ISAA BM-1 (6. Timber)

1
THEORY REFERENCE NOTES
COURSE: B.Arch
SEMESTER: SEMESTER – 1
AUTHOR NAME: Ibrahim sir
BUILDING
MATERIALS - 1
CONTENT
S.No CHAPTERS PAGE#

1. PREVIOUS YEAR QUESTION PAPERS 1
2. NOTES – UNIT:6 TIMBER 2-17
CREDITS
Source: Internet, Civil Content writer:

engineering textbooks,
architectural textbooks,
JNAFAU library
Editor: Ibrahim sir
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IBRAHIM SIBGATULLAH’S ARCHITECTURAL ACADEMY
FOR ADMISSIONS, ENQUIRIES AND COLLABORATIONS CONTACT
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sibgatullahibrahim@gmai
1
PREVIOUS YEAR QUESTION PAPERS (2013 – 2019)

 Write short notes on:
a. Seasoning of timber. [Sep-2013]
b. Causes of disease of dry rot in timber. [Feb-2016]
c. Purpose of seasoning. [Feb-2016]
d. Plywood and synthetic boards. [Sep-2014]
e. Use of synthetic boards. [Aug-2015]
f. Effect of shrinkage and distortion of timber. [Sep-2014]
 Describe in detail the methods of seasoning of timber.[Sep-
2016]
 What are the advantages of timber in construction?[Sep-2016]
 Discuss the Indian timber trees and their importance. [Sep-
2016]
 What is plywood, where is it used and what are its advantages?
State its uses in modern buildings. [Feb-2016]
 Write about the defects in timber and also write about the use
and applications of timber in construction. [Feb-2014]
 What are the properties of good timber for construction?
Explain various types of timber available in the market. What is
the purpose of seasoning of timber? [Feb-2015]
 What are the various factors which affect the strength of
timber? Briefly describe the properties of good timber. [Aug-
2015]
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2
6. TIMBER
SYLLABUS:
Timber: Building timber: types and properties, Sawing of timber
Shrinkage and distortion, Wastage, Methods of sawing, Drying
and seasoning, Moisture contents, Purpose of seasoning, Natural
and artificial, Defects in timber, Use and application of timber in
construction
Processed Wood: Plywood and synthetic boards: properties and
application, Use of alternative materials as substitute to wood,
ISI standards
TIMBER:
DEFINITION
The term ‘timber’ is used to refer the wood at any stage after the
tree has been axed. There are thousands of species of tree from
which timber can be obtained, each with different rates of growth,
structural properties and degrees of durability
In construction, after stone, wood is the oldest material used by
humans. Wood is readily available and is also economical. It is
remarkably strong in relation to its weight, and it provides good
insulation. It can also be easily cut into various sizes and shapes
using simple on-site building techniques. In addition, it is a
renewable and a biodegradable resource.
TYPES OF TIMBER
Primarily wood has been classified into two categories based on
its source.
1. Hardwood (any leaf-bearing tree)
2. Softwood (any cone-bearing tree)
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Hardwood is not necessarily a harder material (denser) and a

softwood is not necessarily a softer material (less dense).
Different types of construction projects call for different kinds of
timber, both hardwood and softwood are used for everything
from structural to decorative.
Softwood is commonly used for timber structures such as doors,
furniture and window frames as it is readily available, easily
worked, of relatively low cost and its fast rate of growth gives a
continuous supply from regenerated forest areas. Hardwoods are
typically used for exposed structures like construction of walls,
ceilings, floors and where durability and aesthetic characteristics,
such as colour or grain pattern, are required.
CHARACTERISTICS OF SOFTWOOD AND HARDWOOD:
CHARACTERISTICS SOFTWOOD HARDWOOD
SOURCE Softwood is Hardwood is obtained
collected from from deciduous trees
conifer trees (loses leaves in
which are autumn).
evergreen having
needle-shaped
leaves.
FIBRE Strait fibre is The fibres are quite
found and is less close and dense.
dense.
WEIGHT Light-weight and Harder than softwood
softer than and is heavy.
hardwood.
COLOUR It is a light colour It is a dark coloured
wood. wood.
RESISTANCE TO It burns at high It burns at slow rate.
FIRE rate.
RESISTANCE TO If modified or These are naturally
WEATHER treated, they can resistant to weather.
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become resistant
to weather.
DURABILITY It is less durable Highly durable and last
for several decades.
RING STRUCTURE Annual rings are Annual rings are not
distinct. distinct.
BRANCHING Creates more Have fewer branches or
branches or shoots
shoots.
TENSILE AND Good in tensile Good in both tensile and
SHEAR STRENGTH but weaker in shear strength.
shear strength
COST Economical Expensive
WORKABILITY Easier to carve Difficult to carve
USES Paper pulp, paper, Generally flooring and
solid wood furniture. Also used for
products, papermaking.
Woodwares like
homes and cabins
and also for
furniture.
EXAMPLES Redwood, pine, Eucalyptus, teak, walnut
cedar
PROPERTIES OF TIMBER
Before utilizing timber, it is advisable to ensure its quality by
examining its properties. Following are some physical and
mechanical properties of timber that must be investigated before
it is utilized.
a. Colour: The colour should be uniform since it also
characterizes its strength.
b. Texture: Fine and even texture represents good timber.
c. Odour: Freshly cut timbers have a pleasant smell.
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d. Hardness and durability: Hardness signifies strength and

