications for language education. New York: Springer.
Kramsch, C. (2008). Pierre Bourdieu: A biographical memoir. In J. Albright &
A. Luke (Eds.), Pierre Bourdieu and literacy education (pp. 33–49). New York:
Routledge.
15032-1187e-2pass-r02.indd 66 6/5/2018 9:17:52 AM

Ku, H., & Zussman, A. (2010). Lingua franca: The role of English in international
trade. Journal of Economic Behavior and Organization, 75(2), 250–260.
Lee, C. G. (2012). English language and economic growth: Cross-country empirical
evidence. Journal of Economic and Social Studies, 2(1), 5–20.
Luke, A. (2008). Using Bourdieu to make policy: Mobilizing community capital and
literacy. In J. Albright & A. Luke (Eds.), Pierre Bourdieu and literacy education
(pp. 347–361). Malwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Luong, H. N. (2016). Đề án ngoại ngữ quốc gia 2020 thất bại vì đâu. Retrieved from
http://baoquocte.vn/de-an-ngoai-ngu-quoc-gia-2020-that-bai-vi-dau-39673.
html
McCargo, D. (2004). Introduction. In D. McCargo (Ed.), Rethinking Vietnam
(pp. 1–12). London: Routledge.
Nguyen, T. T. T. (forthcoming). Professional development: Vietnamese EFL teacher
educators’ perceptions and experiences. (Doctoral Dissertation), The University of
Newcastle, Australia.
Phillipsons, R. (2012). Linguistic imperialism alive and kicking. The Guardian. Retrieved
from www.guardian.co.uk/education/2012/mar/13/linguistic-imperialism-
english-language-teaching
Plan 808/KH_BGDDT. (2012). Kế hoạch triển khai đề án ngoại ngữ 2020 trong
các cơ sở giáo dục đại học giai đoạn 2012–2020. Retrieved from www.moet.gov.
vn/?page=6.21&script=%20congvan&namxly=-1
Pooja, B. (2013). English for employability-A challenge for ELT faculty. Research
Journal of English Language and Literature, 1(3), 350–353.
Seargeant, P., & Erling, E. J. (2011). The discourse of ‘English as a language for inter-
national development’: Policy assumptions and practical challenges. In H. Cole-
man (Ed.), Dreams and realities: Developing countries and the English language
(pp. 248–267). London: British Council.
Seargeant, P., & Erling, E. J. (2013). Introduction: English and development. In
E. Erling & P. Seargeant (Eds.), English and development: Policy, pedagogy, and
globalization (pp. 22–45). Toronto, Canada: Multilingual Matters.
Tollefson, J. W. (2013). Language policies in education: Critical issues (2nd ed.). New
York: Routledge.
15032-1187e-2pass-r02.indd 67 6/5/2018 9:17:52 AM

6 Textbooks as cultural
mediators
Exploring representations of
culture in Vietnamese tertiary
EFL textbooks
Trinh Thi Thu Hien
Culture is a broad concept that embraces almost all aspects of human social life.
Culture is addressed by scholars from various fields, such as cultural anthropol-
ogy, cultural studies, communication studies, sociology, and education. Scholars
from the field of foreign language teaching and learning share common concep-
tualisations of culture: “culture is the ideas, customs, skills, arts, and tools that
characterise a given group of people in a given period of time” (Brown, 1994,
p. 380); “culture is a complex system of concepts, attitudes, values, beliefs, con-
ventions, behaviours, practices, rituals, and lifestyles of the people who make
up a cultural group, as well as the artefacts they produce and the situations they
create” (Liddicoat, Papademetre, Scarino, & Kohler, 2003, p. 45); and “culture
tended to mean that body of social, artistic, and intellectual traditions associated
historically with a particular social, ethnic or national group” (Sowden, 2007,
pp. 304–305).
Language is described by applied linguist Halliday (1973, 1985) as “the sys-
tematic resource for expressing meaning in context, not the set of all grammatical
sentences” (Halliday, cited in Jordan, 2004, p. 6) which is used by people as a
means to “deal with the external world . . . and . . . with each other” (ibid., p. 7).
From this view, language can be understood as a set of linguistic units – mor-
phemes, words, sentences – that people use as a tool for communication or to
express their own feelings, thoughts, and attitudes.
Culture and language are heavily entwined. Language is created by human
beings, so the development of language parallels the development of human
society. Culture represents human society, because it reflects all aspects of
human social life, the relationship among community members, and their his-
tory and development. From that view, language is a part of culture and people
use language to enact and reflect on culture. People from different cultures
have their own ways of doing things, so the language they use in communi-
cation reflects cultural differences. Language and culture have an inextricable
and interdependent relationship (Choudhury, 2013); they are not separable,
but depend on each other, each supporting the development of the other
(Mitchell & Myles, 2004).
15032-1187e-2pass-r02.indd 68 6/5/2018 9:17:52 AM

Textbooks as cultural mediators 69
As this chapter aims to investigate cultural content embedded in EFL text-
books, the following section will review the literature on the presentation of
culture in teaching materials.
Cultural representation in EFL textbooks

The cultural content in EFL materials is “the hidden curriculum” (Cunnings-
worth, 1995, p. 90), which forms part of the EFL program. The hidden cur-
riculum is “unstated and undisclosed” (Wala, 2013, p. 123) and it “refers to the
unintended or implicit values cultivated in the practices exercised in the class-
room and educational institutions through the application of the curriculum”
(Konieczka, 2013, p. 250). The EFL hidden curriculum promotes a view of the
world and cultural awareness and may be perceived differently by teachers and
students. Embedded in the EFL school curriculum, the hidden curriculum may
be in the information selected for inclusion in textbooks, the register of teach-
ers’ discourse, the selection of classroom activities, and classroom structure. Its
significance may not be realised by students and is unlikely to be questioned by
EFL teachers (Lee, 2014).
EFL textbooks provide cultural information from three sources: source cul-
ture, target culture, and international target culture (Cortazzi & Zin, 1999).
Textbooks employ source culture to cultivate learners’ knowledge of their own
identity, but not the cultural backgrounds of any other countries. Target culture
focuses on native English-speaking countries (e.g. England, the United States,
Canada, Australia) to provide EFL students with similar content. Others refer-
ence various English-speaking and non-English-speaking cultures.
Numerous EFL textbooks include English-speaking cultures, while others
focus on non-English speaking cultures (Aliakbari, 2004). For example, the text-
books from China, Venezuela, Turkey, and Saudi Arabia focus on non-English
speaking cultures and those from the United States (e.g. Success – Communicating
in English) and England (e.g. English Occasions, The Language of Business) usu-
ally focus on Anglophone cultures. Target culture is integrated by native English
textbook writers, because it is easy for them to present their own culture’s values
(Alptekin, 1993). Source culture is introduced in national EFL teaching materi-
als. Intercultural target cultures seem to be more appropriate for global class-
rooms and bring students to international English environments (McKay, 2000).
The inclusion of cultural elements differs in EFL textbooks. Internationally
distributed EFL textbooks typically represent Anglophone cultures rather than
those from non-English-speaking countries. Locally produced EFL textbooks
focus on the source culture and lack target cultural knowledge (Shin, Eslami, &
Chen, 2011). The foci of these three types of textbooks shape students’ accul-
turation and influence their development of Intercultural Communicative Com-
petence (ICC).
Culture in EFL textbooks can be classified as “big C” culture (the visible aspects
of cultural creations) and “little c” culture (an invisible and deeper sense of the
15032-1187e-2pass-r02.indd 69 6/5/2018 9:17:52 AM

70 Textbooks as cultural mediators
target culture) (Elham, 2013; Liu & Laohawiriyanon, 2013). Big C concerns
geography, architecture, classical music, literature, and history. Little c relates to
information about the way people live, for example their opinions, gestures, food,
hobbies, and popular issues. EFL textbooks should include both types of culture
in order to provide students with a general knowledge of target culture, learner’s
culture, or intercultural target culture (Liu & Laohawiriyanon, 2013).
Cultural content in textbooks

Textbooks play a significant role in EFL teaching and learning, because they
provide teachers and students with “the foundation for the content of lessons,
the balance of the skills taught, as well as the kinds of language practice” (Cheng,
Hung, & Chieh, 2011, p. 94). From an ICC perspective, cultural values must be
included in EFL textbooks along with the linguistic forms. Many researchers have
offered models for determining the cultural content within textbooks (Byram,
1993; Cortazzi & Zin, 1999; Cunningsworth, 1995). Textbook cultural con-
tent may include: Social identity and social groups; Social interaction; Belief and
behaviour; Social and political institutions; Socialisation and life-cycle; National
history; National geography; and Stereotypes and national identity (Byram,
1993). To investigate in greater detail the cultural content of two Vietnamese
EFL textbooks, the study employed Byram’s eight categories of culture checklist
and a modified version with 33 subcategories classified from his checklist (see
Appendices A and B).
Cultural forms presented in Vietnamese

tertiary EFL textbooks
Two commonly used Vietnamese EFL textbooks are Lifelines Elementary and
Lifelines Pre-Intermediate (Bui, 2000). These two textbooks are both written
by Tom Hutchinson (1995a, 1995b) and published by Oxford University Press.
Both textbooks mix cultural content alongside linguistic content. These text-
books cover many of the cultural checklist categories; however, the distribution
for each category differs (Table 6.1). The most frequent distribution of cultural
references is to “Social interaction” in both textbooks. The textbooks’ writer
focused on introducing EFL teachers and students to cultural conventions of
making conversations in interactive situations both verbally and non-verbally.
The situations of communication derive from daily and social interactions among
people, such as First meeting/Making friends with others; Having a conversation
with friends/family members/colleagues/strangers; Making an appointment;
Invitation/Suggesting others to do something etc. Besides, these textbooks pro-
vide information describing the ways people greet or make farewell to each other
formally or informally in different cultures (for example: Hello, How are you, or
Good morning), the ways people address others (for example: English people use
first names or shorten names in informal conversation, whereas they use family
names with titles to address people in formal situations) or show their manners/
15032-1187e-2pass-r02.indd 70 6/5/2018 9:17:52 AM

Table 6.1 The distribution of references to eight categories in Vietnamese
Textbooks Lifelines Elementary Lifelines Pre-Intermediate

Cultural categories
Social identity and social groups 226 372

Social interaction 627 518
Belief and behaviour 271 250
Social and political institutions 25 20
Socialisation and life-cycle 29 82
National history 1 8
National geography 213 223
Stereotypes and national identity 46 54
actions in communication (for example: close friends usually make informal chat
while strangers tend to perform formally in communication).
These two Vietnamese EFL textbooks specifically provide teachers and stu-
dents with cultural knowledge under “Social identity and social groups”, “Belief
and behaviour”, and “National geography” categories. This knowledge refers to
different aspects of culture, such as dinning etiquette, shopping, recreation, social
class, ethnic and cultural minority, occupational identity, geographic factors etc.,
which helps construct “the experience in the real world” (Byram, 1997, p. 65).
Lifeline Elementary and Lifelines Pre-Intermediate give few opportunities for
students to connect their learning to socialised issues such as school and educa-
tion, employment, life-cycle, voting, and elections. Similarly, these textbooks’
cultural content restricts students’ learning about contemporary issues. There are
few references to the subject of “National history”, considering that a number
of scholars identify that understanding history is a crucial step to understand the
culture of any country (Davcheva & Sercu, 2005; Parkes & Sharp, 2014). His-
torical information about a country is background information, which enables
students to gain in-depth insight into a country. These textbooks provide few
examples of national historical and current events; therefore, they may hinder
students from properly understanding any specific country.
These textbooks have a similar approach to cultural content in terms of sub-
categories. The top ten most frequent occurrences are listed in Table 6.2. The
theme “Modes of addressing” within the “Social interaction” category is the most
frequent in both textbooks. The textbooks’ writer introduces a wide variety of
names and addressing systems in English and non-English speaking countries.
This information enables students to become familiar with the uses of names
and titles in different countries, which differ from Vietnamese cultural conven-
tions. Such information may help students avoid experiencing cultural shocks
and enable them to be more confident in cross-cultural communication. From
an ICC approach, the textbooks integrate a specific cultural aspect in language
education and focus students on an aspect of language, which may cause difficulty
in student learning.
15032-1187e-2pass-r02.indd 71 6/5/2018 9:17:52 AM

These textbooks allow students to investigate cultural information about
the area or population of a country, the localities belonging to a country (such
as states, cities, counties, districts etc.), the national parks, the neighbouring
countries and boundaries, the nature of the country/vegetation, the maps and
the climate of the country. Most frequently, this information is about cities in
English-speaking countries rather than non-English speaking countries. The Ele-
mentary level and Pre-Intermediate textbooks primarily mention London, New
York, and Manchester and refer to them many times throughout the textbook,
while other cities are mentioned much less frequently in passages, conversations,
or pictures. The geographic information may assist students in getting acquainted
with a few English-speaking countries, but these textbooks disregard others. As
a consequence, while students may acquire an understanding of English culture
and appreciate the position of English in the contemporary world as an interna-
tional language (McKay, 2002; Sharifian, 2009), these two textbooks provide
limited information regarding its use in non-English speaking countries.
These textbooks also focus on cultural representations of the way people live
(opinions, conventions of behaviour, food, hobbies, and popular issues) under
the themes, namely “Dining etiquette”, “Greetings”, “Recreations”, and “Sports”.
The information focuses mainly on native target language countries and only
on a very few countries where English is spoken as a second language. Some
non-English speaking countries, such as France and Nepal, are mentioned, but
little is presented about French and Nepalese culture. Vietnamese culture is not
addressed in Lifelines Elementary and emerges once in Lifelines Pre-Intermediate.
Information illustrating the nature of communication (formal, semi-formal,
and informal), situations of interactions (people having conversations in different
contexts (at home, at the university, at the airport) about popular topics (fami-
lies, hobbies, holidays, entertainment)), social class (middle class, working class,
upper class), and occupational identity (different professions) are also the focus
Table 6.2 Top ten cultural themes presented in Vietnamese tertiary EFL textbooks
Ranking order in Subcategories/ Cultural Ranking order in Lifelines

Lifelines Elementary aspects Pre-Intermediate
1 Modes of addressing 1
2 Geographic features present 3
the country
3 Dining etiquette 5
4 Countries 8
5 Regional identity 4
6 Occupational identity 2
7 Greetings
8 Social class 7
9 Recreations 6
10 Sports
Degrees of formality 9
Situations of interactions 10
15032-1187e-2pass-r02.indd 72 6/5/2018 9:17:52 AM

throughout these textbooks. However, such cultural information is brief and out-
dated, which may hinder students’ learning process. From an ICC perspective,
these textbooks may not help students develop a thorough understanding of any
cultural background.
Cultural information presented in the textbooks

mostly relates to the target culture
Throughout the textbooks, English-speaking countries rather than non-English
speaking countries are the focus. Specific representations of English culture rang-
ing from daily lifestyles to national identity are presented. For example, systems
of address and the use of first names in Lifelines Elementary present characters
using first names in communicating with others, even with those they have met
for the first time. Full names are sometimes employed in the case of formally
introducing somebody in public, such as the case of being introduced by a broad-
cast presenter. The presentation of full names is also found outside of dialogue
passages in these textbooks. Most are English names. There is no instance of the
use of Vietnamese names and addressing systems. There is naming and address-
ing from other cultures, however with some examples.
Most examples of English in use is contextualised in England, Britain, the UK,
the United States, Australia, and Canada throughout the two textbooks. The
inclusion of different countries and places in EFL textbooks helps teachers cul-
tivate a global worldview among their students. The two Vietnamese EFL text-
books present several locations around the world, which enable teachers to bring
students to a multicultural world with the participation of people from diverse
countries and different regions within a country. These textbooks give students
the chances to investigate the representative countries of English culture, but
limit their exploration about countries where English can be used for intercul-
tural communication. In this sense, these textbooks may present insight into any
countries of English-speaking people; however, they did not explore intercultural
issues within these. Such knowledge focuses on training students to be more like
“native speakers” rather than “intercultural speakers”.
These textbooks link the teaching of English language to the introduction of
the dominant English-speaking countries and appear to ignore the claim that
foreign language students should be exposed to a variety of “others” by cre-
ating many opportunities for them to work with different cultures (Kramsch,
1997). Addressing intercultural issues within foreign language education moves
beyond providing students with geographic information. Presenting different
situations from different contexts helps to bring students into the real world,
because through this process students can develop understanding about “oth-
ers”. In these textbooks, countries provide a representation for “others”. The
inclusion of examples of how English is used in countries outside the Anglo-
sphere in EFL textbooks provides students with opportunities to develop greater
knowledge about “others”. Within the content of these textbooks, students may
only develop an outsider’s perspective appropriate for only English-speaking
15032-1187e-2pass-r02.indd 73 6/5/2018 9:17:52 AM

countries. In this sense, these textbooks do not provide enough intercultural con-
texts for students to work through. Students may not fully acquire intercultural
knowledge and skills. It is better for them to develop perspectives on their own
culture and other diverse cultures (Kramsch, 1997). The limitations of these two
textbooks’ content might restrict students to partial cultural understanding and
consequently they might experience unsuccessful cultural encounters.
It is rare to find in these textbooks information related to Vietnamese stu-
dents’ local culture. No mention of the cultural background of Vietnam is made
by the textbook writer in Lifelines Elementary, while only there is one reference
regarding Vietnamese war in Lifelines Pre-Intermediate. Numerous scholars sup-
port the significance of culture in foreign language education, particularly the
differences between cultures. Each country has its own culture, which people
from other countries should acknowledge to be able to make appropriate inter-
national interactions. The teaching and learning of foreign languages relies on
textbooks, especially when cultural information is concerned, because “the text-
book provided a potential core of information” for teachers and students (Byram,
Estarte-Sarries, & Taylor, 1991, p. 351). However, the Lifelines Elementary and
Lifelines Pre-Intermediate texts do not present students with many opportunities
to broaden their knowledge of their own cultural roots and ascertain the value of
their own identity. Therefore, these textbooks may not assist Vietnamese students
in developing a strong sense of self-awareness such that they are better able to
adapt themselves in communications across cultural contexts.
The two Vietnamese EFL textbooks contain different cultural elements
that aim to assist students in understanding and becoming familiar with the
cultural conventions of different countries around the world. Three sources
of culture are mentioned; however, the students have more opportunities to
work with the target culture. In the context of Vietnamese tertiary classrooms,
EFL students can build their cultural knowledge, because their current text-
books offer a cultural frame for them to work with. Nevertheless, the limited
cultural information about non-English speaking countries in these textbooks
has influenced them in creating intercultural communicative interactions with
other English language users. As they have little or no understanding of other
English language users’ cultural backgrounds, students may not know how to
conduct themselves properly or they may confront cultural challenges. Such
international interactions require the students to have appropriate intercultural
knowledge. Therefore, the study found that one of the shortcomings of these
textbooks is that they hinder students in demonstrating English intercultural
learning for the development of ICC.
Textbooks contain two groups of culture, including

“Big C” and “Little c” cultures
Throughout the textbooks, both “big C” and “little c” cultures are presented. In
terms of “big C” culture, these textbooks mention education, literature, music,
geography, and institutions, while “little c” culture is represented through the
15032-1187e-2pass-r02.indd 74 6/5/2018 9:17:52 AM

introduction of people’s ways of thinking, behaving, treating other people, or
using a language.
These textbooks introduce “Schools and education” to students by naming
several educational institutions (for example, Gordon Language School, Westin
High School, York University) and discussing the schooling of some textbook
characters (for example, Giani’s and Mary’s conversation in Getting started, Life-
lines Pre-Intermediate). Some examples of the social and political institutions are
named, including Midland Bank, Federal Reserve Bank, Bank of England, Bank
of France, Fort Knox post, Science Museum, and Grand Theatre. The “Law and
order” theme is discussed through an introduction to Britain’s laws, with a total
of 14 rules, and there is one reference to “Voting and elections”.
“National cultural heritage” is one among eight cultural checklists categories
defined by Byram (1993), which belong to the “big C” group. It describes the
valued historic products created by the members of a country that are passed
down from one generation to another. The two Vietnamese EFL textbooks
provide information about famous monuments, literary works, and art works
of English-speaking countries. Vietnamese EFL teachers using these textbooks
could help students obtain background knowledge about “facts and statistics
relating to the arts, history, geography, business, education, festivals and customs
of a target speech society” (Damar, 2013, p. 753). In other words, these text-
books enable students to obtain “big C” cultural knowledge.
These textbooks present students with opportunities to learn about invisible
“little c” culture. These cultural aspects may not be obvious or well known to
outsiders and may often create cross-cultural misunderstanding and communica-
tive obstacles. Many instances of “little c” culture provides a setting of interac-
tion and they combine to create a fully illustrated picture of human society from
different perspectives. People talk at a school, a hotel, a pub, a station, a clothes
shop, a travel agent’s, a doctor’s, work place, home, a party, and a concert, and
about families, hobbies, holiday, entertainment, shopping, health, daily life, and
future plans. These communicative situations reflect humans’ everyday activities,
which are one among seven cultural topics suggested for English programs by
the Council of Europe (2001). The teaching and learning of culture in English
language education is closely linked to the integration of “little c” culture. As
stated by Tomalin and Stempleski (1993), “little c” cultural knowledge plays a
very significant role in promoting students’ ICC, because it contributes to stu-
dents’ abilities to function socially in a cultural group/community. In such a
way, these textbooks may help Vietnamese students familiarise themselves with
foreign language societies, their people, and their life-styles. Consequently, they
may develop their English learning both linguistically and socio-culturally.
These textbooks enable Vietnamese EFL students to investigate English-
speaking people’s daily activities. They introduce characters enjoying themselves
via different forms of recreation to make their days and their lives more impor-
tant by different activities (watching television, playing the piano, listening to
music, eating out, going on holidays, going to the pub, going to the cinema).
Apart from this cultural content, the two textbooks portray people’s beliefs and
15032-1187e-2pass-r02.indd 75 6/5/2018 9:17:52 AM

behaviours, including people’s opinions on social problems (for example: noisy
neighbours in Unit 1, marrying without parents’ permission in Unit 3, Lifelines
Pre-Intermediate) or the belief about doing the right things (for example: treat-
ing other people well in Unit 9, Lifelines Elementary; being an honest person in
Unit 9, Lifelines Pre-Intermediate). The presentation of such cultural information
emphasises “the notion of developing a socialist citizen” (Doan, 2005, p. 451),
which enables teachers to integrate moral education into their EFL teaching
practices. The textbooks I analysed give students opportunities to learn about the
“perspectives, viewpoints and behaviours of people in such social relations as self
in relation to other persons, groups and organisations” (Doan, 2005, p. 452).
Such cultural content in these two textbooks is an example of a hidden curricu-
lum. It plays a significant part in EFL curriculum, assisting teachers in enacting
social and moral values in their pedagogies in order to prepare students for life
in multicultural societies, both academically and as moral citizens (Kaur, 2015).
In foreign language teaching and learning, the integration of “big C” and
“little c” cultures into teaching materials helps to raise students’ cultural aware-
ness. It also provides students with communicative strategies drawn from many
realistic situations in English contexts. As a result, students can develop their cul-
tural competence alongside their linguistic competence. These textbooks focus
on “big C” and “little c” cultures. They appear to be important cultural sources
for EFL teachers and students.
Textbooks focus on providing “Big C” and “Little c”

cultural knowledge rather than practical strategies
Lifelines Elementary and Lifelines Pre-Intermediate represent cultural content in
the form of information, through which students can demonstrate an under-
standing and awareness of “big C” culture and “little c” culture. Almost all of
the cultural instances in the texts provide students with factual information about
tangible creations (the representation of “big C” culture) and intangible crea-
tions (the representation of “little c” culture), but give few opportunities for
them to experience culture-based activities to improve their intercultural skills.
In these textbooks, culture is integrated with language content and serves as a
reference for teachers to facilitate the teaching of linguistic competence. Each
unit within these textbooks is divided into five linguistic sections, including
Grammar, Vocabulary, Reading and writing, Listening and speaking, and Pro-
nunciation. The learning tasks designed for each section aim to drill students in
grammar, vocabulary, and four language skills. There are no tasks or instructions
that guide teachers in dealing with cultural content. Although cultural content is
available in these textbooks, it is not provided as a separate or extra component
of EFL teaching and learning. The approach of the cultural content of these
textbooks does not allow students to engage in more interactive and experiential
learning activities, such as discovering aspects of a chosen culture or experiencing
the cultural context for themselves. These textbooks are insufficient for intercul-
tural education. English intercultural teaching and learning requires teachers to
15032-1187e-2pass-r02.indd 76 6/5/2018 9:17:52 AM

be aware of the important role of culture and the components of ICC (Byram,
1989; Deneme, Ada, & Uzun, 2011). Of the five significant abilities of ICC
(attitude, knowledge, skills of interpreting and relating, skills of discovery and
interaction, and critical cultural awareness (Byram, 1997), these textbooks focus
only on cultural knowledge. Consequently, these textbooks limit Vietnamese ter-
tiary EFL students’ mastery of ICC.
Providing cultural information can be understood as a first stage through
which students can enrich their cultural knowledge (Moran, 2011). In order
to become competent users of the studied language, students need to practise
using learned knowledge in communication across cultures. In this regard, stu-
dents should have opportunities to demonstrate not only an understanding of
different cultures, but also their abilities to make use of that knowledge in a
realistic context. The use of Lifelines Elementary and Lifelines Pre-Intermediate
in Vietnamese tertiary EFL classes enables teachers to infuse “big C” and “little
c” cultural knowledge into their students; however, it restricts them in providing
activities to develop students’ abilities to use English in pragmatic situations and
across cultures.
Textbooks restrict content regarding information

about history, stereotypes, and identity
The study revealed that the EFL textbooks introduce several cultural topics;
however, when it comes to national history, the information presented is brief
and simplistic. There are ten references to historical events, of which only one
is investigated in Lifeline Elementary. Further, there is no information in these
textbooks related to current periods and events in the constitution of a nation
and its identity. As the information provided is dated, there are no opportunities
for students to connect their learning to contemporary issues. Many scholars
state that learning historical information can help to introduce students to the
specific characteristics of a country alongside the common characteristics shared
with other countries (Dweik & Al-Sayyed, 2015; Parkes & Sharp, 2014). It can
also assist students to appreciate different cultures, and the different changes and
events occurring in a particular country. Students taught through an ICC peda-
gogy not only possess cultural knowledge of diverse countries, but also make a
clear distinction with others. As historical cultural background teaching is mostly
absent from these textbooks, students may not obtain a full understanding about
other cultures, and consequently may fail to develop ICC.
With regards to stereotypes and national identity, these textbooks provide
some facts about England, France, Russia, and the United States relating to
famous people, literary works, art works, and scientific achievements. The little
information provided is insufficient for students to gain any deep understanding
of these countries. EFL textbooks can provide insight into culture through dis-
cussions of social class, gender, and religion. These textbooks have missed those
opportunities to develop in Vietnamese students’ an extensive understanding of
diverse countries.
15032-1187e-2pass-r02.indd 77 6/5/2018 9:17:52 AM

Discussion
These Vietnamese tertiary EFL textbooks include both linguistic and cultural
information. Their linguistic content is more substantial than their cultural
content. These textbooks provide students with opportunities to learn English
both linguistically and culturally. However, they restrict students’ development
of cultural awareness through their focus on grammatical structures, vocabulary
items, phonetic rules, and the four language skills (reading, listening, speaking,
and writing). Furthermore, these EFL textbooks provide cultural information
in order to assist teachers in teaching linguistic competence. Cultural content
acts as a means to help students learn grammatical structures and syntactic rules,
but not social and cultural practices. Although these textbooks present cultural
information about foreign countries, they do not draw students’ attention to the
challenges that intercultural encounters may entail. In EFL classes, teachers using
only these textbooks may not address culture as a core component. They may
not help students demonstrate their learning of diverse cultures and strategies to
communicate across cultures. It would be better if EFL textbooks invite teachers
to incorporate intercultural teaching into their EFL instruction.
These textbooks were published in 1996. Many parts of these textbooks, espe-
cially those related to politics, science, population, and famous people are dated.
The information provided in these textbooks reflects the world of the 1990s,
from more than 20 years ago, in the areas of: people, lifestyle, viewpoints, society,
environment etc. While this dated cultural information may not affect students’
linguistic competence, it may lead to students’ misunderstandings or confusions.
Obtaining knowledge from textbooks is a valuable way to enable students to cul-
tivate a healthy and updated global view. These textbooks do not contain current
knowledge; therefore, they may adversely affect students’ learning.
The number of references to different cultural categories is distributed une-
qually in these textbooks. As presented in the previous sections, the most fre-
quent occurrence of references is to: “Social interaction”, “Belief and behaviour”,
“Social identity and social groups”, and “National geography”. In contrast, the
subject of “National history” receives the least amount of attention. These text-
books introduce students to the historical background of only a few countries.
Moreover, the embedded information is brief and simplified. In this sense, these
textbooks are insufficient for students to obtain a rounded understanding of any
cultural background.
The same unequal distributions of references to different cultural subcategories
are found in these textbooks. These textbooks provide students with opportu-
nities to demonstrate an understanding and awareness of “big C” and “little
c” cultures, however, the texts focus on introducing cultural information rather
than offering the practical strategies necessary for intercultural communication.
From an ICC perspective, students may be good at developing their intercultural
knowledge, but may have problems performing at an international communica-
tion level. These textbooks may not help students to apply learned knowledge
for the development of intercultural skills. In this sense, EFL textbooks could
15032-1187e-2pass-r02.indd 78 6/5/2018 9:17:52 AM

include content that involves students engaging in cultural practices around the
world, focuses them on cultural encounters, and prepares them for some of the
challenges in communication with people from different cultural backgrounds.
The cultural practices could be culture-specific and culture-general, as this may
enable students to obtain a clear understanding of specific countries and cul-
ture, as well as the cultural references to multicultural contexts. Additionally, the
textbooks can make it possible for students to explore the differences between
cultures and accumulate the strategies for coping with intercultural encounters.
These textbooks present three sources of culture: target culture, source cul-
ture, and international target culture. However, the number of references to dif-
ferent cultural sources is distributed unequally in these textbooks. Target culture
is highlighted through the introduction of cultural topics related to England and
the United States, while far fewer examples of specific cultural aspects refer to
international target culture. Information about the source culture or Vietnamese
culture is hardly included in either textbook, except for one reference in Lifelines
Pre-Intermediate. It might be more effective if EFL textbooks presented more
information about the students’ cultural background. Textbook designers could
provide students with more opportunities to learn about Vietnamese culture, so
that they can enhance their language learning.
The textbooks focus on the inclusion cultural backgrounds of some domi-
nant English-speaking countries, such as England, the United States, Canada,
Australia, and New Zealand instead of diverse cultures. It is suggested that the
textbook authors/providers should consider international and intercultural issues
when designing textbooks for EFL students. As English is used as a lingua franca
in contemporary society, it is important for EFL textbook designers to help EFL
learners communicate successfully with English users from different countries.
Cultural values/conventions vary across countries; therefore, the modes of com-
munication in English-speaking cultures may not be in harmony with those in
other cultures. As a result, English learners cannot use English-speaking cultures
as references for any intercultural interactions.
References
Aliakbari, M. (2004). The place of culture in the Iranian ELT textbooks in high school
level. Paper presented at the 9th Pan-Pacific Association of Applied Linguistics
Conference, Namseul University, Korea. Retrieved from www.paaljapan.org/
resources/proceedings/PAAL9/pdf/Aliakbari.pdf
Alptekin, C. (1993). Target-language culture in EFL materials. ELT Journal, 47(2),
136–143.
Brown, H. D. (1994). Principles of language learning and teaching (3rd ed.). Engle-
wood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall Regents.
Bui, H. A. (2000). Bàn về sự ảnh hưởng của các yếu tố văn hóa trong việc giảng dạy
ngoại ngữ trên cứ liệu giáo trình “Lifelines” (Discussion about the influences of cul-
tural aspects to foreign language teaching based on “Lifelines” textbook). Paper pre-
sented at the Culture element in foreign language teaching and learning, University
of Languages and International Studies, Hanoi, Vietnam.
15032-1187e-2pass-r02.indd 79 6/5/2018 9:17:52 AM

Byram, M. (1989). Cultural studies in foreign language education. Philadelphia:
Multilingual Matters.
Byram, M. (1993). Criteria for textbook evaluation. In M. Byram (Ed.), Germany:
Its representation in textbooks for teaching German in Great Britain (pp. 31–40).
Frankfurt am Main: Diesterweg.
Byram, M. (1997). Teaching and assessing intercultural communicative competence.
Clevedon, UK: Multilingual Matters.
Byram, M., Estarte-Sarries, V., & Taylor, S. (1991). Cultural studies and language
learning: A research report. Clevedon, UK: Multilingual Matters.
Cheng, W. W., Hung, L. C., & Chieh, L. C. (2011). Thinking of the textbook in the
ESL/EFL Classroom. English Language Teaching, 4(2), 91–96.
Choudhury, M. H. (2013). Teaching culture in EFL: Implications, challenges and
strategies. IOSR Journal of Humanities And Social Science, 13(1), 20–24.
Cortazzi, M., & Zin, L. (1999). Cultural mirrors, materials and methods in the EFL
classroom. In E. Hinkel (Ed.), Culture in second language teaching and learning
(pp. 196–219). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Council of Europe. (2001). Common European framework of reference for languages:
Learning, teaching and assessment. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Cunningsworth, A. (1995). Choosing your coursebook. Oxford: Heinemann.
Damar, E. A. (2013). Culture: Is it an avoidable or adorable concept in EFL set-
tings? Procedia – Social and Behavioral Sciences, 93, 752–755. doi:10.1016/j.
sbspro.2013.09.275
Davcheva, L., & Sercu, L. (2005). Culture in Foreign language teaching materials.
In L. Sercu, E. Bandura, P. Castro, C. Laskaridou, U. Lundgren, M. D. Carmen,
M. Garcia, & P. Ryan (Eds.), Foreign language teachers and international compe-
tence: An international investigation (pp. 90–109). Clevedon, UK: Multilingual
Matters.
Deneme, S., Ada, S., & Uzun, K. (2011). Teaching a Foreign language and Foreign
culture to young learners. International Journal of Business, Humanities and Tech-
nology, 1(1), 152–164.
Doan, D. H. (2005). Moral education or political education in the Vietnamese
educational system? Journal of Moral Education, 34(4), 451–463. doi:10.1080/
03057240500414733
Dweik, B. S., & Al-Sayyed, S. W. (2015). Analyzing the cultural content of Action
Pack “12”. International Journal of English Language and Linguistics Research,
3(2), 1–28.
Elham, N. M. (2013). Analysis of English language textbooks in the light of English
as an Intercultural Language (EIL): A comparative study. Intercultural Journal of
Research Studies in Language Learning, 2(2), 83–96.
Halliday, M. (1973). Explorations in the functions of language. London: Arnold.
Halliday, M. (1985). An introduction to functional grammar. London: Arnold.
Hutchinson, T. (1995a). Lifelines elementary. Great Clarendon Street. Oxford:
Oxford University Press.
Hutchinson, T. (1995b). Lifelines pre-intermediate. Great Clarendon Street, Oxford:
Jordan, G. (2004). Theory construction in second language acquisition. Philadelphia:
John Bensamins.
Kaur, S. (2015). Moral values in education. IOSR Journal of Humanities and Social
Science (IOSR-JHSS), 20(3), 21–26. doi:10.9790/0837–20332126
15032-1187e-2pass-r02.indd 80 6/5/2018 9:17:52 AM

Konieczka, J. (2013). The hidden curriculum as a socialization of schooling is in pro-
cess at all times, and serves to transmit messages to students about values, attitudes
and principles. Advanced Research in Scientific Areas, 2(6), 250–252.
Kramsch, C. (1997). The cultural component of language teaching. British Studies
Now, 8, 4–7.
Lee, J. F. K. (2014). A hidden curriculum in Japanese EFL textbooks: Gender repre-
sentation. Linguistics and Education, 27, 39–53.
Liddicoat, A. J., Papademetre, L., Scarino, A., & Kohler, M. (2003). Report on inter-
cultural language learning. Canberra, Australia: The Commonwealth Department
of Education, Science and Training.
Liu, S., & Laohawiriyanon, C. (2013). Cultural content in EFL listening and speak-
ing textbooks for Chinese university students. International Journal of English
Language Education, 1(1), 82–93.
McKay, S. L. (2000). Teaching English as an international language: Implications for
cultural materials in the classroom. TESOL Journal, 9(4), 7–11.
McKay, S. L. (2002). Teaching English as an international language. Oxford: Oxford
University Press.
Mitchell, R., & Myles, F. (2004). Second language learning theories (2nd ed.).
London: Arnold.
Moran, P. R. (2011). Teaching culture: Perspectives in practice. Boston, MA: Heinle &
Heinle.
Parkes, R. J., & Sharp, H. (2014). Nietzschean perspectives on representations of
national history in Australian school textbooks: What should we do with Gallipoli?
ENSAYOS, Revista de la Facultad de Educación de Albacete, 29(1), 159–181.
Sharifian, F. (2009). English as an international language: Perspectives and pedagogi-
cal issues. Salisbury, UK: Multilingual Matters.
Shin, J., Eslami, Z. R., & Chen, W-C. (2011). Presentation of local and international
culture in current international English-language textbooks. Language, Culture
and Curriculum, 24(3), 253–268. doi:10.1080/07908318.2011.614694
Sowden, C. (2007). Culture and the “good teacher” in the English Language class-
room. ELT Journal, 61(4), 304–310.
Tomalin, B., & Stempleski, S. (1993). Cultural awareness. Oxford: Oxford University
Press.
Wala, D. A. S. (2013). The instructional design of a coursebook is as it is because of
what it has to do – an application of systemic functional theory. In B. Tomlinson
(Ed.), Developing materials for language teaching (2nd ed., pp. 119–137). London:
Bloomsbury Publishing.
15032-1187e-2pass-r02.indd 81 6/5/2018 9:17:52 AM

