106 CHAPTER 1 First-Order Differential Equations

EXERCISES FOR SECTION 1.7

In Exercises 1–6, locate the bifurcation values for the one-parameter family and draw
the phase lines for values of the parameter slightly smaller than, slightly larger than,
and at the bifurcation values.

dy dy
1. = y2 + a 2. = y 2 + 3y + a
dt dt
También hacer dy dy
diagrama de 3. = y 2 − ay + 1 4. = y 3 + αy 2
dt dt
bifurcación.
dy dy
5. = (y 2 − α)(y 2 − 4) 6. = α − |y|
dt dt

In Exercises 7–10, locate the bifurcation values of α for the one-parameter family and
describe the bifurcation that takes place at each such value.

dy dy
7. = y 4 + αy 2 8. = y 6 − 2y 3 + α
dt dt
dy dy
= e−y + α
2
9. = sin y + α 10.
dt dt

11. The graph to the right is the graph of f (y)

a function f (y). Describe the bifurca- 3
tions that occur in the one-parameter 2
family
1
dy y
= f (y) + α. −3 −2 −1−1 1 2 3
dt
−2
−3

12. The graph to the right is the graph of g(y)

a function g(y). Describe the bifurca- 2
tions that occur in the one-parameter
family 1

dy y
= g(y) + αy.
dt −3 −2 −1 1 2 3
−1
[Hint: Note that the equilibria of this
function occur at values of y where −2
g(y) = −αy.]

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 1.7 Bifurcations 107

13. Six one-parameter families of differential equations depending on the parameter A

and four bifurcation diagrams are given below. Determine the one-parameter family
that corresponds to each bifurcation diagram, and state briefly how you know your
choice is correct.
dy dy dy
(i) = Ay − y 2 (ii) = A + y2 (iii) = Ay − y 3
dt dt dt
dy dy dy
(iv) = A − y2 (v) = y2 − A (vi) = Ay + y 2
dt dt dt

(a) y (b) y

A A

(c) y (d) y

A A

14. Consider the Ermentrout-Kopell model for the spiking of a neuron

dθ
= 1 − cos θ + (1 + cos θ )I (t)
dt
introduced in Exercise 19 of Section 1.3. Suppose that the input function I (t) is a
constant function, that is, I (t) = I where I is a constant. Describe the bifurcations
that occur as the parameter I varies.

15. Sketch the graph of a function f (y) such that the one-parameter family of differen-
tial equations dy/dt = f (y) + α satisfies all of the following properties:
• For all α ≤ −3, the differential equation has exactly two equilibria.
• For all α ≥ 3, the equation has no equilibria.
• For α = 0, the equation has exactly four equilibria.
[There are many possible functions f (y) that satisfy these conditions. Sketch just
one graph.]

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108 CHAPTER 1 First-Order Differential Equations

16. Sketch the graph of a function g(y) such that the one-parameter family of differential
equations dy/dt = g(y) + α satisfies all of the following properties:
• For all α ≤ −4, the differential equation has one sink and no other equilibria.
• For all α ≥ 4, the equation has one sink and no other equilibria.
• For α = 0, the differential equation has exactly six equilibria.
[There are many possible functions g(y) that satisfy these conditions. Sketch just
one graph.]
17. Is it possible to find a continuous function f (y) such that the one-parameter family
of differential equations dy/dt = f (y) + α satisfies both of the following state-
ments?
• For α = 0, the differential equation has exactly one equilibrium point and that
equilibrium is a sink.
• For α = 1, the equation has exactly one equilibrium point and that equilibrium
is a source.
If so, sketch the graph of one such f (y). If not, why not?
18. Consider an exponential growth model with harvesting
dP
= k P − C,
dt
where P is the population, k > 0 is the growth-rate parameter, and C ≥ 0 is the
harvest rate.
(a) Does a bifurcation occur as the parameter C varies?
(b) Describe the long-term behavior of the population P(t) if P(0) > 0.

