CHEMISTRY 23.
1
ANALYTICAL CHEMISTRY
MODULE 1
LABORATORY INTRODUCTION
Almost all fields of science involve the study
of matter.
Analytical chemistry is the core area of
Chemistry that deals with determining the
composition of matter.
It answers the four basic questions about
the matter:
a. What is the sample's composition?
b. How much of a particular
composition is present?
c. What is the structure of the
components of matter?
d. Where in the sample that component
of the matter is present?
Safety is the foremost consideration in a
chemical laboratory.
LABORATORY SAFETY GUIDELINES
The chemistry laboratory is ideally one of
the safest environments in an academic or
industrial facility.
Every chemist and laboratory analyst, trained
to be aware of the potential dangers of
chemicals, should be additionally careful in
handling, storing, and disposing of
chemicals.
Most accidents could have been foreseen
and prevented had the people involved used
the proper judgment and precautions.
It is a Standard Operating Procedure (SOP) to
orient new laboratory personnel in
laboratory safety, and what to do in case a
laboratory accident occurs.
APPROPRIATE PERSONAL
PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT IN THE
LABORATORY
➔ EYE PROTECTION. Approved safety
goggles or eye shields must be worn
at all times to guard against the
laboratory accidents of others as well
as your own. Contact lenses should
be replaced with prescription glasses.
If wearing prescription glasses, safety
goggles or an eye shield is necessary.
➔ SHOES. Shoes must be worn; shoes
shed liquids.
Not Permitted: (a) High-heeled shoes,
(b) Open-toed shoes; (c) Sandals; (d)
Shoe tops of canvas, (e) Leather, (f)
Fabric straps (g) Other woven
material.
➔ CLOTHING. Clothing should be only
non-synthetic , or cotton. Shirts and
blouses should not be torn, frilled,
frayed, or flared. Long pants that
cover the tops of the shoes should be
worn.
➔ PPE. Laboratory aprons or coats
(nonflammable, nonporous, and snap
fasteners) are highly recommended
to protect outer clothing. Gloves are
to be worn to protect the hand when
transferring corrosive liquids.
➔ JEWELRY AND ACCESSORIES. Jewelry
should be removed. Chemicals can
cause severe irritation if
concentrated under a ring,
wristwatch, or bracelet; chemicals on
fingers or gloves can cause irritation
around earrings, necklaces, and so
on. It is just a good practice of
laboratory safety to remove jewelry.
➔ HAIR. Secure long hair and remove or
secure neckties and scarves.
➔ COSMETICS. Cosmetics, antibiotics, or
moisturizers should not be applied in
the laboratory.
LABORATORY SAFETY: HOW TO
REMOVE ACCIDENTS
➔ Smoking, drinking, eating, and
chewing (including gum and tobacco)
are prohibited at any time inside the
laboratory because chemicals may
inadvertently enter the mouth or
lungs. Do not place any objects,
including pens or pencils, in your
mouth during or after the laboratory
period. These objects may have
picked up a contaminant from the
laboratory bench.
➔ Do not work in the laboratory alone.
The laboratory instructor must be
present.
➔ Assemble your laboratory apparatus
away from the edge of the lab bench
(less than 8 inches or 20 cm) to avoid
accidents.
➔ Do not leave your experiment
unattended during the laboratory
period: This is often a time when
accidents occur.
➔ Inquisitiveness and creativeness in
the laboratory are encouraged.
However, variations or alterations of
the Procedures in the experiments
are forbidden without prior approval
of the laboratory instructor. If your
chemical intuition suggests further
experimentation, first consult with
your laboratory instructor.
➔ Wash your hands after conducting
experiments and before leaving the
laboratory.
➔ Practice CLAY GO (Clean As You Go).
Maintain an orderly, clean laboratory
desk and drawer. Immediately clean
up all chemical spills, paper scraps,
and glassware. Discard wastes as
directed by your laboratory
instructor. Clean your area after
conducting the experiments.
➔ Keep drawers or cabinets closed and
the aisles free of any obstructions.
Do not place book bags, athletic
equipment, or other items on the
floor near any lab bench.
➔ NO HORSEPLAY. Horseplay and pranks
do not have a place in instructional
chemistry laboratories.
➔ Never taste, smell, or touch a
chemical or solution. Individual
allergic or sensitivity responses to
chemicals cannot be anticipated.
Poisonous substances are not always
labeled.
 BASIC EQUIPMENT IN AN ANALYTICAL A clean receiving vessel is first placed on the
LABORATORY balance pan to weigh the material.