Appendix A
Byram’s checklist of cultural content
in textbooks
Byram explores cultural content through eight areas (Byram, 1993, pp. 34–35):
• social identity and social groups: groups within the nation-state which are the
basis for other than national identity, including social class, regional identity,
ethnic minority, and which demonstrate the complexity of individuals’ social
identities and of a national society
• social interaction: conventions of behaviour in social interaction at differing
levels of formality, as outsiders and insiders within social groups
• belief and behaviour: routine and taken-for-granted actions within a social
group − national or sub-national − and the moral and religious beliefs which
are embodied within them; second, routines of behaviour taken from daily
life which are not seen as significant markers of the identity of the group
• social and political institutions: institutions of the state which characterise the
state and its citizens and which constitute a framework for ordinary, routine
life within the nation and sub-national groups; provision for health care, for
law and order, for social security, for local government etc.
• socialisation and life-cycle: institutions of socialisation – families, schools,
employment – and the ceremonies which mark passage through stages of
social life; presentation of divergent practices in different social groups, as
well as national auto-stereotypes of expectations and interpretations
• national history: periods and events, historical and contemporary in the con-
stitution of the nation and its identity – both significant and, not necessarily
identical, perceived as such by its members
• national geography: geographical factors within the national boundaries
which are significant in members’ perceptions of their country; other factors
which are information (known but not significant to members) essential to
outsiders in intercultural communication
• stereotypes and national identity: for example, German and English notions
of what is “typically” German and English national identity; the origins of
these notions – historical and contemporary – and comparisons among them;
symbols of national stereotypes and their meanings, e.g. famous people or
monuments and people
15032-1187e-2pass-r02.indd 82 6/5/2018 9:17:52 AM

Appendix B
A priori classification of data
Form 1: Social identity and social groups

Social class: the group of members of a society with the same social, economic, or
educational status (e.g. upper/middle class).
Regional identity: the distinct characteristic representing a group of people (e.g.
villagers, mining workers), the use of language and dialect (e.g. English, French,
Vietnamese), the location within a country (e.g. London, Sydney, New York).
Ethnic minority: small community that has different national or cultural
traditions from the majority of the population (e.g. Australian Aboriginal minority,
Aussielder, Karelia minority).
Occupational identity: the distinct kind of jobs employed by people (e.g.
teachers, workers, businessmen, reporters).
Form 2: Social interaction
Greetings: the way to welcome others by giving a word or a sign in meeting (e.g.
Hello, how are you, how are you going).
Modes of addressing: the use of names or names with titles to address people (e.g.
John, John Adamson, Mr/Dr Adamson).
Degrees of formality: the specific level of manner/action performed in
communication (e.g. formal, informal).
Situations of interactions: the condition or position in which the interactions take
place (e.g. two students have a conversation at the university).
Use of slang: the use of informal language characterising for a particular group of
people (e.g. No worries! Good on ya!).
Form 3: Belief and behaviour
Moral belief: the belief in principles of doing the right or wrong things or
standards of socially acceptable behaviour and character in daily activities (e.g. the
way to treat the elder or the youth, how to have appropriate behaviour in a party).
Religious belief: the belief in a supernatural power that control human destiny
(e.g. the belief for Christian religion).
Daily routines: the habit of doing the same things every day (for example, getting
up early, leaving home at 7am).
(Continued)
15032-1187e-2pass-r02.indd 83 6/5/2018 9:17:52 AM

Dining etiquette: the eating habits or polite manner (for example, kinds of food
such as rice, bread; the use of fork and knife).
Sports: the distinct kinds of activities requiring physical exertion, skill and
competition (for example, football, basketball).
Recreation: the activities that help people to refresh especially renew health and
spirits (e.g. listening to music).
Shopping: the act of searching or purchasing commodities from shops (e.g. buying
souvenirs, buying food and drink).
Form 4: Social and political institutions
State institutions: the organisations founded by the government for a specific
purpose (e.g. Parliament Office, banks).
Health care centres: the servicing places for preserving mental and physical health
or treating illness (e.g. hospital).
Law and order: legal document issued by the government (e.g. Britain’s laws:
What you can do when you are 18 years old).
Organisations: the groups of people working together for a specific purpose (e.g.
a business organisation).
Voting and elections: the act of choosing someone for a political position.
Form 5: Socialisation and life-cycle
Schools and education: the institutions for educating children (e.g. Jesmond
Public School, University of Newcastle).
Families: the groups of people having blood or marriage relationship living
together as social units (e.g. a family).
Employment: the state of giving work to someone or the occupation for which
someone is paid (e.g. a bicycle factory offers a lot of jobs for local people).
Ceremonies: the formal activity performed to celebrate a particular event which
marks significant moment in the life-cycle (e.g. engagement, wedding, birthday,
graduation, etc.).
Life-cycle: the series of changes in the life of a person (e.g. being born, pass away, age).
Form 6: National history
Historical periods and events represent national identity: the set of circumstances
happened in the past referring to the development of a country (e.g. Timeline of
Australian history, A history of England and Wales).
Contemporary periods and events represent national identity: the set of
circumstances happened at the present time referring to the development of a
country (e.g. Modern liberalism in the United States).
Form 7: National geography
Geographic factors: the features related to the area and population of the country,
the distribution of population, the distribution of industrial area or agricultural
area, the capital city, the climate etc.
Countries: the nation with its own government, occupying a territory (e.g. the
United States, England, Australia).
15032-1187e-2pass-r02.indd 84 6/5/2018 9:17:53 AM

States: the territory occupied by one political community under one government
within a country (e.g. New South Wales is a state of Australia, Florida is a state of
the United States).
Cities: the large towns of a country (e.g. London, Paris, New York).
Counties: the regions created by territorial division for local government (e.g.
Kent in England).
Districts: the areas of a town (e.g. Hollywood in the United States).
National parks: the large public area in a town used for recreations (e.g. Luna
park in Sydney, Australia).
Neighbouring countries and boundaries: the countries which are next to each
other or share boundaries (e.g. Peru and Bolivia, Italy and France).
Maps: the diagrammatic representation of an area of the earth (e.g. map of
England, map of Vietnam).
Climate: the weather of a location over a period of time (e.g. winter in Europe is
very cold and snowy).
Form 8: Stereotypes and national identity
National cultural heritage: the valued historic products that are created by
members in a country and were passed down from previous generation (e.g.
historic monuments, literary works, art works).
Famous monuments: the significant sites that are preserved as public properties
(e.g. the Opera House in Australia).
Literary works: the pieces of imaginative or creative writing (for example,
Hamlet – the tragedy written by Shakespeare).
Artworks: the collection of illustrations, photographs, or other non-textual
material prepared for inclusion in a publication (e.g. paintings, photos, music,
sculpture, films).
Famous people: the widely-known people (e.g. Bill Clinton – the former President
of the United States).
Flags: the rectangular cloths with distinctive designs representing countries (e.g.
the flag of Australia: a blue ensign defaced with the Commonwealth Star in the
lowest hoist quarter and the five stars of the Southern Cross in the fly half).
National buildings: the structures that are owned and maintained for public by
the national government (e.g. the National bank).
National stereotypes: the typical characteristics that describe people of any country
(e.g. some positive stereotypes of Americans include generosity, optimism,
hardworking, volunteerism, materialism, racism, and obesity).
Common symbols present the country: the visible things that by association present
the country (e.g. the cup with a map of Australia or the Opera House).
Notes: The elaborations of cultural themes are made based on Concise Oxford English Diction-
ary, Twelfth Edition, edited by Angus Stevenson and Maurice Waite, 2011.
15032-1187e-2pass-r02.indd 85 6/5/2018 9:17:53 AM

7 General English for
non-majors in
higher education
Loan Thi Lam
Recognising the importance of tertiary foreign language learning, Vietnamese

policy makers have developed plans to enhance the study of foreign languages
at Vietnamese universities. English is a global language and the dominant for-
eign language taught in Vietnam (Lam, 2011; Nguyen, 2011; Sullivan, 1996).
Vietnam’s international relationships and economic cooperation with such
organisations as the World Trade Organisation (WTO), World Bank (WB), Asia
Pacific Economic Cooperation (APECT), and the Association of Southeast Asian
Nations (ASEAN) (Crystal, 1997) rely on English for communication (To,
2010). Vietnamese employers require their employees to be proficient in English
(Son, 2011). Higher education students work to master English to prepare for
their future careers, but also to earn the opportunity to attend Vietnam’s interna-
tional universities or the chance to study overseas (Loi, 2011; Son, 2011).
Vietnamese foreign language education policy reflects the late 1980s, the
Open Door – “Doi Moi” policy pivot towards the West, particularly, the United
States. English replaced Russian and French as the dominant languages in Viet-
namese education. One of the first policies enacted by the Vietnamese govern-
ment was Circular No 442/TT, signed by the Prime Minister Vo Van Kiet, which
required Vietnamese government officials to master a foreign language, pref-
erably English (Vo, 1994). More recently, to improve the Vietnamese labour
force’s English proficiency for a twenty-first century economy, a national educa-
tion project, “Teaching and learning foreign languages in the national education
system in the period of 2008 – 2020”, and known as “the National Language
Project 2020” or “the Project 2020” was approved and launched in 2008. In this
Project, the Vietnamese government identified four foreign languages, English,
Chinese, Russian, and French, as optional subjects to be taught at all education
levels. Of these four foreign languages, English was identified as the main foreign
language (MOET, 2008; Nguyen, 2003). The current Refreshed 2020 Project
in the period of 2017–2020, which was approved on December 22nd, 2017,
focused on how to improve the English proficiency of Vietnamese labour force
at all levels. This Refreshed 2020 Project identified eight main targets by 2025:
creating a breakthrough in the quality of teaching and learning English; applying
advanced technology; creating communication environment; ensuring English
15032-1187e-2pass-r02.indd 86 6/5/2018 9:17:53 AM

General English for non-majors 87
capacity and pedagogical capacity of teachers; strengthening assessment; prior-
itising remote areas; socialising the role of language centres; and management
renovation (MOET, 2017).
Responding to both Projects, since 2008, the Vietnamese government has
invested in English teaching and learning in training English teachers, initi-
ated English course books from grades three to twelve, and held workshops on
improving teaching and learning English at all educational levels (Ngan, 2011).
In the higher education sector, an extensive English language program was imple-
mented. This program adopted the Common European Framework of Reference
for Language (CEFR), which was developed by the Council of Europe, as the
standard measure of English proficiency. Vietnamese policy makers hope that the
successful implementation of the Refreshed 2020 Project will contribute signifi-
cantly toward improving the quality of foreign language education, including the
General English programs.
It is important to note that the General English program application which
is consistent across all Vietnamese universities is different, however, from the
English applications provided by universities, most of which rely on applica-
tion formulations which differ from each other, and differ even more so from
the General English program application. Because of the complexity associated
with different requirements in language skills amongst universities, it has made it
very difficult to achieve consistent performance outcome assessments across the
nation. Given these discrepancies, there has been widespread debate and various
predictions that both of the Project 2020 will fail due to:
1 The inadequacy of the English proficiency assessment measures;

2 The restriction on time constraints which will not allow the program to take
effect by 2025 (The government of the Socialist Republic of Vietnam, 2016;
Thuy Linh, 2016).
Based on this likely failure, an intensive exploration of the effect of the CEFR
on teacher and student reflection within the contexts of General English pro-
grams in Vietnam was conducted at the end of 2017. This study was conducted
amongst first-year university students in Khanh Hoa Provinces, the central region
of Vietnam in which the CEFR was utilised as the primary measure of E nglish
proficiency. This study used questionnaires to explore the application of the
CEFR, given that “survey researchers collect quantitative, numbered data using
questionnaires, and statistically analyse the data to describe the trends” (Creswell,
2012, p. 376). The voluntary participants included 13 practising general English
teachers, and 513 voluntary general English students from two universities,
Khanh Hoa University and Nha Trang University.
This chapter also critically reviews the current stage of the CEFR standards to
identify possible explanations why tertiary graduates are not meeting these stand-
ards. Finally, the chapter will provide a brief analysis of the type of recommenda-
tions necessary for elevating the quality of general English education.
15032-1187e-2pass-r02.indd 87 6/5/2018 9:17:53 AM

88 General English for non-majors
Common European Framework of Reference for
Language (CEFR)
The Common European Framework of Reference for Language (CEFR) meas-
ures the specific level of language proficiency of participants in the test. The
European Union Council Resolution declared that all European countries should
set up “systems of validation of language ability” in November 2001 (The Coun-
cil of Europe’s, 2011, p. 1). The CEFR has been increasingly adopted in many
countries in the Middle East, Australasia, Latin America, and Asia, including
Vietnam (Cambridge University, 2013). Schools, colleges, and universities use
this common framework for describing, assessing, and identifying language pro-
ficiency levels of learners, from beginner, intermediate, to advanced levels. The
CEFR consists of six reference levels of proficiency, such as basic user (including
levels A1, A2), independent user (including levels B1, B2), and proficient user
(including levels C1, C2). Listening, reading, writing, and speaking skills are
featured in each level to capture the learners’ language progress. MOET (The
Ministry of Education and Training) issued a circular (Circular No. 01/2014/
TT-BGDĐT on January 24th, 2014) to identify an adopted framework known
as the Common Framework of Reference for Language in Vietnam (CEFR-VN).
The CEFR-VN points out similarities and highlights six distinct levels: 1, 2, 3, 4,
5, 6, of which level one is equivalent to A1; level two is equivalent to A2; level
three is equivalent to B1; level four is equivalent to B2; level five is equivalent to
C1; and level six is equivalent to C2. It is imperative to acknowledge that distinct
names have been ascribed to distinguish the names of the six reference levels of
proficiency in the CEFR-VN.
This framework is designed to accommodate both students majoring in E nglish
and those who are studying English at a more general level. For the General
English program, university students need to achieve level three (B1), and college
students need to achieve level two (A2) to graduate; students who are considered
ethnic minorities (including highland and tribal students) need only to achieve a
lesser proficiency level of 2/6 (A2) by the time they graduate.
To contextualise the experiences drawn from students enrolled in different univer-
sities in Khanh Hoa Province, it will be very helpful to review the English programs
as they exist in the curriculum of the universities who have applied the CEFR-VN.
CEFR-VN Application
Responding to the CEFR-VN, various Vietnamese universities adopted differ-
ent ways to organise the General English program, especially in placement tests,
performance outcomes, and disparity in class levels as they relate to achieving a
successful graduation.
Placement Tests
Placement assessments refer to the tests which measure the English proficiency
levels of students so that they are placed in classes appropriate to their level of
15032-1187e-2pass-r02.indd 88 6/5/2018 9:17:53 AM

proficiency. Because the placement tests were independently designed by each
university involved in the CEFR-VN, the resulting measure of students’ profi-
ciency is being evaluated with different emphases on what each university val-
ues and regards as necessary to the students’ efficient command of English. The
problem is that the results of the students’ tests reflect skills which are inconsist-
ently represented in the CEFR-VN. This being so, it is difficult to rely on the
outcome of the placement tests, because the test scores have been evaluated dif-
ferently in each university. For example:
In Sai Gon University, the General English program is divided into three class
levels:
• English I, included two credits – 30 periods (one period is 50 minutes)

• English II, included two credits – 30 periods
• English III, included three credits – 45 periods
English I is the most basic level of the General English program. Students are
required to do a placement test which includes their listening, speaking, read-
ing, and writing skills. The maximum test score is 100. If the test score is from
30 to less than 60, students will be relocated in a lower level class which is called
“English foundation two”. If the test score is under 30 students are relocated
to a more basic class which is designated as “English foundation one” (Sai Gon
University, 2014). Students who achieve scores of 60 up to 100 remain in the
basic English class at level one of the General English program. Upon reflection,
it seems inefficient to oblige students who have achieved a perfect score of 100 to
remain at the same level of classroom learning which they have proven already to
have mastered. How are these students supposed to improve their English if the
only things they are being taught are equivalent to the things they already know
and the skills they already possess? This is an issue which I believe badly needs to
be addressed. For those who received the English certificate B (at National level)
and A2 (as identified in the CEFR), TOEIC 400, TOEFL PBT 400, TOEFL iBT
35, IELTS 4.0, there is no need to take the placement test (Sai Gon University,
2014).
In Da Nang University of Technology, students’ levels were also determined by
placement tests. Different from Sai Gon University, the placement tests included
only listening skills, reading skills, and grammar, while the test itself consisted
of multiple choice questions. The maximum test score was the same as Sai Gon
University, though the scores were evaluated differently to place students in class
levels which were consonant with their English skills. The General English pro-
gram was divided into five classes:
• Class level A1, included five credits

• Class level A2.1, included three credits
• Class level A2.2, included four credits
• Class level B1.1, included seven credits
• Class level B1.2, included seven credits
15032-1187e-2pass-r02.indd 89 6/5/2018 9:17:53 AM

If the students’ score falls under 35, they are placed in the study class A1 which
is the most basic level (equivalent to 60 periods x 50 minutes). For those students
whose performance level ranges from 35 to 69, they will have another opportunity
to continue their study in class A2.1. Other students more competent in E nglish
who achieve higher scores from 70 to 84, will be placed in study class A2.2; and
those students whose performances range from 85 –100, will be afforded an
opportunity to study in class B1.1 (seven credits). After performing well at level
B1.1, the brightest students from this group will be advanced to study English at
the highest level B1.2 (seven credits). Students who graduate university major-
ing in English, and who have achieved an English certificate above level A2 are
not required to sit for the placement test. Students who have already obtained
a certificate issued by ETS (Educational Testing Service, United States), or the
British Council, or ESOL (English for Speakers of Other Languages, England),
including a certificate from the IDP (International Development Program, Aus-
tralia), will have attained an English proficiency level equivalent to the certificate
performance level they achieved (Da Nang University of technology, 2016).
The placement tests are implemented specifically to measure the level of each
student’s English proficiency upon their initial entrance to the university. Given
these placement tests, the students are enrolled in a suitable class level of the
General English program which is consistent with their skills. Associated with the
placement tests, all students intending to graduate are required to demonstrate
that their English proficiency levels are sufficient to meet the standards of compe-
tency set by the university. The required level of student performance for students
to graduate varies to some extent amongst the universities involved.
Performance outcomes
The required tertiary performance standard for English competency will thus
be flexible. This being so, the student performance level in General English is
unlikely to be uniform, even if they applied the CEFR-VN. For example, MOET
requires that university graduates of General English achieve at least a level B1
performance level. The level of B1 is equivalent to the standard set by TOEIC
450, TOEFL PBT 450, TOEFL iBT 45, or even IELTS score of 4.5 (MOET,
2012). It is thus clear that the “standard” of English performance can be quite
varied amongst universities.
General English students who studied at the University of Agriculture and For-
estry of Ho Chi Minh City since 2008 were considered to have met the required
outcome performance, if they satisfy one of the following criteria:
• Having received one of the international English certificates: namely, TOEFL

400, TOEIC 450, IELTS 4.5, PET 70, BULATS 40
• Having an English proficiency equivalent to B1 from the CEFR, students
will have to procure the certificate of competency from the Center for For-
eign Languages of Nong Lam University in Ho Chi Minh City.
15032-1187e-2pass-r02.indd 90 6/5/2018 9:17:53 AM

Thus, the required TOEFL of this university was 50 points lower compared to
the CEFR-VN. Similarly, Ho Chi Minh City University of Transport stipulates
that students need to achieve IELTS score of 4.0. This score is 0.5 points lower
than the standard set by MOET (Nguyen, n.d.).
In contrast to the University of Agriculture and Forestry of Ho Chi Minh City
and Ho Chi Minh City University of Transport, some universities including Ho
Chi Minh City University of Technology, Ho Chi Minh City University of Law,
Foreign Trade University and Hoa Sen University raised their outcome perfor-
mance standard for their students (Hoa Sen University. (2011). These outcome
performances were higher than the CEFR-VN, such as IELTS 5.0, TOEIC iBT
64 (Nguyen, n.d.), even though there is an absence of socio-economic data to
explain this discrepancy. Interestingly, Hoa Sen University has such regulations
as to equip students with the foreign language skills necessary to be able to read
materials in different foreign languages or
to take part in some (or all) specialised
subjects taught entirely in English. At the same time, such regulations meet the
outcome learning standard of the university curriculum, thereby helping students
to gain confidence and the ability to communicate fluently and effectively in the
work environment, thus meeting international standards.
Da Nang University of Technology, however, had more flexible criteria for
the anticipated performance outcomes. For example, for B1, IELTS ranges from
4.0 – 4.5; TOEFL BPT ranges from 450 – 477; TOEFL iBT ranges from 45 –
53; and the range for TOEIC is 450 – 595 (Da Nang University of technology,
2016).
The different university requirements for English proficiency outcomes reveal
that the universities applied the CEFR-VN differently depending on each of
their own contexts. This being so, the class standards which are organised to
maximise the student performance outcomes were different amongst the various
universities.
Class levels
With the high demand placed on of the learning of general English as identi-
fied by MOET in Project 2020 and Refreshed 2020 Project, General English
has become a compulsory subject in higher education. All students, apart from
English major students, must learn general English. The required performance
outcome for college students to achieve is at level two (equivalent to A2 in the
CEFR) and university students to achieve is at level three (equivalent to B1 in
the CEFR). Different class levels were organised to facilitate student learning.
The class levels, however, were different from universities even in the same prov-
ince. For example, in the Khanh Hoa University context, the CEFR of Khanh
Hoa University (CEFR-KH) consists of eight class levels: A1.1, A1.2, A2.1,
A2.2, A2.3, B1.1, B1.2, and B1.3, of which the class levels A1.1 and A1.2 are
equivalent to level A1 of the CEFR. Correspondingly, the class levels A2.1, A2.2,
and A2.3 are equivalent to level A2 of the CEFR; the class levels B1.1, B1.2, and
15032-1187e-2pass-r02.indd 91 6/5/2018 9:17:53 AM

B1.3 are equivalent to level B1 of the CEFR. However, Nha Trang University
decided to organise different class levels. For example, the CEFR of Nha Trang
University (CEFR-NT) consists of five class levels: A1, A2.1, A2.2, B1.1, and
B1.2, of which the class level A1 is equivalent to level A1 of the CEFR. Similarly,
the class levels A2.1 and A2.2 are equivalent to level A2 of the CEFR, while the
class levels B1.1, and B1.2, are equivalent to level B1of the CEFR.
Universities have different ways to adapt the CEFR-VN, given their contexts
of specialisation as mentioned earlier. In other words, universities design their
own general English programs to improve the general English proficiency of
university students, depending upon the occupations in which they are expecting
their students to engage. Universities are flexible in applying the General English
program mentioned in the CEFR-VN by their context. During the process of
implementing the CEFR-VN, many universities share similar challenges which
in turn influenced the learning and teaching process. The substantial differences
in implementing the CEFR-VN amongst universities, especially in the case of
placement tests, performance outcomes, and specific class levels represent the
challenges confronted in teaching and the learning processes which reflect the
findings of this research. Given the complexity of these challenges, the objectives
of the CEFR-VN might not be successfully implemented by 2025.
Discussion
General English students receive support from their university and teachers.
Thanks to the CEFR, the university is now able to identify the performance
standards for students to meet the current English requirement. University lead-
ers have tried to promote this positive framework by training teachers at every
level, from primary to higher education. By improving teaching ability and skills,
it is evident that teaching English in the classroom is greatly facilitated. In addi-
tion, using textbooks and relevant technology has served to enhance and comple-
ment the teaching activities which have been supported by MOET (UNESCO,
2007). Not only students but also teachers take advantages of using the CEFR.
As the University of Cambridge reports, “It is a basic for individualising learning,
as for each learner there is an optimal level at which they should be working. It
allows teaching to focus on the strengths and weaknesses which are helping or
hindering learners” (University of Cambridge, 2011, p. 13). The new focus on
learning activities engages students to become involved in processes of learning
which are now more active than passive.
Universities have different ways to adapt the CEFR-VN in their context as
mentioned previously. In other words, universities design their own general
English programs in order to improve the general English proficiency of univer-
sity students. Universities are flexible in applying the General English program
mentioned in the CEFR-VN by their context. During the process of implement-
ing the CEFR-VN, many universities share similar negative factors which influ-
enced the learning and teaching process. These factors might cause the unsatisfied
application result of the CEFR-VN.
15032-1187e-2pass-r02.indd 92 6/5/2018 9:17:53 AM

Problems encountered during the process of

implementing the CEFR-VN
The General English program was designed to improve the English proficiency
of learners; however, most of the student and teacher participants mentioned
the negative experience they had encountered during the teaching and learning
process. This study highlights the process of higher education students learning
general English including the factors influencing and shaping this process. These
factors include motivation, teacher engagement, the learning schedule, and com-
munication environment.
Motivation
Students who lacked motivation in learning English gave some examples of
their own unwillingness to study sufficiently hard, especially when having to
review their previous lessons, pay strict attention to the teacher’s lectures,
thus sometimes preferring to sleep in the classroom rather than listen to their
teachers. As a consequence, these unmotivated students often make themselves
absent from school to avoid academic challenges. Students who studied basic
English from year three discovered that when they entered university, their
English proficiency even at the basic level had been lost. A number of students
conceded that the demise of their English proficiency was due to their failure
in practising their English continuously. Other students pointed out that their
lack of competency in English was simply due to a lack of motivation, which
could be regarded as a form of not being interested in learning. The description
by some students of the loss of their basic English skills was reported in differ-
ent ways. For example, one of them stated that “my listening skills and speak-
ing skills are very weak, so I do not even understand what the teacher said”.
Another respondent explained that his weak English skills were a result of his
not having enough opportunities to speak English with those whose English
was superior to his own. Given this problem, he considered: “I do not know
anything about English; my vocabulary is weak; I can hardly speak any English;
my pronunciation is bad; I am terrible at English grammar; and I use Google to
translate any writing I have to do in English”. This situation creates a problem
for these students who attend university, because by the time they get there,
they either prefer not to speak English or they have completely lost their com-
mand of and interest in the language. It is difficult to conceive that students
who had a reasonable grasp of the English language in year 12 could so quickly
find themselves no longer able to speak, write, or even understand English.
The placement test result also confirmed the low levels of the students’ English
proficiency. The majority of students (90%) was organised to study at level A1
which is considered to represent the English outcome standards for high school
graduate students. On the basis of this placement test score, it is actually a chal-
lenge for teachers and university policy makers to succeed in training students
to achieve the required performance outcomes.
15032-1187e-2pass-r02.indd 93 6/5/2018 9:17:53 AM

Teachers also regarded the lack of student motivation as the primary impedi-
ment to learning English. Furthermore, teachers commented that their own diffi-
culties in endeavouring to teach English have been hampered by the unmotivated
attitudes of their students. This loss of the basic English language speaking skills
students developed from years three to twelve caused a number of problems. One
difficulty confronting students was that they found it extremely difficult to follow
up further lessons in English, because they no longer had a working facility with
the language. Teachers find it extremely challenging to have to create new lessons
by way of which they can efficiently resurrect the loss of the basis English skills for
students. What makes it even more complex is their trying to obtain the required
level of English proficiency, especially when the time students have in the class-
room in an English language learning context is rigorously limited.
Student’s lack of interest may have been result of a lack of motivation. There
were three main motivations that influenced the students enrolled in General
English. These processes included development-motivation, intrinsic-motivation,
and obligation-motivation. Development motivation relates to the students’
awareness of integral importance of achieving a high standard of English for their
future careers. This level of student awareness will help them to generate attitudes
of positive thinking about their language learning process (Βρεττού, 2011). Given
their goals, they became motivated to achieve a high level of English facilities to
prepare them for their future professional employment prospects. Students have
developed an undaunted desire to secure a good job and develop a strong career
pathway to follow graduation. To meet the standards of employability, students
undertaking general English were inspired by development motivation to achieve
a high standard of English. As a result, students studying General English set up
their targets and study plans to advance individual development, and then find a
variety of ways to continue to practise English.
The other main determinant was intrinsic motivation. Intrinsic motivation
encouraged their determination to develop a range of internal interests and pas-
sions. Students began to feel autonomous and sufficiently competent to learn to
speak English well if they were placed in relevant class levels, and had a background
of English. Students felt obligated rather than interested in learning English.
These feelings were enshrined in their responses, though several them were “not
sure whether they would keep on learning English after completing their general
English program”. Some students only studied to meet the outcome requirement
to graduate and get a degree, and once they achieved that goal they no longer had
any interests in continuing to learn English. They had no commitment to continu-
ing to learn and practise English. Students were unable to recognise the life-long
importance of learning English. Thus, the less they felt competent about learning
English, the lower levels of intrinsic motivation they had.
The lower levels of intrinsic motivation also complement the concept of obli-
gation motivation which derived from the university. Students studying Gen-
eral English identified their purposes in being willing: “to achieve the English
learning outcome standard as required by university” and “because of the school
15032-1187e-2pass-r02.indd 94 6/5/2018 9:17:53 AM

required program”. Students felt they were obligated to learn English rather than
being able to enjoy learning it.
To increase intrinsic student motivation, teachers can learn to play an essen-
tial role in improving the level of their students’ proficiency in how to learn
English. However, the absence of a deep understanding by teachers about Project
2020 and Refreshed 2020 Project, the low level of teacher enthusiasm, and their
lack of socio-cultural experience in an English-speaking country made it difficult
for them to teach as effectively as those who have been trained in an English-
speaking country.
Level of the teacher engagement

Students’ motivation to learn English was also greatly influenced by lecturers.
The lecturers organised the class activities. These learning activities are effective
or not depending on how teachers create and carry out these activities. How-
ever, some teachers did not grasp the target of the General English program. For
example, the General English program in some universities was carried out by
their language centres. Some centres recruited some teachers from outside the
institution, and these teachers assumed that they would not have the opportunity
to benefit from any of the ideas drawn from the targets defined by Project 2020
and Refreshed 2020 Project. These outside teachers had either neutral opinions
or “no opinion” at all. As one of the teachers reported, they had “no idea” of
what was happening in Project 2020 and Refreshed 2020 Project. These teachers
did not have much experience in teaching General English. Not understanding
the project target, and their lack of experience led to these teachers being less
effective at conveying the knowledge required and in advancing the purposes of
transferable knowledge.
The level of the teachers’ enthusiasm also influenced the students’ motivation.
While teachers did the task of teaching, they did not show any positive emotions
or passions for the lessons they gave. As one student observed “there are some
teachers who are not enthusiastic, they are not excited in class, and they obviously
did not enjoy teaching”, “Teachers do not have much fun when they come to
class”, “Teachers only care about the results without paying attention to the com-
prehension of the students”. Noticeably, the students felt intrinsically motivated
only when they felt connected to these significant teachers. The half-hearted atti-
tudes of teachers have caused the low level of intrinsic motivation and increased
obligation motivation in students studying General English.
Students’ engagement in class activities also related to socio-cultural compe-
tencies of teachers. The English learning reflects the belief that “language teach-
ing is culture teaching” (Byram, 1989, p. 42). Teachers need to understand the
“cultural onion” (Shaules, 2010, p. 15) of English-speaking countries. However,
General English teachers had limited familiarity with English languages usage
in these countries. For instance, a few of them hold a teaching degree from an
English-speaking country.
15032-1187e-2pass-r02.indd 95 6/5/2018 9:17:53 AM

Timetabling
Regarding constraints on learning and teaching, both students and teachers rec-
ognised that facilities and a shortage of study time were of paramount impor-
tance. These issues were reported frequently, especially by teacher participants.
Most of the teachers proposed that the studying time schedule should be edited.
The time for them to transfer knowledge is not enough, so sometimes they had to
give a quick and short lecture, otherwise they cannot catch up with the teaching
schedule associated with the required lesson plan. Teacher participants reported
“the studying time is limited”, “it should reduce the learning content or increase
the studying time”. For the students, an identical schedule of the two classes has
influenced their studying, for instance “My gymnastics and English classes are
scheduled at the same time”. It can be argued that the students are overloaded
with too many classes. Thus, the inevitable decision to resolve the problem is
that either the teaching time in the classroom increases in time or the required
content will need to be reduced.
The General English program schedule and activities also reviewed some dis-
advantages. One informant noted that, for each level, the CEFR identifies the
relevant guided learning hours which is “the time that learners will typically need
to spend undertaking various activities to achieve the qualification” (Isb, 2015.
p. 3). Another informant added that it also refers to “the hours of guided learn-
ing under the immediate guidance or supervision of a lecturer, supervisor, tutor
or other appropriate provider of education or training” (LC, n.d.). In this frame-
work of the CEFR, for instance, the specific learning hours under the guidance of
teachers is approximately 90 – 100 hours for level A1. However, the actual time
required for level A1 of the CEFR-KH (87.5 hours) is lower than the require-
ment of the CEFR. At the higher level A2 (125 hours) and B1 (125 hours),
the guided learning hours are extended, thereby further approximating the
required CEFR (180 – 200 hours for level A2, and 350 – 400 hours for level B1).
Although the learning hours are not enough for students, the problem is they
also missed some classes due to the overlapping learning schedule. In fact, they
were expected to attend two classes simultaneously on the same day. Students
mentioned they sometimes could not attend the General English class without
missing another class. Regarding their self-learning, the students did not take any
extraneously offered English courses, only the courses at the university. And the
time for self-learning which was available was calculated to be only 1 – 5 hours
a week. Limited guided learning hours at the university and self-learning hours
may thus serve as impediments to a more effective learning experience in English.
Although there are placement tests to determine the level of English speak-
ing, listening, reading, and writing skills, the actual level of skills is very different
from one student to another, each of which has very different learning needs. For
instance, some students who were once good in their reading skills must study
with other students whose skills were not good in reading but good at speaking,
listening, and writing end up with the same combined marks due to the dispa-
rate proficiency among the students with respect to the skills they are good at.
15032-1187e-2pass-r02.indd 96 6/5/2018 9:17:53 AM

Unequal proficiency levels in a class not only slow the learning processes associ-
ated with their basic level of language acquisition, but also cause considerable
difficulties for the teachers endeavouring to transfer knowledge.
Communication environment
Students also lack support in opportunities for extra curriculum activities in
which English is spoken both inside and outside the classroom. Another salient
point to be emphasised is that most students have never had an opportunity to
study English under the guidance of native speakers. In addition, even for those
who have obtained a reasonable competency in spoken English from the classes,
the problem is that they do not have the necessary opportunities to practise their
English speaking, due to a lack of English-speaking environments in which their
practice of English could be facilitated. This being so, it is vital that we encourage
English learning activities that otherwise would not generally happen in the class-
room or indeed outside of it in the context of some outdoor activities. Because
the practice of spoken English only rarely takes place in the classroom, it is of par-
amount importance to provide opportunities for the practice of English to occur
in a range of community contexts (OECD, 2010, p. 3). As we have discussed,
both inside classroom learning activities and outside classroom environments are
enormously important for students to reflect on what they have learned both
inside and outside the classroom. Making it possible for these learning oppor-
tunities to happen is a crucial goal if ever we are to maximise the opportunities
required for career success in Vietnam.
Considerations
There was a wide variety of factors which negatively affected the English learning
processes experience by students at the university. Among these factors are a lack
of motivation, the level of the teachers’ enthusiasm, insufficient guided learning
hours, learning environments which do not foster the speaking of English, the
students’ all loss of their basic English skills, and the different levels of specific
skills proficiency in a class.
Students are mostly extrinsically motivated to learn general English (i.e. to
respond to the required English program from the university, provided by Gen-
eral English teachers who hope to effectively prepare their students for a success-
ful career). One of the things that is needed for assisting students to understand
the importance of learning English is the potential they must maximise their
career success by acquiring a competence in English. We need to make them feel
that learning English is both interesting and enjoyable. Doing so may motivate
them to engage more in English learning activities, and as a result, they become
more responsible for their learning achievement.
In addition, to enhance General English students’ intrinsic motivation, it is
better to reduce the feeling of obligation in learning English. It is important for
university authorities and teachers to make the students feel that recapturing their
15032-1187e-2pass-r02.indd 97 6/5/2018 9:17:53 AM

basic level of English proficiency is important and to focus on the basic English
skills they would like to improve.
It is evident that university authorities and teachers should organise or hold
extra-curricular activities, such as English workshops, English seminars, or even
English learning clubs. These activities do not only stimulate students to explore
and to use English independently, but they also help them to develop English
language speaking environments, where authentic English communication can
be implemented.
Regarding the different levels of English proficiency in a class, the placement
test might have practical issues. For instance, the placement tests were designed
by the university staff, and the test did not have any criteria and or guidelines on
which to base the assessment, as is supported by the research of Yuko (2000)
who said that “there is no established procedure or theoretical foundation for
test development nor a guideline for statistical analysis that each school should
follow” (p. 243). From this it follows that the placement test might not be able
to identify the correct English proficiency levels of students. It is evident that we
should be very careful in delivering evaluation and learning measurement with a
high degree of certainty. Second, although the placement test modestly measured
the four skills (speaking, listening, reading, and writing skills), the students were
nonetheless placed in their class depending on their total marks of the four skills.
It is suggested that the classes should be reorganised without criteria based on
four combined skills which could otherwise be assessed individually in the place-
ment test. In other words, students should be able to sit the exam in different
classrooms which reflect the different proficiency levels of the students involved.
To enhance more support for students, especially creating a social-cultural and
practical learning environment, exchange teacher programs or sending teach-
ers to be trained in oversea countries should be supported by the government.
It is recommended that General English teachers should undertake courses on
native English cultures or cultural programs to improve their understanding of
the cultural input on the speaking of English within distinct culture frameworks.
English-speaking countries can thus provide teachers with English-speaking
experience designed to enhance students’ motivation by focusing on the practice
of English using innovative methods of giving feedback.
Furthermore, it should be ensured that the English outcome standard of stu-
dents at high schools is achieved by fostering their learning English while they are
at secondary and high schools. Regarding students’ English outcome standards, a
Language Testing Centre for the whole country should be established for testing,
so that we can avoid the disparity levels in various educational institutions.
References
Βρεττού, A. (2011). Patterns of language learning strategy use by Greek-speaking young
learners of English. Retrieved from https://www.didaktorika.gr/eadd/handle/
10442/24616
Byram, M. (1989). Cultural studies in foreign language education. Clevendon, Phila-
delphia: Multilingual Matters.
15032-1187e-2pass-r02.indd 98 6/5/2018 9:17:53 AM