resistance to any kind of damage, action of fungi and insect
attacks.
e. Moisture Content: The quality of timber gets reduced if
moisture content is high since it makes timber vulnerable to
the risk of fungal attack.
f. Grain: Quality of timber varies of the grain structure. In good
timber grains are close.
g. Shrinkage and Swelling: Shrinkage starts when cell walls of
timber start to release water and timbers having thicker wall
swell more than a thinner one.
h. Strength: Strength of timber means its capability to bear loads
like bending, shear and direct compression.
i. Density: Density is an important quality of timber’s strength.
Timber having higher density have a thicker wall.
j. Toughness: Timber should have the capability to bear shocks
and jerks.
k. Modulus of Elasticity: Timber should attain its own shape after
use.
l. Warping: Change in environmental conditions will not affect
good quality timber.
m. Defects: A tree must be free from defects like sap, shakes and
dead knots. If the timber is from a sound tree, it will be free
from such defects.
n. Workability: A good timber is always easy to work on. It should
not clog the saw
o. Soundness: A good quality timber gives a clear sound when
struck.
p. Abrasion: A good timber must gain the ability to protect its skin
from getting damaged due to wear.
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SAWING OF TIMBER:
Wood suitable for building or other engineering works is called
timber. Timber is categorized into three types based on the
different stages of its life.
 It is called as a standing timber when it forms a part of a
living tree.
 It is called as a rough timber, after the tree has been cut.
 It is called as converted timber, after it has been sawn.
Sawing is the process to cut logs of wood into various market
formations and pieces such as beams, battens, planks. Wood
should be converted into usable timber as soon as it is cut.
Otherwise it will result in circumferential shrinkage because of
drying of moisture. This will result in star shakes or cracks which
appear on the surface of log.
METHODS OF SAWING:
The following are the four basic different methods of converting
timber:
1. Ordinary sawing
2. Quarter sawing
3. Tangential sawing
4. Rift or Radial sawing
Ordinary Sawing:
a. It is the most economical, cheapest and is widely used
method of sawing.
b. Only long parallel planks are cut through the length of the
log.
c. Logs cut through this method are prone to wrapping and
twisting after drying because of unequal shrinkage caused
due to the presence of heart wood in the inner region and
sap wood in the outer region.
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Quarter Sawing:
a. This method is quite expensive. There is also more wastage.
b. In this method, the logs are radical cut or sawn in quarter
from the centre of the tree and then cut in such a way so as
to bend in transverse direction.
c. Such method gives very fine figure wood.
Tangential Sawing:
a. In this method cuts are made tangent to the annual rings of a
tree.
b. Logs cut through this method wrap too much and must not
be used for costly works (like flooring)
c. If annual rings are well formed and medullary rays are not
well formed than tangential sawing is used.
Rift or Radial Sawing:
a. This method is used for converting timber for decorative
works.
b. In this method logs are cut parallel to medullary rays and
perpendicular to annual rings.
c. This method gives least shrinkage because medullary rays to
resist shrinkage.
SHRINKAGE AND DISTORTION:
Shrinkage is a natural defect that takes place during the process
of drying or seasoning of the timber. Shrinkage is the reduction in
dimensions of timber due to the movement of moisture out of cell
walls of the wood that will also cause distortion.
All timber will shrink, regardless of the type or the method by
which it is seasoned. Some timber shrinks more than others.
Shrinkage of timber can be seen in three types
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1. Radial Shrinkage: Radial shrinkage is perpendicular to the

