Science Revision

Contents
Biology...................................................................................................................................................2
The Nervous system...........................................................................................................................2
The Central Nervous system (CNS).................................................................................................3
The Peripheral nervous system (PNS)............................................................................................3
Neurons.........................................................................................................................................4
The Brain........................................................................................................................................5
The Stimulus Response Model.......................................................................................................6
Homeostasis and Levels of Organisation...........................................................................................7
Endocrine System..............................................................................................................................8
Endocrine Glands:..........................................................................................................................8
Water Maintenance.......................................................................................................................9
Blood Sugar Control.......................................................................................................................9
Thermoregulation........................................................................................................................10
Ecology............................................................................................................................................11
Habitats and Ecosystems.............................................................................................................11
Abiotic Factors.............................................................................................................................12
Biotic Factors...............................................................................................................................12
Energy flow within ecosystems....................................................................................................13
Food Chains.................................................................................................................................13
Food Webs...................................................................................................................................14
Pyramid of Energy........................................................................................................................14
Immune System...............................................................................................................................15
Lines of Defence..........................................................................................................................15
Disease............................................................................................................................................17
Bacteria........................................................................................................................................17
Types of Bacteria.........................................................................................................................18
Good Bacteria..............................................................................................................................19
Viruses.........................................................................................................................................19
Parasitic Disease..........................................................................................................................19
Infectious vs Conatgious..............................................................................................................19
Antibiotics....................................................................................................................................20
Body Coordination...........................................................................................................................21
 Metabolism..................................................................................................................................21
Anabolism....................................................................................................................................21
Catabolism...................................................................................................................................21
Glossary...........................................................................................................................................21
Physics.................................................................................................................................................23
Sound Waves...................................................................................................................................23
Chemistry............................................................................................................................................24
Valence Electrons.........................................................................................................................24
Balancing equations.....................................................................................................................25
Ionic Bond....................................................................................................................................25
Covalent Bonds............................................................................................................................25
Acids and Bases...........................................................................................................................25

Biology
The Nervous system

Nervous System: Consists of all the nerve cells. **It is the body’s speedy, electrochemical
communication system.

Components of the nervous system

 - central nervous system- process, interpret, stores information; issues orders to muscles,
glands, organs
- Peripheral Nervous system- transmits information to and from CNS v
- Brain
- Spinal cord- bridge between brain and peripheral nerves
- Somatic nervous system- controls skeletal muscles
- Autonomic nervous system- regulates glands, blood vessels and internal organs
- Sympathetic nervous system- mobilizes body for action, energy output (arousing)
- Parasympathetic nervous system- conserves energy, maintains a quiet state (calming

The Central Nervous system (CNS)

brain and nerves in the spinal column

The Peripheral nervous system (PNS)

- nerves branching off from the CNS. PNS has two separate parts- voluntary nervous system
and involuntary nervous system

Somatic/Voluntary nervous system - collects information about our external environment using
receptors in sense organs. The division of the peripheral nervous system that controls the body’s
skeletal muscles

Autonomic/Involuntary nervous system- also call autonomic nervous system, regulates body
processes that take place without conscious effort. Responsible for regulation involuntary body
functions, such as heartbeat, blood flow, breathing and digestion. Part of the PNS that controls the
glands and other muscles

Autonomic Nervous System (ANS)

• The autonomic portion of the peripheral nervous system governs involuntary, visceral
functions…such as heart and breathing rate, blood pressure, etc.

• It is divided into two systems:

- Sympathetic nervous system

- Division of the ANS that arouses the body, mobilizing its energy in stressful situations.
- Mobilizes the bodies resources for emergencies and creates the flight or fight response
- Arouses
- Parasympathetic nervous system
- activates processes that conserve bodily resources, slowing the heart rate, reducing the
heart rate etc.
- Calms (rest and digest)
- Division of the ANS that calms the body, conserving its energy.
Neurons
- Neurons are specialised cells which carry electrical signals.
- The cell body contains the nucleus which is the control centre of the cell
- Attached to the cell bodies are dendrites, which receive synaptic input and messages from
axons.
- Axon (nerve fibre), is a long section which carries messages away from the cell body
- Most neuron axons are covered in a white fatty material that insulates the neuron and allows
the message to travel faster along it. This is called the Myelin Sheath.
- At the end of the axon are axon terminals. These ‘join’ to the next dendrite of the next
neuron. The message transmitted along the axon is an electrical message.
- The axon carries electrical messages in one direction.
- The axon terminals enable the message to pass to dendrites of the next nerve cell.