A. Balances
➔ Tare - weight of the empty vessel. A
➔ Electronic balance - measuring tool
tare button can be pressed on most
most used to measure the weights of
balances to reset the tare to zero.
materials in different laboratories. It
uses electromagnetic force
The material to be weighed is then added to
compensation to balance the load on
the vessel, and its weight is recorded.
the pan.
B. Volumetric Glassware
Readability is the smallest increment of
A variety of volumetric glassware is utilized
weight that can be indicated.
in an analytical chemistry laboratory, such as
volumetric flasks and pipets, burets, and
Electronic balances of two types are
graduated cylinders.
commonly used in laboratories: (a) the top
loading balance and (b) the analytical
➔ Volumetric glassware are either made
balance.
of borosilicate or soda lime.

➔ Top loading balance - used to

Borosilicate is usually
measure materials where precision is
preferred because its low
not of great importance. It is among
coefficient of expansion can
the most common weight measuring
withstand abrupt temperature
scales that come in various sizes and
changes.
capacities.
The relatively cheaper soda
➔ Analytical balance - analytical
lime glassware can be used
measuring tool most commonly used
for room temperature
to measure small weights of
applications.
materials with high precision and
accuracy.
a. Volumetric flask
➔ Volumetric flask - glassware that
Most analytical results are calculated as a
contains a specific volume of
percentage (%) by weight, and even those
solution. This is usually used to dilute
reported otherwise usually depend on some
a solution to a required final volume.
weighing operations at some point in the
analysis.
It is designed to hold exactly the
volume stated on the surface of the
➔ The ability to measure and recognize
flask, but will actually deliver a little
the factors that may affect the weight
less than that volume if the liquid is
of a material is one of the most
poured out (TC or In is indicated on
important skills that all laboratory
the label).
personnel must acquire.
 b. Pipets
➔ Pipets - used to deliver a specific
volume of solution. It’s classified as
either a (a) graduated/measuring
pipet or (b) a volumetric pipet. Pipets
are marked TD or Ex, which indicates
that it delivers the quantity of liquid
corresponding to the quantity printed
on the label.
➔ Graduated or measuring pipet
- deliver variable volumes
➔ Volumetric pipet - deliver a
specific volume indicated on
the surface of the glassware
c. Buret
➔ Buret - delivers variable volumes of
solution. This instrument is used in
titration to deliver a precise volume
of standard solution until the
endpoint is reached.
C. Laboratory Notebook.
➔ Laboratory Notebook - a detailed
record of an experiment
Although you are not required to have this
during the online course, you must know its
importance and how to record your data
correctly. An excellent data-keeping skill is a
necessary tool in any laboratory setting.
Purposes. A well-organized laboratory
notebook (a) will let you keep a permanent
and accurate record of all observations, (b)
will allow you to reproduce your results, (c)
design new experiments, (d) write
reports/papers, and (d) keep track of errors
made during the experiment.
Remember that although a neat and
organized lab notebook is desirable, the
more important goal is to keep it accurate
and permanent.
General Rules.
● Always keep your notebook with you
during an experiment. No lab
notebook might as well mean no
experiment. Please do not rely on
your lab data sheets alone since they
will not always contain all the
possible observations you might
make during the experiment. This is
also true about the lab notebook of
your groupmate. Your lab notebook is
a record of your observations, not
that of your groupmate.
● Include a table of contents and a
number on each page. You should
reserve a few pages at the beginning
of the notebook. This will help you
organize and quickly access a page in
your notebook.
● Write legibly and neatly. Avoid writing
in script letters. Notes are only
helpful if you can read them. Grades
can only be given if your instructor
understands them.
● Always use a blue or a black ballpoint
pen. All entries must be made using
permanent ink. Pencils are easily
erased and would reduce the
credibility of your data, especially in
a professional setting. It is better to
keep it in practice as early as now to
prepare you for your future careers.
● Learn how to correct mistakes in your
notebook correctly. No correction
tape or fluid should be used on any
part of your notebook. Mistakes
 should be corrected by drawing a
single line through them. You will
also be required to countersign your
mistakes for more important
documents.
● Write all data and observations
directly in your lab notebook. Never
write your data on a loose piece of
paper or in the palm of your hand.
Although it might seem convenient,
there is also a risk of losing your
data.
● Record your experimental details and
data during the lab period. Your lab
notebook should be prepared before
the experiment, but experimental
details must be recorded during the
experiment. Use shorthand notations
where possible to conserve time and
energy. Use past tense to describe
what you did. This indicates that it
was completed rather than
something you intend to do.
Be as detailed as possible. Even the
tiniest details might help you make
sense of your results. Make clear and
understandable notes on all your
observations, whether it agrees or
disagrees with your expected results.
Errors you made should also be
noted.
Examples of good and bad lab note entries:
Bad: add HCl to the reaction
Better: HCl was added to the reaction
Best: 5 ml of 1.0 m HCl was added to
the reaction.
Bad: a color change was observed
Better: the reaction quickly turned
dark brown and cloudy
Best: Within a few seconds, the clear,
colorless solution turned dark brown
and cloudy.
Pre-lab Format. A certain amount of effort
should be made to prepare your notebook
prior to the experiment. The following
details the ideal content of each entry in
your pre-lab notes:
● Title
● Date – this should include the date of
the beginning and end of the
experiment
● Materials – separate the materials
you need to request and the
materials to be requested by the
monitor. Calculate the amounts and
clearly state them so it will be easier
to copy them into your request form.
● Sample - this should give necessary
details about your sample especially
if they might affect your results. For
example: when experimenting on a
plant, you should indicate the part,
the age, etc., since results might
differ for a different part. Other
details that might be necessary
include the location of the sampling
site, the date and time of sampling,
and the specific sampling method.
● Definition of terms – It is good
practice to define unfamiliar terms
before your experiment. This part
could also include a list of the
abbreviations or shorthand notations
you intend to use within your lab
notes.
● Objectives – state a clear objective
for the experiment.
● Procedure flowchart – a flowchart is
an excellent way to make a concise
and easy-to-follow procedure.
Organize your flow charts according
 to your general and specific
objectives. It is best to create a
separate flow chart for each specific
objective.