19. Consider the population model

dP P2
= 2P −
dt 50
for a species of fish in a lake. Suppose it is decided that fishing will be allowed, but
it is unclear how many fishing licenses should be issued. Suppose the average catch
of a fisherman with a license is 3 fish per year (these are hard fish to catch).
(a) What is the largest number of licenses that can be issued if the fish are to have
a chance to survive in the lake?
(b) Suppose the number of fishing licenses in part (a) is issued. What will happen
to the fish population—that is, how does the behavior of the population depend
on the initial population?
(c) The simple population model above can be thought of as a model of an ideal
fish population that is not subject to many of the environmental problems of an
actual lake. For the actual fish population, there will be occasional changes in
the population that were not considered when this model was constructed. For
example, if the water level increases due to a heavy rainstorm, a few extra fish

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 1.7 Bifurcations 109

might be able to swim down a usually dry stream bed to reach the lake, or the
extra water might wash toxic waste into the lake, killing a few fish. Given
the possibility of unexpected perturbations of the population not included in
the model, what do you think will happen to the actual fish population if we
allow fishing at the level determined in part (b)?

20. Consider our model

  
dS S S
= f (S) = k S 1 − −1
dt N M
of a fox squirrel population from the previous section. Suppose that the parameters
M and k remain relatively constant over the long term but as more people move into
the area, the parameter N (the carrying capacity) decreases.
(a) Assuming that M ≤ N , sketch the graph of the function f (S) for fixed values
of k and M and several values of N .
(b) At what value of N does a bifurcation occur?
(c) How does the population of fox squirrels behave if the parameter N slowly and
continuously decreases toward the bifurcation value?

21. For the differential equation that models fish populations with harvesting,
 
dP P
= f C (P) = k P 1 − − C,
dt N
we saw that if C > k N /4 the fish population will become extinct. If the fish pop-
ulation falls to near zero because the fishing level C is slightly greater than k N /4,
why must fishing be banned completely in order for the population to recover? That
is, if a level of fishing just above C = k N /4 causes a collapse of the population,
why can’t the population be restored by reducing the fishing level to just below
C = k N /4?
22. (a) Use PhaseLines to investigate the bifurcation diagram for the differential
equation
dy
= ay − y 2 ,
dt
where a is a parameter. Describe the different types of phase lines that occur.
(b) What are the bifurcation values for the one-parameter family in part (a)?
(c) Use PhaseLines to investigate the bifurcation diagram for the differential
equation
dy
= r + ay − y 2 ,
dt
where r is a positive parameter. How does the bifurcation diagram change from
the r = 0 case (see part (a))?
(d) Suppose r is negative in the equation in part (c). How does the bifurcation
diagram change?

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110 CHAPTER 1 First-Order Differential Equations

23. (a) Use PhaseLines to investigate the bifurcation diagram for the differential
equation
dy
= ay − y 3 ,
dt
where a is a parameter. Describe the different types of phase lines that occur.
(b) What are the bifurcation values for the one-parameter family in part (a)?
(c) Use PhaseLines to investigate the bifurcation diagram for the differential
equation
dy
= r + ay − y 3 ,
dt
where r is a positive parameter. How does the bifurcation diagram change from
the r = 0 case (see part (a))?
(d) Suppose r is negative in the equation in part (c). How does the bifurcation
diagram change?

1.8 LINEAR EQUATIONS

In Section 1.2 we developed an analytic method for finding explicit solutions to sep-
arable differential equations. Although many interesting problems lead to separable
equations, most differential equations are not separable. The qualitative and numerical
techniques we developed in Sections 1.3–1.6 apply to a much wider range of problems.
It would be nice if we could also extend our analytic methods by developing ways to
find explicit solutions of equations that are not separable.
Unfortunately, there is no general technique for computing explicit solutions that
works for every differential equation. Although we know from the Existence Theo-
rem that every reasonable differential equation has solutions, we have no guarantee that
these solutions are made up of familiar functions such as polynomials, sines, cosines,
and exponentials. In fact, they usually are not. Over the centuries, mathematicians
have dealt with this dilemma by developing numerous specialized techniques for vari-
ous types of differential equations. Today these techniques are available to us as one-
line commands in sophisticated computer packages such as Maple and Mathematica .
Nevertheless, you should be familiar with a few of the standard analytic techniques that
apply to the most commonly encountered types of equations. In this section and Sec-
tion 1.9, we develop two of the standard techniques for solving the most important type
of differential equation—the linear differential equation.