Cambridge University. (2013). Introductory guide to the Common European Frame-
work of Reference (CEFR) for English language teachers. Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press. Retrieved from www.englishprofile.org/images/pdf/GuideTo
CEFR.pdf
The Council of Europe’s (2011). Common European framework of reference for
languages: Learning, teaching, assessment. Retrieved from www.coe.int/t/dg4/
linguistic/Source/Framework_EN.pdf
Creswell, J. W. (2012). Educational research planning, conducting and evaluating
quantitative and qualitative research (4th ed.). Boston: Pearson.
Crystal, D. (1997). English as a global language. Cambridge: Cambridge University
Press.Da Nang University of technology. (2016). Quyet dinh so 389/QD-DHBK
ngay 10 thang 10 nam 2016 ve viec ban hanh “Quy dinh ve yeu cau nang luc tieng
Anh doi voi sinh vien dai hoc he chinh quy”. [Decision No. 389/QD-DHBK dated
10 October 2016 on launching “English Proficiency Requirements for Full-Time
University Students.” Da Nang city, Vietnam. Retrieved from http://daotao.
dut.udn.vn/Content/PDF/TinTuc/QCQD_Daihoc_QD389_QuyDinhNang
LucTiengAnh_DH_CTDTDaiTra.pdf
The Government of the Socialist Republic of Vietnam. (2016). Toan canh: Bo truong
Phung Quang Nha tra loi chat van [Overview: Minister Phung Xuan Nha responds to
questions]. The government of the Socialist Republic of Vietnam, Hanoi, Vietnam.
Retrieved from http://baochinhphu.vn/Thoi-su/TOAN-CANH-Bo-truong-
Phung-Xuan-Nha-tra-loi-chat-van/291659.vgp
Hoa Sen University. (2011). Quyet dinh so 1321/QD-BGH ngay 23 thang 9 nam 2011
ve viec “Cap nhat, bo sung mot so dieu cua quy dinh hoc va chuan dau ra ngoai ngu
thu nhat trong chuong trinh dao tao chinh quy theo he thong tin chi truong Dai hoc
Hoa Sen ban hanh theo quyet dinh so 738–2010/QD-BGH ngay 31/08/2010”. [Deci-
sion No. 1321/QD-BGH dated 23 September 2011 on “Updating and supplementing
some articles of the regulations and standards for the first foreign language in the
formal training program under the credit system of Hoa Sen University issued in
accordance with the Decision No.738–2010 / QD-BGH dated 31/08/2010]. Ho Chi
Minh city, Vietnam. Retrieved from www.sinhvien.hoasen.edu.vn/sites/default/
files/2013/10/user29/quy_dinh_hoc_nn1_he_tc_2011_0.pdf
Information Standards Board (Isb), (2015). Standards development business analy-
sis report for guided learning hours/credit value. ISB publication. Retrieved from
https://data.gov.uk/education-standards/sites/default/files/ISB000332-
Standards-Development-Business-Analysis-Report-Guided-Learning-Hours-v0-6.
pdf
Lam, T. L. (2011). The impact of Vietnam’s globalization on national education
policies and teacher training programs for teachers of English as an international
language: A case study of the University of Pedagogy in Ho Chi Minh city. (Ed. D
Thesis 3463876), Alliant International University, San Diego, CA.
Loi, N. V. (2011). Dynamic conceptions of input, output and interaction: Vietnamese
EFL lecturers learning second language acquisition theory. (Ph.D. Thesis), University
of Waikato, New Zealand.
Language Cert (LC), (n.d). Guided learning hours. Retrieved from http://www.
languagecert.org/en/Qualifications/Guided-Learning-Hours/Pages/Guided-
Learning-Hours.aspx
MOET. (2008). Quyet dinh ve viec phe duyet de an “Day va hoc ngoai ngu trong
he thong giao duc quoc dan giai doan 2008–2020. No. 1400/QD-TTg. [Decision
15032-1187e-2pass-r02.indd 99 6/5/2018 9:17:53 AM

No. 1400/QD-TTg on the approval of the project “Teaching and learning foreign lan-
guage in the national education system in the period 2008–2020]. Hanoi, Vietnam:
Vietnam National Politic Publications.
MOET. (2012). Bang tham chieu quy doi mot so chung chi ngoai ngu tuong duong
cap do B1, B2 khung Chau Au. [The equivalent table of foreign language certifi-
cates at level B1 and B2 by the CEFR. Retrieved from www.ctu.edu.vn/vbdh/
vbcb/2012_05_TT_BGDDT_phuluc.pdf
MOET. (2017). Quyet dinh ve viec phe duyet dieu chinh, bo sung de an day va hoc
ngoai ngu trong he thong giao duc quoc dan giai doan 2017–2025. No. 2080/QD-
TTg [Decision No. 2080/QD-TTg on the approval, adjustment and supplement of the
project “Teaching and learning foreign language in the national education system
in the period 2008–2020]. Hanoi, Vietnam: Vietnam National Politic Publications.
Ngan, N. T. (2011). West wind blows: Voices of Vietnamese teachers and students of
English: A case study of Nha Trang University. (Ph.D Thesis), Ohio University,
Ohio, USA.
Nguyen, Q. (n.d). Chuan ngoai ngu: Moi truwowng mot kieu! English performance
outcome: Different universities has different performance standards! Retrieved from
www.cdsonla.edu.vn/daotao/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=
466:chun-ngoi-ng-mi-trng-mt-kiu&catid=54:trao-i-nhanh
Nguyen, T. M. H. (2011). Primary English language education policy in Vietnam:
Insights from implementation. Current Issues in Language Planning, 12(2), 225.
Nguyen, V. X. (2003). English language teaching in Vietnam today: Policy, practice
and constraints. In H. Kam & R. Wong (Eds.), English language teaching in East
Asia today (pp. 455–474). Singapore: Times Media Private.
OECD, (2010). The nature of learning: Using research to inspire practice. OECD pub-
lication. Retrieved from https://www.oecd.org/edu/ceri/50300814.pdf
Sai Gon University. (2014). Cong van so 2895/DHSG-DT ngay 27 thang 10 nam 2014
ve viec to chuc day hoc cac hoc phan Tieng Anh khong chuyen. [Official letter No. 2895/
DHSG-DT dated 27 October 2014 on organised teaching non-English major courses].
Ho Chi minh city, Vietnam. Retrieved from http://thongtindaotao.sgu.edu.vn/
Upload/file/QD2895_ToChucDayHocCacHPTiengAnhKhongChuyen.pdf
Shaules, J. (2010). A beginner’s guide to the deep cultural experience beneath the sur-
face. Boston, MA: Intercultural Press.
Son, L. T. (2011). Teaching English in Vietnam: Improving the provision in the private
sector. (Ph.D Thesis), Victoria University, New Zealand.
Sullivan, P. N. (1996). English language teaching in Vietnam: An appropriation of
communicative methodologies. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press.
Thuy Linh. (2016). Bộ trưởng Giáo dục thừa nhận Đề án Ngoại ngữ 2020 thất bại
[The education minister acknowledged that the foreign language project 2020 failed.
Retrieved from http://giaoduc.net.vn/Giao-duc-24h/Bo-truong-Giao-duc-thua-
nhan-De-an-Ngoai-ngu-2020-that-bai-post172498.gd
To, T. T. H. (2010). Insights from Vietnam. In R. Johnstone (Ed.), Learning through
English: Policies, challenges and prospects. Insights from East Asia (pp. 96–114).
Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia: British Council.
UNESCO. (2007). ICT in teacher education: Case studies from the Asia-Pacific region.
Retrieved from http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0015/001567/156757e.pdf
University of Cambridge. (2011). Using the CEFR: Principles of good practice.
Retrieved from www.cambridgeenglish.org/images/126011-using-cefr-principles-of-
good-practice.pdf
15032-1187e-2pass-r02.indd 100 6/5/2018 9:17:53 AM

Vo, V. K. (1994). Chi thi cua thu tuong chinh phu so No. 442/TT ve cung co va nang
cao kha nang ngoaii ngu cho vien chuc nha nuoc Viet Nam [Prime Minister’s Order
No. 442/TT on the collolidation and improvement of foreign language proficiency for
government officials in Vietnam]. Hanoi Vietnam: Nha Xuat Ban Chinh Tri Quoc
Gia [National Politics Publications].
Yoko, S. (2000). Survey research on the use of placement tests at four-year universities
in Japan. Retrieved from http://www.ritsumei.ac.jp/acd/re/k-rsc/lcs/kiyou/
14-1/RitsIILCS_14.1pp.231-243SHIMIZU.pdf
15032-1187e-2pass-r02.indd 101 6/5/2018 9:17:53 AM

8 EFL speaking assessment
in Vietnamese tertiary
education
Nam Lam
Testing and assessment play an integral part in second language education regard-
less of the learner’s proficiency level. Tests can help not only to identify “strengths
and weaknesses in the learned abilities of the student”, but also “to provide infor-
mation about the effectiveness of programmes of instruction” (Henning, 1987,
pp. 1–2). Assessment practices in schools do have an impact on the teaching
and learning processes (Cheng, 2005; Bachman, 1990). In the field of language
assessment, test developers are concerned with not only the extent to which a test
can measure what it claims to measure (construct validity), but also the degree to
which the test can produce consistent results (reliability). This concern is particu-
larly true for oral language assessment when speech samples are judged by human
raters, who might value different features of candidates’ language use differently.
Assessing EFL speaking skills in this era of global integration has put language
test designers and practitioners in front of many challenges to meet increased
demands for ensuring the effectiveness and accuracy in higher education qual-
ity evaluation. However, in Vietnam empirical research is limited for language
testing in general and for oral assessment in particular. This chapter presents
findings from a mixed methods research project conducted at three universities
in Vietnam, addressing concerns of oral test takers and raters, and concludes with
a discussion of the implications for enhancing the quality of oral assessment in
Vietnamese tertiary education.
Oral assessment
Many language tests are designed to measure candidates’ language proficiency
levels, e.g. TOEFL, IELTS, TOEIC etc. Others measure the degree to which
students have achieved the expected objectives upon completion of a language
course or program. Such are classified as achievement tests that institutions
organised on a frequent basis to evaluate the quality of their learning outcomes.
Oral English test formats can be categorised into three common types accord-
ing to the number of candidates in each testing session: individual oral interview,
paired speaking test, and group oral assessment.
The one-on-one oral interview format examines candidates’ speaking skills in
verbal interaction with an interlocutor or examiner. Recent studies suggest that
15032-1187e-2pass-r02.indd 102 6/5/2018 9:17:53 AM

EFL speaking assessment 103
the construct validity of oral interviews (Dandonoli & Henning, 1990), inter-
view variation and the co-construction of speaking proficiency (Brown, 2003),
and relationship between test taker behaviour and performance (Huang & Hung,
2013; Kunnan, 1994) are important issues in face-to-face oral assessment. There
is a considerable discrepancy between two dimensions: some researchers argue
for the rater reliability and usefulness of the oral interview (Shohamy, 1983),
whereas others criticise this mode for its lack of features typical for normal con-
versation in terms of turn-taking, topical nomination or negotiation, and com-
municative involvement (Johnson & Tyler, 1998).
Assessing candidates in pairs allows a variety of interactional patterns between
examiner(s) and examinees, and reduces anxiety for the candidates since they are
interacting with partners (Saville & Hargreaves, 1999). The popularity of paired
speaking tests has stimulated discourse analysis research, particularly the poten-
tial impacts of candidate’s non-tested factors on mutual performance. A recent
investigation reported three interaction parameters identified in paired assess-
ment process: non-verbal interpersonal communication, interactive listening, and
interactional management. This research challenges our understanding of effec-
tive interaction when candidates are paired (Ducasse & Brown, 2009). Another
question is whether a candidate’s speaking is influenced by their partner’s pro-
ficiency level. Some studies indicate different results on this issue. No matter
how their partners’ speaking proficiency levels are, “they [candidates] are likely
to obtain rather identical opportunities to display their communicative abilities”
(Nakatsuhara, 2004, p. 57). In co-constructed oral performance, “being paired
with a candidate who has higher linguistic ability may be beneficial for lower level
candidates who are able to incorporate some of their partners’ expressions into
their own speech” (Norton, 2005, p. 291).
Grouping candidates is a practical option for many educational institutions
to deal with the pressure of large numbers of students for assessment. Although
positive feedback has been demonstrated for both test raters and test takers (Hils-
don, 1991), candidates’ authentic participation in group discussion and fairness
of marks awarded is a real concern. Discourse analysis of group oral interaction
during a college spoken EFL test reveal that “many candidates interpret [group]
contribution in terms of quantity rather quality” (He & Dai, 2006, p. 391).
Additionally, test designers find speaking tasks for group discussion challenging
because
a task is used for assessment makes it unlikely that participants will engage
with it in the same way that they would if they were not being assessed, no
matter how much the assessment task resembles a real-world task in other
aspects.
(Spence-Brown, 2001, p. 479)
Different test tasks enable candidates to communicate with examiners (or part-
ners) at different levels and produce different speech patterns for assessment.
Test designers need to clearly predetermine what the test is aimed at measuring
15032-1187e-2pass-r02.indd 103 6/5/2018 9:17:53 AM

(test construct) prior to its administration. Whatever tasks are adopted, the spo-
ken language abilities that speaking tests claim to measure may consider the
aspects of language competence and strategic competence (Milanovic, Saville,
Pollitt, & Cook, 1996, p. 16).
The decision on what interactional format and oral production tasks to be used
for assessing speaking depends upon the established course objectives and stu-
dents’ level. Table 8.1 summarises five categories of speaking performance tasks
in terms of the speech sample elicited and the degree of interaction required of
candidates (Brown, 2004, pp. 141–142). These tasks range from imitative speak-
ing performance (such as imitation of short stretches of spoken language) to
extensive oral production in an individual long turn. A task might get candidates
involved from no interactive competence to longer and more complex interper-
sonal exchanges.
Test takers’ characteristics should be considered before any test development
and administration (see Figure 8.1). Oral test validation includes the cognitive
processes (theory-based validity) in which test takers monitor their language
knowledge to produce overt speech when performing test tasks; the test set-
ting (context-related validity) associated with the administrative context and
demands of assessment tasks; and the rating (scoring validity) based on candi-
dates’ responses to the tasks. Grades and scores are products of the rating process,
but they are not the final consideration. Test validation may include its impacts
(consequential validity) and score value comparison (criterion-related validity).
Table 8.1 Categories of speaking performance assessment tasks
Speaking assessment Elicited samples of Level of Example

tasks oral ability interaction
1 Imitative Imitation of short None Mimicry tasks (a word/

stretches of spoken phrase/ sentence
language repetition)
2 Intensive Production of short Minimal Directed response tasks,
stretches of spoken limited picture-cued
language tasks, etc.
3 Responsive Production of very Somewhat Question and answer,
short exchanges limited paraphrasing, giving
instructions, etc.
4 Interactive Interaction Longer Interview, role
in form of and more play, discussion,
transactional and/ complex conversation, etc.
or interpersonal
communication
5 Extensive Production of Highly Oral presentation,
speeches in an limited or picture-cued
individual long ruled out storytelling, retelling a
turn story/news event, etc.
15032-1187e-2pass-r02.indd 104 6/5/2018 9:17:53 AM

TEST TAKER’S
CHARACTERISTICS
CONTEXT VALIDITY
THEORY-BASED VALIDITY
Task seng INTERNAL PROCESS
Administraon
Seng Monitoring execuve processes
Task demands and execuve resources
Interlocutor
TEST TAKER’S RESPONSE
SCORING VALIDITY
RATING
Criteria/rang scale
Rang procedures
Grading and awarding
SCORE / GRADE
CONSEQUENTIAL VALIDITY CRITERION-RELATED VALIDITY

SCORE INTERPRETATION SCORE VALUE
Figure 8.1 A socio-cognitive framework for validating speaking tests

(Adapted from Weir, 2005)
Testing EFL speaking skills in Vietnam

In Vietnam, Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) has been adopted from
primary schools through universities (Pham, 2007; Ngoc & Iwashita, 2012).
However, it is not until entering university that students, usually English majors,
take speaking tests in their training programs. Most English non-majors do not
take oral tests, and before that, the national graduation examination of English
for high school students is designed totally in a multiple-choice format focusing
on reading comprehension and linguistic accuracy in grammar and vocabulary
usage (Thi Quoc Gia, 2017; Thanh Tam & Phuong Hoa, 2006).
Vietnamese educators assert that enhancing English competence is a step
towards helping Vietnamese education integrate well into the global education
15032-1187e-2pass-r02.indd 105 6/5/2018 9:17:53 AM

system (Dao, 2015; Phuong Thao, 2015). English competence is an important
goal of the National Foreign Language Project (from 2008 to 2020) to make
substantial changes to foreign language education in Vietnam, especially English.
The Project 2020 guidelines have adopted the Common European Framework
of Reference for Languages (CEFR) as a national framework to assess language
proficiency, justify curriculum design, establish teaching and learning strategies,
and measure the outcomes to ensure the compatibility of different stages of for-
eign language teaching and learning in the educational system (MOET, 2014).
The language-testing system for both students and teachers at domestic institu-
tions is presently suspected regarding its trustworthiness (Viet Toan, 2013), and a
common benchmark of English evaluation is controversial for educators and policy
makers (Phan, 2014). Further, at most universities in Vietnam, students’ academic
achievement is assessed using a 10-point grading system, rather than scales of let-
ter grades, e.g. from A through D or F. This practice requires more meticulous
consideration to ensure fairness and objectiveness in scoring because the test results
contribute to orienting pedagogical activities as well as making other important
educational decisions (Language Testing Service, 2003). Many students are fully
aware of the importance of improving their English speaking skills, but others
focus more on only grammar and vocabulary to handle with exams (Tu, 2013).
Most Vietnamese tertiary students attain satisfactory scores for graduation, but
their spoken English ability remains insufficient to communicate with foreigners
(Nguyen, 2016; Vu, 2007) or to meet work requirements (Thanh Ha, 2008; Le
Van, 2016). Therefore, to enhance the quality of language assessment, universi-
ties and colleges need to construct assessment criteria corresponding well with the
language-training syllabus. The CEFR needs to be applied not only in examination
but also be included in institutional curriculum (Thanh Tam, 2016).
Overview of data collection procedure

The study was conducted at three universities in Southern Vietnam between late
2015 and early 2016, when the end-of-semester examinations were taking place
there. Research participants were second-year English major students (n = 352)
as test takers, and EFL teachers (n = 35) as test raters directly involved in the
examination of speaking skills held at these institutions, referred to as Universities
A, B, and C in this chapter. Data were collected by means of test room observa-
tion, survey questionnaires, interviews, and documents related to the speaking
test such as the course books, course outlines, assessment guidelines, and test
scores. In the scope of this chapter, test administration, test takers’ characteristics,
test tasks, stakeholders’ perceptions, and consistency in rating as key aspects of
oral language assessment will be presented.
Teaching and assessing speaking skills

Speaking skills courses are part of the training curriculum for EFL majors in their
first two years at university. Speaking lessons are not taught separately but in
15032-1187e-2pass-r02.indd 106 6/5/2018 9:17:53 AM

integration with listening lessons. At the institutions involved in this study, the
length of these integrated listening-speaking courses varied between 45 and 60
periods including the speaking examination at the end of the course. The main
purpose of oral assessment was to evaluate learners’ achievement in their study
progress and credit their successful completion of the course, which served as
a prerequisite condition for promoting to the next level. Despite following the
general guidance by the Ministry of Education and Training (MOET) on the
standards and benchmarks for the quality of the graduate outcomes, each institu-
tion maintains their right and accountability in course book selection, syllabus
design, and methods of assessment.
A combination of data from EFL course outlines and observational field notes
reveals remarkable similarities and differences in oral assessment methods across
the institutions. The results are summarised in Table 8.2.
These institutions applied a direct speaking test format, which required live
performance of candidates’ speaking skills. The common focuses in the assess-
ment criteria were pronunciation and vocabulary. However, it was not overtly
stated whether the test tasks were marked separately or altogether. There were
neither detailed descriptions of each criterion nor clear guidance in the scoring
rubrics. Interactional routines were found at different levels: rater-candidate in
interviews, candidate-candidate in discussions, and monologue (no interaction)
in describing pictures aloud. The weighting of the end-of-course speaking exam
was stipulated differently across institutions, but none accounted as much as half
(50%) of the total score. Each student received a final combined score both lis-
tening and speaking skills, which made them vague about their score for each
component.
Oral assessment was a regular school-based practice upon the completion
of each course. Despite possible adjustments in the test contents and methods
year after year to suit the course objectives, all the teachers asserted the legiti-
mate importance of testing speaking skills in EFL pedagogy. The reason was not
merely because “it is one of the four essential language skills for English majors”,
but to a broader sense,
In regard of educational aspect, I find testing (speaking skills) is quite impor-

tant in that, first, we (teachers) can know where our students’ spoken English
level is. Second, we can evaluate whether our teaching process is effective or
not. Further, it reveals useful clues of what aspects in the current syllabus
need improving.
Candidates’ characteristics
Despite being in the same stage of their study, the young adult candidates taking
part in the test had a remarkable discrepancy in their spoken English ability, oral
test taking experience, and physical and psychological situations on the test day.
Table 8.3 shows data obtained from the student questionnaire survey regarding
test takers’ characteristics.
15032-1187e-2pass-r02.indd 107 6/5/2018 9:17:53 AM

15032-1187e-2pass-r02.indd 108
Table 8.2 Methods of assessing speaking skills across institutions
University A University B University C
• Objectives Language for social, academic and Language for mini-talks and daily Language skills for academic success
professional purposes conversations
• Response format Paired: monologue; candidate- Paired: rater-candidate; Individual: rater-candidate
candidate candidate-candidate
• Examiners Interlocutor included Interlocutor included One examiner (teacher as both
interlocutor and assessor)
• Test tasks and time 1 Picture-cued (2 minutes): each 1 Question-and-answer (2 minutes): Question-and-answer (3–5 minutes):
constraints candidate took turn to describe a each candidate answered 2–3 The teacher rater read questions,
different photo provided. questions in turn. and the candidate was required
2 Discussion (4–5 minutes): each pair 2 Discussion (3–4 minutes): candidates to give extended responses. The
discussed either of the two questions looked at a mind map and discussed questions were of different topics.
provided. The discussion questions a question. The topic of discussion
were of the same topic as that of question may differ from those in
Task 1. Task 1.
• Assessment criteria – Fluency and coherence – Grammar and vocabulary – Lecture language
– Grammatical accuracy – Discourse management – Coherence
– Lexical resource – Pronunciation – Fluency
– Pronunciation – Interactive communication – Pronunciation and intonation
• Weighting of the 35% 40% 25%
speaking component
6/5/2018 9:17:53 AM
Table 8.3 Test takers’ characteristics
Student questionnaire (% agree) Uni. A Uni. B Uni. C
Nervousness during the test 85.7% 92.7% 90.9%

Attendance of less than half of speaking lessons 13.4% 43% 29.9%
Self-evaluation of spoken English ability:
Good or Very good - 18.1% 7.3% 19.1%
Fairly good - 43.8% 21.9% 36.4%
Average - 34.3% 58.4% 40%
Poor or very poor - 3.9% 12.4% 4.5%
Causes of oral test anxiety: “My speaking ability is not good”, “lack of
confidence”, “having no ideas to speak”, “incorrect grammar and vocabulary”,
“score pressure”, “test room pressure”, “cooperation with partner” etc.
The overall EFL speaking ability self-evaluation of most students was between
the Average and Fairly good levels. On average, three out of ten students attended
fewer than half of the speaking lessons during the course. Most candidates felt
nervous during the speaking test because of the score pressure, anxiety of making
mistakes, raters’ severity, ineffective cooperation with partner, lack of confidence
about English knowledge and speaking ability etc. When interviewed, a candidate
admitted “I was nervous because of the pressure for scores. Sometimes the raters
appeared too strict, which made me lose my confidence”.
Perceptions of the test administration

Teachers’ and students’ opinions and perceptions of the oral test are presented
in Table 8.4, which is combined results from the separate questionnaires for EFL
teachers and students, and follow-up interviews with representatives from the
survey participants.
More than half of the teachers thought the test was organised in a formal
atmosphere, but not many candidates (about 40%) found it stressful. Survey
results from observations and survey questionnaires indicate that noise (from
outside) distracted those taking the test. The temperature in the test room, which
was either too hot or cold for them, affected many candidates’ (about 10%) oral
production. Teachers supposed that the students all had known about the assess-
ment criteria but many of them had not. A student expressed what she would like
to be informed prior to the test:
The teacher once told us that the test would be organized with two students
each time, but we had no ideas about the assessment criteria, for example,
how much the content weighed, how sentence structuring was assessed, how
about grammar and vocabulary components. . . . So I did not know which
part I should focus on.
15032-1187e-2pass-r02.indd 109 6/5/2018 9:17:53 AM

Table 8.4 A joint display for perceptions of cross-institutional test administration
Test raters (% agree) Uni. A Uni. B Uni. C
Students were informed of the assessment criteria 83.3% 81.8% 91.7%

before the test.
The atmosphere of the test room was formal. 83.3% 54.5% 50.5%
Unexpected occurrences, which might have affected
teachers’ rating during the test, included: Noise 41.7% 9.1% 25%
Temperature 41.7% 0% 0%
Giving feedback on candidates’ performance: “should be avoided so as not to affect
students’ psychology”, “candidates should be given a feedback report to know
which part they need for further speaking practice”, “impossible as time does not
allow”
Candidates (% agree) Uni. A Uni. B Uni. C

The atmosphere of the test room was stressful. 41% 40.9% 40%
Students were informed of the assessment criteria 46.7% 59.1% 77.3%
prior to the test.
Students need the teacher’s feedback on their 88.6% 83.2% 90.8%
speaking performance
External occurrences that might have affected
candidates’ performance: Noise 40% 24.8% 39.1%
Temperature 16.2% 5.8% 10.9%
Receiving feedback from raters: “really helpful for self-improvement and
preparation for following exams”, “being afraid of displeasure, partners do not
give feedback”, “comments from an examiner would be more objective”, “left a
lasting impression”
Candidates expected to receive raters’ comments on their speaking performance

because they were not able to evaluate themselves. They supposed it would be
more objective to have an (examiner) outsider listening and giving feedback so
that they could know what they needed to improve about their speaking. How-
ever, an experienced rater shared this opinion:
Immediate feedback right after candidates’ speaking should be avoided so as

not to affect their psychological state, because they were also taking exams
for other subjects. However, I think it’s advisable to send them feedback
report later that day, so they’ll know which part they need for further speak-
ing practice in the next semester.
Perceptions of the speaking test tasks

Various aspects regarding test tasks were informed by the questionnaire surveys
for test raters and candidates, and the field notes from test room observations.
Voices from the testers and test takers were also illustrated through a joint display
in Table 8.5.
15032-1187e-2pass-r02.indd 110 6/5/2018 9:17:53 AM

Table 8.5 A joint display for speaking test tasks and perceptions from test raters and
candidates
Types of speaking assessment tasks adopted Uni. A Uni. B Uni. C
Pictures for extensive speaking 

Display questions for responsive speaking 
Referential questions for responsive speaking  
Discussion questions for interpersonal interactive speaking  
Test raters (% agree) Uni. A Uni. B Uni. C

The speaking task gave the rater an adequate opportunity 83.3% 72.7% 83.7%
to evaluate students’ English-speaking ability.
Candidates were familiar with these kinds of test tasks. 50% 81.8% 50%
The test tasks were designed on the basis of the course 75% 100% 100%
objectives.
Raters’ comments: “authentic”, “questions taken from the course book”,
“contributed by EFL teachers in charge of speaking classes”
Candidates (% agree) Uni. A Uni. B Uni. C

The speaking tasks evoked candidates’ interest. 81% 89.1% 80%
The test tasks were too difficult for the candidate. 18.1% 25.5% 12.7%
The speaking tasks provided candidates with an adequate 42.9% 35% 52.7%
opportunity to demonstrate their ability to speak
English.
Candidates’ comments: “well-matched with topics in the course book”, “too
theory-oriented, rare exposures in reality, not to go into details”, “good
performance needs regular class attendance”
As shown in Table 8.5, most of the candidates found the speaking tasks inter-
esting and not very difficult. The test contents were generally well-matched with
the input domain coverage of the course books. However, fewer than half of the
candidates reported that they had sufficient opportunity to perform the test task
at their best because of psychological factors, time pressure, or unfamiliar speak-
ing topics. A candidate’s opinions can illustrate this survey result:
Although I had preparation for that topic, when facing someone who was
superior to me, and when that person asked me, my anxiety made me forget
what I was going to say. My vocabulary disappeared and I could not speak
fluently.
Variation in task designs enabled the elicitation of diverse speech patterns for
rating and scoring to take place. These tasks varied from extensive production of
monologue (University A) to responsive production of answers to display or ref-
erential questions (Universities B and C), and interpersonal interactive speaking
on a topic provided (Universities A and B). Although the following comment by
15032-1187e-2pass-r02.indd 111 6/5/2018 9:17:53 AM

a candidate was not typical, it indicates that some questions were problematic in
terms of their contents and the way they elicited speech samples from learners:
The test room atmosphere shouldn’t have been stressful but facilitated the
talk. What’s more, having to recite the knowledge from the course book was
not very effective.
Inter-rater reliability in scoring

A comparison of the test scores across the three institutions revealed that Uni-
versity B had the highest number of student participants in the study (n = 128),
then University A (n = 86) and University C (n = 79). The descriptive statistics
indicates that University B had the widest spread of scores (8.0), which ranged
from 2.0 to 10.0. The ranges of scores of Universities A and C were narrower
at only 6.5 and 5.7, respectively. Candidates of University A scored the highest
mean (7.4). Lower mean scores were found at Universities B and C (6.6 and 6.9,
respectively). The smallest standard deviation in the scores of the candidates from
University A (1.2) tells us that the scores were more similar and tightly clustered
around the mean than those at Universities B and C.
Rater reliability of oral assessments has been one of the most controversial top-
ics appealing much of debate from the start. A major difficulty derives from the
fact that raters’ subjective evaluation counts in the rating process (Brown, cited
in Zahedi & Shamsaee, 2012). Hughes (2003, p. 43) claims that “if the scoring
of a test is not reliable, then the test results cannot be reliable either”. In other
words, consistency needs to be established in the rater’s performance to minimise
measurement error, so the test can become trustworthy in providing stable infor-
mation about what it is supposed to assess.
The inter-rater reliability (the extent to which different raters agree with each
other on the scores awarded to a single test performance) was estimated by com-
puting the correlation of the test scores awarded by two different raters assessing
the same candidates in the same testing event (Bachman, 1990). In this study, a
guest rater was invited to mark speaking skills at University C because this institu-
tion had only one teacher rater assigned for each test room. Twelve pairs of raters
in six sample test rooms performed the scoring.
As displayed in the scatterplots in Figure 8.2, the line of regression moving
from bottom left-hand corner to the top right-hand corner informs that some
evidence of a positive relationship can be seen between the scores awarded by
pairs of raters. That means when the total scores, in general, given by Rater 1 to
each candidate in a test room increased, so did the scores given by Rater 2 to the
same candidate in that test room.
However, the relationship was stronger for scores at Universities A and B than
those at University C. Unlike at Universities A and B, the scores awarded by
pairs of raters in University C were not clustered around but scattered away from
the line. The R2 Linear statistics shown in the plot tells us that there was 75%
and 79% shared variance between the two sets of scores in Universities A and B,
15032-1187e-2pass-r02.indd 112 6/5/2018 9:17:53 AM

15032-1187e-2pass-r02.indd 113
University A University B University C
Figure 8.2 Scatterplots showing the relationship between scores awarded by pairs of raters across universities
6/5/2018 9:17:53 AM
respectively, whereas this value in University C was only 54%. This result indicates
that the level of agreement between raters at University C was weaker than that
at the other two universities.
Discussion
As an achievement test, the EFL oral assessment under research was organised
to assess how much of language knowledge and skills students had been learned
after a period of study. Depending on the availability of human resources and facil-
ity, each institution had their own method of assessment to ensure the quality of
their graduate outcomes. It is recommended that test taker characteristics be taken
into account when designing a test for a particular use (Saville, 2016). Test tak-
ers’ age, gender, and experience are possible sources of bias that might affect their
performance. Test takers’ anxiety caused by score pressure or raters’ seriousness
as reported should be minimised before and during the test, so candidates can
perceive the test as an opportunity for them to demonstrate their speaking ability.
Ensuring the uniformity of test administration across test rooms is not only
important as keeping the consistency in raters’ scoring but also giving candidates
a sense of fairness. Noise, inequality in timing, or differences in delivering test
tasks and pairing candidates all contribute to candidates’ perceptions of the test
and motivation in their speaking performance. That many candidates do know,
whereas others do not know, about the assessment criteria is a sign of inconsist-
ency in test administration.
Whether an interlocutor was included in a test room made the oral test dif-
ferent across institutions. While Universities A and B had a rater in each test
room act as an interlocutor who raised questions and took part in spoken inter-
action with pairs of candidates, in each test room at University C the rater
played more than the role of an interlocutor and fulfilled many other types
of work within a limited time for a speaking test event: managing the list of
candidates going into the test room, reading questions, listening with careful
attention, reasoning his/her scoring, and timing to decide when to end a can-
didate’s speaking session.
Qualitative data gathered from observational field notes and course outlines
demonstrated a diversity of test tasks employed to elicit speaking samples from
test takers. Although a direct (live) format was used at all the three institutions,
each designed and used their own test tasks based on the time length, the level of
candidates involved in interaction, and the types of speaking samples they aimed
to elicit. Specifically, University A offered Task 1 that required each candidate to
speak extensively (monologue) with highly limited interaction with the rater and
their partner. Task 2 provided an equal opportunity for each candidate in pairs
to perform their oral ability in an interactive speaking task (discussion). Task 1
of University B asked individual candidates to produce meaningful language in
response to referential questions. Task 2 of University B was also “Discussion”
but with procedures different from that in Task 2 of University A. As presented
in Table 8.2, a mind map was given and pairs of candidates in University B were
required to discuss a related topic while candidates in University A made a choice
15032-1187e-2pass-r02.indd 114 6/5/2018 9:17:53 AM

between the two topics given to discuss. University C adopted a responsive
speaking task with a list of questions to ask candidates in a one-on-one interview
(Table 8.5). The interview questions can be categorised into two kinds: display
questions intended to elicit a predetermined correct response (e.g. What is a
Ponzi scheme? What is neuromarketing? etc.), and referential questions (e.g. Is
multitasking good or bad, in your opinion? How can we orientate children to
use media in the right way? etc.). Variations in testing methods directly shape
the spoken language samples the candidates produce and indirectly contribute
to adjusting the EFL teaching and learning strategies, and in the long run, the
unequal quality of the graduate outcomes of each institution.
Conclusion and implications

The EFL oral test under study was designed to measure the English-speaking
ability of Vietnamese university students at the same educational period: they
were English majors in the middle of their second year after having completed
an English-speaking course. It is hoped that the comparability study presented
in this chapter has not only contributed to more comprehensive understanding
about the local practice of second language assessment but also demonstrating
the benefits of using a mixed methods research design in examining a multi-
faceted social phenomenon of second language assessment. The discussion sec-
tion in this chapter has pointed out implications for testing the English-speaking
skills of Vietnamese university students. Such implications are pertinent now to
ensure the quality of graduate outcomes in the context of global cooperation and
communication.
Implications for speaking test administration

Speaking tests should be administered with more attention to facilitate candi-
dates’ performance and consolidate the sense of fairness in oral exams. First, all
test takers should be apprised of the test content, tasks, and assessment criteria
prior to entering the test room. Understanding these requirements renders them
more confident during the test and enables better strategies of preparation. Sec-
ond, there should be standardised rooms for speaking tests, at least with noise
cancellation and appropriate seating arrangement for the examiners and candi-
dates. Third, test takers should receive constructive feedback in the form of the
assessor’s comments on their speaking performance. These comments are essen-
tial for students to know what and how to improve their speaking skills, and build
up more effective test-taking techniques for themselves. If all these practices are
assured within an administrative framework used across EFL classes and institu-
tions, consistency is further strengthened.
Implications for test design and scoring

Like testing the other language skills, the central concern in assessing speak-
ing is whether the test can obtain its prescribed goals, i.e. measuring students’
15032-1187e-2pass-r02.indd 115 6/5/2018 9:17:53 AM

English-speaking ability with regards to the established course objectives. This
requirement calls for more clearly stated specifications of what the test was
designed to test. Therefore, test designers need to pay greater attention to their
decisions on the response format and specific questions that determine all the
candidates’ speaking performance, as well as more clearly defined assessment
criteria and rating scale upon which assessors rely their judgement. Vagueness
in employing the assessment criteria and rating scale designed for common use
was sources of potential bias in the rating and scoring phase. Furthermore, it is
important that differences in the difficulty degrees of test items be kept at a mini-
mum so that candidates’ good (or bad) luck does not affect their speaking during
the test, and therefore, the scores they are awarded.
Scoring speaking performances is the most complicated part of the assessment
process because human raters involved in the same testing event perceive the
same candidate’s speaking performance differently. Thus, double marking by
independent raters would help to improve test consistency. Vietnamese raters
should have appropriate training in oral assessment to ensure that they under-
stand the test purpose and descriptors in the rating scale before embarking on
scoring. It is recommended that speaking exams be audio-recorded to retain evi-
dence of candidates’ and raters’ performance as for tests of other subjects. Once
audio-recording has become normal in oral test rooms, then it will not cause any
anxiety to candidates, but contribute to both raters’ and candidates’ better per-
formance because they understand that their speaking is recorded. Further, these
recordings can be used as a rich data source for institutional research on ESL/
EFL speech patterns.
In short, school-based language testing should not be viewed as a final proce-
dure act by which scores are obtained to complete a cycle of teaching, learning,
and testing, but rather, assessment for learning necessarily yields evidence useful
for both teachers and learners “to decide where the learners are in their learning,
where they need to go and how best to get there” (Assessment Reform Group,
2002).
References
Assessment Reform Group. (2002). Key questions. Retrieved from www.assessment
forlearning.edu.au/professional_learning/intro_to_afl/introduction_key_
questions.html
Bachman, L. F. (1990). Fundamental considerations in language testing. Oxford:
Brown, A. (2003). Interviewer variation and the co-construction of speaking profi-
ciency. Language Testing, 20(1), 1–25.
Cheng, L. (2005). Changing language teaching through language testing: A washback
study (Vol. 21). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Brown, H. D. (2004). Language assessment: Principles and classroom practices. New
York: Pearson Education Inc.
Dandonoli, P., & Henning, G. (1990). An investigation of the construct validity of
the ACTFL proficiency guidelines and oral interview procedure. Foreign Language
Annals, 23(1), 11–22.
15032-1187e-2pass-r02.indd 116 6/5/2018 9:17:53 AM