growth rings. It is shrinkage in the direction towards the centre
of the tree.
2. Tangential Shrinkage: Tangential shrinkage is in the direction
parallel to the growth rings.
3. Longitudinal Shrinkage: Longitudinal shrinkage is the
amount a piece of wood will shrink lengthwise.
Shrinkage tends to be more of a problem for hardwoods than for
softwoods. The effects of shrinkage vary depending upon the
species, thickness of the timber member, the part of the log from
which the member was cut, the initial moisture content, the rate
of change of moisture and the environment in which the timber is
placed.
WASTAGE OF TIMBER:
Timber is one of the essential products which has to run all the
risks attendant upon shipment from overseas; but, even after
surviving all these dangers, on arrival at the sawmill, in being cut
up into the required sizes of boards etc. a large percentage is
reduced to waste as sawdust. It seems a great pity that we should
defeat the enemy's attempts to destroy this essential war
material, and then ourselves render such a large proportion
waste.
DRYING AND SEASONING:
1. Freshly cut trees have high percentage of moisture content in
it. It is usually necessary to dry wood before it is used or
processed. Seasoning of timber is the process by which
moisture content in a freshly cut tree is reduced to required
level.
2. This is necessary for,
a. Reducing the unnecessary weight of timber.
b. For effecting an increase in its strength,
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c. To improve its workability.

d. To reduce the possibility of development of shrinkage
defects and
e. To ensure durability or long life of timber.
3. Unseasoned wood is subject to attack by fungi and insects, and
it also shrinks as it dries.
4. By reducing moisture content, the strength, elasticity and
durability properties are developed.
5. A well-seasoned timber has 15% moisture content in it.
6. The moisture content of standing trees may be as high as 40-60
percent or even more. After careful seasoning, it could be
brought down.
7. The length of the process depends on the type of wood used
along with relative humidity in the area where the wood is
seasoned.
MOISTURE CONTENT:
One of the most important factors affecting the performance and
properties of wood is its moisture content. The moisture content
of a piece of timber is measured as a ratio of the weight of the
water in the wood relative to its dry weight and is given as a
percentage.
The moisture content of newly sawn wood is usually 40-200%.
Based on common guidelines, the acceptable moisture level for
wood objects used indoors is generally 6% to 8% for wood
flooring, 6% to 9% furniture, and 9% to 14% for construction.
Timber with a moisture content greater than 20% is open to
attack by dry rot spores and is normally regarded as green.
Dimensions, strength and resistance to decay are examples of key
properties of wood that are affected by the moisture content.
NATURAL AND ARTIFICIAL SEASONING:
There are two main ways of seasoning timber,
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1. Natural (Air or water) seasoning

2. Artificial (Kiln) seasoning
Both methods require the timber be stacked and separated to
allow the full circulation flow of air, etc. around the stack.
Natural Seasoning of Timber:
Natural seasoning is the process in which timber is seasoned by
subjecting it to the natural elements such as air or water. The
different methods of natural seasoning are,
a. Water seasoning: In this method, timber is immersed in
flowing water flow to remove the sap present in the timber.
It will take 2 to 4 weeks of time and after that the timber is
allowed to dry.
b. Air seasoning: In this method, moisture is removed from
timber by evaporation. Timber is cut into proper forms and
stacked upon one another in layers with space in between
them for circulation of air. It may take 6 months to 4 years
for bringing down the original moisture content to allowable
limits.
Artificial seasoning of timber:
Natural seasoning gives good results but takes more time. So,
artificial seasoning of timber is developed nowadays. By artificial
seasoning, timber is seasoned with in 4-5 days. The different
methods of artificial seasoning are,
a. Seasoning by Boiling: In this method, timber is boiled in
water for 3 to 4 hours and is then allowed to drying. Though
it is a costly process through this process the strength and
elasticity of timber develops.
b. Chemical seasoning: In this method, timber is stored in
suitable salt solution that has the tendency to absorb water
from the timber. Once the moisture content is removed, the
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timber is allowed to drying. This method affects the strength