MODULE 2
DIFFERENT WAYS OF NAMING
CHEMICAL COMPOUNDS
➔ Change the suffix of the less metallic
➔ Chemical Nomenclature - a set of element to -ide.
rules of naming substances ➔ Use the prefix corresponding to the
number of atoms present in the
A world-wide recognized systematic compound.
nomenclature was established by the ½ - hemi
International Union of Pure and Applied 1 - mono- 6 - hexa-
Chemistry (IUPAC), an organization of 2 - di- 7 - hepta-
chemists. 3 - tri- 8 - octa-
4 - tetra- 9 - nona-
➔ The primary reason for a systematic 5 - penta- 10 - deca-
nomenclature is to remove any doubt
in the name and symbols of chemical Example: CO2
compounds. This name and symbol B. Writing Binary Covalent Compounds
should refer to only one chemical Formula
entity and not to be confused with
➔ Represent each element with the
other compounds.
correct symbol of element.
➔ Indicate by a subscript the atom
International Union of Pure and Applied
number of each element, implied by
Chemistry (IUPAC) naming.
the prefix in the chemical name.
➔ Write the symbol of the more metallic
BINARY COVALENT COMPOUNDS
element first.
➔ Binary covalent compounds - formed
Rn, Xe, Kr, Si, Sb, B, As, P, H, Te, At, Se, C, S, I,
between two nonmetals.
Br, N, Cl, O, F
A. Naming Binary Covalent Compounds
IONIC COMPOUNDS
➔ Identify elements in the compound
given by the chemical formula. The
➔ Ionic compounds - formed between
more metallic element is written first.
metals and nonmetals.
 Cations A. Naming Ionic Compounds
GROUP 1 GROUP 2 ➔ Write the cation first, then anion.