Dao, T. L. H. (2015). Giảng dạy tiếng Anh trên thế giới và Việt Nam (Teaching
English in the world and in Vietnam). Retrieved from http://giaoduc.net.vn/
Giao-duc-24h/Giang-day-tieng-Anh-tren-the-gioi-va-Viet-Nam-post163875.gd
Ducasse, A. M., & Brown, A. (2009). Assessing paired orals: Raters’ orientation to
interaction. Language Testing, 26(3), 423–443.
He, L., & Dai, Y. (2006). A corpus-based investigation into the validity of the CET-
SET group discussion. Language Testing, 23(3), 370–401.
Henning, G. (1987). A guide to language testing: Development, evaluation, research.
USA: Newbury House Publishers.
Hilsdon, J. (1991). The group oral exam: Advantages and limitations. In J. C. Alder-
son & B. North (Eds.), Language testing in the 1990s: The communicative legacy
(pp. 189–197). London: Modern English Publications and the British Council.
Huang, H. T. D., & Hung, S. T. A. (2013). Comparing the effects of test anxiety on
independent and integrated speaking test performance. TESOL Quarterly, 47(2),
244–269.
Hughes, A. (2003). Testing for language teachers (2nd ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press.
Johnson, M., & Tyler, A. (1998). Re-analyzing the OPI: How does it look like natu-
ral conversation? In R. Young & A. W. He (Eds.), Talking and testing: Discourse
approaches to the assessment of oral proficiency, Studies in Billingualism (Vol. 14,
pp. 27–51). Amsterdam: John Benjamins.
Kunnan, J. A. (1994). Modelling relationships among some test-taker characteristics
and performance on EFL tests: An approach to construct validation. Language
Testing, 11(3), 225–250.
Language Testing Service. (2003). Linking classroom assessment with student learn-
ing. Retrieved from www.ets.org/Media/Tests/TOEFL_Institutional_Testing_
Program/ELLM2002.pdf
Le Van. (2016). Quá nửa sinh viên tốt nghiệp kém tiếng Anh (More than half of grad-
uates’ English is poor). Retrieved fromhttps://baotintuc.vn/giao-duc/qua-nua-
sinh-vien-tot-nghiep-kem-tieng-anh-20160506225914927.htm
Milanovic, M., Saville, N., Pollitt, A., & Cook, A. (1996). Developing rating scales
for CASE: Theoretical concerns and analysis. In A. Cumming & R. Berwick (Eds.),
Validation in language testing. Great Britain: The Cromwell Press.
MOET. (2014). Thông tư 01/2014/TT-BGDĐT về việc “Ban hành khung năng lực
ngoại ngữ 6 bậc dùng cho Việt Nam” (Circular No. 01/2014/TT-BGDĐT on “Issu-
ance of the six-level framework of reference for foreign language proficiency adopted
in Vietnam”). Retrieved from https://thuvienphapluat.vn/van-ban/Giao-duc/
Thong-tu-01-2014-TT-BGDDT-Khung-nang-luc-ngoai-ngu-6-bac-Viet-Nam-
220349.aspx
Nakatsuhara, F. (2004). An investigation into conversational styles in paired speaking
test. (M.A. dissertation), University of Essex.
Ngoc, K. M., & Iwashita, N. (2012). A comparison of learners’ and teachers’ atti-
tudes toward communicative language teaching at two universities in Vietnam.
University of Sydney Papers in TESOL, 7.
Nguyen, T. T. (2016). Thực trạng nói tiếng Anh của sinh viên Việt Nam (Actual
English speaking ability of Vietnamese students). Retrieved from www.youtube.

com/watch?v=t0-SQXjDvcw
Norton, J. (2005). The paired format in the Cambridge speaking tests. ELT Journal,
59(4), 287–297.Pham, H. H. (2007). Communicative language teaching: Unity
within diversity. ELT Journal, 61(3), 193–201.
15032-1187e-2pass-r02.indd 117 6/5/2018 9:17:53 AM

Phan, C. (2014). Vấn nạn về tiêu chuẩn tiếng Anh cho sinh viên tốt nghiệp Đại học
(Challenges in EFL standardization for university graduates). Retrieved from
http://cep.com.vn/index.php/Van-nan-ve-tieu-chuan-tieng-Anh-cho-sinh-vien-
tot-nghiep-Dai-hoc-544.html
Phuong Thao. (2015). Thứ trưởng Bộ Giáo dục lí giải điểm thi Ngoại ngữ kém (MOET
Deputy Minister’s explanation for the low English exam scores). Retrieved from
http://giaoduc.net.vn/Giao-duc-24h/Thu-truong-Bo-Giao-duc-li-giai-diem-
thi-Ngoai-ngu-kem-post160487.gd
Saville, N., & Hargreaves, P. (1999). Assessing speaking in the revised FCE. English
Language Testing Journal, 53(1), 42–51.
Saville, N. (2016). Managing language assessment systems and mixed methods. In
A. J. Moeller, J. W. Cresswell, & N. Saville (Eds.), Second language assessment and
mixed methods research (pp. 17–31). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Shohamy, E. (1983). Rater reliability of the oral interview speaking test. Foreign Lan-
guage Annals, 16(3), 219–222.
Spence-Brown, R. (2001). The eye of the beholder: Authenticity in an embedded
assessment task. Language Testing, 18(4), 463–481.
Thanh Ha. (2008). Vì sao sinh viên ra trường không nói được tiếng Anh? (Why
cannot graduates speak English?). Retrieved from http://tuoitre.vn/tin/giao-
duc/20081208/vi-sao-sinh-vien-ra-truong-khong-noi-duoc-tienganh/291136.
html.
Thanh Tam (2016). Việt Nam thiếu trung tâm khảo thí năng lực ngoại ngữ quốc gia
(Vietnam’s lack of a national English assessment centre. Retrieved from https://
vnexpress.net/tin-tuc/giao-duc/viet-nam-thieu-trung-tam-khao-thi-nang-luc-
ngoai-ngu-quoc-gia-3483512.html
Thanh Tam, & Phuong Hoa (2006). Thi trắc nghiệm 100% có thể là ‘bước lùi’ của
môn tiếng Anh (100% multiple-choice examination is possibly a ‘backward step’ of the
English subject). Retrieved from https://vnexpress.net/tin-tuc/giao-duc/thi-trac-
nghiem-100-co-the-la-buoc-lui-cua-mon-tieng-anh-3465561.html
Thi Quoc Gia. (2017). 24 mã đề thi Tiếng Anh THPT Quốc gia năm 2017 (2017
English examination papers for high school students). Retrieved from http://

thiquocgia.vn/news/view.php?id=766
Tu, A. (2013). Sinh viên thiếu khả năng thực hành tiếng Anh (Students’ weakness in
English practice ability). Retrieved from www.baomoi.com/sinh-vien-thieu-kha-
nang-thuc-hanh-tieng-anh/c/12342188.epi
Viet Toan. (2013). English teaching in Vietnam: Teacher ‘re-education’. Retrieved from
http://tuoitrenews.vn/education/8231/english-teaching-in-vietnam-teacher-
reeducation
Vu, T. P. A. (2007). Học tiếng Anh 10 năm trong trường không sử dụng được: Kiểm
tra đánh giá đang là khâu yếu nhất (Learning English at school for ten years, but
students cannot use the language: Testing and assessment is the weakest component).
Viet Bao. Retrieved from http://vietbao.vn/Giao-duc/Hoc-tieng-Anh-10-nam-
trong-truong-khong-su-dung-duoc-Kiem-tra-danh-gia-dang-la-khau-yeu-nhat/
40224569/202/
Weir, C. J. (2005). Language testing and validation: An evidence-based approach Mac-
millan. New York: Palgrave Macmillan.
Zahedi, K., &Shamsaee, S. (2012). Viability of construct validity of the speaking
modules of international language examinations (IELTS vs. TOEFL iBT): Evi-
dence from Iranian test-takers. Educational Assessment, Evaluation & Accountabil-
ity, 24(3), 263–277.
15032-1187e-2pass-r02.indd 118 6/5/2018 9:17:53 AM

9 Business students’
perspectives on the use of
English medium instruction
in Vietnamese universities
Le Thi Thuy Nhung
In Vietnam, English has increasingly been adopted as a Medium of Instruction

(EMI) in secondary school subjects such as Mathematics, Chemistry, and Science
and courses in tertiary disciplinary areas including Business Administration, Engi-
neering, and Information Technology. The move toward EMI is considered as a
crucial part of the Vietnamese government’s perceived benefits of globalisation
through national human capital development and internationalisation of educa-
tion. EMI initiatives are motivated by academic institutional desire to improve
the students’ English proficiency, enhance the quality of higher education, and
raise the competitiveness of Vietnamese universities in the regional and global
higher education market (Higher Education Reform Agenda (HERA): 2006–
2020, 2005; Vietnam Government, 2001, 2014, 2017).
The increased adoption of EMI to deliver tertiary courses has raised concerns
about the effectiveness of EMI in Vietnamese universities. Anecdotal evidence
suggests that implementation of EMI in Vietnamese universities is problematic
because there is a shortage of qualified teaching staff, study materials, and resources
for implementation (Pham, 2010; Phap Luat, 2011; Thanh Nien, 2013). How-
ever, there is little empirical research into the current practices of EMI in Viet-
namese universities to add weight to anecdotal accounts. The chapter outlines
EMI development in Vietnamese academic institutions, presents findings from a
recent study of nine focus group interviews with undergraduates enrolled in Eng-
lish medium courses at four urban universities in Vietnam, and concludes with
a discussion of challenges facing stakeholders in implementing EMI education.
English Medium Instruction

The growth of EMI in higher education in non-English speaking countries is
driven by two major forces: globalisation and internationalisation (Baldauf, 2012;
Coleman, 2006; Tollefson & Tsui, 2004). EMI is being introduced into universi-
ties in Europe and Asia because of national strategies for human capital develop-
ment and internationalisation of education (Doiz, Lasagabaster, & Sierra, 2012).
Many studies in Europe and North America have used surveys to identify atti-
tudes of students and lecturers towards EMI (Aguilar & Rodríguez, 2012; Airey,
2011; Collins, 2010; Hunt, 2011; Jensen & Thøgersen, 2011; Tatzl, 2011).
15032-1187e-2pass-r02.indd 119 6/5/2018 9:17:53 AM

120 Business students’ perspectives
EMI appears to generate favourable attitudes among students. EMI prepares
graduates for the international workplace and further education; it enhances
students’ English proficiency and increases their self-confidence. Asian students’
motivations for EMI were mainly driven by career aspirations and the desire to
study abroad (Byun et al., 2011; Chang, 2010; Manakul, 2007).
Researchers also considered the impact of EMI on students’ performance and
learning outcomes. EMI appears to increase students’ English language profi-
ciency, especially their specialised vocabulary knowledge (Aguilar & Rodríguez,
2012; Byun et al., 2011; Costa & Coleman, 2012; Tatzl, 2011). Students’
reports of how well they understand content in English medium classes have
been mixed. While some students claimed to have no difficulty understanding
English medium lectures (Belhiah & Elhami, 2015; Joe & Lee, 2013; Ruiz-
Garrido & Palmer-Silveira, 2008), others indicated that they experienced prob-
lems understanding lectures delivered in English (Airey & Linder, 2006; Byun
et al., 2011; Chang, 2010; Evans & Morrison, 2011a; Hellekjaer, 2010; Kagwes-
age, 2012; Miller, 2009). Problems with EMI lectures include complicated spe-
cialised vocabulary and concepts, lecturers’ unclear pronunciation and unfamiliar
accents, fast delivery rate, and students’ poor concentration during lectures.
Ineffective lecturing styles reduce students’ comprehension. Some lectures
delivered in English lack clarity and elaboration (Airey & Linder, 2006; K
laassen &
Graaff, 2001; Vinke, Snippe, & Jochems, 1998; Yusof, Tayib, & Mansor, 2004).
Lectures were described as less interesting partly because there were few jokes,
anecdotes, and storytelling which helped to deepen students’ understanding of
the content (Flowerdew & Miller, 1992; Sert, 2008; Shaw, Benson, Brunsberg,
Duhs, & Minugh, 2008).
Some students were critical of their lecturers’ English and blamed lecturers’
limited English proficiency for causing problems with comprehension (Aguilar &
Rodríguez, 2012; Byun et al., 2011; Collins, 2010; Klaassen, 2003; Tatzl, 2011).
Students also indicated that their own level of English proficiency led to problems
with comprehension (Collins, 2010; Sert, 2008). Apart from having difficul-
ties understanding lectures, students reported problems with academic reading,
especially understanding new terminology and concepts in textbooks (Helle-
kjær, 2009; Kırkgöz, 2005). For written assignments, mastering relevant aca-
demic writing conventions was challenging for students (Campbell & Li, 2008;
Evans & Morrison, 2011a). Spoken interaction was hard for many students in
English medium courses. Interaction remained limited because of students’ lack
of competence and confidence in speaking English (Aguilar & Rodríguez, 2012;
Evans & Morrison, 2011a; Kırkgöz, 2009; Taguchi & Naganuma, 2006). There
was evidence that EMI increased students’ and lecturers’ workload (Tatzl, 2011;
Tsuneyoshi, 2005). Despite students’ positive attitudes towards EMI, there
remained some dissatisfaction with EMI (Byun et al., 2011; Klaassen, 2003).
In general, previous studies conducted internationally have demonstrated ben-
efits of EMI. However, these studies showed mixed experiences among students
undertaking EMI courses. Research even shows contrasting findings about the
effect of EMI on students’ ability to understand subject matter.
15032-1187e-2pass-r02.indd 120 6/5/2018 9:17:53 AM

Business students’ perspectives 121
Development of EMI in Vietnamese

academic institutions
In Vietnam, EMI has been adopted in international programs offered by local
academic institutions affiliated with foreign educational providers. More often,
these programs target students who demand an international education at home
and are financially well-off to afford high tuition fees. However, recently, EMI
has been introduced into regular programs for mainstream university students.
EMI adoption is encouraged by the Vietnamese government through several
policies and proposals. Some of them are: National Foreign Language Project
2017–2025 (Vietnam Government, 2017); Vietnam Educational Strategies
2009–2020 (UNESCO, 2013); and Fundamental and Comprehensive Reform
of Higher Education 2006–2020 (Vietnam Government, 2014). These docu-
ments provide reasons for the introduction of EMI in Vietnamese academic insti-
tutions: to enhance graduates’ employability in the international workplace and
thus enhance the quality of human resources; to boost the quality of Vietnamese
higher education through a process of internationalisation; and to improve the
English proficiency of Vietnamese lecturers through using English for teaching,
research, and professional exchange.
In response to EMI policy, there is evidence of an increase in the top-down
demand to employ English as the medium of instruction in certain programs
or courses in academic institutions (Table 9.1). There were 35 Advanced Pro-
grams initiatives supervised by Ministry of Education and Training (MOET) in
23 Vietnamese universities from 2008 to 2015 (MOET, 2010). These Advanced
Programs allow selected Vietnamese universities to import curricula from prestig-
ious universities abroad. The International Standard Programs (ISP) introduced
at the Vietnam National University offered 16 training courses in English in
2008 (Vu & Burns, 2014). The High Quality Programs promulgated by MOET
were launched in 2014 in several Vietnamese universities (MOET, 2014).
The intention of these programs is to enhance the quality of university teach-
ing and to improve students’ English proficiency, thereby enhancing graduates’
employability.
EMI policy also triggered the establishment of English medium universities.
In 2003, the International University, the first public English medium university,
was established in the south of Vietnam to offer entire programs in English. In
2009, the government launched the New Model University Project to build four
“world-class” universities with US$400 million in loans from the Asian Develop-
ment Bank and the World Bank. These universities were to be research-oriented
and English medium universities. Two of them are currently in operation.
Examining EMI implementation in

Vietnamese universities
A recent study which examined the current implementation of EMI in Viet-
namese universities through students’ perspectives was undertaken at four urban
15032-1187e-2pass-r02.indd 121 6/5/2018 9:17:53 AM

Table 9.1 EMI provision in Higher Education Institutions (HEIs) in Vietnam
EMI programs Statistics
EMI programs/universities Two (public) English medium universities,

approximately 70 universities offer EMI courses/
programs
International programs 235 programs at 72 HEIs in partnership with 28
countries
Advanced Programs 35 programs (at 23 HEIs)
High Quality Programs 55 programs
Gifted programs Undocumented
Source: MOET’s and HEI’s websites
universities in the south of Vietnam (Le, 2017). They are “recognised” institu-
tions under the administration of MoET. Three universities offered full Business
degree programs in English and one university offered EMI partially in the pilot
phase of EMI implementation. Nine focus group interviews were organised with
47 students undertaking different majors in Business programs. The group inter-
views centred on students’ perceptions and experiences of EMI including their
motives to enrol in EMI courses and programs, and their perceptions of the ben-
efits and challenges of EMI courses. All the interviews were recorded, transcribed
verbatim, and entered into NVivo 10. The interview data were subject to content
analysis, that is, analyses that focus on meaning of texts. The chapter reports
important themes emerged from the analysis of the interview data.
Motives for choosing English Medium Instruction

In the study, three universities offered full EMI study programs and allowed stu-
dents to decide whether to choose an EMI program prior to their admittance to
the university. One university required students to take six EMI courses before
they could graduate from their undergraduate programs. The students in this
university claimed to be “pushed” to take EMI courses when they were not ready
to do them. In addition, these students were not satisfied with the high tuition
fees charged by EMI courses, which were nearly double the fees for regular
Vietnamese medium courses.
In contrast, the students at public universities voluntarily chose EMI for the
perceived prestige, high quality of teaching, and desire to study abroad. Mean-
while, the students who went to private universities considered EMI as a “com-
pensation” for their failure to gain admission into a more prestigious public
university. Particularly, the students at the English medium university described
their university as “special” and “unique” because it was one of the first public
universities in Vietnam to offer all degree programs in English. In addition, many
students thought that their lecturers were highly qualified as they were trained in
developed countries. Some students planned to further postgraduate study in an
English-speaking country. EMI programs would provide them with prior experi-
ences to pursue English medium education overseas.
15032-1187e-2pass-r02.indd 122 6/5/2018 9:17:53 AM

Students’ general perceptions of English

Medium Instruction
Although the students differed in their initial motivations to enrol in EMI study,
they shared similar views on the potential benefits of EMI for future careers.
Most students agreed that EMI would prepare them for employment with both
English proficiency and professional knowledge. These two attributes would pro-
vide them with an edge when applying for jobs, given the fact that many career
advertisements in Vietnam list English proficiency as one of the most important
criteria required in job applicants.
With the belief that EMI would result in a high level of English proficiency, the
students associated a high command of English with an opportunity to work for
international organisations in Vietnam. International organisations would offer
employees higher salaries, a better working environment, and more opportunities
for professional development than Vietnamese-owned enterprises.
Perceptions of quality of instruction

Students described EMI programs as “elite”, “advanced”, and “practical” in compar-
ison with Vietnamese medium programs regarding curriculum and program delivery.
The EMI curriculum adopted in part an international curriculum to provide stu-
dents with the knowledge they would need for future employment. Specifically, EMI
courses used English textbooks in the original by leading international publishers,
whereas the Vietnamese medium courses use translations of these English textbooks
in Vietnamese. Students saw this as advantageous because the content would not be
misinterpreted or translated inaccurately. In addition, the use of English textbooks
gave them more detailed and updated knowledge in Business studies.
The students described their lecturers as being highly trained, knowledgeable,
approachable, and responsive to students’ needs. The lecturers graduated from
universities in Australia, the United Kingdom, and the United States. They had
experienced international education and were assumed to have a high level of
English proficiency.
While most universities in Vietnam remain under-resourced by international
standards, the students in EMI programs enjoyed better learning conditions than
their cohorts in Vietnamese medium programs. The students were provided with
high quality facilities including air-conditioned classrooms, better equipped librar-
ies, and high-speed Internet access. The students at the English medium university
valued the provision of tutorials and teaching assistants to assist them with aca-
demic needs. (This support is currently absent at most Vietnamese universities).
The students believed the programs provided them with work-ready skills in
preparation for international workplace. The generic skills gained from EMI
courses such as teamwork, critical thinking, problem-solving, and communica-
tion skills would be highly sought after by international organisations. A student
expressed opinion in this regard:
In our courses, we are encouraged to express our personal ideas freely. The
lecturers used to study overseas so they are very open-mined. They always
15032-1187e-2pass-r02.indd 123 6/5/2018 9:17:53 AM

encourage us to speak out what we think and not to care too much about
whether our ideas are right or wrong. We can challenge each other and even
challenge the lecturers. I’m sure this rarely happens at other public universi-
ties in Vietnam where students think that the lecturers are always right.
(Le, 2017)
The students also perceived better English proficiency due to frequent expo-
sure to English in their courses. They accumulated more technical vocabulary
as the result of reading specialised textbooks and reference materials in English.
Some students reported significant gain in personal confidence.
Challenges of dealing with academic tasks in

EMI courses
Students encountered initial problems dealing with reading course materials in
English. The textbooks used for EMI courses were hard to read as they were
intended for Business students in English-speaking countries such as Australia
and the United Kingdom. Some students had to rely heavily on dictionaries for
difficult terminologies and concepts and sought translation and supplementary
textbooks in Vietnamese to understand the course content in more depth.
Lecturers’ spoken English posed another challenge. Some lecturers’ pronun-
ciation was described as “unclear” and “incorrect” which made it harder for stu-
dents to understand the subject matter. In addition, lecturers’ heavy use of jargon
and new terminology added to students’ difficulty to understand course content.
EMI lectures were less interesting than Vietnamese medium lectures because lec-
turers were unwilling or unable to elaborate on the content. Some lecturers fol-
lowed the textbook strictly without adding any additional knowledge or personal
contribution, and without any classroom dynamics.
Also, students encountered problems with writing essays for their professional
subjects. They had little knowledge of genres and technical vocabulary needed
for specific writing assignments. Basic skills such as referencing and citation were
unfamiliar to many students. The academic skills courses did not prepare students
for different genres of writing. They had to search for additional materials and
resources on the Internet to deal with specific writing tasks.
Difficulty in interaction in English

Students generally indicated that they had problems with speaking English. They
could not express themselves clearly and fluently about topics related to their
disciplines. They often withdrew themselves from classroom discussions because
they did not feel confident about their spoken English. The students pointed to
the lack of vocabulary and fluency that hindered their oral interaction in English.
The students who felt least confident about their English speaking were those
from rural areas. They felt disadvantaged in comparison with their metropolitan
classmates who had better access to resources and conditions to learn English at
15032-1187e-2pass-r02.indd 124 6/5/2018 9:17:53 AM

an early age. They also felt more pressure to keep pace with their peers who pos-
sessed better English proficiency.
Irrelevant content and foreign knowledge

Albeit the advantages of reading textbooks in the original, some students com-
mented that unfamiliar Business concepts, foreign knowledge, and lack of any
Vietnamese context in the English textbooks made the materials difficult to read.
Some courses provide irrelevant knowledge to the needs of local Vietnamese
students, which is expressed in the following statement:
I found knowledge in the books quite foreign to us. It would be better for
the course content to be modified to be more relevant to Vietnamese stu-
dents. We want more knowledge and examples about Vietnamese contexts
rather than those taken from foreign countries. For example, I would like to
learn about Taxation in Vietnam rather than Taxation in the USA because
it’s likely that many of us will work for Vietnamese companies after gradua-
tion. We should have learnt about the tax system in Vietnam.
(Le, 2017)
In addition, some students were concerned about the lack of content in EMI
courses. The English medium courses tended to cover less content compared
with Vietnamese medium courses. The students worried that they would miss out
on important knowledge in comparison with the students who took Vietnamese
medium courses.
Despite the challenges in doing EMI, the students generally indicated that they
valued the learning experiences of undertaking courses in English. EMI put them
under pressure to study harder. It was worthwhile to do EMI because it brought
benefits to their personal and professional development. The students believed
that the economic returns of EMI would be greater than the costs associated with
its undertaking.
Implementation of EMI in Vietnamese universities:

gaps to be filled
Students were motivated to select EMI education for several reasons, including
association of EMI with high quality education and the perceived importance of
English proficiency attached to postgraduate study and employment prospects.
Instrumental motivation, a strong belief in the employment prospects and the
economic returns of EMI, was the primary factor for students to undertake EMI
programs. Vietnamese higher education appears undesirable to many domestic
students, evident by reports on growing numbers of students who have sought
education abroad (AEI, 2017; IIE, 2017). “International education” is consid-
ered more valuable and of higher quality than domestic education. Against this
backdrop, the students associate EMI with high quality education.
15032-1187e-2pass-r02.indd 125 6/5/2018 9:17:53 AM

English is recognised as an important tool for employment opportunities and
is one of the most sought-after attributes in graduates (Do, 2006). Vietnam has
opened its doors to foreign investment and international economic, social, and
political collaborations for decades which has resulted in increased opportunities
for people to work in multinational companies. Students believed completion
of EMI programs would provide them with a high level of English proficiency
which would increase their employability. International research also showed
that EMI was favoured by university students in non-dominant English speaking
countries (Ball & Linsay, 2012; Costa & Coleman, 2012; Evans & Morrison,
2011a; Hu, Li, & Lei, 2014; Manakul, 2007; Tong & Shi, 2012). Students who
majored in Business studies showed more favourable attitudes towards EMI and
had stronger career-related motives for selecting EMI than students from other
disciplines (Byun et al., 2011).
Second, students’ challenges dealing with EMI programs were closely related to
their English proficiency and academic abilities. The students reported problems
dealing with the demands of EMI courses including comprehending textbooks
and lectures, writing assignments, and participating in oral discussions. These
problems were not unexpected, given the fact that the English language pro-
grams at secondary schools in many non-dominant English-speaking countries
do not provide adequate preparation for students from mother tongue-medium
schools to do well at English medium higher education institutions (Evans &
Morrison, 2011a; Taguchi & Naganuma, 2006; Tsuneyoshi, 2005). In Vietnam,
the English language training at secondary schools is examination-oriented with
a focus on reading and grammar and little emphasis on developing practical com-
munication skills (Nunan, 2003). Students are given limited opportunities to
practise listening and speaking in English class. As a result, a vast majority of high
school graduates have low levels of communicative skills in English. When these
students took EMI programs at university, they struggled to deal with academic
tasks. In addition, the preparatory English programs at university do not seem
to equip students with the most-needed skills, including note taking in English
lectures and academic reading skills, to deal with demands of EMI courses. There
was little evidence of inclusion of Business-related topics and study skills in the
study programs in the current study.
Language-related problems facing Vietnamese students in the current study fit
with previous investigations in Asian and European higher educational settings
(Airey, 2010; Byun et al., 2011; Evans & Morrison, 2011b; Hellekjaer, 2010;
Hu & Lei, 2014; Tange, 2010; Tsuneyoshi, 2005). These findings raise concerns
about EMI courses for students with inadequate English. It is vital that students
are provided with sufficient English training to enable successful EMI undertak-
ing (Byun et al., 2011; Cho, 2012; Hellekjaer & Westergaard, 2003; Vinke et al.,
1998).
Third, students’ understanding of subject matter in EMI lectures was influ-
enced by lecturers’ English proficiency and pedagogical skills. Students were
not satisfied with the quality of lecturers’ spoken English with regard to their
pronunciation. In addition, students were concerned about lecturers’ ineffective
15032-1187e-2pass-r02.indd 126 6/5/2018 9:17:53 AM

lecturing styles (including lecture monologues, inflexibility, and unwillingness to
elaborate on the subject matter because of linguistic barriers).
Students’ criticism of lecturers’ oral English fluency might be explained con-
sidering their expectation of lecturers’ English proficiency. Some students may
possess high English proficiency levels and expected lecturers to speak English
fluently. Students’ dissatisfaction with lecturers’ pedagogical shortcomings could
be traced to a lecturers’ lack of teaching experience and training in pedagogy.
Although EMI has operated in Vietnamese universities for some time, there is
an absence of teacher training exclusively on EMI education. This could be the
result of administrators’ assumption that teaching in English is the same as teach-
ing in Vietnamese and that lecturers would gain teaching competence over time.
However, international research has identified differences between lecturing in
English and lecturing in one’s mother tongue. These include speech rate, lin-
guistic flexibility, ability to improvise, clarity, and accuracy of expression (Airey,
2011; Airey & Linder, 2006; Vinke et al., 1998). Teaching in English may be
more problematic than teaching in mother tongue (Flowerdew & Miller, 1992).
It would be desirable to provide formal exclusive training in EMI pedagogy to
enhance lecturers’ teaching practices.
Given the absence of formal training in EMI teaching in Vietnamese uni-
versities, lecturers gain teaching competency mainly through trial and error.
Junior lecturers may be more proficient in English than senior lecturers but are
often lacking in teaching experience and mastery of professional knowledge.
In contrast, senior lecturers tend to possess extensive experience of teaching
Vietnamese medium courses rather than EMI courses. They are more likely
to make more linguistic errors and are inclined to employ inflexible teaching
methods, such as monologues and co-switching, to compensate for their lin-
guistic limitations. Lecturers’ ineffective pedagogy exerts a detrimental effect
on students’ learning (Ball & Linsay, 2012; Klaassen, 2001). There is a need for
well-designed training programs to improve pedagogical knowledge for EMI
lecturers.
Concluding remarks
In general, students were satisfied with their learning experiences in terms of
overseas-trained lecturers, state-of-the-art facilities, practicality of the study pro-
grams, comfortable learning environments, improved technical English, and
increased self-confidence. Students also expressed their concerns about their own
inadequacies with English, problems with the teaching competence of some lec-
turers, and lack of study skills preparation. However, many students were deter-
mined to overcome these challenges and were content with their decision to do
EMI programs. EMI was seen to add value to their qualifications.
EMI is gathering momentum in Vietnam and in other non-dominant
English-speaking countries in Asia and worldwide. EMI has received strong sup-
port from major stakeholders. The current question for administrators in Vietnam-
ese higher education is not whether or not to adopt EMI but how to implement
15032-1187e-2pass-r02.indd 127 6/5/2018 9:17:53 AM

EMI to maximise its benefits and minimise its problems. There is evidence that
EMI can be successful if it is carefully planned, providing highly qualified teachers
(both in terms of English proficiency and pedagogical knowledge) as well as stu-
dents with sufficient English proficiency. Poorly implemented EMI programs will
waste university resources and cause distress for students who had high hopes for
their universities studies and desirable careers following success at university. High
commands of English proficiency have been a form of linguistic and economic
capital for the Vietnamese people. The Vietnamese government has signalled its
intention to join the global economy, and proficiency in English is a major plat-
form of this bold initiative.
References
Aguilar, M., & Rodríguez, R. (2012). Lecturer and student perceptions on CLIL at a
Spanish university. International Journal of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism,
15(2), 183–197.
Airey, J. (2010). The ability of students to explain science concepts in two languages.
Hermes, 45, 36–49.
Airey, J. (2011). Talking about teaching in English: Swedish university lecturers’
experiences of changing teaching language. Journal of the European Association of
Languages for Specific Purposes, 22, 35–54.
Airey, J., & Linder, C. (2006). Language and the experience of learning university
Physics in Sweden. European Journal of Physics, 27(3), 553–560.
Australian Education International (AEI). (2017). International student data 2017.
Retrieved 20 April, 2017 from https://internationaleducation.gov.au/research/
international-student-data/pages/default.aspx
Baldauf, R. (2012). Language planning: Where have we been? Where might we be
going? Brazilian Review of Applied Linguistics, 12(2), 233–248.
Ball, P., & Linsay, D. (2012). Language demands and support for English medium
instruction at tertiary level: Learning from a specific context. In A. Doiz,
D. Lasagabaster, & J. Sierra (Eds.), English medium instruction at universities:
Global challenges. Bristol: Multilingual Matters.
Belhiah, H., & Elhami, M. (2015). English as a medium of instruction in the Gulf:
When students and teachers speak. Language Policy, 14(1), 3–23. doi:10.1007/
s10993-014-9336-9
Byun, K., Chu, H., Kim, M., Park, I., Kim, S., & Jung, J. (2011). English medium
teaching in Korean higher education: Policy, debates and reality. Higher Education,
62(4), 431–449.
Campbell, J., & Li, M. (2008). Asian students’ voices: An empirical study of Asian
students’ learning experiences at a New Zealand university. Journal of Studies in
International Education, 12(4), 375–396.
Chang, Y-Y. (2010). English medium instruction for subject courses in tertiary edu-
cation: Reactions from Taiwanese undergraduate students. Taiwanese International
ESP Journal, 2(1), 55–84.
Cho, D. (2012). English medium instruction in the university context of Korea:
Tradeoff between teaching outcomes and media-initiated university ranking. The
Journal of Asia TEFL, 9(4), 135–163.
Coleman, J. (2006). English medium teaching in European higher education. Lan-
guage Teaching, 39(1), 1–14.
15032-1187e-2pass-r02.indd 128 6/5/2018 9:17:53 AM

Collins, B. A. (2010). English medium higher education: Dilemma and problems.
Egitim Arastirmalari-Eurasian Journal of Educational Research, 39, 97–110.
Costa, F., & Coleman, J. A. (2012). A survey of English medium instruction in Italian
higher education. International Journal of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism,
16, 3–19. doi:10.1080/13670050.2012.676621
Do, H. T. (2006, September). The role of English in Vietnam’s foreign language pol-
icy: A brief history. Paper presented at the 19th Annual English Australia Con-
ference, Perth, Western Australia. Retrieved from https://www.scribd.com/
document/351071072/The-Role-of-English-in-Vietnam
Doiz, A., Lasagabaster, D., & Sierra, J. (Eds.). (2012). English medium instruction at
universities: Global challenges. Bristol: Multilingual Matters.
Evans, S., & Morrison, B. (2011a). Meeting the challenges of English medium higher
education: The first-year experience in Hong Kong. English for Specific Purposes,
30(3), 198–208.
Evans, S., & Morrison, B. (2011b). The student experience of English medium
higher education in Hong Kong. Language and Education, 25(2), 147–162. doi:
10.1080/09500782.2011.553287
Flowerdew, J., & Miller, L. (1992). Student perceptions, problems and strate-
gies in second language lecture comprehension. RELC Journal, 23(2), 60–80.
doi:10.1177/003368829202300205
Hellekjær, G. (2009). Academic English reading proficiency at the university level:
A Norwegian case study. Reading in a Foreign Language, 21(2), 198–222.
Hellekjaer, G. (2010). Language matters: Assessing lecture comprehension in
Norwegian English medium higher education. In C. Dalton-Puffer, T. Nikula, &
U. Smit (Eds.), Language use and language learning in CLIL classroom (pp. 233–
258). Amsterdam: John Benjamins.
Hellekjaer, G., & Westergaard, M. (2003). An exploratory survey of content learning
through English at Nordic universities. In V. Leeuwen & R. Wilkinson (Eds.), Mul-
tilingual approaches in university education: Challenges and practices (pp. 65–80).
Nijnegen: Valkhof Pers.
Higher Education Reform Agenda (HERA): 2006–2020. (2005). Resolution No. 14/
2005/NQ-CP, dated November 2, 2005. Hanoi Vietnam: Socialist Republic of
Vietnam.
Hu, G., & Lei, J. (2014). English medium instruction in Chinese higher education:
A case study. Higher Education, 67, 551–567. doi:10.1007/s10734-013-9661-5
Hu, G., Li, L., & Lei, J. (2014). English medium instruction at a Chinese uni-
versity: Rhetoric and reality. Language Policy, 13(1), 21–40. doi:10.1007/
s10993-013-9298-3
Hunt, M. (2011). Learners’ perceptions of their experiences of learning subject con-
tent through a foreign language. Educational Review, 63(3), 365–378. doi:10.
1080/00131911.2011.571765
Institute of International Education (IIE). (2017). Open doors data: Fact sheets by coun-
try 2017. Retrieved 20 April, 2017 from www.iie.org/Research-and-Publications/
Open-Doors/Data/Fact-Sheets-by-Country/2017
Jensen, C., & Thøgersen, J. (2011). Danish university lecturers’ attitudes towards
English as the medium of instruction. Journal of the European Association of Lan-
guages for Specific Purposes, 22, 13–34.
Joe, Y., & Lee, H-K. (2013). Does English medium instruction benefit students in
EFL contexts? A case study of medical students in Korea. Asia-Pacific Education
Researcher, 22(2), 201–207. doi:10.1007/s40299-012-0003-7
15032-1187e-2pass-r02.indd 129 6/5/2018 9:17:54 AM