Linear Differential Equations

A first-order differential equation is linear if it can be written in the form
dy
= a(t)y + b(t),
dt
where a(t) and b(t) are arbitrary functions of t. Examples of linear equations include
dy
= t 2 y + cos t,
dt

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 Hints and Answers for Chapter 1 763

Hints and Answers for Section 1.7

1. 13. (a) iii. (b) v. (c) iv. (d) i.
√ 15. f (y)
−a
0 3
√
− −a

a<0 a=0 a>0 y

3.
−3
17. Hint: The graph of f (y) can only cross the y-axis
once, and it must cross from above to below.
19. (a) L = 16
a < −2 a = −2 −2 < a < 2 a=2 a>2 (b) If the population is above 40 when the 16 li-
censes are issued, the population heads toward
60. If the population is below 40 when fishing
5. begins, the fish will become extinct.
√
α (c) As long as the fish population is well over 40
2 2 2 2 2 when 16 licenses are issued, unexpected pertur-
√ bations in the system will not drastically affect
α the fish and the population will tend toward the
0 √
− α equilibrium point near 60. (What happens if
16 23 licenses are issued?)
−2 −2 −2 −2 −2
√ 21. Hint: Once P is close to zero, C must be essentially
− α
zero so that the smaller of the two equilibria is less
than the given value of P.
α<0 α=0 0<α<4 α=4 α>4
23. (a)
√
y= a
7. Hint: There is one equilibrium for α > 0 and three
equilibria for α < 0.
y=0
9. The bifurcation values are α = ±1. There are in-
√
finitely many nodes at these bifurcation values. For y=− a
α > 1 and α < −1, there are no equilibria. For
−1 ≤ α ≤ 1, there are infinitely many equilibria.
a≤0 a>0
11. Hint: Sketch the graph of f (y) + α for a variety of
α values, both positive and negative. You should
be able to give approximate bifurcation values of α (b) a = 0
from these graphs.

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764 Hints and Answers for Chapter 1

(c) There is one bifurcation value a0 , and a0 > 0. (d) There is one bifurcation value a0 , and a0 > 0.
If a < a0 , the phase line has one equilibrium If a < a0 , the phase line has one equilibrium
point, and it is a positive sink. If a > a0 , there point, and it is a negative sink. If a > a0 , there
are two more equilibria. Both are negative, and are two more equilibria. Both are positive, and
one is sink and the other is a source. one is sink and the other is a source.

y y
3 3

a a
−4 4 −4 4

−3 −3

Hints and Answers for Section 1.8

1. y(t) = ke−4t + 3e−t (b) Hint: Substitute y2 (t) into the differential
equation and note that the equation does not
3. y(t) = ke−3t + 12
13 cos 2t + 8
13 sin 2t
hold.
5. y(t) = ke3t − 4te3t (c) The equation is not linear.
7. y(t) = ke−2t + 37 et/3 ; take k = 4/7 for the 19. Hint: Substitute yh (t), y1 (t), and y2 (t) into their
initial-value problem. respective equations and add.
9. y(t) = ke−t + 15 cos 2t + 25 sin 2t; take k = 24/5 21. y(t) = ke−2t + 12 t 2 + 12 t + 14 + 16 e4t ; take k = −5/12
for the initial-value problem. for the initial-value problem.
11. y(t) = ke2t + 7te2t ; take k = 3 for the initial-value 23. y(t) = ke3t − 23 t − 29 − e4t ; take k = 11/9 for the
problem. initial-value problem.
13. Hint: The guess y p (t) = α cos 3t leads to terms 25. Tends to a solution that satisfies −1/2 ≤ y(t) ≤ 1.
involving both cos 3t and sin 3t on the left.
27. y(t) → 3 as t → ∞
15. y
29. (a) d P/dt = .011P + 1040
3
2 (b) about $6,402.20
1 31. Approximately 76.58 years (919 months)
t
−1 33. Hint: For part (a), calculate d(yh + y p )/dt and use
−2 the assumptions about yh (t) and y p (t). For part (b),
−3
calculate d(y p − yq )/dt and use the assumptions
17. (a) Hint: Substitute y1 (t) into the differential about y p (t) and yq (t).
equation and note that the equation holds.

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Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.