Li+ lithium Mg2+ magnesium PREFIXES ARE NOT USED TO INDICATE THE
IONS. The number of atoms is implied by the
Na+ sodium Ca2+ calcium
charges of cations and anions.
K+ potassium Sr2+ strontium ➔ Chemical names are written through
the Stock System of Nomenclature.
Rb+ rubidium Ba2+ barium
Stock System of Nomenclature - method of
GROUP 3 GROUP 12 naming whereby the charge of cations is
indicated by a Roman Numeral in
Al3+ aluminium Zn2+ zinc parentheses after the English name of the
GROUP 11 Cd2+ cadmium cation, then the anion name ending in -ide.

Ag+ silver OTHERS Old System of Nomenclature - old names of

NH4+ ammonium cations are given a suffix -ic for higher
charge magnitude, and suffix -ous for lower
charge magnitude, then the anion name with
OLD SYSTEM NAMING (METAL CATIONS)
the suffix -ide.
Chromium Copper
Example : SnCl4 Tin (IV) chloride Stannic
Cr2+ Chromous Cu+ Cuprous
chloride
Cr3+ Chromic Cu2+ Cupric
B. Writing Ionic Compounds Formula
Cobalt Gold
➔ Write the symbol of the cation
Co2+ Cobaltous Au+ Aurous
(positive ion) and then the anion
Co3+ Cobaltic Au3+ Auric
(negative ion).
➔ Write the charge of each ion over the
Iron Lead
symbol. Group number gives the
Fe2+ Ferrous Pb2+
charge for monoatomic ions.
Plumbous
➔ Choose a subscript that results in
Fe3+ Ferric Pb4+ Plumbic
zero net charge.
+1 -2
Manganese Tin
Na(2) O(1) = (+1 x 2)(-2 x 1) =
Mn2+ Manganous Sn2+
0
Stannous
Sodium oxide = Na2O
Mn3+ Manganic Sn4+ Stannic
Simplest procedure:
- use the absolute value of the charge
of anion as the subscript of cation;
and
- use the absolute value of cation
charge as the subscript of anion
- EXCHANGE the charges
Magnesium oxide B. Naming Oxyacids
+2 -2 ➔ If the name of oxyanion ends in -ate,
Mg O oxyacid will be ______ic acid.
Mg2 O2 divide by subscript 2
Magnesium oxide = MgO -ous = -ite
-ic = -ate
➔ If anion is polyatomic, enclose the
first anion formula before the Example:
corresponding subscript. SO42- Sulfate
Example: calcium phosphate H2SO4 Sulfuric acid
Ca2+ PO43- = Ca3(PO4)2
ClO4- Perchlorate
➔ Simplification of subscripts HClO4 Perchlorate acid
applicable only to crossed
charges not of the inherent ➔ If the name oxyanion ends in -ite,
subscripts of polyatomic oxyacid will be ______ous acid.
anion.
Example: sodium oxalate
Na+ C2O42- = Na2C2O4 MODULE 3
➔ For hydrates: follow same CHEMICAL REACTIONS AND
steps, then add centered dot, BALANCING
followed by water molecule
number (indicated by prefix) ➔ Types of Reactions
and chemical formula of water A. Combination or Synthesis Reaction
Example: magnesium sulfate A + B → AB
heptahydrate B. Decomposition or Analysis Reaction
+2 -2 AB → A + B
Mg (SO4) C. Single Displacement or Substitution
MgSO4 Reaction
MgSO4 • 7H2O A + BC → AC + B
D. Double Displacement or Metathesis
ACIDS Reaction
AB + CD → AD + CB
A. Naming Binary Acids a. Precipitation
➔ Binary acid - composed of hydrogen b. Neutralization
and an anion that is not an oxyanion. E. Combustion
They are named as hydro__ic acid. hydrocarbon + oxygen → carbon
Example: dioxide + water + heat
HF - hydroflouric acid (in aqueous F. Oxidation-Reduction or Redox
solution) Reactions
HBr - hydrobromic acid