Kagwesage, A. (2012). Higher education students’ reflections on learning in times of
academic language shift. International Journal for the Scholarship of Teaching and
Learning, 6(2), 1–16.
Kırkgöz, Y. (2005). Motivation and student perception of studying in an English
medium university. Journal of Language and Linguistic Studies, 1(1), 101–122.
Kırkgöz, Y. (2009). Students’ and lecturers’ perceptions of the effectiveness of for-
eign language instruction in an English medium university in Turkey. Teaching in
Higher Education, 14(1), 81–93. doi:10.1080/13562510802602640
Klaassen, R. G. (2001). The international university curriculum: Challenges in English
medium Engineering education. (Unpublished doctoral thesis), Delft University of
Technology, Delft.
Klaassen, R. G. (2003). English medium degree programmes in higher education:
From implementation to quality assurance. In C. van Leeuwen & R. Wilkinson
(Eds.), Multilingual approaches in university education: Challenges and prac-
tices (pp. 119–143). Nijmegen and The Netherlands: Uitgeverij Valkhof Pers &
Universiteit Maastricht.
Klaassen, R. G., & Graaff, D. (2001). Facing innovation: Preparing lecturers for
English medium instruction in a non-native context. European Journal of Engi-
neering Education, 26(3), 281–289.
Le, T. T. N. (2017). Exploring students’ experiences of English medium instruction
in Vietnamese universities. (Doctor of Philosophy), The University of Newcastle,
Australia. Retrieved from http://nova.newcastle.edu.au/vital/access/manager/
Repository/uon:27503?exact=sm_type%3A%22thesis%22
Manakul, W. (2007). English in engineering education for Japanese graduate stu-
dents. Australasian Association of Engineering Education, 13(2), 53–63.
Miller, L. (2009). Engineering lectures in a second language: What factors facilitate
students’ listening comprehension? Asian EFL Journal, 11(2), 8–30.
Ministry of Education and Training (MOET). (2010). Advanced programs in Viet-
namese universities 2008–2015. Retrieved 26 March, 2012 from dttt.vimaru.edu.
vn/system/files/DeAnCTTT.pdf
Ministry of Education and Training (MOET). (2014). Promulgation of high quality
programs in Vietnamese universities. Retrieved from www.moet.gov.vn/?page=6.
10&view=251
Nunan, D. (2003). The impact of English as a global language on educational policies
and practice in the Asia-Pacific region. TESOL Quarterly, 37(4), 589–613.
Pham, T. L. (2010). Should we use English as the medium of instruction in Vietnam-
ese universities? Paper presented at the Phat trien va giu gin su trong sang cua
tieng Viet trong thoi ky hoi nhap quoc te hien nay [Promoting and preserving the
purity of Vietnamese language in the current era of global integration], Ho chi
minh University of Foreign Languages and Information Technology (HUFLIT),
Ho chi minh City, Vietnam. Retrieved from http://lypham.net/joomla/index.
php?option=com_content&task=view&id=190
Phap Luat (Producer). (2011). Sinh viên chê chương trình tiên tiến [Students turn
away from advanced programs]. Retrieved from http://plo.vn/giao-duc/sinh-
vien-che-chuong-trinh-tien-tien-136085.html
Ruiz-Garrido, M., & Palmer-Silveira, J. (2008). Content learning in business
communication: A teaching experience within the new European framework. In
I. Fortanet-Gómez & C. Räisänen (Eds.), ESP in European higher education: Inte-
grating language and content (pp. 147–164). Amsterdam: John Benjamins.
15032-1187e-2pass-r02.indd 130 6/5/2018 9:17:54 AM

Sert, N. (2008). The language instruction dilemma in Turkish context. System, 36,
156–171.
Shaw, P., Benson, C., Brunsberg, S., Duhs, R., & Minugh, D. (2008). Preparing for
international masters degrees at Stockholm University and the Royal Institute of Tech-
nology in Stockholm. In I. Fortanet-Gómez & C. Räisänen (Eds.), ESP in European
higher education: Integrating language and content. Amsterdam: John Benjamins.
Taguchi, N., & Naganuma, N. (2006). Transition from learning English to learning
in English: Students’ perceived adjustment difficulties in an English medium uni-
versity in Japan. Asian EFL Journal, 8(4), 52–73.
Tange, H. (2010). Caught in the tower of Babel: University lecturers’ experiences with
internationalisation. Language and Intercultural Communication, 10(2), 137–149.
Tatzl, D. (2011). English medium masters’ programmes at an Austrian university of
applied sciences: Attitudes, experiences and challenges. Journal of English for Aca-
demic Purposes, 10(4), 252–270.
Thanh Nien (Producer). (2013). Chương trình tiên tiến đang..thụt lùi [Advanced
programs are moving backwards]. Retrieved from http://thanhnien.vn/giao-duc/
chuong-trinh-tien-tien-dang-thut-lui-8583.html
Tollefson, J. W., & Tsui, A. B. M. (2004). The centrality of medium of instruc-
tion policy in sociopolitical processes. In J. W. Tollefson & A. B. M. Tsui (Eds.),
Medium of instruction policies: Which agenda? Whose agenda? (pp. 1–18). Mahwah,
NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Tong, F., & Shi, Q. (2012). Chinese-English bilingual education in China: A case
study of college science majors. International Journal of Bilingual Education and
Bilingualism, 15(2), 165–182. doi:10.1080/13670050.2011.607921
Tsuneyoshi, R. (2005). Internationalization strategies in Japan: The dilemmas and
possibilities of study abroad programs using English. Journal of Research in Inter-
national Education, 4(1), 65–86.
UNESCO. (2013). Vietnam’s education strategies: 2009–2020. Retrieved 15 October,
2013 from http://planipolis.iiep.unesco.org/upload/Viet%20Nam/Viet_Nam_
Education_%20strategy_2009-2020_viet.pdf
Vietnam Government. (2001). Chien luoc phat trien giao duc Vietnam giai doan 2001–
2010 [Vietnam education development strategies: 2001–2010]. Retrieved from www.
moj.gov.vn/vbpq/lists/vn%20bn%20php%20lut/view_detail.aspx?itemid=22049
Vietnam Government. (2014). Fundamental and comprehensive reform of higher
education 2006–2020. Retrieved December 5, 2014 from www.chinhphu.vn/
portal/page/portal/chinhphu/hethongvanban?class_id=509&_page=4&mode=
detail&document_id=14954
Vietnam Government. (2017). Revised national foreign language project 2017–2025.
Retrieved from http://vanban.chinhphu.vn/portal/page/portal/chinhphu/
hethongvanban?class_id=2&_page=1&mode=detail&document_id=192343
Vinke, A. A., Snippe, J., & Jochems, W. (1998). English medium content courses in
non-English higher education: A study of lecturer experiences and teaching behav-
iours. Teaching in Higher Education, 3(3), 383–394.
Vu, T. T. N., & Burns, A. (2014). English as a medium of instruction: Challenges for
Vietnamese tertiary lecturers. The Journal of Asia TEFL, 11(3), 1–31.
Yusof, R. N., Tayib, M., & Mansor, M. (2004). English medium instruction in non-
English higher learning institutions: Accounting lecturers’ experience versus stu-
dents’ perception. In R. Wilkinson (Ed.), Integrating content and language: Meeting
the challenge of a multilingual higher education. Maastricht: Universitaire Pers.
15032-1187e-2pass-r02.indd 131 6/5/2018 9:17:54 AM

10 Rural students’ motivation
for learning English
Implications for transition to
tertiary education
Cuong Pham and Cynthia White
English language learning and teaching in rural Vietnam are enmeshed in a con-
stellation of challenges identified as lack of access to language resources, inad-
equate facilities, and the nature and level of teachers’ qualifications (Goh &
Nguyen, 2004; Kam, 2002; D. C. Nguyen, Le, Tran, & Nguyen, 2014; X. V.
Nguyen, 2003). Limited language affordances and the exam-oriented practices
which characterise high school language teaching have been recognised as among
the primary impediments to learners’ resilience and efforts (Pham, 2015, 2016b;
Tran & Baldauf Jr, 2007). However, Vietnamese parents and other education
stakeholders in rural areas have shown growing awareness of the value of language
learning for socio-economic mobility, resulting in attempts to provide children
with further affordances and learning opportunities within and beyond school
settings, especially through private tuition (Dang, 2013; Hall, 2008; Pham,
2016b; Phan, 2009; Truong, 2017). Such efforts aim to compensate for the
limitations confronting these students in formal schooling as well as to facilitate
their access to higher education, since English is one of the mandatory subjects
not only for the high school graduation examination and university admission
but also for tertiary studies (Hayden & Pham, 2010; Pham, 2016b; Phan, 2009).
Within Vietnam’s educational context, the transition from high school to uni-
versity is deemed as a significant milestone determining students’ academic and
socio-economic future, thus drawing widespread concerns from students them-
selves, teachers, parents, and other stakeholders. This transition is fraught with
obstacles, and students from rural localities are more disadvantaged than their
more urban counterparts (George, 2010; Pham, 2016b; Phan, 2010). As yet
we know relatively little about rural students’ perceptions of this critical stage
or about the nature and course of their motivation in response to the particular
affordances and constraints of their learning contexts. This chapter draws on the
person-in-context relational view of motivation (Ushioda, 2009) and the con-
struct of agentive appraisal to explore the motivation of two rural high school
students learning English throughout their transition from high school to uni-
versity. This is part of a longitudinal case study with four high school students in
rural Southern Vietnam that lasted one and a half years (Pham, 2016a). It aimed
to gain further insights into their motivational trajectories under the impacts of
a synergy of ecological and idiosyncratic elements within and across settings and
relationships.
15032-1187e-2pass-r02.indd 132 6/5/2018 9:17:54 AM

Rural students’ motivation 133
Contextualised approaches to motivation

in language learning
In his research tracking learners’ motivational changes over the period from 2002
to 2015, Lamb (2016) emphasises the susceptibility of second language (L2)
motivation to context and the impracticability of formulating predictable mod-
els demonstrating the interactions and impacts of various environmental factors.
These arguments are not new given the substantial volume of research on L2
motivation (see Dörnyei & Ushioda, 2011); yet, the longitudinal findings sig-
nificantly substantiate the value of qualitative approaches in examining L2 moti-
vation following the social turns in second language acquisition that “takes on
board the complexity of context” (Block, 2003, p. 4). The intricate nature of
context and interpersonal relationships in multiple learning settings and their syn-
ergistic impacts on learners’ cognitive and affective development have been focal
considerations in contemporary research in applied linguistics (Bown & White,
2010; Larsen-Freeman, 2012; Mercer, 2011a; Oxford, 2017; Ushioda, 2015).
More situated approaches are gaining prominence in L2 motivation research,
as Ushioda (2012, p. 60) notes “current research perspectives on L2 motivation
have become even more strongly socio-contextually grounded”. Each learner
lives in their own world with an array of socio-cultural and idiosyncratic ele-
ments shaping and reshaping the ways in which they learn and respond to diverse
aspects of the environment (Dörnyei, 2009; Dufva & Aro, 2014; Ryan, 2006).
In re-positioning and reconceptualising language learners within such complex-
ity, Ushioda’s (2009) person-in-context relational view of motivation conceives
of each learner as a person with their own thinking, feelings, personality, goals,
experience, background, and relationships. Her view dismisses the practice of see-
ing learners as theoretical abstractions that tend to classify them into certain types
(e.g. low versus high motivation). Rather, it brings to the fore “the unique indi-
viduality, agency, intentionality and reflective capacity of human beings as they
engage in the process of language learning” (Dörnyei & Ushioda, 2011, p. 76).
As such, learner agency takes a central role in reflecting their perceptions of and
approaches to the world around them, especially its affordances and constraints
that either contribute to or hinder cognitive processes leading to learning.
A second theoretical framework presented in this chapter relates to the con-
struct of agency where learners’ participation in social interactions is mediated by
semiotic means and socio-cultural values, and contingent on their abilities to con-
trol and regulate their behaviour to change the world resulting in personal change
(Lantolf, 2013). Such processes are also attributable to learners’ differing degrees
of engagement and their belief in the outcome of their behaviour, or in other
words their “sense of agency” (Mercer, 2012, p. 41). Agency is often defined as
“the socioculturally mediated capacity to act” (Ahearn, 2001, p. 112). However,
Mercer (2012) argues that agency needs to be considered in close connection to
physical, cognitive, affective, and motivational aspects. From this wider perspec-
tive, language learners’ agency concerns their ability to “direct, control, create
and transform their own linguistic/cultural socialisation using the myriad social
and cultural resources at their disposal” (Duff & Doherty, 2014, pp. 55–56). As
15032-1187e-2pass-r02.indd 133 6/5/2018 9:17:54 AM

part of these processes, learners perform on-going appraisals of affordances and
constraints concerning themselves and their environment. Drawing on a socio-
cultural situated perspective, Beltman and Volet (2007, p. 315) view appraisal
as involving “different levels of engagement and participation [which] are the
result of personal and contextual affordances and constraints in the immediate
but also sociohistorical contexts”. This points to learners’ agentive practices in
determining the personal as well as contextual values that inform the extent of
their involvement. Beltman and Volet’s (2007) study also reveals the relation-
ships between motivation and learner appraisals with the former constantly medi-
ated and shaped by ongoing personal and contextual changes along their learning
trajectories. Gabryś-Barker (2011, p. 82) provides further evidence substantiat-
ing such links, maintaining that “appraisals are our idiosyncratic evaluations of a
given situation, which bring about certain emotional reactions”. Such affectivity
provoked by learners’ appraisals of context, as Gabryś-Barker (2011) concludes,
is important to a diverse range of human activities, including language learning.
Rural Vietnam as rich settings for research

on language motivation
This chapter provides insights into the lifeworlds of two case study students Diem
and Phong (pseudonyms) who learned English in rural Vietnam and were on the
threshold of high school graduation and university admission. Their motivational
trajectories as accounted for in the chapter not only demonstrate their affective
responses towards the criticality of this transitional stage in their studies but also
the ways in which they were preparing for entering university.
Diem and Phong learned English as a mandatory subject that comprises three
45-minute sessions per week following the national curriculum for general edu-
cation. Their school, located in a rural province and funded by the government,
has approximately 50 teachers in multiple disciplines, including six English lan-
guage teachers, and receives students from local and nearby communes. They
were committed to learning English as it was seen as a passport to their university
admission and occupational aspirations. These two case study participants were
selected for analysis since their learning journeys demonstrated arguably typical
challenges confronting Vietnamese high school students from rural areas as well
as exceptional features pertaining to their own language learning contexts. Their
transition from high school to university marked out different stages of prepara-
tion and different degrees of motivation.
At the time of data collection, Phong (male, 16 years old) was a tenth grader
who had a great passion for becoming an electrical technician. Phong was inter-
ested in learning English so that he could read documents on electronics and
as a subject within the university entrance requirements. He had been living
with his grandmother who helped his financially challenged parents with his
daily expenses and tuition fees. Diem (female, 17 years old) was in Year 11
and had always hoped to set up a foreign language centre to offer free English
courses for disadvantaged students like herself. Her parents were Cambodian
15032-1187e-2pass-r02.indd 134 6/5/2018 9:17:54 AM

who migrated to Vietnam due to political unrest and had little formal educa-
tion. This background was the primary driver for them to encourage her to
pursue higher education.
Data were gathered from diverse sources including interviews from a social
practice perspective (Talmy, 2010), observations, casual conversations, and infor-
mal exchanges on Facebook Messenger, aiming to obtain rich information in
multiple settings such as in school and participants’ homes. The data collection
last approximately 18 months in two stages: on-site when the first author vis-
ited the school for participant recruitment and working with them there for six
months and online when he returned overseas and maintained contact through
social media. In addition to regular contact at school, the first author spent a sig-
nificant amount of time going to participants’ homes for private English tutoring
as part of his reciprocal approach towards them and their parents. Such activities
contributed to developing rapport with the participants and their families, facili-
tating access to more in-depth data. Observations in multiple settings contributed
to the focus of interviews which, based on social practice approaches, considered
the contextual, interactional, and relational dimensions underpinning the co-
construction of meaning between the interviewer and interviewees (Talmy, 2010,
2011). The excerpts presented in this chapter capture “key moments” (Sullivan,
2012) during the process of transition from high school to university, shaping
their agentive appraisals of affordances for and constraints in language learning
within and across settings and relationships, and over time.
The case of Diem

Diem perceived her English learning at high school as a decisive factor for suc-
cessful university admission and upward social mobility. She developed a concrete
plan for her studies, agentively appraising the affordances and limitations of her
learning conditions within and across settings. Her outstanding academic perfor-
mance in previous years afforded her a placement in the top class, one that was
aspired to by most of the local students due to its special privileges such as having
well-qualified teaching staff and especially the high possibilities of passing the
university entrance examination. Excerpt 1 came from an interview at the begin-
ning of Diem’s final year at high school reflecting her perspectives on the value of
being in the top class to higher education.
Excerpt 1
All teachers assume that we are all excellent students in their subjects (U1).
You know I focus and spend more time on English. The majority of my
classmates are not so good at English because it is not their subject of spe-
cialty. . . . The teachers only follow the majority. They teach very fast and give
very difficult questions, assuming that students already have the basic knowl-
edge in their area (U2). Sometimes I feel I am drowning in their classes.
I don’t dare to ask them to slow down because I may be among the few
15032-1187e-2pass-r02.indd 135 6/5/2018 9:17:54 AM

students to do so. They also expect us to have high scores. It is the school’s
pressure on the teachers, which is passed on to us eventually.
(ISDiem)
Students in top classes were chosen based on academic merits in all disciplines and
had a strong determination to enter university. Their school program was tailored
with enhancement in natural science subjects such as Maths and Physics, somewhat
more demanding than that of their peers, to enhance their competitive edge over stu-
dents in more urban areas in terms of entry into university. Diem appraised her teach-
ers’ assumptions about students’ abilities, expectations, and teaching approaches (U1
and U2) as an obstacle to her pursuit of English – her biggest strength. Her reflec-
tions showed a hierarchical representation of academic pressures initiated by multiple
stakeholders and peers, and the constraints of English classes at school. This class-
room reality drove her and those students who were interested in learning English to
resort to private tuition classes for increasing opportunities for higher education in
language-related fields. Since the beginning of her second year at high school, Diem
had been going to private English classes with Mr Hung, a local English language
teacher who worked at a different school from her own but his classes had a reputa-
tion for high university admission rates. Excerpt 2 provides a preliminary description
of the nature of Diem’s private tuition classes.
Excerpt 2
One needs to have strong determination (U3) to attend the class because
there is nothing interesting (U4) except for exercises and homework. We are
given a lot of homework and have to memorise a lot of idioms, phrasal verbs,
and vocabulary. Sometimes, when we procrastinate and do not do the home-
work (U5), Mr Hung will get upset, saying that we are wasting our parents’
money or we are studying for our own future, not for anyone else. Once he
even threatened to cancel the class if we did not focus on our studies (U6).
(CSDiem)
Taking private tuition to gain further support and resources for learning is a
common phenomenon in East and Southeast Asian countries, especially Viet-
nam (Bray, 2013; Dang, 2013; Dang & Rogers, 2008). Through U3 and U4,
Diem emphasised her own volition in taking the private class and her percep-
tions of its value as a provision of additional language affordances to supplement
her English classes at school so that she could better prepare for the university
entrance exams, all of which represented her appraisals of the interaction between
her agency and contextual factors. In Mercer’s (2012, p. 43) words, this is a
process in which “The learner makes personal sense out of what they encounter
and uses affordances in ways that are personally meaningful and relevant”. This
excerpt also reveals the “ups and downs” (Shoaib & Dörnyei, 2005, p. 23) of her
L2 motivation (U5). The roles of the private teacher as a mentor, a reminder, and
especially a mediator (U6) were salient in these instances.
15032-1187e-2pass-r02.indd 136 6/5/2018 9:17:54 AM

Excerpt 3
In this part of the interview, preceded by the first author’s casual conversation
with Diem’s mother in relation to her family budget and attitudes towards
higher education, Diem was asked to reflect on her private tuition teacher’s
generous act of waiving the tuition fee that she had mentioned in earlier
communication.
I felt like I owed him something (U7). I have to study well to deserve his
good deed. I always prepare homework and other things very well before
going to his class. I think I have to double my effort. If I fail the university
entrance examination this time, I will not dare to see him again (U8).
(ISDiem)
Not only did Mr Hung partially mediate Diem’s language learning process, he
was also a motivator in providing her with free private tuition. Teachers are widely
acknowledged as sources of motivation for language learners through classroom
activities and affective strategies (Bernaus & Gardner, 2008; Williams & Burden,
1997); however, what is unique about this case was the fact that Mr Hung was a
private tuition teacher who opened the class primarily for financial purposes and
that he used the fee waiver as a means of motivation. Diem appraised his generos-
ity as a moral debt (U7) that she compelled herself to pay through her endeavour
to pass the university entrance examination (U8), reflecting agency as the ability
“to understand the significance and relevance” (Lantolf, 2013, p. 19) of actions
and as a driver for her commitment to higher education. This showed that multi-
ple stakeholders from school to private classes contributed to learners’ persistence
in their education pathways.
Excerpt 4
As the time for the university entrance examination approached, Diem developed
doubts about her ability to pass. In a Facebook exchange one month prior to her
university entrance examination, she shared her feelings:
D: There is only one more week before the end of the school year. My English is
still not good enough. I have tried some exam papers of previous years but
my scores are not high. I am afraid I will fail the university entrance examina-
tion. Can I make a big improvement in one month, sir?
C: I think what you can do now is make general revision of all the knowledge you
have learned. You can’t ask for much within one month.
D: So, you mean it is hopeless.
C: No, I don’t mean so. I mean you should try your best. You never know the
future.
. . .
D: If I fail this time, I don’t know what to do. (FSDiem)
15032-1187e-2pass-r02.indd 137 6/5/2018 9:17:54 AM

Examinations are usually viewed as the dominant source of pressure, anxi-
ety, and to some extent a demotivator for language learners in most Asian con-
texts (Butler, 2015a; Kikuchi, 2009; Pham, 2016b; Tran & Baldauf Jr, 2007).
In Diem’s circumstance, the causes of her anxiety were multiple, arising from
her appraisals of her background as a learner from a rural school with limited
language affordances and the constraints of studying in the top class mentioned
earlier. Importantly too this was a critical transitional phase in her language learn-
ing trajectory significantly impacting on her future studies and socio-economic
aspirations. Excerpt 4 also illustrated the mediating role of the first author who
worked directly with Diem during the data gathering. Diem turned to him for
language support and consultation in situations when her school and private tui-
tion teachers were not available. This instance offered a situated perspective on
the ways in which Diem exercised her agency which is “not the same always and
everywhere, but how it plays out is dependent on the circumstances of specific
context” (Lantolf, 2013, p. 19).
The case of Phong

At the time of participating in this research project, Phong was attending a regu-
lar class and had decided to pursue English as a means of entering his desired
university. By the end of his first year, Phong was relocated to the top class due
to his outstanding GPA. He took this opportunity with reluctance, appraising
his own abilities and the possible challenges confronting him in the new learning
environment. However, he finally accepted his placement considering the reward
of having a higher probability of university admission and the honour associated
with being in the top class. Phong foresaw English as his winning card in the
top class, insisting that “I can’t beat them in subjects like Maths, or Chemistry,
but I may excel over some in English” (ISPhong). His strategies for coping with
the changing learning conditions during this transitional stage enabled him to
actively construct the terms and conditions of his learning as an agentic learner
(Lantolf & Pavlenko, 2001).
Excerpt 5
Phong’s family background significantly impacted on his attitudes towards learn-
ing and his resilience in the top class and ultimately his desire to enter university.
His pre-literate parents experienced job insecurity and other problems, thus fos-
tering their positive view of higher education as a means for upward social mobil-
ity, as presented in the following interview excerpt with his mother.
Nowadays, frankly speaking, it is a huge disadvantage to be without educa-

tion. In my time, illiteracy was not a big issue but now the opposite is true.
Now, to be eligible even for working as a security guard, one must have at
least a high school diploma. Education should be the top priority.
(IPPhong)
15032-1187e-2pass-r02.indd 138 6/5/2018 9:17:54 AM

Their child-rearing principles lay in stark contrast with those of most of their
neighbours in that they looked beyond immediate financial gains. Parental role
and educational involvement in fostering learners’ beliefs in the value of higher
education in Phong’s case align with those in many contexts in China, Indo-
nesia, Japan, and Korea (Butler, 2015a, 2015b; Gao, 2012; Kim, 2009; Lamb,
2013). Phong’s decision to take on the challenges posed by the transfer to the
top class and his preparation prior to the new academic year showed his exer-
cise of agency, appraising his own affordances and constraints in response to
the expectations and concerns of his parents and his grandmother who acted as
mediators in family settings. Agency, from this perspective can be understood
as situated in relation to other individuals “not only as interactional partners
but also in respect to co-evolving and collective notions of agency” (Mercer,
2012, p. 57).
Excerpt 6
Prior to his university entrance examination, Phong was overwhelmed by the
anxiety and fear of not doing well, which meant a failure to meet the expectations
of social others. Excerpt 6was part of the on-going interaction on Facebook Mes-
senger between Phong and the first author:
C: How is it going with your English learning?

P: I am among the best in my class but it doesn’t mean anything.
C: Why’s that?
P: Coz all my classmates are not good at English, so my teacher has been very
easy-going with her marking and test questions. I am fine with classroom
tasks but when I work on the exercises in the supplementary books I bought,
I find so many questions difficult.
C: You sound pessimistic?
P: I don’t really know my real English level (U9). I may be better than my class-
mate in English but compared with my peers from urban schools, I think
they are far better than me.
C: How are your grades in English?
P. I took a mock test for the university entrance exam and I got only 50%. This
worried me. The exam is approaching but I am not well-prepared for it. I am
scared of failing it (U10).
C: Why?
P: If I fail, I may end up working as a buffalo shepherd. My parent and grandma
have been caring so much about my studies. If I fail, I won’t dare to look
directly into their face when I see them.
. . .
P: I am not worried about the high school graduation. I am more concerned
about the university entrance exam. With my English level like this, I will
pass the graduation but I am not sure about the university one. I wish I could
be as good at English as you (U11).
15032-1187e-2pass-r02.indd 139 6/5/2018 9:17:54 AM

Phong’s language learning conditions at school were remarkably similar to
those of Diem given the lack of support from language teachers and limited
resources. He relied on supplementary materials as the main language affor-
dances for his exam preparation, revealing his exercise of agency in actively con-
structing the learning resources for himself (Lantolf & Pavlenko, 2001). Another
challenge confronting Phong was his appraisal of his ability as unknowable (U9),
leading to his worry and further uncertainty and anxiety about exams. Such nega-
tive emotions were also partly attributable to his appraisal of his ability compared
to students in more urban contexts who had better learning opportunities. The
result of the mock test which indicated the gap between his performance in class
and on a wider national scale intensified his worry and anxiety (U10). At this
critical stage, his primary concern was to the national exam rather than his per-
formance at school, showing the situated and dynamic nature of learner agency
(Mercer, 2011b, 2012). In stating “I wish I could be as good at English as you”
(U11), Phong appraised himself as not having the ability commensurate to the
level required by the national examination. He saw the first author as a “near peer
role model” who is “close to the learners’ social, professional and/or age level,
and whom the learners may respect and admire” (Dörnyei & Murphey, 2004,
p. 128) – a goal that he aspired to. In this case, the first author was not a neutral
observer but rather a mediator and motivator for Phong.
Discussion
This study has provided a person-in-context relational perspective (Ushioda,
2009) on the motivational constructions and the agentive appraisals of the
language affordances and constraints of the two case study participants, Diem
and Phong. By giving analytical attention to students’ appraisals of the learn-
ing opportunities in a range of contexts within rural settings we have presented
detailed evidence of Ushioda’s (2015, p. 48) claim that “learners are not simply
located in particular contexts, but inseparably constitute part of these contexts.
Learners shape and are shaped by context”. Both Diem and Phong demonstrated
differing degrees of agency and appraisals of such contextual elements, contribut-
ing to multiple shades of emotions, motivation, and resilience in their language
learning over the transition from high school to university. Within the education
context in rural Vietnam, limited learning resources and community support for
language learning were found here to be a significant obstacle undermining the
motivation of such avid learners as Diem and Phong in their pursuit of language
studies for higher education. One of the primary concerns for education stake-
holders and policy makers is to ensure more equitable learning opportunities and
language affordances for these students. Further, the practice of placing students
in top classes as an attempt to boost the school’s university admission rates with-
out considering individual students’ desires needs to be considered seriously. The
struggles and disadvantages that Diem and Phong experienced in their studies
in the top classes, despite their resilience and personal endeavours, could have
been alleviated if there had been classes for students specialising in English where
15032-1187e-2pass-r02.indd 140 6/5/2018 9:17:54 AM

they could develop their unfulfilled potential. More importantly, students learn-
ing English in rural areas tended to be engulfed in anxiety and fear of not being
able to compete with their more urban peers through their negative appraisals of
their own abilities and affordances for university exam preparation. This would
undoubtedly impact on their exam revision process and eventually their test per-
formance. It is therefore critical that language teachers, school stakeholders, gov-
ernmental bodies, and policy makers at municipal and provincial levels revise
curricula and exam practices which could account for such differences as well as
tailor the national program to local students’ specific needs to promote equity in
relation to access to higher education.
Conclusion
Accounts on the lifeworlds of the two case study participants offer an insight-
ful view into the period of transition from high school to university, particularly
revolving around their appraisals of the affordances and constraints on their lan-
guage learning in rural contexts in Vietnam and how these elements impacted on
their motivation and emotions. Further, these students showed the various ways in
which they exercised their agentive appraisals of multiple learning settings and rela-
tionships and of personal abilities and the degrees of effort required to achieve their
goals. Language teachers and other stakeholders, therefore, play an important role
in fostering students’ agentive practices in identifying, appraising, and utilising the
affordances that positively induce learning within and across different settings and
relationships. Individual students’ language learning backgrounds, agency, other
affective aspects, complex social relationships, and especially the challenges con-
fronting them during the transitional stage from high school to university are to be
taken seriously in order to foster their proactive attitudes towards language learning
and to sustain their L2 motivation as they proceed to higher education.
References
Ahearn, L. M. (2001). Language and agency. Annual Review of Anthropology, 30,
109–137.
Beltman, S., & Volet, S. (2007). Exploring the complex and dynamic nature of sus-
tained motivation. European Psychologist, 12(4), 314–323. doi:10.1027/1016–
9040.12.4.314
Bernaus, M., & Gardner, R. C. (2008). Teacher motivation strategies, student per-
ceptions, student motivation, and English achievement. The Modern Language
Journal, 92(3), 387–401.
Block, D. (2003). The social turn in second language acquisition. Washington, DC:
Georgetown University Press.
Bown, J., & White, C. (2010). A social and cognitive approach to affect in SLA.
IRAL, 48, 331–353.
Bray, M. (2013). Benefits and tensions of shadow education: Comparative perspec-
tives on the roles and impact of private supplementary tutoring in the lives of Hong
Kong students. Journal of International and Comparative Education, 2(1), 18–30.
15032-1187e-2pass-r02.indd 141 6/5/2018 9:17:54 AM

Butler, Y. G. (2015a). English language education among young learners in East Asia:
A review of current research (2004–2014). Language Teaching, 48(3), 303–342.
doi:10.1017/S0261444815000105
Butler, Y. G. (2015b). Parental factors in children’s motivation for learning English:
A case in China. Research Papers in Education, 30(2), 164–191. doi:10.1080/026
71522.2014.891643
Dang, H. A. (2013). Private tutoring in Vietnam: A review of current issues and
its major correlates. Retrieved from www.wds.worldbank.org/external/default/
WDSContentServer/IW3P/IB/2013/09/23/000158349_20130923111319/
Rendered/PDF/WPS6618.pdf
Dang, H. A., & Rogers, F. H. (2008). The growing phenomenon of private tutoring:
Does it deepen human capital, widen inequalities, or waste resources? The World
Bank Research Observer, 23(2), 161–200. doi:10.1093/wbro/lkn004
Dörnyei, Z. (2009). Individual differences: Interplay of learner characteristics and
learning environment. Language Learning, 59(1), 230–248.
Dörnyei, Z., & Murphey, T. (2004). Group dynamics in the language classroom.
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Dörnyei, Z., & Ushioda, E. (2011). Teaching and researching motivation (2nd ed.).
Harlow, UK: Pearson Education Inc.
Duff, P. A., & Doherty, L. (2014). Examining agency in (second) language socialisa-
tion research. In P. Deters, X. Gao, E. R. Miller, & G. Vitanova (Eds.), Theoris-
ing and analysing agency in second language learning: Interdisciplinary approaches
(pp. 54–72). New York: Multilingual Matters.
Dufva, H., & Aro, M. (2014). Dialogical view on language learners’ agency: Con-
necting intrapersonal with interpersonal. In P. Deters, X. Gao, E. R. Miller, &
G. Vitanova (Eds.), Theorising and analysing agency in second language learning:
Interdisciplinary approaches (pp. 37–53). New York: Multilingual Matters.
Gabryś-Barker, D. (2011). Appraisal systems in L2 vs. L3 learning experiences. Inter-
national Journal of Multilingualism, 8(2), 81–97. doi:10.1080/14790718.2010.
502575
Gao, X. (2012). Parental strategies in supporting Chinese children’s learning of
English vocabulary. Research Papers in Education, 27(5), 581–595. doi:10.1080/
02671522.2011.602102
George, E. S. (2010). Higher education in Vietnam 1986–1998: Education in tran-
sition to a new era? In G. Harman, M. Hayden, & N. T. Pham (Eds.), Reform-
ing higher education in Vietnam: Challenges and priorities (pp. 31–49). New York:
Springer.
Goh, E., & Nguyen, B. (2004). Vietnam. In H. W. Kam & R. Y. L. Wong (Eds.),
Language policies and language education: The impact in East Asian countries in the
next decade (2nd ed., pp. 342–353). Singapore: Eastern Universities Press.
Hall, B. (2008). Globalisation of English language programs for young children in
Vietnam. The International Education Journal: Comparative Perspective, 9(2),
31–42.
Hayden, M., & Pham, N. T. (2010). Vietnam’s higher education system. In G. Har-
man, M. Hayden, & N. T. Pham (Eds.), Reforming higher education in Vietnam:
Challenges and priorities (pp. 15–30). New York: Springer.
Kam, H. W. (2002). English language teaching in East Asia today: An overview. Asia
Pacific Journal of Education, 22(2), 1–22. doi:10.1080/0218879020220203
15032-1187e-2pass-r02.indd 142 6/5/2018 9:17:54 AM

Kikuchi, K. (2009). Listening to our learners’ voices: What demotivates Japanese
high school students? Language Teaching Research, 13(4), 453–471. doi:10.1177/
1362168809341520
Kim, T-Y. (2009). The dynamics of L2 self and L2 learning motivation: A qualitative
case study of Korean ESL students. English Teaching, 64(3), 49–70.
Lamb, M. (2013). ‘Your mum and dad can’t teach you!’ Constraints on agency
among rural learners of English in the developing world. Journal of Multilingual
and Multicultural Development, 34(1), 14–29.
Lamb, M. (2016). When motivation research motivates: Issues in long-term empirical
investigations. Innovation in Language Learning and Teaching, 1–14. doi:http://
dx.doi.org/10.1080/17501229.2016.1251438
Lantolf, J. P. (2013). Sociocultural theory and the dialectics of L2 learner autonomy/
agency. In P. Benson & L. Cooker (Eds.), The applied linguistic individual: Socio-
cultural approaches to identity, agency and autonomy (pp. 17–31). Bristol: Equinox.
Lantolf, J. P., & Pavlenko, A. (2001). (S)econd (L)anguage (A)ctivity theory: Under-
standing second language learners as people. In M. P. Breen (Ed.), Learner contri-
butions to language learning: New directions in research (pp. 141–158). New York:
Longman.
Larsen-Freeman, D. (2012). Complex, dynamic systems: A new transdisciplinary
theme for applied linguistics? Language Teaching, 45(2), 202–214.
Mercer, S. (2011a). Language learner self-concept: Complexity, continuity and
change. System, 39(3), 335–346. doi:10.1016/j.system.2011.07.006
Mercer, S. (2011b). Understanding learner agency as a complex dynamic system.
System, 39(4), 427–436. doi:10.1016/j.system.2011.08.001
Mercer, S. (2012). The complexity of learner agency. Journal of Applied Language
Studies, 6(2), 41–59.
Nguyen, D. C., Le, T. L., Tran, H. Q., & Nguyen, T. H. (2014). Inequality of access
to English language learning in primary education in Vietnam: A case study. In
H. Zhang, P. W. K. Chan, & C. Boyle (Eds.), Equality in education: Fairness and
inclusion (pp. 139–153). Boston: Sense Publishers.
Nguyen, X. V. (2003). English language teaching in Vietnam today: Policy, practice
and constraints. In H. W. Kam & R. Y. L. Wong (Eds.), English language teach-
ing in East Asia today: Changing policies and practices (pp. 455–462). Singapore:
Eastern Universities Press.
Oxford, R. L. (2017). Teaching and researching language learning strategies: Self-
regulation in context (2nd ed.). New York: Routledge.
Pham, C. (2015). Affordances for high school students learning English in rural areas
in Vietnam. Teachers of English to Speakers of Other Languages, Aotearoa/New Zea-
land, 23, 27–40.
Pham, C. (2016a). An ecological perspective on the motivational trajectories of high
school students learning English in rural areas in Vietnam. (Ph.D), Massey Univer-
sity and Palmerston North, New Zealand.
Pham, C. (2016b). Identifying sociocultural influences on high school students’ moti-
vation to learn English in rural areas in Vietnam. New Zealand Studies in Applied
Linguistics, 22(1), 5–20.
Phan, T. T. H. (2009). Impacts of Vietnam’s social context on learners’ attitudes
towards foreign languages and English language learning: Implications for teaching
and learning. Asian EFL Journal, 11(4), 169–188.
15032-1187e-2pass-r02.indd 143 6/5/2018 9:17:54 AM

Phan, T. T. H. (2010). Factors affecting the motivation of Vietnamese technical
English majors in their English studies. (Ph.D), University of Otago, Dunedin, New
Zealand.
Ryan, S. (2006). Language learning motivation within the context of globalisation: An
L2 self within an imagined global community. Critical Inquiry in Language Stud-
ies: An International Journal, 3(1), 23–45. doi:10.1207/s15427595cils0301_2
Shoaib, A., & Dörnyei, Z. (2005). Affect in lifelong learning: Exploring L2 motiva-
tion as a dynamic process. In P. Benson & D. Nunan (Eds.), Learners’ stories: Dif-
ferences and diversity in language learning (pp. 22–41). Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press.
Sullivan, P. (2012). Qualitative data analysis using a dialogical approach. London:
Sage Publications.
Talmy, S. (2010). Qualitative interviews in applied linguistics: From research instru-
ment to social practice. Annual Review of Applied Linguistics, 30, 128–148.
Talmy, S. (2011). The interview as collaborative achievement: Interaction, identity,
and ideology in a speech event. Applied Linguistics, 32(1), 25–42.
Tran, T. T. T., & Baldauf Jr, R. B. (2007). Demotivation: Understanding resistance to
English language learning – The case of Vietnamese students. The Journal of Asia
TEFL, 4(1), 79–105.
Truong, C. B. (2017). The motivation of Vietnamese university students to learn
English: A study using the expectancy-value model of academic motivation. (Ph.D),
The University of Newcastle, New South Wales, Australia.
Ushioda, E. (2009). A person-in-context relational view of emergent motivation, self
and identity. In Z. Dörnyei & E. Ushioda (Eds.), Motivation, language identity and
the L2 self (pp. 215–228). Bristol: Multilingual Matters.
Ushioda, E. (2012). Motivation: L2 learning as a special case. In S. Mercer, S. Ryan, &
M. Williams (Eds.), Psychology for language learning: Insights from research, theory
and practice (pp. 58–73). New York: Palgrave Macmillan.
Ushioda, E. (2015). Context and complex dynamic systems theory. In Z. Dörnyei,
A. Henry, & P. MacIntyre (Eds.), Motivational dynamics in language learning
(pp. 47–54). Bristol: Multilingual Matters.
Williams, M., & Burden, R. L. (1997). Psychology for language teachers: A social con-
structivist approach. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
15032-1187e-2pass-r02.indd 144 6/5/2018 9:17:54 AM