of the timber.
c. Kiln seasoning: In this method, timber is subjected to hot
air in air tight chamber. The hot air circulates in between the
timber logs and reduces the moisture content. Even though
it is a costly process it will give good results of strength.
d. Electrical seasoning: In the method, alternating current is
used for drying the cells of wood by creating heat.
PURPOSE OF SEASONING:
Seasoning of timber is done to fulfil some specific requirement.
Followings are the reasons to perform timber seasoning.
1. To change and improve the properties of wood.
2. To make a correct percentage of shrinking of woods.
3. To make a confident use of woods.
4. To reduce the adverse behaviour of woods.
By seasoning, some commonly known qualities are improved
which are mentioned below:
1. Strength
2. Hardness
3. Durability
4. Weight
5. Painting and finishing
6. Gluing
7. Resistance to insect attack
8. Electrical resistance
9. Heat content
DEFECTS IN TIMBER:
Defects in timber may be defined as, any undesirable natural or
artificial character that lowers its strength, durability or quality.
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There are various types of defects in timber as a construction

material. They are generally distinguished as natural defects and
artificial defects.
Various defects which are likely to occur in timber may be
grouped into the following three:
1. Due to natural forces
2. Due to defective seasoning and conversions.
3. Due to attack by fungi and insects.
Defects due to Natural Forces: The following defects are caused
by natural forces:
a. Knots: Knots are the most common defects caused due to
natural forces. During the growth of a tree, branches close to
the ground die and their bases remain on the tree as the
trees grow and are called as knots. If the knot is intact with
surrounding wood, it is called live knot. If it is not held firmly
it is dead knot.
b. Shakes: Shakes are timber defects that occur around the
annual ring or growth ring of a timber. In other words,
cracks or splits in the woods are called shakes. Depending
upon the shape and the positions shakes can be classified as
star shake, cup shake, ring shakes and heart shakes.
c. Wind cracks: If the wood is exposed continuously to the
high-speed winds, the outer surface shrinks and forms crack
externally which are called wind cracks.
d. Upsets: Upset is an injury by crushing. This type of defect is
due to excessive compression in the tree when it was young.
This is also known as rupture.
Defects due to Defective Seasoning and Conversion: Faulty
method of seasoning causes serious defects in woods. If seasoning
is not uniform, the converted timber may warp and twist in
various directions.
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Some of the defects resulting from defective seasoning are as

follows:
a. Bow: Curvature formed in direction of the length of the
timber is called bow.
b. Cup: Curvature formed in the transverse direction of the
timber is called a cup.
c. Check: Check is a kind of crack that separates fibres, but it
doesn’t extend from one end to another.
d. Split: Split is a special type of check that extends from one
end to another.
e. Honey Combing: Stress is developed in the heartwood
during the drying process or seasoning. For these stresses,
cracks are created in the form of honeycomb texture.
Some of the defects resulting from defective conversions are as
follows:
a. Boxed Heart: This term is applied to the timber, which is
sawn in a way that the pith or the centre heart falls entirely
within the surface throughout its length.
b. Machine Burnt: Overheating is the main reason for this
defect.
c. Machine Notches: defective holding and pulling causes this
defect.
d. Imperfect Grain: Mismatch in grain alignment.
Defects due to Fungi and Insects Attack: Fungi are minute
microscopic plant organism. They grow in wood if moisture
content is more than 20°C and exposed to air. Due to fungi attack
rotting of wood, takes place. Wood becomes weak and stains
appear on it. Beetles and termites (white ants) are the insects
which eat wood and weaken the timber.
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Some woods like teak have chemicals in their compositions and