3 main types of neurons

- Sensory neurons- carry messages form the receptor to the CNS

- Motor neurons- carry messages from the CNS to effector organs (muscles or glands) to
produce and response.
- Connector neurons- carry messages between neurons to the CNS

Synapse

- Neurons are not directly connected together; there is a microscopic gap between them
called a synapse.

- When an electrical message reaches the end of the axon (axon terminal) it may cause
chemicals (neurotransmitters) to be released across the synapse.

- The neurotransmitter may cause the dendrites of the next neuron to ‘fire’ and continue to
pass on the message.

Myelin and Nerve bundles

- Myelin is a fatty insulating substance covering the axon which increases the speed of the
impulse.
- Neurons are often found in bundles.

- A bundle of neurons is called a nerve.

The Brain
Left Side Right Side
Language Recognise face
Logic Expressing emotion
Critical thinking Music
Number Reading emotion
reasoning Colour
Intuition
creativity

The cerebrum:

- 80% of the brain

- Highly folded
- Higher intellectual function
- Conscious thought voluntary control
- Left side control right, right side controls left

Cerebellum:

- Coordination and balance

Brain stem (medulla)

- Controls vital functions (breathing, blood pressure and heart rate)

Hypothalamus and pituitary gland

- Regulate body and chemical control (hormones)

Frontal lobe- personality and communicate conscious motor control

Temporal lobe- hearing, long term memories, object recognition

Parietal lobe- sensing and interpreting things

Occipital lobe- process information of eyes

Hippocampus- process memories

Amygdala- emotions, fear, anger

The Stimulus Response Model
Stimulus - something that causes receptors to ‘fire’.

Response – the effect caused by the stimulus.

Effector organ – a muscle or gland which produces a response.

Receptors:

- Chemoreceptors- sensitive to chemicals, such as odour molecules in the air and are
located in the tongue and nose.
- Mechanoreceptors- are sensitive to touch, pressure, sound and motion and are located
in the skin, inner ear and muscle
- Pain receptors- are sensitive to chemical changes in damaged cells and are located
throughout the body but mostly in the skin
- Thermoreceptors- are sensitive to temperature change and are located in the skin
- Photo receptors- are sensitive to light and are located in the eyes

Stimulus Response pathway

1. A receptor detects the stimulus, for example, thermoreceptors in the skin detect heat from a
candle
2. A sensory neuron transmits a signal to a coordinator in the spinal cord or brain
3. A motor neuron transmits a signal to an effector- a muscle or gland which produces a
response- for example, muscles in the arm pull the hand away from the hot candle

The Reflex Arc

• Produces a more rapid response in times of danger.

• The message goes from the sensory neuron to nearest part of the CNS (usually the spinal
cord) and back along a motor neuron to the effector organ (by-passes the brain for
processing).
• Involuntary and very fast
• Example: when you touch something hot or sharp

The Reflex Arc Pathway

 1. Your hand touches a very hot object
2. Heat on your skin activates sensory neuron
3. Nerve impulse sent to the spinal cord
4. Within spinal cord, a relay neuron passes the message directly to a motor neuron
5. Motor neuron sends impulses to the arm muscles (effectors)
6. Arm muscles contract and move away from hot object

Homeostasis and Levels of Organisation

Homeostasis- is the state of steady internal, physical, and chemical conditions maintained by living
systems. It allows for optimal functioning for the organism. Example, body temperature being kept
within certain preset limits.