11 Examining the motivation
and achievement of
Vietnamese university
students as they undertake
English classes
Truong Cong Bang and Jennifer Archer
By the end of the 1970s, after many years of foreign domination and war, the
Vietnamese people were exhausted and struggling economically. It was their
resilience and a strong sense of community that kept the country going. Given its
precarious financial state, the communist government decided to embrace change
and trade with the wider non-communist world, especially the West. Vietnam
would trade with Western countries and encourage Western companies to open
offices and factories in Vietnam. This initiative, launched in 1986, was called Doi
Moi (open door).
As part of this push to engage with the West, the government decided that
its citizens must develop competence in English. English was to be taught in
primary schools, high schools, and universities (even for students not majoring
in English). In this chapter, we explore the motivation of university students
studying various Business studies but who also were required to study English
throughout their degree.
We used a widely-accepted model of motivation as a theoretical framework to
our study. The expectancy-value model has been used in many contexts to exam-
ine students’ motivation to learn (e.g. Eccles, 2011; Eccles & Wigfield, 2002;
Wigfield, Tonks, & Klauda, 2016). The model rests on two important predictors
of behaviour: students’ expectancy of doing well or poorly on a task and the value
(or values) they attach to the task.
Students who expect to do well on a task (expectancy-related beliefs) tend to
do well on the task. For example, Meece, Wigfield, and Eccles (1990) showed
that students’ beliefs about their mathematics ability and expectancies for suc-
cess were important predictors of their performance – even after controlling for
their previous mathematics performance. The value side of the model concerns
students’ purposes or incentives for engaging in a task. Values include attainment
value (how important it is to do well on the task), intrinsic value (how enjoyable
they find the task), utility value (how useful it is to do well on the task), and cost
(a negative value to do with how much effort will be required to do the task).
In addition to the values measured by the original model (noted earlier), we
developed a new value we named family value. There is much research showing
that Asian students want to do well at least in part to please their parents and
15032-1187e-2pass-r02.indd 145 6/5/2018 9:17:54 AM

146 Motivation of Vietnamese university students
bring honour to the family (e.g. Chow & Chu, 2007; Fuligni & Zhang, 2004;
Hau & Salili, 1996; Urdan, 2004). This new subscale included four items about
wanting to be successful to show appreciation of the family, not wanting to bring
shame upon the family, and wanting to please the family.
Expectancy and task value are positively related: students tend to value tasks
in which they expect to do well and attach less value to tasks where they do not
expect to do well. Students’ expectancies for success predict how well they do on
a task. However, in terms of decisions to take more courses, the value students
give to a task are more important than expectancy of success.
Study
We approached students in three universities in Ho Chi Minh City to complete a
survey. They were first-year students who were studying non-English majors but
who were required to take English classes. The survey was completed by 1207
students (556 males and 651 females). In addition to the survey, we invited a
sub-sample of students to take part in group interviews. There were 72 students
(36 males and 36 females) who participated in interviews. We do not report the
interview data in full here, but use them to complement and add to the survey
results.
In the survey, we used items adapted from those developed by Eccles and col-
leagues, with some re-wording to suit the Vietnamese context. We used 6-point
Likert scales. Sample items are shown in Table 11.1.
Students’ end-of-semester examination marks were used as achievement data.
To obtain a measure of students’ willingness to do more study in English, there
Table 11.1 Sample items for students’ expectations to do well in English and their
motivation for studying English
Construct Sample item Anchors
Expectancy of How well do you expect you will (1) Not well at all –
success do in your English course this (6) Very well
semester?
Task value How much do you like learning (1) Not at all –
Interest Value English? (6) Very much
Attainment Value/ How important is it for you to get (1) Not at all important –
Importance good grades in English? (6) Very important
Utility Value How useful do you think English (1) Not at all useful –
will be when you get a job after (6) Very useful
graduating?
Family Value Do you work hard in English to (1) Strongly disagree –

make your family proud of you? (6) Strongly agree
15032-1187e-2pass-r02.indd 146 6/5/2018 9:17:54 AM

Motivation of Vietnamese university students 147
were two items in the survey: one asked students how willing they would be to
take English classes in addition to university classes and one asked them how
willing they would be to take English classes after they graduated from university
(both using 6-point Likert scales). Given the high correlation between these two
items, a combined score was used for willingness to take extra English classes.
Analyses
Relationships among students’ expectancy to do well in English, intrinsic value
of English, utility value, importance value, family value, students’ sex, choice to
take additional English classes, and scores on English tests were examined using
structural equation modelling (SEM).
The dependent variables were students’ mark on the test and their willingness
to take additional English classes. In the measurement model, the latent con-
structs (or factors) representing the influence of family (family value), expecta-
tions for success (expectancy), interest (interest value), utility (utility value), and
intention to study more English (future) are associated with their respective indi-
cator (or observed) variables, representing the most statistically significant survey
items associated with each variable.
Two value variables, cost value and importance value, do not appear in the final
fitted model. The items in the importance value variable share considerable over-
lap with items in the utility value variable. Using the principle of parsimony, items
that added unnecessary complexity to the model were removed from the SEM.
The cost value variable showed no significant associations with other variables and
so was removed from the analysis.
The new construct of family value was added to the model. Attitudes and
values of parents, shaped by the surrounding cultural milieu, can be considered
antecedent factors. As such, we developed a three-level model. It was anticipated
that family value would influence other values (especially utility value) which in
turn would influence willingness to take additional English courses. If students
wish to honour their families by getting a good job, then one would expect
that these students would endorse the utility value of English because it would
heighten their chances of getting a good job.
The final fitted model is presented in Figure 11.1. The model shows the struc-
tural relationships but does not include the individual items associated with the
latent variables because it produces a crowded model that is not easy to read.
Factor scores were imputed for the latent variables from the indicators associated
with each, following the approach recommended by Rowe (2006).
The result is a set of factor scores proportionally weighted to retain mean-
ing on the same 6-point Likert scale used with the related items in the sur-
vey. Table 11.2 presents descriptive statistics for the five latent variables and the
two observed variables of Sex and Final Mark. Table 11.3 presents the inter-
correlations among the observed and latent variables.
The parameter estimates and fit statistics for the structural model are pre-
sented in the Appendix. The principles in the reporting of the SEM analysis
15032-1187e-2pass-r02.indd 147 6/5/2018 9:17:54 AM

Expectancy
(.03)
Family Future
.15 .50
.63 (.20)
.22 Interest
(.46)
.42 Final mark
(.31)
.18 .12 .32
.10
.17
Sex Utility
.17 (.23)
Key: Latent Observed Significant path

constructs variables (standardised) (R2)
Figure 11.1 Path diagram for final fitted model showing standardised coefficients
Table 11.2 Descriptive statistics and variance (R2) values for the latent and observed
variables in the study
N Min Max M S.D R2
Family value 1201 1.00 6.00 3.37 1.41 NA

Expectations 1203 1.00 6.00 3.06 1.13 0.03
Interest value 1207 1.00 6.00 4.06 1.16 0.46
Utility value 1206 1.00 6.00 5.46 0.63 0.23
Future 1206 1.00 6.00 4.53 1.26 0.20
Sex 1207 1.0 2.0 1.54 0.50 NA
Final Mark 1207 2.0 9.8 5.60 1.46 0.31
Note: R2 derived from the indicator variables shown in the final fitted model
Table 11.3 Inter-correlations among observed and latent variables
R Family Expectations Interest Utility Future Final Mk
Sex 0.04 0.16** 0.16** 0.21** 0.17** 0.26**

Family 0.03 0.14** 0.20** 0.12** −0.06
Expectancy 0.52* 0.14** 0.11** 0.49**
Interest 0.32** 0.15** 0.27**
Utility 0.30** 0.08*
Future 0.05
** Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed)
* Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed)
1200 > N < 1207
15032-1187e-2pass-r02.indd 148 6/5/2018 9:17:54 AM

follow those of McDonald and Ho (2002). As noted previously, the meas-
urement model included the fewest number of indicator variables required to
identify the latent constructs in a satisfactory manner. The structural part of
the model shows only statistically significant paths representing the interre-
lationships among the two observed variables (Sex and Final Mark) and the
five latent variables. There was very little missing data in the large data set, an
advantage when using SEM.
As shown in the Appendix, the strength of the path weights in the structural
model (shown as standardised estimates) are evaluated using Cohen’s (1988)
conventions to interpret effect sizes. Correlation coefficients around 0.10 are
taken to represent weak or small associations; coefficients around 0.30 are consid-
ered moderate; and coefficients of 0.50 or larger are considered a strong or large
correlation. Figure 11.1 provides the final fitted model showing relationships
among latent constructs and observed variables. Standardised path coefficients
are shown as well as R2 statistics (in brackets) that show the total amount of vari-
ance explained by the variables.
There is a direct effect of sex on expectancy (0.18), on interest value (0.12), and
on utility value (0.17). Examining the effect of sex on future (willingness to take
additional English classes), there is a direct effect (0.10) and three indirect effects.
The first indirect effect is via utility (0.17 × 0.42 = 0.07). The second small indi-
rect effect is mediated via interest and utility (0.12 × 0.32 × 0.42 = 0.02). The
third small indirect effect is mediated via expectancy, interest, and utility (0.18 ×
0.63 × 0.32 × 0.42 = 0.02). The total effect of sex on future therefore is a small
0.20 (the sum of the direct and indirect effects). Examining the effect of sex on
final mark, there is a direct effect (0.17) and an indirect effect via expectancy
(0.18 × 0.50 = 0.09). The total effect of sex on final mark therefore is a small to
moderate 0.26.
Examining the effect of family value on future, there is an indirect effect via
utility value (0.22 × 0.42 = 0.09) and there is a second small indirect effect medi-
ated via interest value and utility value (0.15 × 0.32 × 0.42 = 0.02). The total
effect of family value on future therefore is a small 0.11. There were no direct or
indirect effects of family value on final mark.
Examining the effect of expectancy on future, there is an indirect effect medi-
ated via interest value and utility value (0.63 × 0.32 × 0.42 = 0.08). Examining
the effect of expectancy on final mark, there is a strong direct effect of 0.50.
Examining the effect of expectancy on interest value, there is a strong direct effect
of 0.63. Examining the effect of expectancy on utility value, there is a small indi-
rect effect via interest (0.63 × 0.32 = 0.20). Examining the effect of interest value
on future, there is a small indirect effect via utility value (0.32 × 0.42 = 0.13).
There is no direct or indirect effect of interest value on final mark. There is a
moderate direct effect of utility value on future (0.42).
R2 values are shown in Figure 11.1. They represent the total proportion of
variance explained in the dependent (or endogenous) variables by the prior vari-
ables to which they are linked with significant paths. R2 for expectancy is 0.03; R2
for interest value is 0.46; R2 for utility value is 0.23; R2 for future is 0.20; and the
R2 for final mark is 0.31. It should be noted that Sex and Family value have no
15032-1187e-2pass-r02.indd 149 6/5/2018 9:17:54 AM

prior variables linked to them in the model because they are exogenous variables.
As such, they have no R2 values reported.
Measuring model fit

Because there is no single answer to the question of the extent to which the data
fit the model, the more criteria that a model satisfies in terms of fit statistics, the
more confidence we can have in the model. The four fit statistics used here were
the chi-square test of exact fit, the Root Mean Square Error of Approximation
(RMSEA), the Goodness of Fit Index (GFI), and the Normed Fit Index (NFI).
For the chi-square test, a small and non-significant chi-square suggests “good”
model fit. However, the chi-square test is not a good indicator of model fit with
large sample sizes (the sample size here was more than 1200). With large sample
sizes, very minor differences between the covariance matrix that was entered and
the matrix implied by the model can produce a significant chi-square. This means
that the model could be rejected when in fact it may be a good model. The chi-
square in the current SEM (with 95 degrees of freedom) was 262.39 (p < 0.000).
The RMSEA is another absolute fit index. Smaller RMSEA values represent
a better fit to the data. Values below 0.05 indicate a good fit to the data. The
RMSEA value in the current study was 0.038. The goodness of fit index (GFI)
ranges between 0 and 1, with a value of over 0.9 generally indicating acceptable
model fit. In the current study, the GFI was 0.973. The NFI is also known as the
Bentler-Bonett normed fit index. The NFI in the current study is 0.95, that is,
close to the ideal score of 1.0.
Given these results for the chi-square, the RMSEA, the GFI, and the NFI,
we concluded that the model was a “good” fit for the data. The two dependent
variables, willingness to take extra courses (future) and final mark, have R2 values
of 0.20 and 0.31, respectively. One can conclude then that the expectancy-value
model (including the new construct of family value) is a useful way to understand
Vietnamese students’ motivation to learn English and their achievement on an
English test.
This SEM analysis provides support for the expectancy-value model: expectancy
of success predicts students’ achievement in the English examination while util-
ity value predicts their willingness to take additional English classes. Expectancy
also is a strong predictor of interest value. Sex had both direct and indirect effects
on expectancy, interest value, utility value, future (willingness to take additional
English courses), and final mark. The new family value variable was a direct
predictor of interest value and utility value and an indirect predictor of future
(willingness to take extra courses).
Focus group interviews

The great majority of the students who were interviewed said they studied
English to enhance their job opportunities. Also, they had to pass English tests to
graduate. Quite a few said they worked hard to please their parents, to make their
15032-1187e-2pass-r02.indd 150 6/5/2018 9:17:54 AM

parents proud, and because their parents valued English and helped them to learn
it. Some said they wanted to learn English because that way they could access
the vast array of information only available in English. Some students also said
they found English interesting but they could not devote much time to English
because they needed time to study their major.
Many students described their English classes as boring, focused on grammar,
memorisation, and written exercises. They wanted more opportunities to prac-
tise speaking in English. Smaller class sizes would make it easier to practise oral
English. Also, there would be more focus by lecturers on oral English if there
were an oral component on examinations.
Students indicated they enjoyed their English classes if lecturers used interest-
ing oral activities, if there was good rapport between students and lecturers, if
lecturers provided encouraging feedback, and if lecturers had a good command
of oral English. Students were less motivated when there was a distant and rather
cold relationship between lecturer and students, when there was a lack of con-
structive feedback, and when lecturers could not speak English with fluency.
Improving the teaching of English in Vietnam

Students’ expectancy of success strongly predicted their mark in the examination
and their interest in English. The link between expecting to do well and inter-
est makes sense. The experience of success is a great motivator. Once students
start to develop mastery of a subject, its more interesting elements can emerge.
In terms of willingness to take additional English classes, the utility of English
emerged strongly. Getting a good job is the ambition of most young people.
Vietnam remains a relatively poor country with limited social services. Many uni-
versity students come from poor rural areas and are keen to get into university,
graduate, and find well-paying jobs. In addition to their own lives, a well-paying
job means that they can help to support their families.
Given the current state of teaching English in Vietnam, it is not surprising that
students reported interest in English did not predict their achievement or their
willingness to take further study in English. Even though the government man-
dates that English is taught throughout the schooling system, proficiency remains
low, especially oral proficiency.
One of the causes of low proficiency is the way it is taught. Classes are domi-
nated by grammar and comprehension exercises that prepare students for exami-
nations. Little time is devoted to developing oral competence. Classes are very
large, often more than 50 students. Vietnam’s Confucian heritage classrooms
are strongly teacher-oriented with teachers controlling what occurs and students
unwilling to question teachers’ directions and knowledge.
We propose five ways in which students’ poor English oral skills could be
improved. First, include an oral component in the end of semester examinations.
As we know, assessment is the tail that wags the dog. Teachers are judged on the
performance of their students; they will pay more attention to oral English if it is
included in examinations. Second, encourage teachers to reduce their “presence”
15032-1187e-2pass-r02.indd 151 6/5/2018 9:17:54 AM

in the classroom even though this runs counter to traditional ways of teaching
and learning in Vietnam. There must be less talking by teachers and more talking
(in English) by students. Competence in oral English requires lots of practice
and lots of mistakes. In the age of the Internet, there are many ways students can
improve their oral English. Teachers must accommodate ways of learning English
that do not have teachers as the authority figure at the centre of all activities.
Third, provide students with opportunities to practise oral English outside the
classroom. For example, parts of the campus could be designated as English-only
areas. Students could be encouraged to go to parts of the city frequented by tour-
ists and to engage them in conversation. Fourth, help teachers to improve their
own oral English. English teachers in Vietnam have heavy teaching loads and
large classes. There is little time for them to improve their oral English. Universi-
ties could reduce their teaching loads, reduce class sizes, and provide them with
time and resources for professional development.
Finally, teachers need strategies to increase students’ interest in English and
to raise students’ confidence in speaking in English. For example, teachers could
organise group work (in English) after students have watched an interesting
video. Students could make presentations (in English) to each other on topics of
interest. Teachers are held in high regard in Vietnam. Students would be pleased
to receive feedback from teachers, particularly if they make positive comments
and provide constructive advice for ways to improve.
The role of the family in education

We successfully introduced a new family-oriented value to the expectancy-value
model. Like many Asian countries, Vietnam has been described as a “collectiv-
ist” Confucian-based culture. Importance is attached to maintaining harmonious
relations with other people, particularly parents and teachers. Young people are
expected to honour parents and teachers by following their directions.
It is interesting to consider the family in Vietnam from the perspective of socio-
economic status (SES). SES depends on a combination of variables, often includ-
ing occupation, income, education, wealth, and place of residence. In the West,
there is widespread concern about the “achievement gap” between students from
high and low SES backgrounds (e.g. Berger & Archer, 2016; Bradley & Corwyn,
2002; Sirin, 2005; Strenze, 2007). This gap appears in the early years of school-
ing and increases as students move through school. The result is more high SES
students entering and completing university than low SES students.
There are many explanations for the SES “achievement gap”. Many argue
that the main cause is inadequate funding of education in poor areas. Though
no doubt funding is an important factor, there are other factors as well. In the
United States, sociologists have argued that a breakdown in traditional family
structure in low SES areas has had a negative impact on children’s education
(e.g. Murray, 2012; Putnam, 2000). A strong family structure with an emphasis
on education as a way of getting a good job now is more characteristic of high
SES than low SES areas. High SES parents are keen for their offspring to succeed
15032-1187e-2pass-r02.indd 152 6/5/2018 9:17:54 AM

in school (as they did) and spend considerable time and energy trying to make
this happen.
In low SES areas, on the other hand, there are many single-parent households
living on parental allowances and unemployment benefits. There is much less
emphasis on education as a means of “getting ahead”. Long-term goal setting,
such as considering possible jobs and devising ways to get there, is less pro-
nounced. In some low SES areas, children will have had little exposure to adults
in full-time employment.
In Vietnam, however, there is little evidence of different attitudes to edu-
cation by high and low SES families. The traditional family structure remains
strong throughout Vietnam. Teachers and parents are treated with respect. As
noted earlier, many university students come from poor rural backgrounds. Even
though we did not gather data about students’ SES in our study, it is well known
that students from low SES backgrounds form the bulk of university students in
Vietnam. Parents from the comparatively small group of high SES Vietnamese
usually pay for their children to study overseas. Parents who are poor themselves
are keen for their children to do well in school and university and find a well-
paying job. In an economically poor country with no safety nets for the unem-
ployed, the impetus to get a good job is strong.
Several students interviewed said they came from poor backgrounds and were
aware of the sacrifices their parents were making to allow them to go to univer-
sity. They wanted a good job as a means of repaying their parents’ sacrifice. Many
parents saw proficiency in English as a way out of poverty for their children: they
encouraged them to study English; they made a point of speaking in English at
home; they took them to clubs where English was spoken; and they paid for them
to take extra English classes.
What is notable here is parents from low SES backgrounds helping their off-
spring to plan long-term goals and to use strategies (such as taking additional
English classes) to reach those goals. This sort of behaviour tends to be charac-
teristic of high SES parents in the West but not of low SES parents. This is an
interesting example of the influence of cultural milieu on attitudes and behaviour.
Does socio-economic status operate differently in “collectivist” Confucian-based
countries?
Conclusion
Vietnamese university students’ achievement in English and their willingness to
take extra English classes can be explained by their expectation that they will
do well and the motivation (or values) they should study English. The value of
English as a means of getting a desirable job was the most important motivation.
In addition, our new value/motivation based on pleasing one’s family made a
significant contribution to our study.
Thirty years after the introduction of the Doi Moi policy, what can we say
about learning English in Vietnam? The government continues to push for
greater English proficiency in its populace. Students at all levels of education
15032-1187e-2pass-r02.indd 153 6/5/2018 9:17:54 AM

must learn English, even university students who are not majoring in English.
For all that, English proficiency, especially oral proficiency, is not strong. Some of
the factors that are impeding progress in oral English proficiency – such as respect
for and obedience towards teachers – are deeply rooted in Vietnamese collectiv-
ist culture. It is somewhat ironic that the social cohesion that gave Vietnamese
people the strength to survive their painful history may be inhibiting students’
ability to develop oral proficiency in English.
References
Berger, N., & Archer, J. (2016). School socio-economic status and student socio-
academic achievement goals in upper secondary contexts. Social Psychology of Edu-
cation, 19(1), 175–194. doi:10.1007/s11218-015-9324-8
Bradley, R. H., & Corwyn, R. F. (2002). Socioeconomic status and child devel-
opment. Annual Review of Psychology, 53, 371–399. doi:10.1146/annurev.
psych.53.100901.135233
Chow, S. S. Y., & Chu, M. H. T. (2007). The impact of filial piety and parental
involvement on academic achievement motivation in Chinese secondary school stu-
dents. Asian Journal of Counselling, 14(1&2), 91–124.
Cohen, J. (1988). Statistical power analysis for the behavioral sciences (2nd ed.). Hills-
dale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Eccles, J. S. (2011). Gendered educational and occupational choices: Applying the
Eccles et al.’ model of achievement-related choices. International Journal of Behav-
ioral Development, 35(3), 195–201. doi:10.1177/0165025411398185
Eccles, J. S., & Wigfield, A. (2002). Motivational beliefs, values, and goals. Annual
Review of Spychology, 53, 109–132.
Fuligni, A. J., & Zhang, W. (2004). Attitudes toward family obligation among adoles-
cents in contemporary urban and rural China. Child Development, 74(1), 180–192.
Hau, K., & Salili, F. (1996). Achievement goals and causal attributions of Chinese
students. In S. Lau (Ed.), Growing up the Chinese way: Chinese child and adolescent
development (pp. 121–146). Hong Kong: The Chinese University Press.
McDonald, R. P., & Ho, M. R. (2002). Principles and practice in reporting struc-
tural equation analyses. Psychological Methods, 7(1), 64–82. doi:10.1037//1082–
989X.7.1.64
Meece, J. L., Wigfield, A., & Eccles, J. S. (1990). Predictors of math anxiety and its
influence on young adolescents’ course enrollment intentions and performance in
mathematics. Journal of Educational Psychology, 82(1), 60–70.
Murray, C. (2012). Coming apart: The state of white America, 1960–2010. New York:
Crown Forum.
Putnam, R. D. (2000). Bowling alone: The collapse and revival of American commu-
nity. New York: Simon & Schuster Paperbacks.
Rowe, K. (2006). The measurement of composite variables from multiple indicators:
Applications in quality assurance and accreditation systems – Childcare. Camber-
well, Victoria: Australian Council for Educational Research.
Sirin, S. R. (2005). Socioeconomic status and academic achievement: A meta-
analytic review of research. Review of Educational Research, 75(3), 417–453.
doi:10.3102/00346543075003417
15032-1187e-2pass-r02.indd 154 6/5/2018 9:17:54 AM

Strenze, T. (2007). Intelligence and socioeconomic success: A meta-analytic review
of longitudinal research. Intelligence, 35(5), 401–426. doi:10.1016/j.intell.2006.
09.004
Urdan, T. (2004). Predictors of academic self-handicapping and achievement: Exam-
ining achievement goals, classroom goal structures, and culture. Journal of Educa-
tional Psychology, 96(2), 251–264. doi:10.1037/0022–0663.96.2.251
Wigfield, A., Tonks, S. M., & Klauda, S. L. (2016). Expectancy-value theory. In
K. R. Wentzel & D. B. Miele (Eds.), Handbook of motivation at school (2nd ed.,
pp. 55–74). New York: Taylor & Francis.
15032-1187e-2pass-r02.indd 155 6/5/2018 9:17:54 AM

Appendix
Final fitted model (showing
standardised coefficients)
Path Stand. Description of path

estimates
***
Structural model
Interest <–- Family 0.15 Small positive association
Utility <–- Family 0.22 Moderate positive association
Expect <–- Sex 0.18 Small positive association
Interest <–- Expect 0.63 Strong positive association
Interest <–- Sex 0.12 Small positive association
Utility <–- Sex 0.17 Small positive association
Future <–- Sex 0.10 Small positive association
Performance < – - Sex 0.17 Small positive association
Performance < – - Expect 0.50 Strong positive association
Utility <–- Interest 0.32 Moderate positive association
Future <–- Utility 0.42 Moderate positive association
Measurement model Item description

i12VFam < – - Family 0.46 Will you bring shame on your family if
you do not pass your English course?
i31VFam < – - Family 0.73 How important is it for you to do well

in English to please your family?
i32VFam < – - Family 0.81 Do you work hard in English to make

your family proud of you?
i7Ex < – - Expect 0.73 Compared to other students, how well

do you expect to do in English?
i13Ex < – - Expect 0.56 How easy would it be for you to learn
something new in English?
i18Ex < – - Expect 0.85 Students usually are better in one

subject than another. For example, you
might be better at English than you are
in mathematics. Compared to other
subjects you take, how good are you at
English?
15032-1187e-2pass-r02.indd 156 6/5/2018 9:17:54 AM

Path Stand. Description of path
estimates
i9VInter < – - Interest 0.81 In general, how do you find English
classes (response from very boring to
very interesting)?
i22VInter < – - Interest 0.90 Compared to other university subjects,

how much do you like English?
i25VUti < – - Utility 0.63 Some things that you learn at university
are useful outside university. For
example, learning about plants might
help you to grow a garden. How
useful is what you learn in English class
outside university?
i28VUti < – - Utility 0.59 How useful is English in your daily life
outside university?
i27VUti < – - Utility 0.59 How useful do you think English will be
when you get a job after graduating?
i30VUti < – - Utility 0.63 Compared to other university classes,

how useful is what you learn in English
class?
i35 < – - Future 0.69 You are required to study English at

university. In addition to the English
classes at university, how likely are you
to enrol in additional English classes
that run outside the university?
i36 < – - Future 0.71 How likely are you to enrol in English
classes when you graduate from
university?
* Significant at 0.01 level; ** Significant at 0.001 level χ2(95) = 262.39, p < 0.000; GFI = 0.973;
NFI = 0.95; RMSEA = 0.038 255.
15032-1187e-2pass-r02.indd 157 6/5/2018 9:17:54 AM

12 Learner autonomy in
tertiary English classes
in Vietnam
Nhung Bui
Learner autonomy has for long been defended as an educational goal (Reich,
2002; Winch, 2002). In language education, many advocate for learner auton-
omy. There is now an awareness of the importance of developing language and
autonomous learning skills in addition to language competencies. The emergence
of learner-centred approaches such as the negotiated syllabus (Breen & Candlin,
1980), the learner-centred curriculum (Campbell & Kryszewska, 1992), and
other approaches that emphasise the role of learners as active agents in their own
learning have also been promoting learner autonomy. Vietnam’s higher educa-
tion institutions (HEIs) are brought into line with other Asian institutions apply-
ing learner autonomy as a prudent policy to high-quality education and English
language teaching and learning.
The problem is that as elsewhere in Asia (H. W. Chan, 2010; V. Chan, Spratt, &
Humphreys, 2002; Nakata, 2011), the development of learner autonomy in Viet-
namese HEIs has been beset with issues of conceptualisation and implementation
at the institutional and classroom levels. This chapter first briefly defines learner
autonomy from different perspectives and examines cultural issues in relation to
learner autonomy in the local context. It then focuses on the “localised” defini-
tion of learner autonomy and discusses apparent issues and challenges in fostering
learner autonomy in Vietnamese HEIs from Hofstede’s (2005) model of cultural
dimensions. Illustrative details are provided through qualitative interviews of 28
lecturers of English from five universities in Vietnam and 20 two-hour classroom
observations. Implications of these findings are then considered.
Learner autonomy – definitions from

different perspectives
The present research adopts Benson’s (2007) categorisation in which learner
autonomy is interpreted from four perspectives: psychological, technical, socio-
cultural, and political-critical.
The psychological perspective considers learner autonomy as a capacity or quali-
ties of learners themselves. Holec’s (1981) definition of learner autonomy has
remained the most representative: autonomy is “the ability to take charge of
15032-1187e-2pass-r02.indd 158 6/5/2018 9:17:54 AM

Learner autonomy 159
one’s own learning” (p. 3). Later, Little (1991) saw learner autonomy as “capac-
ity”. He added a psychological dimension that is often absent in definitions of
autonomy. He argued that “autonomy is a capacity – for detachment, critical
reflection, decision-making, and independent action” (1991, p. 4). B enson
(2001) broadly defined autonomy as “the capacity to take control over one’s
own learning”. Several scholars have associated learner autonomy with learners’
certain qualities such as their stance towards the world, their desire to learn or
their meta-cognitive capacities (Breen & Mann, 1997; Candy, 1991), or their
readiness/willingness to take more responsibilities in their learning (Dam, 1995;
Littlewood, 1996).
The technical perspective views learner autonomy as a “situation” where learn-
ers are responsible for their learning activities (Dickinson, 1987). A learner gains
autonomy when, because of a resource rich environment, he can select what,
when, and how to learn to achieve his targets. Most of the studies adopting this
perspective have been conducted in self-access learning centres, and they have
demonstrated that authentic materials and personalised learning activities can fos-
ter learner autonomy (Jones, 1995; Koyalan, 2009). These studies focus on the
preparation and organisation of learning activities as well as technical support and
consultation services provided in each learning environment.
The socio-cultural perspective views learner autonomy as a socially shaped vari-
able (Smith & Ushioda, 2009) which is built during the learner’s negotiation
with his or her environment. As a member of a community, an individual needs
to deal with matters, people, and relationships on a daily basis. His or her behav-
iour is influenced by cultural and social norms and values. Learner autonomy is
acquired through the execution of all the processes needed to manage with the
society. This perspective acknowledges the impact of both personal and situational
attributes in the formation and development of learner autonomy. Research from
a socio-cultural perspective focuses on providing learners with contextual choices,
dialogic negotiations, interactive activities, and critical reflection as autonomy
promoting practices (David Little, 2009; Sinclair, 2009).
The political critical perspective views learner autonomy as a desire for more
access, agency, and power in the community. Autonomous learners are described
as those who have power to control their learning situation, have choices in learn-
ing activities, and are free from oppressive forces. Research from the political-
critical perspective focuses on creating opportunities to give learners more power
to decide and empower them with the freedom to choose in their learning pro-
cess (Pennycook, 1997).
All four perspectives share some common characteristics. They see autono-
mous learners as ones who take a proactive role in their learning, generating and
reflecting on ideas as well as availing themselves of learning opportunities rather
than reacting to teachers and their learning environment. Learner autonomy
is a multifaceted concept which can be interpreted differently in different con-
texts and even with different individuals (Balcikanli, 2010; Victoria Chan, 2001;
Lamb, 2004; Sakai, Takagi, & Chu, 2010).
15032-1187e-2pass-r02.indd 159 6/5/2018 9:17:54 AM

160 Learner autonomy
Vietnamese cultural issues in relation to

learner autonomy
Both language and education fit within a culture. Culture is inextricable from
language. Like autonomy, “culture” is a multifaceted and controversial concept.
In research on learner autonomy, culture is often defined as a national or ethnic
culture.
Promoting learner autonomy in different contexts is the subject of much
debate. Pennycook (1997) remarked that “Promoting autonomy in language
learning . . . needs to take into account the cultural contexts of the language
learners, to open up spaces for those learners to deal differently with the world,
to become authors of their own worlds” (p. 53). For some scholars, autonomy
is a “Western trend unsuited to Eastern contexts” (Chan et al., 2002, p. 1). For
others, autonomy is important for all learners (Littlewood, 1999).
In teaching and learning English, Vietnamese teachers and learners are chal-
lenged by cross-cultural differences. Vietnamese culture has been described as
villagers’ cultures (N. T. Tran, 1994) or rice culture in which family relations and
hierarchy are emphasised. Education in Vietnam traditionally is characterised as
teacher-centred, book-centred with a significant focus on the grammar-translation
method of teaching (H. V. Dang, 2006; T. T. Dang, 2010; Littlewood, 1999;
T.C.L. Nguyen, 2008; Trinh, 2005). The long period under Chinese domina-
tion has left many influences in Vietnamese culture. The most influential one
is Confucianism. Despite the introduction of Western influences into Vietnam
when the French colonised the country and more recent Western influences that
have come with globalisation, Confucian moral philosophy remains the guiding
principle in Vietnamese people’s attitudes and behaviours.
Several prominent Confucian cultural features in Vietnamese education are:
(1) students are expected to behave morally, to come to class regularly, to listen
to teachers attentively, to take notes carefully, and to memorise notes; (2) teach-
ers are expected to be at the centre of authority in terms of both knowledge
and power; they are expected to be responsible in every aspect of studying and
to be decision-makers in almost all academic matters; and (3) maintenance of
harmony and avoidance of confrontations and conflicts are desired in the class-
rooms. Vietnamese learners are not inherently passive. Rather, they are bounded
by their socio-cultural contexts (Littlewood, 2001; T. N. Nguyen, 2012; T. T.
Tran, 2013). This understanding of Vietnamese students has also been supported
by several studies into learners’ readiness for autonomy in East Asian contexts,
including Hong Kong and Malaysia. These researchers argue that students are
ready to take more responsibility for their own learning (H. W. Chan, 2011;
Victoria Chan, 2001; V. Chan et al., 2002; Thang & Alias, 2007).
While much attention has been placed on students’ attitudes towards learner
autonomy and strategies to make them more autonomous, teachers’ voices have
not been that much heard in academia. We strongly argue that given the “supe-
rior” role of lecturers in Vietnam, their attitudes towards learner autonomy must
be investigated before any practical implementation could be conducted.
15032-1187e-2pass-r02.indd 160 6/5/2018 9:17:54 AM

Learner autonomy in Vietnam from a policy level

Vietnam’s fast-growing economy in the Doi Moi (Renovation) era from 1986
and its memberships in numerous international organisations and communities
call for a higher level of teaching and learning and a more skilled labour force
to meet the urgent demands of the country’s moves to industrialisation, mod-
ernisation, and globalisation. Mindful of the country’s socio-economic needs
in the knowledge economy, the Vietnamese government has placed reforming
education and training as one among the most important priorities in order to
make Vietnam a country that could compete at the global level. Realising that
graduates today form a significant proportion of highly skilled staffs in the future
workforce, Vietnam has made various efforts in reforming its higher education.
The New Vietnamese Education Law identifies general rules for the country’s
education levels. It highly appreciates the learners’ ability to work independently
and creatively and their ability to solve problems in the fields of study in which
they are trained (Vietnamese Assembly, 2005). This objective has been restated in
the Vietnamese Higher Education Law 2012 (Vietnamese Assembly, 2012). It is
also clarified in the 2015 Education Law in Article 40 that the teaching methods
at the tertiary level must emphasise the fostering of self-awareness in study, the
enhancement of ability to self-study, self-research, and the development of crea-
tive thinking.
The Higher Education Reform Agenda (known as HERA) appears to be the
most influential effort approved by the government of Vietnam for the compre-
hensive reform of the higher education system by 2020. In terms of teaching and
learning at the tertiary level, the two specific targets identified are “curriculum
development” and “apply modern teaching methods” (Government of Vietnam,
2005). One recent official policy, Vietnamese Education Development Strategies
for the period 2011–2020, issued by Vietnamese Prime Minister in 2012, once
again confirms that developing positiveness, self-awareness, activeness, creativity,
and self-study ability of learners should be the approach to reforming teaching
methods. The most current policy issued in 2017 continues to encourage auton-
omy among learners of all ages (Vietnamese Prime Minister, 2017). Learner
autonomy has been endorsed to be included in English language education from
the policy level.
Learner autonomy: the encounter between Confucian

culture and Western culture
The notions or conceptualisations of learner autonomy of Vietnamese lecturers
are different from those of the West. There has been a re-conceptualisation of
the construct in the local context. Learner autonomy has been considered as a
social process situated in specific political, societal, and cultural conditions (Dam,
1995; D. Little, 2007; Palfreyman & Smith, 2003). Thus, local borrowing or the
re-contextualisation process of learner autonomy is beneficial in the sense that
it responds to cultural situations and reframes the concept with respect to the
15032-1187e-2pass-r02.indd 161 6/5/2018 9:17:54 AM

local teaching and learning environment. In the current global flows happening
within English language education, the local take-up of “imported” pedagogical
approaches like learner autonomy should be cautiously examined for their appro-
priate implementation in practices.
Learner autonomy, in Vietnamese lecturers’ understanding, was defined as stu-
dents’ ability to take charge of their own learning; and this ability was initiated
and further developed with the support of the teachers. The emphasis placed on
the roles of the teachers marks the difference between the locally constructed
definition and the definitions of learner autonomy from Western ideology, as an
academic confirmed:
Learner autonomy happens when lecturers apply the learner-centred

approach and you empower your students with as much freedom as possible
in their learning . . . if you want them to be active users of it (English), you
have to give them a certain degree of freedom in which they can be really
flexible in using the language, put themselves into the situation where they
feel 100% comfortable with. And in that sense, that is the empowerment
I am talking about.
Many lecturers shared that there would not be learner autonomy without lec-
turers’ willingness to give power to the students and classrooms should then
gradually shift from teacher-centred to learner-centred. One lecturer defined
learner autonomy as student’s “independence in learning with the lead or with
the instructions of the lecturers or the freedom under the guidance of the lectur-
ers”. One lecturing academic defended the role of teachers when defining learner
autonomy:
Learner autonomy is achieved when the learners have the chance to do

something for themselves to improve their learning and their knowledge.
Of course, I think that they also need some guidance from the teachers.
That means the teachers may give them more space for their self-study or we
may give them some advice on how to study effectively by themselves. Even
though the term is learner autonomy, still they need guidance and advice
from lecturers.
The cultural context has a strong impact on how lecturers and students reacted
to the concept of learner autonomy. The current study has made use of Hofst-
ede’s model of natural cultural dimensions (Hofstede & Hofstede, 2005). While
the Confucian heritage remains prominent in Vietnamese education, changes to
more modern educational approaches imported from the West are occurring.
The first dimension: power distance