resist such attacks. Other woods are to be protected by chemical
treatment.
USE AND APPLICATION OF TIMBER IN CONSTRUCTION:
1. Wood carries several benefits that make it an excellent
candidate for use in a wide array of construction projects. One
such benefit is its thermal properties, which give it an
advantage in terms of its resistance to high temperatures.
2. The heat conductivity of wood is relatively low in comparison
to other materials such as aluminium, marble, steel, or glass.
This gives wood an advantage in terms of being used in various
applications such as matches, hardware equipment handles,
wall coverings, and ceilings.
3. Wood also contains highly-sought-after acoustic properties. It
can absorb sound and echoes, and is a favourite material of
choice for the construction of structures where proper
acoustics is important, such as concert halls.Wood is resistant
to electrical currents, making it an optimal material for
electrical insulation.
 Another important characteristic of wood is its tensile
strength, which is its ability to bend under pressure without
breaking. Wood is exceptionally light in proportion to its
tensile strength, making it the preferred construction choice
for surfaces that take a constant beating such as basketball
courts and bowling lanes. Tensile strength is also one of the
main reasons for choosing timber as a building material; its
remarkably strong qualities make it the perfect choice for
heavy-duty building materials such as structural beams.
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PROCESSED WOOD:
PLYWOOD AND SYNTHETIC BOARDS:
Plywood is a manufactured wood material suitable for
construction projects. It is made up of fine layers of wood veneers
attached to one another to produce a flat sheet.
Plywood is also known as a mixture of Medium Density
Fibreboard (MDF) and Chip Board (Particle Board). It is a
complex material and attaches resin and fibre sheets of wood.
Following are the different types of Plywood.
1. Softwood Plywood
2. Hardwood Plywood
3. Tropical Plywood
4. Aircraft Plywood
5. Decorative Plywood
6. Flexible Plywood
7. Marine Plywood
Uses of plywood:
1. Cladding in exteriors
2. Doors
3. Flooring
4. Panelling in interiors
5. Stairs
6. For ship construction.
7. For space or aviation parts making.
Synthetic board is a type of man-made product used in building
industry. It is also referred as artificial wood, composite wood or
engineered wood.
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Composite wood is manufactured from a mixture of several

components that may include wood, plastic and straw. These
materials are combined to make them stronger and more durable.
Composite woods are often used in cabinets, furniture, sheathing,
flooring and siding. They are less expensive than hardwood, and
they are also weather-resistant when they have been painted or
sealed.
Properties of composite wood:
1. Composite wood is insect resistant.
2. It is maintenance-free and can be washed off with a hose.
3. Mold and mildew are not prone to inhabit artificial wood; if
either does occur, it washes off with soap and water.
4. Artificial wood products never need to be sanded, scraped,
refinished or stained
5. Most artificial wood products are designed for exterior use,
with built-in UV protection against fading.
ALTERNATIVE MATERIALS AS SUBSTITUTES FOR WOOD:
Solid wood has very high maintenance, is difficult to purchase,
and can come with problems that may surface in time. Wood can
warp and chip when untreated properly, and is prone to pests like
termites. So, an alternative is always preferable to act as
substitute to the natural wood. These substitutes come with the
same look and texture of a natural wood.
The following are few substitutes:
Laminates: Laminates are a composite artificial material made by
pressing together thin layers of flat paper and plastic resins. The
upper layer is printed with a decorative pattern or colour, much
like wood.
Wood composites: Also called engineered wood, this type is a
mixture of several components that may include wood, plastic
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and straw. The particles and fibres from different woods are
combined, and adhesives keep them bound together.
Ceramic tiles: Ceramic tiles are made up of clay and are used in
places prone to being wet and prone to strain or dirt. It not only
provides the appearance of a natural wood but is also resistant to
moisture in places like kitchen, bathroom, basement etc
ISI STANDARDS FOR PROCESSED WOOD:
The quality standards for the manufacture of engineered boards
like plywood, particle boards and MDF as specified by BIS
(Bureau of Indian Standards) are detailed as follows:
Types of board IS Code
Commercial MR grade Plywood IS: 303
Exterior BWR grade Plywood IS: 303
Flexible Plywood IS: 303
Marine Grade Plywood IS: 710
Plain MDF boards (Interior and Exterior grade) IS: 12406
Pre-laminated MDF boards (Interior and IS: 14857
Exterior grade)
Plain Particle boards IS: 3087
Pre-laminated Particle boards IS: 12823
Structural plywood IS: 10701
Decorative Veneered boards IS: 3097
Fire Retardant plywood IS: 5509
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79 9393 7711 | www.ibrahimsacademy
ibrahimsacademy.com .com | sibgatullahibrahim@gmail.com
sibgatullahibrahim@gmai

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1

THEORY REFERENCE NOTES

S.No CHAPTERS PAGE#

Source: Internet, Civil Content writer:

PREVIOUS YEAR QUESTION PAPERS (2013 – 2019)

Hardwood is not necessarily a harder material (denser) and a

d. Hardness and durability: Hardness signifies strength and

1. Radial Shrinkage: Radial shrinkage is perpendicular to the

c. To improve its workability.

1. Natural (Air or water) seasoning

timber is allowed to drying. This method affects the strength

There are various types of defects in timber as a construction

Some of the defects resulting from defective seasoning are as

Some woods like teak have chemicals in their compositions and

Composite wood is manufactured from a mixture of several

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