Cell- unit of a living organism, contains parts to carry out the process of life

Organ system- group of different organs working together to carry out a job

Tissue- group of cells of one type

Organ- group of different tissues working together to carry out a job

Muscular Skeletal System- muscle and bones

Reproductive system- produce sperm and eggs

Respiratory system- replaces oxygen, removes carbon dioxide

Immune system- protect body from infection

Digestive system- breaks down and absorbs food molecules

Circulatory system- transport substances around the body

Endocrine System
- The endocrine system is a communication system that controls the internal environment
of the body.
- A hormone is a chemical substance that acts as a messenger into the body. They are
produced by the endocrine gland
- Only particular cells (called target cells) will respond to hormones- target cells and
hormones fit together like jigsaw pieces
- Hormones travel through the blood stream and are secreted for glands
- Hypothalamus constantly check the internal environment of the body and sends
messages to the pituitary gland
- Endocrine system is then coordinated by the pituitary gland
- Pituitary gland also called the ‘master gland’ because it controls activity of other
endocrine glands (ovaries, testes, thyroid)

Endocrine Glands:
Pituitary Gland

- Produces hormones; human growth hormone (HGH) which controls cell growth and
development; antidiuretic hormone (ADH) which control water balance
- Also stimulates other glands to release hormones

Pancreas

- Produces the hormone insulin and glucagon with both control glucose levels

Adrenal

- Produces the hormone adrenalin in readiness for fight or flight

Ovaries (in females)

- Produce hormones; oestrogen which controls female sexual development and the
menstrual cycle; progesterone, which controls ovary, uterus in pregnancy

Testes (in males)

- Produce the hormone testosterone which controls male sexual development and sexual
activity

Thyroid

- Produce the hormone thyroxin which controls the rate of chemical reactions

Water Maintenance
- Amount of water in urine is controlled by antidiuretic hormone (ADH), which causes the
kidneys to reabsorb water into the bloodstream.

- ADH is secreted by the pituitary gland under the control of the hypothalamus.

- The hypothalamus monitors the concentration of water in the blood.

- Dehydration increases the production of ADH and water is retained in the body.
Blood Sugar Control
- Glucagon breaks down glycogen to glucose in the liver. Insulin enables blood glucose to enter
cells, where they use it to produce energy. Together, insulin and glucagon help maintain
homeostasis, where conditions inside the body hold steady. When a person's blood sugar is
too high, their pancreas secretes more insulin.
- After eating a meal, an increase in blood glucose levels is detected by receptors in the
pancreas.
- The pancreas releases the hormone insulin, which causes the liver and muscles to extract
glucose from the bloodstream and convert it into a storage molecule called glycogen.
- If blood glucose levels fall too low, the pancreas releases glucagon, which makes the liver and
muscles convert glycogen into glucose and release it back into the bloodstream

Thermoregulation
Homeostasis

- maintain a constant internal environment. Allows the body to work efficiently.

Endothermic

- warm blooded e.g. mammals and birds (can regulate their internal body temperature
around a set temperature

Ectothermic

- ‘cold blooded’ e.g. reptiles, fish and amphibians

Metabolism

- Metabolism (total chemical reactions in the body) produces heat – used to keep the
body at 37oC.
- Above or below this temperature for an extended time results in death.

Hormonal Control of temperature

- If hypothalamus detects a fall in body temperature:

 - Causes pituitary gland to secrete more thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH)

- TSH stimulates thyroid to release more of the hormone thyroxine

- Thyroxine increases the rate of metabolism

- Increased metabolism generates more heat and warms the body

- Hormonal responses take time and do not have immediate control over body
temperature

Nervous System control of temperature

- Body temperature is also controlled by the nervous system (quicker response).

- The hypothalamus detects a drop in temperature and sends impulses to muscles around the
vital organs, causing them to shake (shivering). This increases the activity of muscle tissue,
generating heat.

- Blood flow to the extremities (skin) is reduced, keeping any warmth around the vital organs.

- If the hypothalamus detects too much heat, then nerve messages are sent to the sweat
glands in the skin to release water, which evaporates and takes heat away from the skin
surface, cooling it.

Ecology
- Ecology is the study of the environment.

- Ecologist – a scientist who studies the environment.

- Organism- is a single living thing e.g. a caterpillar.

Habitats and Ecosystems
Populations

- A population is a group of similar organisms living in the same place at the same time e.g. a
population of emperor penguins

Community

- A community is a group of different populations of different organisms living in the same

place at the same time e.g. a coral reef community.

Ecosystem

- An ecosystem is a system (set of factors that affect survival) formed by a group of living
things interacting with each other and their non-living environment.

- Abiotic Factors

- Biotic Factors

- An ecosystem can be described by a particular type of environment

Habitat

- A habitat is a place where an organism lives within an environment.