Vietnam, like other Confucian-heritage culture countries, scored high on the
Hofstede’s Power Distance Index. Hierarchy is important in maintaining social
15032-1187e-2pass-r02.indd 162 6/5/2018 9:17:54 AM

stability. In the education realm, there is an unequal relationship between teach-
ers and students. Teachers are the only source of knowledge and are models for
correct behaviour. According to the Vietnamese Education Law issued in 1999,
the first criterion for a teacher is to be of “good moral quality, ethically and ideo-
logically” (Vietnamese Assembly, 1999).
Learner autonomy, from a Western perspective, means working in a social con-
structivist environment in which students can take charge of their own learning.
They may know more than the teacher and they may question the teacher. Asking
questions is regarded as desirable (Al-Harthi, 2005; Liu, Liu, Lee, & Magjuka,
2010). Teachers and students work together to create a learning community
(Lave & Wenger, 1991). The teachers’ role is discussion facilitator and is seen
as just one source of information among others (Lock, 2006). Findings from
the interviews revealed that such approach was not acceptable in Vietnamese
classes. Lecturers would feel offended if students challenged them in a disrespect-
ful way. Also, Vietnamese students were reluctant to question lecturers, especially
in public. Some lecturers stated that many students were not happy with “more
freedom”, “more choices”, and “more power”.
Power distance affects Vietnamese education in two ways. First, students still
regard their teachers as the main source of knowledge. This discourages them
from turning to other knowledge sources. Second, high power distance might
support learner autonomy. If lecturers create an autonomy-supportive classroom,
Vietnamese students will be expected to move in that direction.
The second dimension: individualism versus collectivism

Vietnam, with a low score on the Individualism Index (20), is a collectivistic soci-
ety in which offence leads to shame and loss of face. Losing face implies personal
damage and it should always be avoided (Hofstede & Hofstede, 2005). In col-
lectivist classes, harmony is of ultimate importance. Confrontations and conflicts
should be limited as much as possible.
From the Western approach, students with autonomy are expected to chal-
lenge each other’s conclusions. Achieving personal goals is important. In the
education context, Western students generally are comfortable with conflicts. It
is through the process of dealing with conflicts in learning that learner autonomy
can be fostered. A highly collectivistic culture can hinder learner autonomy. Lec-
turers’ interviews reflected this cultural trait. In lecturers’ eyes, many students
feared losing face. They did not want to make their personal ideas or contribu-
tions knowns. They felt more comfortable working in groups. Both lecturers and
students tried to avoid topics of potential conflict. If a conflict is sensed, indi-
vidual learning needs must be sacrificed to meet the group’s learning interests.
It should also be noted that collectivism could also bring benefits to learner
autonomy in the way that students could exercise their interdependence and
collaborative learning. Learner autonomy does not mean learning alone. It can
mean learning in cooperation and focusing on interdependence, not only on
independence.
15032-1187e-2pass-r02.indd 163 6/5/2018 9:17:54 AM

The third dimension: masculinity versus femininity

Gender roles were not mentioned at all in the interviews. Lecturers’ preference
for males or females was not observed in any of the classroom observations. As
such, it will not be further elaborated.
The fourth dimension: uncertainty avoidance

Uncertainty avoidance is defined as the extent to which the members of a culture
feel threatened by ambiguous or unknown situations. This ambiguity leads to
anxiety and different cultures develop different ways to deal with this anxiety.
Vietnam, with a score of 30 on this dimension, has a low preference for avoiding
uncertainty. In the education field, the score does not seem to reflect the nature
of teaching and learning.
Western societies value critical and reflective thinking skills which are features of
an autonomous learner. Students are expected to learn actively and construct new
knowledge based on their prior knowledge. They construct knowledge through
interactions with others. The main characteristics of the courses dominated by
Western teaching pedagogy are as follows: courses tend to have open curricu-
lum that include multiple sources for course content; student-centred learning is
encouraged; assessment tasks focus on evaluating the learning process and learn-
ing skills; and learning is meant to encourage individualism and self-development
(Al-Harthi, 2005; Liu et al., 2010).
These characteristics were not in evidence in the current study. Students were
generally observed as passive, expecting teachers to tell them what they need
to know. They were comfortable with structured learning, specific objectives,
detailed tasks, and clear instructions. The students were found to exhibit high
uncertainty avoidance.
Current tertiary English courses usually have a fixed or closed curriculum with
limited space left for lecturers and students to exercise autonomy. Teacher-centred
learning and teaching dominates the course. Students’ individual learning goals
have to be sacrificed to satisfy the learning goals of the whole class. Assessment
tasks are mostly summative, rather than formative. Students are focused on get-
ting high marks rather than developing their competence in English.
Apparently, learning tasks which aim to foster learner autonomy could not
always be well-structured with precise objectives and all other relating details
available. Autonomous students are expected to be open to new ideas, free think-
ing, and be willing to take risks. An analysis of data indicated an absence of those
qualities among students, according to Vietnamese lecturers.
The fifth dimension: short-term orientation

and long-term orientation
This cultural dimension describes the way each culture maintains the values of
the past while dealing with the challenges of the present and future. Normative
15032-1187e-2pass-r02.indd 164 6/5/2018 9:17:54 AM

societies with low scores on this dimension (favouring short-term orientation)
prefer to preserve traditions while holding suspicious attitudes to social change.
Pragmatic societies with high scores (favouring long-term orientation) encourage
change as a way to prepare for the future.
Influenced by Confucianism, Vietnam favours a short-term orientation though
there are signs of a shift to a long-term orientation. The ability to adapt traditions
to changed conditions might bode well for learner autonomy. According to the
interviewed participants, the traditional values in education are still dominant.
Large classes at Vietnamese institutions may be a factor reducing learner auton-
omy. Lecturers stated that their classes normally consisted of 30 to 50 students.
If promoting learner autonomy means more attention given to each individual
student to help foster their independence, a typical English class is not ideal by
any means.
The notion of learner autonomy comes from Western research. It is becoming
apparent that many researchers have underestimated the role of socio-cultural
context in fostering learner autonomy. The analysis of the lecturers’ attitudes
towards learner autonomy supports the argument that for learner autonomy to
be applied successfully in a Confucian culture country like Vietnam, adaptation
and modification to the construct must be researched.
In addition to psychologically based cultural factors, other impediments to
learner autonomy were identified in the current study. These included poor class-
room conditions, lecturers’ heavy workload, obsolete curriculum and textbooks,
and an out-of-date assessment system. Even though learner autonomy is lauded
by education leaders and policy makers, there have been no specific guidelines for
how to change current teaching and learning practices. To date, lecturers have
been left with their own interpretation and own implementation of the concept.
This is an example of borrowing pedagogical imports with little investigation into
the local context where the imported value is to be adopted.
Vietnamese educational authorities, under pressure to improve the quality
of the Vietnamese workforce, have been examining international pedagogical
approaches which are believed to enhance English language education. Western
teaching and learning practices, like learner autonomy, have been encouraged in
Vietnamese HEIs. The concept of learner autonomy seems not to sit comfortably
in the local context in terms of both cultural values and infrastructure conditions.
A reconceptualised notion of learner autonomy should be introduced into
Vietnam. The reconceptualisation of lecturers and their implementation of
learner autonomy has been summarised in Figure 12.1.
Recommendations
Our discussion of learner autonomy in English classes in Vietnamese HEIs fore-
grounds several issues and challenges. In exploring ways to move beyond these,
we propose some recommendations at three levels: macro, institutional, and
individual. At the macro level of policy, policy makers are encouraged to take
an “ideological” attitude to educational reforms and pedagogical innovation.
15032-1187e-2pass-r02.indd 165 6/5/2018 9:17:54 AM

“Imported” pedagogy Western culture

Learner autonomy
Macro-level policies Learner autonomy in No systematic plan

Vietnamese language
education policies
Institutional influences Learner autonomy in Confucian culture

lecturers’
conceptualisation
Facilitating stage Lecturers in control

In-class learner
autonomy
Self-enhancing stage Out-of-class learner Lecturers’ loss of control

autonomy
Figure 12.1 Learner autonomy from an “imported” pedagogy to Vietnamese teach-

ing practices
An “ideological” attitude acknowledges the cultural diversity around the world

and rejects the notion of universally appropriate ways of teaching and learning.
An “autonomous” attitude to educational reform assumes that a pedagogy which
is effective in one socio-cultural context also works in a different context (Hinkel,
1999). That some practices associated to learner autonomy are incompatible with
those found in the traditional Vietnamese teaching and learning does not mean
that learner autonomy is locally impossible. It is advisable to investigate aspects of
learner autonomy which fit with local socio-cultural factors. Those aspects could
then be utilised in the local context without entirely changing the classroom
etiquette.
15032-1187e-2pass-r02.indd 166 6/5/2018 9:17:54 AM

There are also several features of learner autonomy which align with Vietnamese
approaches to education. High respect for teachers could mean that once teach-
ers implement a teaching strategy, students are likely to accept it. Lecturers can
introduce the concept of learner autonomy to students and devise ways in which
learner autonomy is enhanced. Greater learner autonomy can be integrated into
local pedagogical values and practices without threatening deep-rooted belief sys-
tems. Policy makers should take a cautiously eclectic approach. Such an approach
should be results of well-informed pedagogical choices and thorough inspection
of all the socio-cultural attributes concerned.
Several proposals target the institutional level. First, there should be ongoing
professional development to enrich lecturers’ knowledge of ways to encourage
learner autonomy. As learner autonomy is a concept which has been “borrowed”
or “imported” from Western societies, it has embedded in it cultural values from
the West. This can be confusing. Sources of confusion must be addressed in the
professional development program. Professional development programs could
be conducted in different ways and at different levels. For example, universi-
ties could financially support lecturers’ attendance at international, national, and
regional conferences. At the institutional level, international research initiatives
could investigate learner autonomy in Confucian-based cultures. Overseas guest
lecturers or scholars could be invited and recruited to participate. All those activi-
ties could help lecturers to understand how learner autonomy can be encouraged
in non-Western contexts. Second, universities should upgrade their infrastructure
and resources. Poor teaching conditions limit learner autonomy. Low numbers
of computers with Internet access is a major restriction to learner autonomy.
There have been studies investigating how computer-assisted language learn-
ing (CALL) can facilitate the development of learner autonomy (Crystal, 2013;
Levy & Hubbard, 2005). A limited supply of reading materials also restricts Viet-
namese students’ ability to learn independently (Pham, 2011). With a limited
supply of materials, students become overly dependent on teachers and explicit
instruction. A shortage of textbooks, teaching materials, teaching equipment,
and self-access centres makes improving learner autonomy a challenging task for
all stakeholders in the education system. A good environment for learner auton-
omy is a rich-resource one.
At the individual level, lecturers are recommended to gradually introduce
learner autonomy into English classes. Sweeping away traditional teaching prac-
tices like the teacher-centred nature of classes and the related nature of teacher-
student relationship would be counter-productive. Out-of-class autonomy seems
an appropriate way to begin the long process of promoting learner autonomy.
Students working cooperatively in class should be encouraged. First, more home-
work could be given to students. Their ability to work independently should be
enhanced. Present conditions in classes are not conducive to learner autonomy.
Lecturers seem to reluctantly offer their students the power to decide in the class
time. With more open out-of-class learning tasks assigned, students have more
time to exercise their autonomy. In addition, by carefully choosing and delegat-
ing quality homework to the students, lecturers are at the same time practising
15032-1187e-2pass-r02.indd 167 6/5/2018 9:17:54 AM

their support for learner autonomy without confronting themselves with beliefs
in their authoritarian power in classes. Second, students’ ability to learn coop-
eratively should be encouraged both in and out of classes. Learning tasks which
focus on students’ ability to learn cooperatively appear to suit students’ prefer-
ence for working together (Vietnam has been described as a collectivist culture).
Cooperative learning can enhance learner autonomy. Lecturers should use group
activities including pair work, group work, group portfolios, group presentations,
and group projects. Third, lecturers should prepare themselves for a shift in role
from knowledge transmitter to learning facilitator. Learner autonomy does not
mean learning without teachers. Rather, it entails a change in the way students
perceive teachers and a change in the way teachers perceive themselves. Lectur-
ers should be willing to guide students in their learning rather than transmit-
ting knowledge in textbooks to students. It is impossible, and not necessary, to
change the teacher-student relationship which has been deeply influenced by the
Confucius culture. It is advisable for the lecturers to be more friendly, open, and
responsive to students’ criticism.
Conclusion
Overall, despite the best intentions of the Vietnamese Ministry of Education and
Training, the inclusion and development of learner autonomy in Vietnam’s HEIs
has been beset by many of the same issues that have plagued other Asian ter-
tiary institutions where Confucian cultural heritage plays a role (V. Chan, 2003;
Nakata, 2011). The underlying reasons for the gap between lecturers’ endorse-
ment of learner autonomy and their limited use of it include lecturers’ and stu-
dents’ adherence to traditional teaching and learning approaches, lack of time
and resources, a centralised curriculum and assessment regime with a heavy focus
on examinations.
With these considerations in mind, there are ways in which lecturers could
begin to enhance learner autonomy. Pedagogical change, especially when it
comes from Western sources, should only be implemented when it is grounded
in an understanding of local socio-cultural attitudes and practices. We conclude
by calling for further research into learner autonomy in English language teach-
ing at the tertiary level. There is much more to be learned about how learner
autonomy could take its best forms and contribute to enhancing the quality of
English language education in Vietnam.
References
Al-Harthi, A. S. (2005). Distance higher education experiences of Arab Gulf students
in the United States: A cultural perspective. International Review of Research in
Open and Distance Learning, 6(3), 1–14.
Balcikanli, C. (2010). Learner autonomy in language learning: Student teachers’
beliefs. Australian Journal of Teacher Education, 35(1), 90–103.Breen, M. P., &
Candlin, C. (1980). The essentials of communicative curriculum in language teach-
ing. Applied Linguistics, 1, 89–112.
15032-1187e-2pass-r02.indd 168 6/5/2018 9:17:54 AM

Benson, P. (2001). Teaching and researching autonomy in language learning. Harlow:
Longman.
Benson, P. (2007). Autonomy in language teaching and learning. Language Teaching,
40(1), 21–40.
Breen, M. P., & Mann, S. J. (1997). Shooting arrows at the sun; perspectives on a
pedagogy for autonomy. In P. Benson & P. Voller (Eds.), Autonomy and independ-
ence in language learning (pp. 132–149). New York: Longman.
Campbell, C., & Kryszewska, H. (1992). Learner-based teaching. Oxford: Oxford
University Press.
Candy, P. C. (1991). Self-direction for life long learning. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Chan, H. W. (2010). Learner autonomy and the out-of-class English learning of pro-
ficient students in Hong Kong. International Journal of Learning, 17(11), 45–62.
Chan, H. W. (2011). Learner autonomy and the out-of-class English learning of
proficient students in Hongkong. The International Journal of Learning, 17(11),
45–62.
Chan, V. (2001). Readiness for learner autonomy: What do our learners tell us? Teach-
ing in Higher Education, 6(4), 505–518. doi:10.1080/13562510120078045
Chan, V. (2003). Autonomous language learning: The teachers’ perspectives. Teach-
ing in Higher Education, 8(1), 33–54.
Chan, V., Spratt, M., & Humphreys, G. (2002). Autonomous language learning:
Hong Kong tertiary students’ attitudes and behaviours. Evaluation and Research
in Education, 16(1), 1–18.
Crystal, D. (2013). English as a global language (3rd ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press.
Dam, L. (1995). Learner autonomy: From theory to classroom practice (Vol. 3). Dublin:
Authentik Language Learning Resources.
Dang, H. V. (2006). Constructions of an active language learner in English as a
Foreign Language (EFL) teacher education in Vietnam. (Doctor of Philosophy),
University of South Australia, Australia.
Dang, T. T. (2010). Learner autonomy in EFL studies in Vietnam: A discussion from
sociocultural perspective. English Language Teaching, 3(2), 3–9.
Dickinson, L. (1987). Self-instruction in language learning. Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press.
Goverment of Vietnam. (2005). Resolution No. 14/2005/NQ-CP: Higher Education
Reform Agenda (HERA).
Hinkel, E. (1999). Introduction. In E. Hinkel (Ed.), Culture in second language
teaching and learning (pp. 1–7). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Hofstede, G., & Hofstede, G. J. (2005). Cultures and organizations: Software of the
mind (2nd ed.). London: McGraw-Hill.
Holec, H. (1981). Autonomy and foreign language learning. Oxford: Pergamon
Press.
Jones, J. F. (1995). Self-access and culture: Retreating from autonomy. ELT Journal,
49(3), 228–234.
Koyalan, A. (2009). The evaluation of a self-access centre: A useful addition to class-
based teaching? System, 37, 731–740.
Lamb, M. (2004). ‘It depends on the students themselves’: Independent language
learning at an Indonesian state school. Language, Culture & Curriculum, 17(3),
229–245.
Lave, J., & Wenger, E. (1991). Situated learning: Legitimate peripheral participation.
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
15032-1187e-2pass-r02.indd 169 6/5/2018 9:17:55 AM

Levy, M., & Hubbard, P. (2005). Why call CALL? Computer Assisted Language
Learning, 18(3), 143–149.
Little, D. (1991). Learner autonomy: Definitions, issues and problems (Vol. 1). Dublin:
Authentik.
Little, D. (2007). Language learner autonomy: Some fundamental considerations
revisited. Innovation in Language Learning & Teaching, 1(1), 14–29. doi:10.2167/
illt040.0
Little, D. (2009). Language learner autonomy and the European language Portfolio:
Two L2 English examples. Language Teaching, 42(2), 222–233.
Littlewood, W. (1996). “Autonomy”: An anatomy and a framework. System, 24(4),
427–435.
Littlewood, W. (1999). Defining and developing autonomy in East Asian contexts.
Applied Linguistics, 20(1), 71–94.
Littlewood, W. (2001). Students’ attitudes to classroom English learning: A cross-
cultural study. Language Teaching Research, 5(1), 3–28.
Liu, X., Liu, S., Lee, S., & Magjuka, R. J. (2010). Cultural differences in online learn-
ing: International students perceptions. Educational Technology and Society, 13(3),
177–188.
Lock, J. V. (2006). A new image: Online communities to facilitate teacher profes-
sional development. Journal of Technology and Teacher Education, 14(4), 663–678.
Nakata, Y. (2011). Teachers’ readiness for promoting learner autonomy: A study of
Japanese EFL high school teachers. Teaching & Teacher Education, 27(5), 900–
910. doi:10.1016/j.tate.2011.03.001
Nguyen, T. C. L. (2008). Learner autonomy and EFL proficiency: A Vietnamese
perspective. Asian Journal of English Language Teaching, 18, 67–87.
Nguyen, T. N. (2012). “Let students take control!” Fostering learner autonomy in lan-
guage learning: An experiment. Paper presented at the 2012 International Confer-
ence on Education and Management Innovation in Singapore.
Palfreyman, D., & Smith, R. C. (2003). Learner autonomy across cultures: Language
education perspective. New York: Palgrave Macmillan.
Pennycook, A. (1997). Cultural alternatives and autonomy. In P. Benson & P. Voller
(Eds.), Autonomy and independence in language learning (pp. 35–53). New York:
Longman.
Pham, T. H. T. (2011). An investigation of perceptions of Vietnamese teachers and
students toward cooperative learning (CL). International Education Studies, 4(1),
3–12.
Reich, R. (Ed.). (2002). Bridging liberalism and multiculturalism in American edu-
cation. Chicago: Chicago University Press.
Sakai, S., Takagi, A., & Chu, M-P. (2010). Promoting learner autonomy: Student
perceptions of responsibilities in a language classroom in East Asia. Educational
Perspectives, 43(1–2), 12–27.
Sinclair, B. (2009). The teacher as learner: Developing autonomy in an interactive
learning environment. In S. Toogood, A. Pemberton, & A. Barfield (Eds.), Main-
taining control: Autonomy and language learning (pp. 175–198). Hong Kong:
Hong Kong University Press.
Smith, R., & Ushioda, E. (2009). ‘Autonomy’: Under whose control? In R. Pem-
berton, S. Toogood, & A. Barfield (Eds.), Maintaining control: Autonomy and
language learning (pp. 241–253). Hong Kong: Hong Kong University Press.
15032-1187e-2pass-r02.indd 170 6/5/2018 9:17:55 AM

Thang, M. S., & Alias, A. (2007). Investigating readiness for autonomy: A compari-
son of Malaysian ESL undergraduates of three public universities. Reflections on
English Language Teaching, 6(1), 1–18.
Tran, N. T. (1994). Co so van hoa Viet Nam [Foundations of Vietnamese culture]. Da
Nang: Da Nang Publishing House.
Tran, T. T. (2013). Is the learning approach of students from the Confucian heritage
culture problematic? Educational Research for Policy and Practice, 12(1), 57–65.
Trinh, Q. L. (2005). Stimulating learner autonomy in English language education – a
curriculum innovation study in a Vietnamese context. (Doctor of Philosophy), Uni-
versity of Amsterdam.
Vietnamese Assembly. (1999). Vietnamese education law.
Vietnamese Assembly. (2005). Vietnamese education law.
Vietnamese Assembly. (2012). Vietnamese higher education law.
Vietnamese Prime Minister. (2017). Decision No.2080: Approval on amendments to the
project on the teaching and learning of foreign languages in the national education
system – period 2017–2025.
Winch, C. (2002). Strong autonomy and education. Educational Theories, 52(1),
27–41.
15032-1187e-2pass-r02.indd 171 6/5/2018 9:17:55 AM

13 Vietnamese EFL teacher
training at universities
Review of the design and
cultural aspect of the curriculum
Mai Thi Quynh Lan and Pham Thi Thanh Thuy
Concern for the quality of English as Foreign Language (EFL) teacher training is
shared systemically across Vietnam’s Higher Education sector. In the context of
increased global scientific, technology, educational, and cultural interaction and
interdependence, English serves as an important communication tool for economic
development, particularly for the culturally diversified Asian region. In 2008, Viet-
nam Ministry of Education and Training introduced Project 2020 - a plan for a
national foreign language project, which aimed to renovate thoroughly the tasks of
teaching and learning foreign languages within the national educational system in
the period 2008–2020. From 2008 to 2016, under Project 2020, a large number
of primary and secondary English teachers were provided with summer semester
training courses. Despite the great efforts and resources spent on retraining school
English language teachers, not all of them passed the required English proficiency
tests. This chapter reviews the design of the E
nglish Teacher Training programmes
to look for various explanations to address sector quality concerns and reports
research that illustrates how programmatic weaknesses related to curriculum and
outcomes pervade Vietnamese EFL teacher training.
Context of English learning quality in Vietnam

To prepare future generations for increasing globalisation, Vietnam Ministry of
Education and Training (MOET) prioritises English language competence. In
2008, Vietnamese Government set out the goal to renovate the foreign language
teaching and learning within the national educational system. MOET under-
stands that English communicative competence is one of the basic capabilities
Vietnamese students need to compete globally. To implement this national edu-
cational goal, MOET’s Project 2020 was approved in September 2008 by the
Prime Minister under the Decision 1400/QD-TTg.1
Project 2020 aims to have most secondary and tertiary graduates able to use
language independently and confidently in communicating, learning, and work-
ing in integral, multi-language and multi-cultural environments by 2020. By
2025, English education will become mandatory in schools at all levels. One of
the specific objectives of Project 2020 is the implementation of a new 10-year
15032-1187e-2pass-r02.indd 172 6/5/2018 9:17:55 AM

Vietnamese EFL teacher training 173
general English programme (from English 3 through to English 12), with 100%
of grade 3, 70% of grade 6, 60% of grade 10 school students who will be learning
this new programme by the school year 2020 – 2021. As Project 2020 is near-
ing completion, the Vietnam Prime Minister signed Decision 2080/QD-TTg,
which revised and adapted the project to be more suitable for the new period
2017 – 2025 on December 22nd, 2017. New goals were set, one of which is the
implementation of an outcome-based programme in 50% of the vocational train-
ing sectors, in 80% of higher education sectors, and in 100% of sectors training
English professionally (Decision 2080/ GD-TTg).2 This Decision also requires
that by 2025, 100% of the graduates from English teacher training programmes
to be well qualified in their teaching profession and foreign language/ English
proficiency level.
MoET used the Common European Framework of Reference (CEFR) to
establish an adapted framework for Vietnam to test language proficiency. The
CEFR provides a guide in setting curriculum, teaching and learning practices,
and evaluation, and the CEFR is widely used in Europe and beyond. The quali-
fications required of Vietnamese students according to CEFR are described
based on six specific levels of proficiency: A1, A2, B1, B2, C1, and C2 (Decision
No. 5209/QD-BGDDT),3 specifically as: A1: Basic (primary school leavers);
A2: Beginner (secondary school leavers); B1: Intermediate (high school leav-
ers and graduates from colleges not specialising in languages); B2: Advanced
(graduates from colleges specialising in languages); C1: Proficient (graduates
from language-specialising undergraduate programmes at universities); and C2:
Excellent (English-specialising university teachers). The year 2025 is again the
target year for 100% of language-specialising graduates to get their right certifi-
cates (B2 and C1)
The teaching and learning of English in primary schools provides students with
basic language skills equivalent to level A1 of the CEFR. The English programme
at the secondary school is the continuation of the English programme at primary
school. It aims to continue the formation and development of communicative
competence of students in English language to gain qualifications equivalent to
Level A2 of the CEFR (Decision No. 01/QD-BGDDT).4 At the high school
level, the goal of English teaching and learning is to maximise opportunities for
students to improve fluency and accuracy of English language to achieve English
proficiency level 3 of the Vietnam English competence framework (B1 of the
CEFR).
Project 2020 has strategically employed the CEFR to meet its goal to improve
English language teachers’ English capabilities. CEFR is used to test the English
competence of the EFL students who are being trained to become teachers of
English for primary schools, high schools, and universities. CEFR levels also
become a measure of the graduates’ English competence. For example, in a long-
established and well-reputed programme of English teacher training at a univer-
sity in Hanoi, the graduates of the programme are expected to have good English
competence of at least CEFR level 5 (C1).
15032-1187e-2pass-r02.indd 173 6/5/2018 9:17:55 AM

174 Vietnamese EFL teacher training
EFL teacher training curriculum

We found that English teachers’ training programmes in leading pedagogical
universities in Vietnam have many things in common with their core curricu-
lums, though the training practices may be different in each university; and these
programmes do not appear to follow the approach that has been applied by the
foreign universities in designing their teacher training programmes mentioned
in this chapter. We analysed the designs and the curricula of several EFL teacher
training programmes at different universities across Vietnam and then compared
them with two similar EFL teacher training programmes overseas, one at an
Australian university and another in the United States. We also interviewed Viet-
namese EFL teacher trainers at two leading universities in the north of Vietnam.
Additionally, classroom and teacher participant observations were conducted
during 2016. Here are the main findings.
The focus of all Vietnamese EFL teacher training is on

developing students’ language competency
Students majoring in a teaching English programme in Australia must have 6.5
IELTS (B2+) before they start their study, whereas those in Vietnam only need to
pass the “university entry exam”, which includes a written test of English language
writing and reading skills at universal high school level (assumed as B1 CEFR or
below 5.5 IELTS). However, a significant learning outcome of Vietnamese Eng-
lish teacher training programmes is that students must pass level 5 (C1) of each
sub-skill of the Language Proficiency Framework. This focus is reflected in the
curriculum of the four-year English teacher training Bachelor degree. A large
proportion of the curriculum is spent on developing language skills. Also, the
design of the EFL teacher training programme at Vietnamese universities allo-
cates a comparatively disproportionate amount of time on language proficiency.
Specifically, in year 1 and 2, the focus is on training students to acquire language
practice skills. In the programme of English teacher education at VNU ULIS as
seen in Table 13.1, the first two years are intensified with courses on developing
language practice skills. There are two or three English language practice courses
in each of the first four semesters. The general knowledge courses and courses on
the domain common to the block of disciplines are taught during semester 1 and
2. General knowledge on nature and society, such as geography, environment,
and development, statistics, math, history about Vietnamese culture, Vietnamese
linguistics etc. are taught separately, each topic in one course (usually two credits
per course). These courses provide fundamental knowledge in history, science,
social science, Vietnamese culture and language; however, they are delivered in
Vietnamese.5
As seen in Table 13.1, during the first four semesters of the EFL teacher train-
ing programme, students learn general knowledge and English. However, there
was a sharp contrast in the last four semesters when there are no English language
skills courses available. Instead, foundational and general pedagogical knowledge,
15032-1187e-2pass-r02.indd 174 6/5/2018 9:17:55 AM

Table 13.1 Curriculum flowchart of the undergraduate English teacher training programme at ULIS-VNU-HN
SEMESTER I SEMESTER II SEMESTER III SEMESTER IV SEMESTER V SEMESTER VI SEMESTER VII SEMESTER VIII
I General I General Education I General II Natural science
15032-1187e-2pass-r02.indd 175
Education subject domain: Education and mathematical
subject domain: subject domain: knowledge
PHI1005 The domain:
PHI1004 The Fundamental Foreign Language ENG1001
Fundamental Principles B1 Introduction to
Principles of Marxism- Geography
of Marxism- Leninism 2 ENG1002
Leninism 1 HIS1002 The Environment and
POL1001 Ho Chi Revolutionary Development
Minh Ideology Line of the MAT1078 Statistics
INT1004 Communist Party for Social
Introduction to of Vietnam Sciences
Informatics Foreign Language MAT1092
Foreign Language A2 Advanced
A1 Soft skills Mathematics
Physical Education MAT1101 Statistics
National Defence and Probability
Education
III Domain III Domain III.2 Elective: III.2 Elective:
common to common to FLF1001 Artistry FLF1003 Critical
the block of the block of VLF1051 Practical Thinking
disciplines disciplines Vietnamese HIS1053 History of
III.1 Required: III.1 Required: PHI1051 General World Civilization
HIS1052 LIN1001 Logics FLF1004
Introduction Introduction Introduction to
to Vietnamese to Vietnamese Southeast Asian
Culture Linguistics Cultures
FLF1002 Research
methods
(Continued)
6/5/2018 9:17:55 AM
Table 13.2 (Continued)
SEMESTER I SEMESTER II SEMESTER III SEMESTER IV SEMESTER V SEMESTER VI SEMESTER VII SEMESTER VIII
15032-1187e-2pass-r02.indd 176
IV Domain IV Domain IV Domain IV Domain IV.1 Linguistic and IV.1 Linguistic and Cultural IV.1 Linguistic and IV.1 Linguistic
common to the common to the common to the common to the Cultural subjects subjects Cultural subjects and Cultural
set of disciplines set of disciplines set of disciplines set of disciplines IV.1.1 Required: IV.1.1 Required: IV.1.2 Elective: subjects
IV.2 English IV.2 English IV.2 English IV.2 English ENG2055 English ENG2056 English Linguistics ENG2057 Pragmatics IV.1.2 Elective:
language skills: language skills: language skills: language skills: Linguistics 1 2 ENG2060
ENG4021 English ENG4023 English ENG4025 English ENG4028 English ENG2054 Intercultural Discourse
1A (A: English 2A 3A 4A Communication Analysis
for social ENG4024 English ENG4026 English ENG4029 English IV.1.2 Elective
purposes) 2B 3B 4B ENG2053 Literature of
ENG4022 English ENG4027 English ENG4030 English English Speaking Countries
1B (B: English 3C (C: English 4C ENG3056 Language, Culture
for academic for exams) and Society
purposes)
V Professional V.1 Required: V.1 Required: V.3 Teaching
knowledge PSF3008 Pedagogy ENG3045 Foreign Practicum and
domain ENG3047 An Introduction Language Testing and Graduation
V.1 Required: to English Teaching Assessment Thesis or
PSF3007 Methodology V.2 Elective: Equivalence:
Psychology V.2 Elective: ENG3055 Language and ENG4003
PSF3007 Psychology of Media Practicum
foreign language teaching ENG3078 Curriculum ENG4053
ENG3068 Lesson Planning and Syllabus Design Graduation
and Material Development ENG3040 ESP paper or
ENG3048 Bilingual Methodology alternative
education ENG3037 Technology in subject(s)
ENG3069 Language Teaching and Learning
Acquisition Foreign Languages
ENG3050 Some issues of ENG3036 Fundamentals
Teaching English as an of Teaching English to
International language Young Learners
Adapted from: http://felte.ulis.vnu.edu.vn/category/dao-tao/dao-tao-dai-hoc/chuong-trinh-dao-tao/
6/5/2018 9:17:55 AM
such as Psychology, Pedagogy, State administration and education management,
Curriculum and syllabus design, Lesson planning and material development are
taught before students do their teaching practicum. Although the programme
provides a wide coverage of general pedagogical knowledge, it lacks specific
knowledge on teaching English. There are only two compulsory courses directly
related to English teaching methodology, an introduction to English teaching
methodology and an English language teaching techniques and practices course,
each equally weighted for three credits.
This structure of the EFL teacher training programme at Vietnamese univer-
sities is quite different from similar programmes abroad. For example, teacher
training is focused on providing students with pedagogical knowledge. At the
Australian institution we investigated, only one course in the Bachelor of Educa-
tion (Secondary) and Graduate Diploma in Education programmes is designed
to train those who will teach English as a second language (ESL) to students of
non-English speaking backgrounds (NESB). This course focuses on practising
classroom teaching skills, designing and planning units of work and assessment,
and developing course materials, including resources aimed at developing literacy
skills6. Another course in the programme aims “to challenge pre-service teach-
ers to use their knowledge, expertise and experience to design learning environ-
ments that will engage students in the learning process and cater for a variety of
learning styles”7. Before enrolling in this programme, students are expected to
have knowledge of contemporary literary theory and a good understanding/
knowledge of (English) grammar. The programme’s goal is to prepare their pre-
service English teachers to have both an interest and high level of competency in
the various aspects of English (reading, writing, listening, speaking, and viewing).
This curriculum is similar in design to the American programme we compared
but it was more focused to train and equip domestic teacher-trainees with practi-
cal teaching skills and cultural awareness to be able to successfully teach English
abroad. This goal is like the Vietnamese English teacher training programme in
that its students are expected to teach English as a foreign language. The cur-
riculum covers general education theories and knowledge, including Theories
of Language Learning Survey; Methods of TEFL; Teaching Practice; Language
Diagnostics and Assessment; Teaching the Skills; Teaching English Abroad;
TEFL Workshop Seminar (see Table 13.2). Students are required at all certificate
programmes to have professional-level English language proficiency in listening
and note-taking, reading comprehension and vocabulary, written expression, and
oral presentation.8
The Vietnamese English teacher training programme is structured to develop
English language competencies outlined in English Teacher Competencies Frame-
work (ETCF) rather than focusing on pedagogical training in methods to develop
those skills in their students. The ETCF consists of 5 domains, including: (1)
knowledge of language, language acquisition, curricula content; (2) knowledge
of language teaching; (3) knowledge of language learners; (4) professional val-
ues and processes in language teaching; and (5) connections to practice and con-
text of language teaching (Do T. T. Ha, 2013). An example of the EFL teacher
training programme at the University for Languages and International Studies of
15032-1187e-2pass-r02.indd 177 6/5/2018 9:17:55 AM

Table 13.2 Curriculum of the Programme of Teaching English as a Foreign Language
at University of California, Irvine
Theories of Language Learning Survey

Find out how people learn languages as you compare first language and second
language acquisition and child and adult foreign language learning. Understand
the learning theories that are the foundation of various teaching methodologies,
and develop strategies that you can use in your own teaching situations.
Methods of TEFL
Explore current methods for teaching specific skill areas such as speaking,
listening, reading and writing with an emphasis placed on communicative teaching
techniques and theories. Develop lesson plans, materials and instructional aids for
your classroom, and learn how to motivate your students to study and learn by
using a wide variety of language games and techniques.
Teaching Practice
Observe a teacher in an American classroom for English learners. Evaluate and
discuss what occurred. Prepare lesson plans, assist a teacher of English, and apply
those skills in an ESL classroom. Receive feedback on your own teaching and learn
to plan for future success as a teacher of English.
Language Diagnostics and Assessment

Improve your understanding of assessment strategies, gain new insight into the
purpose of testing and interpreting test results. Discuss, analyze, and practice
formal and informal ways of assessing your student’s speaking, listening, reading,
and writing skills.
Teaching the Skills

Learn general principles and strategies for effectively teaching the English
language skills of reading, writing, listening, speaking, pronunciation, grammar,
and vocabulary. Topics will include needs assessment, setting objectives, and
selecting and using the appropriate materials.
Teaching English Abroad

Receive guidance in your search for an appropriate international job placement
as an EFL teacher. Learn the skills you'll need to complete your foreign teaching
assignment competently and successfully! Examine issues of gaining employment,
cross-cultural behavior, pedagogy, and logistical concerns. Learn about culture
shock and successful adaptation.
TEFL Workshop Seminar