Abiotic Factors
- Are the non-living factors in the environment.
- Examples:
- temperature
- water currents
- light
- rocks
- soil type
- ph (acid level)
- humidity
- wind strength
- fire

Abiotic factor- Water

- Essential for chemical reactions in cells.

- Availability is a concern for terrestrial (land) organisms.

Abiotic Factor – Temperature

- Affects the speed of chemical reactions in the body. (faster the temperature, the faster the
reaction).
- Some organisms depend on the temperature of the environment to drive their reactions
(ectothermic organisms), e.g. amphibians, fish and reptiles. To adjust their body temperature
they exhibit behaviours such as moving into a warm place to heat up or moving out of the
heat to cool down.

Abiotic Factor- Fire

 - Can cause destruction/death, but some plants depend on fire for germination of seeds.

Biotic Factors
- Are the living factors that affect survival.
- Examples:
- food sources
- predators
- prey
- parasites
- disease (bacteria, fungi)
- competition
- mates

Biotic Factor- competition

- Occurs when organisms try to obtain the same resources (often limited) ; which include:
- Mates
- food
- living places
- Competition is often fierce and there is a constant struggle to survive and many die
(especially young, old, sick)

Biotic factor- Predator- prey

- The predator kills and consumes another animal (prey).

Biotic factor- mutualism

- Where both organisms benefit from living together

Biotic factor- parasitism

- parasites live in or on another organism (host), gaining nutrients from it. Only the parasite
benefits.

Biotic factor- commensalism

- Where one organism benefits and the other is unaffected e.g. remora attached to shark,
epiphyte orchids on branches of trees

Energy flow within ecosystems

Food Chain and Food Webs

- The movement of organic molecules and the energy contained within their bonds through
the ecosystem can be illustrated diagrammatically in food chains and food webs
- Food chains – simple linear progression of matter and energy
- Food webs – complex interactions in a particular community
- Levels in a food chain are called trophic levels (energy transfer – each organism in the chain
is a food source for the next)
Food Chains
- In a food chain, each organism occupies a different trophic level.
- All food chains start with energy from the sun.
- Producer organisms (PLANTS) begin ALL food chains and are the first trophic level.
- Herbivores are termed first order (primary) consumers.
- Consumers which eat herbivores are termed second order (secondary) consumers.
- Organisms which consume second order consumers are called third order (tertiary)
consumers.
- Arrows show the direction of the flow of energy and nutrients in an ecosystem.

Naming Organisms in a food chain

- Consumers can be further classified according to the order that they appear in, in a food
chain
- First order consumer – the first consumer in a food chain
- Second order consumer – the second consumer in a food chain

- The order that the organisms appear in your food chain can be recorded as their trophic level

- The first organism in a food chain – 1st trophic level

- The second organism in a food chain – 2 nd trophic level

Food Webs
- Within one ecosystem there is many food chains – can be linked together to form a food web

- Most organisms eat more than one type of food, so food chains often overlap

- The complexity of food webs gives an ecosystem stability

Pyramid of Energy
- A pyramid of energy shows the amount of energy input to each trophic level in a given area
of an ecosystem over a set time (usually one year).

- Units: kJ/m2/year

- 10% rule

- Only 10% of the energy or biomass at one trophic level is passed to the next

- Therefore, the number of levels in a food chain is restricted, and the number of larger
order consumers are fewer than those of lower order consumers.

- The mass of organisms in a trophic level is about 1/10 th as much as the mass of
organisms below it.

- The decline in stored energy at each trophic level means that most food chains are usually
limited in length to four or five trophic levels

- Top carnivores usually survive by eating a variety of foods

- The number of individuals in top trophic level is usually small

- Reason for so little energy being transferred between trophic levels:

- Energy stored in organism’s food is used to power metabolism

- Energy is released from food during cellular respiration

Immune System
Lines of Defence
First line of defence

- prevents pathogens from entering the body

- Skin (physical barrier)
- Body fluids (tears and saliva) have antiseptic properties
- Hairs and mucus of the respiratory system trap foreign particles
- Acid in the stomach kills most pathogens
- Non-specific defence to the invading pathogen (doesn’t matter what the pathogen is)

Second Line of defence

- If a pathogen gets through the first line of defence cells in the area release histamine.

- Histamine causes redness/inflammation and swelling.

- This attracts the attention of a type of white blood cells (neutrophils) which consume
bacteria.

- Dead neutrophils form pus.

- Non-specific defence to the invading pathogen (doesn’t matter what the pathogen is)

Third Line of defence

 - Lymph nodes of the lymphatic system release a number of different white blood cells
(lymphocytes and macrophages).

- Macrophages also consume and destroy pathogens

- Lymphocytes produce specific antibodies against specific invaders (specific response) i.e. a
different type of antibody is needed for each different type of pathogen.

Antibodies

- Antibodies cause the pathogens to clump together, making it easier for the macrophages to
consume the pathogens.

- It always takes a while for the body to recognise the invader and create the appropriate
antibody for it, which is why we always feel sick for a while.

Immunity

- Some lymphocytes retain a memory for certain invaders, so the response time is much
quicker for subsequent infections

Vaccines

- chemicals created from dead or weakened pathogens, causing your body to react as if it had
infected with the real pathogen.
- This provides you with immunity by creating appropriate antibodies and memory
lymphocytes in case you encounter the real pathogen at a latter time.

Herd Immunity

- resistance to the spread of an infectious disease within a population that is based on pre-
existing immunity of a high proportion of individuals as a result of previous infection
or vaccination.
- "the level of vaccination needed to achieve herd immunity varies by disease

Disease
- Disease is any condition in which the body or parts of the body do not function properly
- There are many factors that contribute to disease:
- Type of microorganism
- Environmental
- lifestyle
Agents of Disease

- Pathogenic organism: An organism that causes disease to another organism

- Bacteria
- Viruses
- Fungi
- Parasites

Bacteria
- Microscopic

- a singular, circular piece of DNA

- Some have tiny circular pieces of DNA called plasmids and ribosomes

- The plasmid often contains genes that give the bacterium some advantage over other
bacteria -- For example it may contain a gene that makes the bacterium resistant to a certain
antibiotic.

- multiply rapidly (double every 20 minutes)

- lots of harmless ones

- pathogenic bacteria (pathogens) disease causing ones.

- produce toxic waste products which make us sick.

- Bacteria reproduce

• asexually (mitosis) using binary fission.

• sexually using conjugation.

• Bacteria exchange plasmid DNA - This is how bacteria become antibiotic resistant.
 -

Examples:

- Whooping cough

- Tetanus

- Diphtheria

- Impetigo (school sores)

- Pneumococcal

- Meningococcal

- Typhoid

Controlling Bacteria

- Antibiotics – substances that kill or prevent the growth of bacteria

- e.g. penicillin

Types of Bacteria
- There are three types of bacteria based on how they obtain energy: heterotrophs,
photosynthetic, and chemoautotrophs.

Heterotrophs

- Decomposers –
o feed on and recycle organic material
- Pathogens –
o parasitic, disease-causing bacteria
o Either attack cells or secrete toxins
- Nitrogen-fixing bacteria (Rhizobium)
o Found in nodules of soybeans, peanuts, alfalfa, and clover
o Convert atmospheric nitrogen (N2) into ammonia, called nitrogen fixation.
o Used in crop rotation
- Bacteria are decomposers, they break down the chemical elements inside other living or
dead organisms. Some bacteria live in the intestines of humans and animals

Photosynthetic

- These are autotrophs that use the sun’s energy to make food.

Chemoautotrophs

- Obtain energy by removing electrons from inorganic molecules such as ammonia and
methane to make food.
- Examples: Nitrobacter and Nitrosomonas
o live in soil
o have a crucial role in nitrification (turn ammonia into nitrates, the form of nitrogen
commonly used by plants).
Good Bacteria
- Lactic acid bacteria have been used to ferment or culture foods for at least 4000 years.

- Examples: products like yogurt and cheese

- Wastewater bacteria feed on everything from solid human waste matter to last night's
leftovers. As the bacteria eat, they convert organic matter to carbon dioxide, releasing
electrons, the basic element of electrical current.

Viruses
- Viruses are pathogens
- One hundredth the size of bacteria
- Do not need nutrients
- Do not produce waste or exchange gases with the environment
- Viruses invade host cells to make thousands more identical viruses

Examples

- Cold
- influenza
- measles
- mumps
- rubella
- warts
- chickenpox
- herpes

Controlling Viruses

- Antibiotics do not work against viruses.

- Having a virus can weaken our defences so that bacteria can also invade.