Join with other international teacher-trainees learning about various TEFL topics
in a conference/workshop setting. Topics may include the following: teaching
with technology, teaching using storytelling, teaching with drama, teaching using
art, teaching pronunciation, professional development, cultural presentations and
more.
Source: https://ce.uci.edu/areas/education/tea/curriculum.aspx
the Vietnam National University – Hanoi (VNU ULIS) is illustrative. The VNU
ULIS programme consists of 133 credits which are divided into five knowledge
domains (see Table 13.1). These five domains correspond with the ETCF’s five
domains. However, like other English teacher training programmes in Vietnam,
15032-1187e-2pass-r02.indd 178 6/5/2018 9:17:55 AM

this one at ULIS lacks constructive alignment, which makes a uniform curriculum
and requires the teachers to develop a holistic student-centred teaching-learning
approach (Biggs, 1996). The constructively aligned curriculum also clearly states its
objectives, knowledge level to be achieved (rather than topics to teach), methods
needed to achieve these set objectives, and assessment methods to check how much
of the objectives the students achieve (Trigwell & Prosser, 2014).
In the Vietnamese EFL teacher training programme, a disproportionate division
occurs between English language knowledge and skills and educational knowledge
and skills, and a mismatch between the expected learning outcomes and the pro-
gramme design. For example, one of the expected learning outcome of the EFL
teacher training programme at VNU ULIS is that its graduates will have practical
knowledge of the operation of schools, universities, and other educational institu-
tions; access to and complete knowledge and pedagogical skills being taught at
university (knowledge, lesson preparation skills, lecturing skills, classroom man-
agement skills etc.); while at the same time expanding the other skills required by
the teacher (skills to explore the school reality, to understand the students, skills
for being master teacher etc.); familiarising themselves with the reality of schools,
universities, and society; and becoming more confident in the profession. This
similar expected learning outcome can be viewed in the EFL teacher training pro-
grammes in other universities. For example, the English teaching methodology
programme at Ba Ria Vung Tau University aims to train English teachers who have
good pedagogical knowledge, thorough understanding of teaching methods and
theories, and to be able to teach English courses at primary and secondary schools,
at universities and colleges; to have comprehensive knowledge of language skills,
grammar, semantic and translation; to have knowledge about English language,
culture of English speaking countries; to be able to use the knowledge fluently in
the communication with foreigners, and in translation; to be able to manage the
English teaching task at education institutions; to have the potential to expand
one’s knowledge; to be able to study at higher levels; and to meet new demands9.
One common course on language skill development often aims to provide the stu-
dents with a certain amount of vocabulary of a daily life aspect, such as film, feeling,
travel, dating, and extensive training in some grammar tenses.
In the VNU ULIS curriculum, many courses for language skills development
are offered in the first two years, and no separated English language practice
course is available in the last two years of the programme. The general pedagogi-
cal knowledge for educating any subject for school students, such as Psychology,
An Introduction to English Teaching Methodology, Foreign Language Testing
and Assessment, etc. are taught in the third or fourth year as required subjects.
Specific methods to teach the four English skills to the school students are also
taught but for only a short time and focusing more on theories (3 credits, equiv-
alent to three 50-minute periods in class). In addition, students are asked to
learn one or two of the following courses as elective subjects: Fundamentals of
Teaching English to Young Learners, Language and Media, Bilingual Educa-
tion, English as an International Language, etc. Compared with the American or
Australian programmes, the Vietnamese courses are more theoretical and of less
classroom or real practice.
15032-1187e-2pass-r02.indd 179 6/5/2018 9:17:55 AM

Culture aspects of the undergraduate English

language teacher training programme
The Vietnamese pre-service curriculum’s focus on English competency develop-
ment, which overlooks the developing students’ cultural competence when teach-
ing in the second language classroom, has been an ongoing debate. The importance
of culture in language teaching is well established in the literature. As early as 1959,
Politzer stated that “If we teach language without teaching at the same time the
culture in which it operates, we are teaching meaningless symbols to which the
student attaches the wrong meaning” (Politzer, 1959, pp. 100–101). Cultural
competence is important because, “The words people utter refer to common expe-
rience. They express facts, ideas or events that are communicable because they refer
to a stock of knowledge about the world that other people share” (Kramsch, 1998,
p. 3). The essence of social life in communication, the effect of social culture on
human action are also established in Hall’s works: “Through our use of linguistic
symbols with others, we establish goals, negotiate the means to reach them, and
reconceptualise those we have set” (Hall, 2013, p. 7).
In the VNU ULIS English teacher training programme, the courses on cul-
tural knowledge are taught in year 2 and 3, separated from language devel-
opment skills and teaching skills. Furthermore, the cultural knowledge of the
English-speaking countries is not related to the culture of both teachers and
learners in these courses. Moreover, the learners are not given chances to live in
the real context of the foreign culture and build up the linguistic concepts and
use them as the native speakers do. The course does not teach the EFL students
how to teach this knowledge either. This arrangement results in disconnected
teaching on cultural content in language lessons (Nguyen Hoa et al., 2014).
VNU ULIS teachers, students, and management staff have expressed dissatisfac-
tion with instructors’ competence to teach English culture and cultural issues
in their lessons. They agree that these culture courses in the language teach-
ing programme are undervalued and do not have a comprehensive curriculum
or a well-established system of selecting the teaching materials (Nguyen Hoa
et al., 2014). Similarly, in-service teachers are weak at knowledge of the culture
of English-speaking countries (Nguyen Ngoc Quynh et al., 2016).
The concentration of English linguistics credit-based curriculum of Vietnam’s
Vinh University’s undergraduate programme is also illustrative of the dispropor-
tionate focus on linguistic competence. Only three courses (2 credits each) out of
52 courses were assigned for cultural specific knowledge. These courses provide
basic information on the history of the United Kingdom and the United States,
and cross-cultural comparison of the language usage. The Cross-Culture Com-
munication course discusses intralingual, paralingual, and extralingual aspects
manifested in cross-culture and in-culture communication with a specific focus
on cross-culture pragmatics. The British Studies course provides students with
basic understanding of British people, culture and history from Pre-Norman
Britain to the present time; British Institutions: Constitution, Monarchy, Leg-
islature, Executive, elections and political parties; Judiciary; British education
15032-1187e-2pass-r02.indd 180 6/5/2018 9:17:55 AM

system and traditional culture. The American Studies course provides students
with basic understanding of American people and culture: a brief history of the
United States of America, its political institutions and educational system, tradi-
tional values, customs and beliefs, and holidays.10
The lack of linkage between cultural concepts and teaching approach has resulted
in a culturally disconnected teaching practice. The results of our interviews with
four teachers teaching different courses in the English teacher training programme
at two leading universities in Hanoi, Vietnam have shown that teachers do not
often plan which cultural knowledge they will teach to their students, and how they
will teach it. Their teaching practices have also revealed that they usually conduct
a lesson with a cultural concept in an “opportunistic” style, that is, whenever they
come to a cultural term/ concept, or when inquired by the students, they just
explain it from their life experience, or compare it with respective Vietnamese cul-
ture. Our observations on some courses on social issues of English-speaking coun-
tries have also revealed that teachers sometimes find it difficult or even fail to make
their students understand a concept used in the cultures of these English-speaking
countries, because the teachers themselves might not thoroughly understand this
concept or it does not exist in the Vietnamese culture.
English language teacher training programme does not

focus on developing learners’ autonomy
Not only does it hardly focus on the cultural aspect in language teaching, the
design of the EFL programme also hinders the development of learners’ auton-
omy. Theoretically, the term “learner autonomy” is “the ability to take charge of
one’s own learning” (Holec, 1981, p. 3). Learner autonomy is the mindfulness of
the learner, thinking about what we perceive and deliberately noticing difference
and distinctions in our observations (Langer, 1989, cited in Cullen, Harris &
Hill, 2012, p. 8). Autonomous learners develop a capacity for “detachment, criti-
cal reflection, decision making and independent action” (Little, 2009, p. 223;
Little, 1991, p. 4). However, students do not become autonomous learners sim-
ply by being told that they are now in charge of their learning (Little, 1999).
They can take control of more and more aspects of the learning process when
they have acquired the appropriate knowledge, skills, and motivation. They can
enhance their learning by actively being involved in the process, interacting with
their peers, and sharing their learning experiences.
In most English teacher training programmes in Vietnam, the teaching practi-
cum should be an opportunity to develop learner autonomy. However, it fails
this role. While ULIS VNU students usually have one official 6-week period for
practicum, the practicum for students from other universities and colleges all
over Vietnam is generally some weeks longer, and divided into two phases. In
the first one, university students (also called student-teachers) are sent to school
to observe school teachers teaching, and school students learning. They are
expected to learn and gain experience from real teaching and learning contexts
before they practice their own teaching in the real classroom during the second
15032-1187e-2pass-r02.indd 181 6/5/2018 9:17:55 AM

phase of practicum. However, there are several reasons for the ineffectiveness of
their practicum and autonomy development. Findings from the oral feedback ses-
sions with VNU ULIS – FELTE student-teachers after the practicum of different
school years (from 2012–2013 to 2016–2017) show that, first and foremost,
many of these student-teachers try to follow exactly the teaching steps and lesson
plans of the school teachers without critically analysing whether they are good
enough or not for these lessons. Usually, to have their practicum course at the
school well-assessed, they tried to satisfy the mentors/the school teachers, who
prove to be much more experienced and familiar with the real teaching contexts.
It also takes students less time and it enables students to make fewer mistakes
when they mimic the school teachers’ practices. As a result, student-teachers do
not give much effort to develop their autonomy.
Discussion
Looking at some curricula of the Vietnamese undergraduate English teacher
training programme from the perspective of Bloom’s Taxonomy, there are
curriculum design issues which hinder the effectiveness of these programmes.
Bloom’s Taxonomy conceptualises the process of learning in the following
sequence: before you can understand a concept, you must remember it; to
apply a concept you must first understand it; to evaluate a process, you must
have analysed it; to create an accurate conclusion, you must have completed
a thorough evaluation (Shabatura, 2013). Taking this taxonomy into consid-
eration when designing a curriculum means that it is necessary to take what
learners should learn, when and in what order they can learn as the focus of
the designing process. In Vietnamese EFL teacher training programmes, the
arrangement of the courses, including Introduction to Sociology, History, Phi-
losophy, Geography and Environment in the first four semesters, provides stu-
dents with general knowledge, knowledge of the field and the sector they are
learning (i.e. knowledge domain of block and set of disciplines in Table 13.1).
However, these courses are taught in Vietnamese, which does not advance
English language vocabulary and concepts for EFL teaching students. In addi-
tion, courses to gain professional knowledge and language teaching skills, such
as Introduction to English Teaching Methodology, Lesson Planning and Mate-
rial Development, Language Acquisition, English Language Teaching Skills are
delivered at an inappropriate time.
Taking the perspectives of learner autonomy and cultural differences, this
paper argues that EFL teacher training at universities in Vietnam does not
prove to be effective. The English language teaching skills are not adequately
developed for the English teaching profession. The cultural aspect of the lan-
guage is not designed as an integrated part of the programme. The learners’
autonomy is not the focus of the teaching – learning philosophy. It is necessary
to reform curriculum design applying cognitive development theory in iden-
tifying expected learning outcomes and the associated teaching and learning
content and approach.
15032-1187e-2pass-r02.indd 182 6/5/2018 9:17:55 AM

To have a more effective curriculum design, subjects such as culture, language
and society, linguistics, history, and literature of some English-speaking coun-
tries should be taught during their early years at universities for students to gain
knowledge of the subject matters and broaden their world knowledge. Once they
master the core knowledge, the teaching of English language skills and methods
of teaching these skills should be provided. Students then can be able to apply
the language in analysing and evaluating the teaching materials to create effective
lesson plans. Given such good knowledge and teaching skills, at graduation they
will be active to cope with cultural issues in their teaching discourse. This learning
roadmap for an English teaching student should be an effective way to improve
the English skills for the next generations.
Notes
1 Decision No. 1400/QD-TTg, dated 30 September 2008 of the Prime Minister
on the Approval of the Project entitled “Teaching and Learning Foreign Lan-
guages in the National Education System, Period 2008–2020”.
2 Decision No. 2080/QD-TTg, dated 22 December 2017 of the Prime Minister on
the Approval of the Project entitled “Teaching and Learning Foreign Languages
in the National Education System, Period 2017–2025”. https://thuvienphap
luat.vn/van-ban/Giao-duc/Quyet-dinh-2080-QD-TTg-2017-bo-sung-De-an-
day-hoc-ngoai-ngu-trong-he-thong-giao-duc-quoc-dan-370658.aspx
3 Decision No. 5029/QD-BGDDT, dated 23 November 2012 of the Ministry of
Education and Training Promulgating the pilot Programme on Universal Educa-
tion of English discipline at High School level.
4 Decision No. 01/QD-BGDDT dated 3 January 2012 of the Ministry of Educa-
tion and Training promulgating the pilot Programme on Universal Education of
English discipline at Secondary School level.
5 Chuong trinh dao tao (Training Program majoring in English language teacher
education). Faculty of English Language Teacher Education, (ULIS, VNU
hanoi). Retrieved from http://felte.ulis.vnu.edu.vn/category/dao-tao/dao-tao-
dai-hoc/chuong-trinh-dao-tao/
6 English as a Second Language: Specialist Teaching Area (EDUC6800). The
University of Queensland. Retrieved from ww.uq.edu.au/study/course.html?
course_code=EDUC6800
7 English: Curriculum Foundations Part A (EDUC6705). The University of
Queensland. Retrieved from www.uq.edu.au/study/course.html?course_code=
EDUC6705
8 Teaching English as a Foreign Language. Division of Continuing Education,
University of California, Irvine. Retrieved from https://ce.uci.edu/areas/educa
tion/tea/curriculum.aspx
9 Chuong trinh dao tao (An Introduction to the English Language Training Pro-
gram, majoring in ELT Methodology). Faculty of Foreign Languages, Ba Ria
Vung Tau University. Retrieved from http://bvu.edu.vn/web/ffl/chuong-trinh-
ao-tao/-/asset_publisher/ RtEtUMKA7veO/content/gioi-thieu-chuong-trinh-
phuong-phap-giang-day-tieng-anh. Accessed on 16th January 2017.
10 The credit -based curriculum of undergraduate program in english concentration:
english linguistics. Foreign Languages Department, Vinh University. Retrieved
from http://khoaspnn.vinhuni.edu.vn/dao-tao/seo/khung-chuong-trinh-dao-
tao-dai-hoc-he-chinh-quy-theo-hoc-che-tin-chi-nganh-tieng-anh-45814 on 16th
January 2017.
15032-1187e-2pass-r02.indd 183 6/5/2018 9:17:55 AM

References
Biggs, J. (1996). Enhancing teaching through constructive alignment. Higher Educa-
tion, 32(3), 347–364.
Cullen, R., Harris, M., & Hill, R. R. (2012). The learner-centered curriculum: Design
and implementation. Hoboken, New Jersey: John Wiley & Sons.
Do T. T. Ha. (2013). Using ETCF to improve pre-service teacher training curricu-
lum – a report from ULIS, VNU. Retrieved from http://nfl2020forum.net/index.
php/symposium-presentations
Hall, J. K. (2013). Teaching and researching: Language and culture. London:
Routledge.
Holec, H. (1981). Autonomy in foreign language learning. Oxford: Oxford University
Press.
Jacklin, R. (2008). Building student knowledge: A study of project-based learning to aid
geography concept recall. ProQuest.
Kramsch, C. (1998). Language and culture. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Langer, E. J. (1989). Mindfulness. Reading, MA, US: Addison-Wesley/Addison
Wesley Longman.
Little, D. (1991). Learner autonomy: Definitions, issues and problems. Dublin:
Authentik.
Little, D. (1999). The European language portfolio and self-assessment. Strasbourg:
Council of Europe, Document DECS/EDU/LANG (99) 30.
Little, D. (2009). Language learner autonomy and the European language portfolio:
Two L2 English examples. Language Teaching, 42(02), 222–233.
Nguyen Hoa, Le Van Canh, Tran Hoai Phuong, Vu Hai Ha, & Nguyen Mai Phuong
(2014). Research on and introduction of effective English teachers’ training pro-
gramme. Executive report to the National Language Project 2020 of MoET.
Nguyen Ngoc Quynh et al. (2016). Needs assessment summary report: Blended teacher
development curriculum project (unpublished).
Politzer, R. (1959). Developing cultural understanding through foreign language study.
Report of the Fifth Annual Round Table Meeting on Linguistics and Language
Teaching, pp. 99–105.
Shabatura, J. (2013). Using Bloom’s taxonomy to write effective learning objectives.
Retrieved January 2017 from https://tips.uark.edu/using-blooms-taxonomy/.
Original author: Jessica Shabatura [posted on September 27, 2013].
Trigwell, K., & Prosser, M. (2014). Qualitative variation in constructive alignment in
curriculum design. Higher Education, 67(2), 141–154.
15032-1187e-2pass-r02.indd 184 6/5/2018 9:17:55 AM

Index
Page numbers in italic indicate a figure and page numbers in bold indicate a table on
the corresponding page.
achievement gap 152 – 153 career development 54 – 65

achievement tests 102. See also CEFR. See Common European
assessment Framework of Reference
advanced programs 10 – 12 CEFR-VN. See Common Framework of
agency 133 – 134 Reference for Language in Vietnam
AIT. See Asian Institute of censorship naturalization 58
Technology China 2, 22
Alliance Francaise 6 Chinese calligraphy 1 – 5
Allied Armed Force Radio 7 Chinese Confucianism 1 – 3, 48,
ALTE. See Association of Language 160 – 165, 168
Tester in Europe Christianity 3, 5
American universities 10 – 11, 12 citizenship 35 – 36
art 2 civil war 6, 7
ASEAN. See Association of South East class sizes 44 – 45, 51
Asian Nations CLIL. See content-based language
Asian Institute of Technology instruction learning
(AIT) 11 CLT. See Communicative Language
Asia Pacific Economic Cooperation Teaching (CLT) pedagogy
(APECT) 86 collectivism 48, 152, 163
assessment 47, 56, 151, 164, 165; colonialism 3 – 6, 28 – 30
of English proficiency 50, 87 – 90, colonial languages 29
98, 173; outcome-based 63, 87; Common European Framework of
placement 88 – 90, 93, 96, 98; Reference (CEFR) 40, 87, 88, 92,
speaking 102 – 116 106, 173
Association of Language Tester in Common Framework of Reference for
Europe (ALTE) 19 Language in Vietnam (CEFR-VN)
Association of South East Asian Nations 88 – 98; adaptation to 92; application
(ASEAN) 8, 22, 33, 56, 86 88; levels 88, 91 – 92, 173; performance
attainment value 145 outcomes 90 – 91; placement tests
August Revolution 4 – 6 88 – 90, 93, 96, 98; problems during
Australia 11, 19 implementation of 93 – 99
autonomy 158 – 168 communication: environment 97;
intercultural 17, 18, 19, 22 – 23, 73;
“big C” culture 74 – 77 skills 42 – 44, 59 – 63, 126; workplace
Bourdieu, Pierre 55, 57 – 58, 64 9, 32 – 33, 36, 54, 59 – 61
15032-1187e-2pass-r02.indd 185 6/5/2018 9:17:55 AM

186 Index
Communicative Language Teaching sizes 44 – 45, 51; curriculum 41 – 42;
(CLT) pedagogy 44, 45, 50, 105 native-speaker model 17 – 18, 24;
communism 7 – 8 speaking assessment 102 – 116; teachers
Confucianism 1 – 3, 48, 160 – 165, 168 20 – 22, 24, 42 – 50, 172 – 183; tertiary
content-based language instruction education 40 – 51; textbooks 68 – 79
learning (CLIL) 20 English as international language (EIL)
cost value 147 17, 18, 19, 24
cultural capital 57 – 58, 64 English for Specific Purposes (ESP)
cultural identity 30, 32 41 – 42, 49 – 50
cultural reproduction 57 – 58 English language: after reunification 7;
culture 22 – 23, 48; “big C” and “little and career skills 54 – 65; and cultural
c” 74 – 77; concept of 68; and issues 23; demand for 19 – 20; as
language 68; learner 43 – 44, 50; and dominant foreign language 1, 7,
learner autonomy 160, 161 – 165; 9 – 12, 17, 18, 36; globalisation of 17,
representation in EFL textbooks 36; in higher education 10 – 12, 34;
69 – 79, 82 – 85; and teacher training interactions in 124 – 125; motivations
180 – 181; Vietnamese 1, 2, 3, 71, 72, of rural students for learning
79, 160, 174, 181; Western 22, 23, 132 – 141; and national development
161 – 165 30 – 31; policies 34 – 38, 54 – 57, 59,
86 – 87, 106, 145, 172 – 173; status of
Da Nang University 89, 91 18 – 22; and tourism 8 – 9
development 58 – 59, 64 English language education (ELE) 6 – 7,
development motivation 94 19 – 22; and employability 54 – 65,
dialects 3 94, 126; expansion of 54; General
Dien Bien Phu 6 English for non-majors 86 – 98; goals
Doi Moi policy 1, 8 – 9, 28, 161; for 172 – 173; investment in 87;
adoption of 12, 16, 18; and demand learner autonomy in 158 – 168; private
for English 19, 35 – 36; and language instruction 20 – 22; quality of 172 – 173;
of instruction 31 – 35; and language speaking skills courses 106 – 107;
policy 31 – 37, 56, 86, 145 student motivation in 132 – 141,
145 – 154; testing-oriented system 47,
Eastern Bloc 6, 7 50. See also English language teaching;
economically disadvantaged groups 37 English Medium Instruction
economic reforms 8 – 9, 31, 33, 36, 56, English language teaching (ELT)
145 19 – 22; challenges in 40 – 51;
education: cultural factors affecting improvement of 151 – 152; new
48; equity in 36 – 37; family role in directions for 22 – 24; quality of 40,
152 – 153; international 121, 123, 44, 172 – 173; recommendations for
125; moral 2, 24; reforms 31 – 32, 50 – 51; time constraints 48 – 49. See
54, 56, 119, 161; Soviet model 6 – 8; also English language education
testing-oriented system 47, 50; US English majors 20, 46, 56, 105, 115
model 6 – 7 English Medium Instruction (EMI)
educational cooperation 11 – 13 119 – 128; attitudes of students toward
educational learning economies 43 – 44 119 – 128; benefits of 120; challenges
Education Law of Vietnam 24 of 124 – 125; development of, in
education policy 28 – 38; language Vietnamese academic institutions 121;
of instruction 31 – 35; national impact on learning outcomes 120;
curriculum 31 implementation 121 – 122, 125 – 128;
EFL. See English as a Foreign Language irrelevant content 125; motives for
ELE. See English language education 122; quality of instruction 123 – 124
ELT. See English language teaching English proficiency: assessment of 50,
employability 54 – 65, 94, 126 87 – 90, 98, 173; and employability
engagement: student 95; teacher 95 126; need for 105 – 106; requirements
English as a Foreign Language (EFL) 16; 40, 41, 42, 51, 86; of teachers
challenges in teaching of 40 – 51; class 126 – 127
15032-1187e-2pass-r02.indd 186 6/5/2018 9:17:55 AM

Index 187
English-speaking countries 17 – 18, 1 – 15, 33 – 34; General English for
73 – 74 non-majors in 86 – 98; influence of
ESP. See English for Specific Purpose Confucianism on 1 – 3, 160 – 165,
ethnic groups 30, 35, 36 – 37 168; internationalisation of 10 – 12;
examinations 47, 50. See also language planning 54 – 65; Law of
assessment Higher Education 28, 32 – 34, 36, 37,
Expanding Circle 18 161; reforms 9, 10 – 12, 31 – 32; Soviet
expectancy-related beliefs 145 model of 6 – 7; transition to 132
extra-curricular activities 97, 98 Higher Education Reform Agenda
extrinsic motivation 97 (HERA) 119, 161
Hoa Sen University 91
family role, in education 152 – 153 Ho Chi Minh City University 91
family value 145 – 146, 147, 149 Hong Kong 29
femininity 164
Feudal China 2 ideological values 36
foreign interventions, responses to 1 illiteracy 5
foreign investment 8, 9, 11, 19, 126 importance value 147
foreign language education (FLE): individualism 163
globalisation and 16 – 24. See also Indochinese Communist Party 5
English language education inequalities 57 – 58, 64
foreign language policy. See language Inner Circle 17 – 18, 23
policy instrumental motivation 125
foreign policy 22. See also Doi Moi intercultural awareness 24
policy intercultural communication 17, 18, 19,
Foreign Trade University 91 22 – 23, 73
free trade 33 Intercultural Communicative
French colonialism 3 – 6, 29 – 30 Competence (ICC) 69, 70, 77 – 79
French language 3 – 7 international education 121, 123, 125
Fulbright Economics and Teaching internationalisation policy 1, 8 – 13, 30, 119
Program (FETO) 11 – 12 international primary schools 20
Fulbright University Vietnam 12 international relations 22
Fundamental and Comprehensive International Standard Programs (ISP)
Reform of Higher Education 121 121
International University 121
General English (GE) 41 – 42; for inter-rater reliability 112 – 114
non-majors 86 – 98 intrinsic motivation 94, 97
Geneva Treaty of 1954 6
Gia Dinh newspaper 4 Japan 30 – 31
global financial crisis 33 job skills 54, 55, 150. See also
globalisation 9, 28, 119, 160, 172; career development; workplace
benefits of 16 – 17; challenges of 17; communication
concept of 16; of English language
17, 36; and foreign language knowledge economy 58
education 16 – 24
labour productivity 37 – 38
habitus 57, 64 language: colonial 29; and culture
Harvard University 11 – 12 68; defined 68; French 3 – 7, 29,
hierarchy 162 – 163 86; of instruction 31 – 35; minority
higher education: advanced programs 30, 36 – 37; Russian 7 – 9, 35, 86;
10 – 12; centralisation 9; colonial 4; Vietnamese 4 – 6, 22, 28 – 30, 32, 33,
development of 5; EFL challenges in 35 – 36. See also English language
40 – 51; English medium instruction language instruction: content-based 20;
in 119 – 128; external influences on as cultural tool 28. See also English
1; foreign language instruction in language education; English language
32 – 33; foreign language policy in teaching
15032-1187e-2pass-r02.indd 187 6/5/2018 9:17:55 AM

188 Index
language policy 28 – 38; after August view of 132, 133, 140 – 141; of
Revolution 5 – 6; after reunification rural students for learning English
7 – 8; colonial 4, 5; and Doi Moi 132 – 141; of university students
31 – 35, 86; and educational equity 145 – 154
36 – 37; English 10 – 12, 18 – 22, multinational companies 126
34 – 38, 54 – 57, 59, 86 – 87, 106, 145, multipolarity 22
172 – 173; in higher education 1 – 15,
33 – 34; historical background 29 – 31; national curriculum 30, 31, 134
on language of instruction 31 – 35; national development 58
and nation building 28, 29, 37 – 38; National Foreign Language Project
during partition period 6 – 7 2020 10, 19, 33 – 35, 37, 56 – 57,
language proficiency 88, 96 – 97, 173, 86 – 87, 91, 106, 121, 172 – 173
174. See also English proficiency national identity 3, 5, 22 – 23, 28, 30,
Language Testing Centre 98 35, 77
Law of Education (1998) 28, 31 – 32, nationalism 22, 23
36 – 37 nationality policy 30
Law of Education (2005) 28, 32 – 34, national security 22
36 – 37 national unity 32, 36
Law of Higher Education (2012) 28, nation building 28 – 38
32, 33 – 34, 36, 37, 161 native-speaker (NS) model 17 – 18, 24
learner agency 133 – 134 native speakers 17, 18, 23, 73, 97, 180
learner autonomy 158 – 168; and New Model University Project 121
Confucian and Western culture New Vietnamese Education Law 161
161 – 165; definitions 158 – 159; Nguyen, M. T. 33
and government policies 161; Nguyen Thuyen 3
recommendations for 165 – 168; and Nha Trang University 92
teacher training 181 – 182; Vietnamese Nom letters 2 – 3
cultural issues in relation to 160 non-English majors 20, 41, 46 – 47, 49;
learning culture 43 – 44, 50 General English for 86 – 98
learning materials 45 – 46 non-governmental organisations
lectures 43, 120, 127 (NGOs) 16
Lifelines Elementary 70 – 79 non-native speakers 17, 18, 24
Lifelines Pre-Intermediate 70 – 79 North Vietnam 6 – 7
linguistic capital 58, 64
linguistic competence 44, 46 obligation motivation 94 – 95, 97 – 98
literacy campaigns 5 online materials 65
literature 2 oral assessment 102 – 116, 151 – 152
“little c” culture 74 – 77 Outer Circle 18
long-term orientation 164 – 165 overseas study 18 – 19, 42
loss of face 163
Ly dynasty 2 partition period 6 – 7
performance outcomes 90 – 91
Malaysia 29 personal development 58
Mandarin 1 – 4 person-in-context relational perceptive
market economy 31 132 – 141
masculinity 164 Philippines 29
Ministry of Education and Training placement tests 88 – 90, 93, 96, 98
(MOET) 6, 10, 19, 47, 48, 172 political critical perspective, of learner
minority languages 30, 36 – 37 autonomy 159
modernisation 5, 9, 10, 17 political reforms 8 – 9. See also Doi Moi
moral education 2, 24 policy
motivation: contextualised approaches power distance 162 – 163
to 133 – 134; to learn 145; relational private schools 20, 21 – 22
15032-1187e-2pass-r02.indd 188 6/5/2018 9:17:55 AM

Index 189
Project. See National Foreign Language skills of 54 – 65, 94, 126; low and
Project 2020 uneven English proficiency in 49;
psychological perspective, of learner motivation of 46 – 47, 93 – 95, 97,
autonomy 158 – 159 132 – 141, 145 – 154; perceptions of
English medium instruction 119 – 128;
Quoc Ngu 3, 4, 5 rural 132 – 141
study abroad 18 – 19, 42
Refreshed 2020 Project 35, 86 – 87, 91
reunification 7 – 8 Taiwan 29
Roger Williams University 11 teachers: challenges facing EFL
Royal College 2 42 – 50; cultural competence of
Royal Melbourne Institute of 180 – 181; English language 20 – 22,
Technology (RMIT) 11 24, 41, 42 – 50; English proficiency
rural students 132 – 141 of 126 – 127, 174, 177 – 179;
Russia, influence of 6 – 7 international primary school 20; lack
Russian language 7 – 9, 35, 86 of training in 49 – 50, 56; and learner
autonomy 162; level of engagement
Sai Gon University 89 of 95; Vietnamese language 24. See
schools: international primary 20; also English language teaching
private 20, 21 – 22 teacher training 87, 98, 127, 172 – 183;
Second World War 5 after August Revolution 5; culture
short-term orientation 164 – 165 aspects of 180 – 181; EFL curriculum
Singapore 30 174, 175 – 176, 178, 182 – 183; and
socialism 30, 37 ESP 49 – 50; and learner autonomy
“socialist person” 35 – 36 181 – 182; quality of 172 – 173;
social mobility 4 structure of 177 – 179; student
social reproduction theories 55, language competency as focus of 174,
57 – 58, 64 177 – 179; systems for 20 – 22
socio-cultural perspective, of learner teaching culture 50
autonomy 159 teaching facilities 45, 51
socioeconomic status (SES) 152 – 153 teaching materials 45 – 46
South Vietnam 6 – 7 teaching methods 43 – 44, 50, 51,
Soviet communism 7 – 8 106 – 107, 127, 151 – 152
Soviet education model 6 technical perspective, of learner
Soviet Union, collapse of 32 autonomy 159
speaking assessment 102 – 116, tertiary education. See higher education
151 – 152; administration of 115; in testing-oriented system 47, 50
groups 103; individual 102 – 103; textbooks 45 – 46, 49 – 50; cultural
inter-rater reliability 112 – 114, 113; information in 69 – 79, 82 – 85;
methods 108; perceptions of test history content in 77; stereotypes and
administration 109 – 110, 110; scoring national identity in 77
115 – 116; task categories 104, 104, time constraints 48 – 49, 96 – 97
110 – 112, 114 – 115; test design tourism 8 – 9
103 – 104, 115 – 116; test validation trade relations 8 – 9, 33
104, 105; uniformity in 114; in traditional values 17, 23
Vietnam 105 – 116 Tran dynasty 2
speaking skills courses 106 – 107 Troy University 11
stereotypes 77
structural equation modeling (SEM) uncertainty avoidance 164
147 United Kingdom 11, 19
students: achievement expectations of United Nations Educational,
145, 146 – 147; agency of 133 – 134; Scientific and Cultural Organisation
autonomy of 158 – 168; employability (UNESCO) 32
15032-1187e-2pass-r02.indd 189 6/5/2018 9:17:55 AM

190 Index
United States: influence of 6 – 7; Vietnam Democratic Republic 5
relations with 22, 86; study abroad in Vietnam Educational Strategies 121
19; universities 10 – 12 Vietnamese Communist Party
universities: American 10 – 12; foreign- (VCP) 31
owned 11 – 12. See also higher Vietnamese Constitution of 1960 30
education Vietnamese Constitution of 1980 30
University of Agriculture and Forestry Vietnamese-German University 11
90 – 91 Vietnamese language 4 – 6, 22, 28 – 30,
University of Indochina 4 32, 33, 35 – 36
University of Saigon 6 VTV Project 21
utility value 145, 147, 149
Western culture 22, 23, 161 – 165
Viet Minh 5 workplace communication 9, 32 – 33,
Vietnam: Chinese influences on 1 – 3; 36, 54, 59 – 61
culture 1, 2, 3, 71, 72, 79, 160, 174, World Bank 32, 86
181; economic growth in 16; foreign world economy 30, 32, 34, 36 – 38
policy of 22; French influences on 3 – 5; world system theory 30
language policy 1 – 15, 28 – 38, 54 – 59, World Trade Organisation (WTO) 8,
86 – 87, 172 – 173; partition period 6 – 7; 19, 33, 86
reunification of 7 – 8; Russian influences writing systems 1 – 5
on 6 – 8; U.S. influences on 6 – 7 WTO. See World Trade Organisation
15032-1187e-2pass-r02.indd
View publication stats 190 6/5/2018 9:17:55 AM

English Tertiary Educationin Vietnam

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

English Tertiary Educationin Vietnam

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

See discussions, stats, and author profiles for this publication at: https://www.researchgate.

Vietnamese foreign language policy in higher education

Chapter · June 2018

Huong Lam James Albright

SEE PROFILE SEE PROFILE

The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file.

As part of a long series of Vietnam’s policy objectives, English education has

James Albright is Professor of Education at the University of Newcastle, Australia

15032-1187e-2pass-r02.indd 1 6/5/2018 9:17:50 AM

Making Sense of Education in Post-Handover Hong Kong

English Education at the Tertiary Level in Asia

English-Medium Instruction in Chinese Universities

Rethinking Madrasah Education in a Globalised World

Policies and politics in Malaysian education

The Sustainability of Higher Education in an Era of Post-Massification

Emigration, Employability and Higher Education in the Philippines

Literature Education in the Asia-Pacific

English Tertiary Education in Vietnam

15032-1187e-2pass-r02.indd 2 6/5/2018 9:17:50 AM

Edited by James Albright

15032-1187e-2pass-r02.indd 3 6/5/2018 9:17:50 AM

15032-1187e-2pass-r02.indd 4 6/5/2018 9:17:50 AM

1 Vietnamese foreign language policy in higher education:

2 Globalisation and Vietnamese foreign language education 16

3 Nation building and language in education policy 28

4 Current challenges in the teaching of tertiary English

5 Vietnamese higher education language planning and

6 Textbooks as cultural mediators: exploring representations

7 General English for non-majors in higher education 86

8 EFL speaking assessment in Vietnamese tertiary education 102

15032-1187e-2pass-r02.indd 5 6/5/2018 9:17:50 AM

10 Rural students’ motivation for learning English:

11 Examining the motivation and achievement of Vietnamese

12 Learner autonomy in tertiary English classes in Vietnam 158

13 Vietnamese EFL teacher training at universities: review of

15032-1187e-2pass-r02.indd 6 6/5/2018 9:17:50 AM

15032-1187e-2pass-r02.indd 7 6/5/2018 9:17:50 AM

An Duc Nguyen graduated from the MA program in TESOL at University of

15032-1187e-2pass-r02.indd 8 6/5/2018 9:17:50 AM

15032-1187e-2pass-r02.indd 9 6/5/2018 9:17:50 AM

15032-1187e-2pass-r02.indd 10 6/5/2018 9:17:50 AM

15032-1187e-2pass-r02.indd 11 6/5/2018 9:17:50 AM

English is a global language and an important means of international business

15032-1187e-2pass-r02.indd 12 6/5/2018 9:17:50 AM

15032-1187e-2pass-r02.indd 13 6/5/2018 9:17:50 AM

15032-1187e-2pass-r02.indd 14 6/5/2018 9:17:50 AM

15032-1187e-2pass-r02.indd 15 6/5/2018 9:17:50 AM

15032-1187e-2pass-r02.indd 16 6/5/2018 9:17:51 AM

15032-1187e-2pass-r02.indd 17 6/5/2018 9:17:51 AM

15032-1187e-2pass-r02.indd 18 6/5/2018 9:17:51 AM

Vietnam’s language policy demonstrates a close alignment to its socio-­political

The influence of Chinese Confucianism

15032-1187e-2pass-r02.indd 1 6/5/2018 9:17:51 AM

15032-1187e-2pass-r02.indd 2 6/5/2018 9:17:51 AM

The influence of French colonialism

15032-1187e-2pass-r02.indd 3 6/5/2018 9:17:51 AM

15032-1187e-2pass-r02.indd 4 6/5/2018 9:17:51 AM

Foreign language policy after the August Revolution

15032-1187e-2pass-r02.indd 5 6/5/2018 9:17:51 AM

The partition period 1954–1975 and influence of

15032-1187e-2pass-r02.indd 6 6/5/2018 9:17:51 AM

The influence of Soviet communism

15032-1187e-2pass-r02.indd 7 6/5/2018 9:17:51 AM

2 Globalisation and Vietnamese foreign language education 16

3 Nation building and language in education policy 28

7 General English for non-majors in higher education 86

8 EFL speaking assessment in Vietnamese tertiary education 102

12 Learner autonomy in tertiary English classes in Vietnam 158

Vietnam’s language policy demonstrates a close alignment to its socio-political