- Your body builds up an immunity (antibodies) to viruses.

- Vaccines can be made to assist building an immunity against viruses.

Parasitic Disease
- A parasite is an organism that lives on or in the body of another organism (called the host)
and takes nutrients from it
- The host gets nothing beneficial in return and may be harmed

Infectious vs Conatgious
- Infectious disease – diseases which can be spread

- Contagious – able to be spread easily by close contact. Can be spread by

- direct contact
- air (coughing/sneezing)
- water
- food
- cuts and wounds
Antibiotics
- An antibiotic is a substance that slows down or stops bacterial growth
- Not all antibiotics work on every bacteria
- It is important to know which antibiotics are most effective against bacteria

Measuring the effectiveness of Antibiotics

Kirby-Bauer disk diffusion method:

- Bacteria of interest is swabbed uniforming across an agar plate

- A filter-paper disk (covered with the antibiotic to be tested) is placed on the surface of
the agar
- The antibiotic diffuses from the filter paper into the agar

- The concentration of the compound will be highest next to the disk and gradually
decrease as the distance from the disk increases
- If concentration of the antibiotic is effective against the bacteria, no colonies will grow
wherever the concentration in the gar is greater than or equal to that effective
concentration
- The area of no bacterial growth is called the zone of inhibition
- The size of the zone of inhibition is a measure of the compound’s effectiveness
- The larger the clear area around the filter disk, the more effective the compound
Body Coordination
Metabolism

- Metabolism is the chemical reactions in the body's cells that change food into
energy. Our bodies need this energy to do everything from moving to thinking to
growing.
- Specific proteins in the body control the chemical reactions of metabolism.
Thousands of metabolic reactions happen at the same time — all regulated by
the body — to keep our cells healthy and working.
- Metabolism is a balancing act involving two kinds of activities that go on at the
same time:
o building up body tissues and energy stores (called anabolism)
o breaking down body tissues and energy stores to get more fuel for body
functions (called catabolism)

Anabolism
- or constructive metabolism, is all about building and storing. It supports the growth of
new cells, the maintenance of body tissues, and the storage of energy for future use. In
anabolism, small molecules change into larger, more complex molecules of
carbohydrates, protein, and fat.

Catabolism
- or destructive metabolism, is the process that produces the energy needed for all activity
in the cells. Cells break down large molecules (mostly carbs and fats) to release energy.
This provides fuel for anabolism, heats the body, and enables the muscles to contract
and the body to move.

Glossary
Anabolic: process involving chemical reactions that produce complex molecules from simpler
substances.

Antibiotic: a substance that kills bacteria or prevents growth of bacteria

Antibody: a chemical made by the immune system that makes it easier for white blood cell to destroy
pathogens

Axon: a nerve fibre that sends nerve impulses away from the cell

Bacteria: microscopic, single celled organisms

Bacterium: a member of a large group of uni-cellular microorganisms

Brain stem: part of the brain where the spinal cord enters the skull; it controls the bodies vital
function such as breathing, blood pressure and heart rate

Carbohydrates: nutrients used as the main source of energy for the body

Catabolic: process involving chemical reactions that breaks down complex molecules into smaller
ones.

Cell body: the part of neuron that contains the nucleus

Central nervous system: the brain and spinal cord

Cerebellum: the part of the brain that is responsible for coordination and balance

Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF): a fluid surrounding the brain and spinal cord, which provides nutrients to
neuron and acts as a shock absorber

Cerebrum: the part of the brain that controls conscious thoughts, and the movement of every body
parts, and receives sensory messages from each body part.

Connector neurons: these neurons transmit messages between the neurons in the CNS

Contagious: of a disease spread from one person to another or organism

Cranium: a bony structure that surrounds the brain

Dendrites: branches from the cell body that receive messages from other neurons

Diabetes: a complex disease caused by the lack of or insensitivity to insulin’

Diffusion: the movement of particle of a substance form and area of high concentration to an area of
low concentration.

Disease: a disorder of structures or function in a human, animal, or plant.

Disease: anything that causes your body to stop working properly

Ectothermic: animals that rely on environmental temperature to regulate body temperature.

Ectothermic animals have a body temperature similar to that of their surroundings.

Effecters: muscles or glands that put messages into effects

Endocrine glands: glands that produce hormones

Endocrine system: all the endocrine glands in the body

Endothermic: able to maintain a constant body temperature

Enzyme: a chemical that speeds up a rate of reaction

Feedback system: body systems regulate themselves by monitoring and self-correction adjusting
output depending on stimulus

Homeostasis: the process of maintaining a constant internal environment

Hormones: chemical substances that act as messengers in the body

Host cell: a cell invaded by virus’

Hypothalamus: a portion of the brain that constantly check the internal environment of the body

Infectious: liable to spread infection

Lymphocyte: a white blood cells that makes anti bodies

Medulla: the lower half of the brain stem

Metabolism: all the chemical reactions occurring in the cells

Mitochondria: organelles where cellular respiration occurs

Motor neurons: nerve cells that carry messages from the CNS to effectors
Myelin sheath: the insulation layer that covers a neuron

Nerve impulse: the electrical message carried by a nerve cell

Neuron: nerve cell

Neurotransmitter: a chemical message released at the end of an axon to be received by the next
neurons dendrites.

Neutrophil: a type of white blood cell that consumes pathogens

Non-infectious: not liable to spread infection

Pathogen: and organism that causes disease

Pathogenic organisms: organisms, including bacteria, virus of cysts capable of causing diseases

Peripheral nervous system (PNS): the nerves that carry message to and from the central nervous
system and other parts of the body

Pituitary gland: the endocrine gland that controls the activities of the other endocrine glands; it is
often called the ‘master gland’.

Receptor: a specialised cell that detects stimuli (changes)

Reflex actions: quick automatic action that protect the body from danger, also known as reflexes

Reflex arc: the nerve pathway operating in a reflex action

Ribosome: a structure where proteins are manufactured

Sensory neurons: nerve cells that carry messages from the cells in the sense organs to the central
nervous system

Stimulus: any factor that stimulates a receptor and brings about a response

Substrate: a molecule that is going to be changed by a chemical reaction involving an enzyme

Synapse: space between two neurons

Target cells: the cells on which a hormone act

Vertebrae: bones that surround the spinal cord and provide attachment for muscles

Virus: a pathogen 100 times smaller than bacterium and infective agent that typically consists of
nucleic acid

Physics
Sound Waves
- Sound is produced whenever something vibrates (moves back and forth quickly).

- When something vibrates it passes the vibration into its surrounding environment (usually
air).
 - As vibrations move through the air. The air particles get bunched together and then they
spread out.

- Where air particles are bunched together is called compressions, and regions in which they
are more spread out are called rarefactions.

- A sound wave is made up of a compression and Rarefaction sequence

- These sound waves travel away from the vibration like a ripple on a pond.

Types of Waves

 A wave carries energy from one point to another.

 Transverse wave

 Longitudinal wave (e.g. sound waves)

 Sound waves are longitudinal waves.

Transmission of Sound

 Sound is transmitted through material as longitudinal waves

 Sound vibrates through the particles of solids, liquids or gases. It cannot pass through a
vacuum (different to heat/thermal and light energy)

 Speed of sound changes as it passes through these different materials or states of matter

Chemistry
Valence Electrons
Following this rule: Elements in group 1 have one valence electron; elements
in group 2 have two valence electrons; elements in group 13 have three
valence electrons; elements in group 14 have four valence electrons; and so
forth up to group 18. elements in group 18 have eight valence electrons,
except for helium, which has only two

Balancing equations

1. Tally the number of atoms for each element on each side. 

2. Choose one element to begin with. It is usually best to begin by choosing the
element that there are the most of. Balance that one element by adding
coefficients.
3. Recalculate the total number of atoms for each element after the addition of
coefficients.
4. Balance the next element by adding coefficients.
5. Continue this process until all elements are balanced.
6. Deal with polyatomic ions as one unit.
7. If some compounds are charged make sure that the charges are also balanced.
8. Always finish by checking your work.

Ionic Bond

Atoms are filled with an outer shell of electrons. Electron shells are filled by
transferring electrons from one atom to the next. Donor atoms will take on a
positive charge, and the acceptors will have a negative charge. They will attract
each other by being positive and negative, and bonding will then occur.

Covalent Bonds

Atoms like to share their electrons and this causes their outer shell to be complete.
A covalent bond is produced by the sharing of atoms and electrons. This produces a
strong covalent bond.

Acids and Bases