Module - 3 Environmental Pollution Envt Policies and Practices WNcVRhIzKx

Semester - II F.Y. B. Sc. (Comp. Sci.
) Module – III
Environmental Studies
F. Y. B. Sc. (Computer Science)
(Semester - II)
[2022-23]
ENVIRONMETAL POLLUTION, ENVIRONMENTAL POLICIES AND

Module 3
PRACTICES
A Environmental Pollution
• Environmental Pollution – types, causes, effects, and controls; Air, Water
Soil chemical and noise pollution.
• Nuclear hazards and human health risks
• Solid Waste Management – Control measures of urban and industrial waste.
B Environmental Policies and Practices

• Climate Change, Global Warming, Ozone Layer Depletion, Acid rain and its
impacts on human communities and agriculture
• Environmental Laws: The Wildlife Protection Act, 1972; The Water
(Prevention and control of Pollution) Act 1974; The Forest Conservation Act,
1980. The Air (Prevention & Control of Pollution) Act 1981; The
Environment Protection Act, 1986
• International Agreements : Montral and Kyoto protocols, and Conservation
on Biological Diversity (CBD). The Chemical Weapons Convention (CWC)
• Nature reserves, Tribal Population and rights and human, wildlife conflicts
in Indian Context
Environmental Pollution, Environmental Policies and Practices -1-

Semester - II F.Y. B. Sc. (Comp. Sci.) Module – III
Environmental Pollution
“Pollution can be defined as the introduction of substances (or energy) that cause adverse changes
in the environment and living entities”
Pollution need not always be caused by chemical substances such as particulates (like smoke and
dust). Forms of energy such as sound, heat or light can also cause pollution. These substances that
cause pollution are called pollutants.
Pollution, even in minuscule amounts, impacts the ecological balance. Pollutants can make its way
up the food chain and eventually find its way inside the human body.
Types of Pollution
One of the many banes of technology is pollution, and there are many types. Also
contributing to pollution is globalisation, where our constant need for natural resources has slowly
started to change the face of the earth.
Though the quality of living has drastically improved, other new issues have risen that
gradually impact human health and the environment. In this article, we shall explore the meaning
of pollution, its causes and types. Also, we shall analyse the repercussions of pollution on human
health and the environment.
As stated before, there are different types of pollution, which are either caused by natural
events (like forest fires) or by man-made activities (like cars, factories, nuclear wastes, etc.) These
are further classified into the following types of pollution. Besides these 4 types of pollution, other
types exist such as light pollution, thermal pollution and radioactive pollution. The latter is much
rarer than other types, but it is the deadliest.
1. Air Pollution
Air pollution refers to the release of harmful contaminants (chemicals, toxic gases,
particulates, biological molecules, etc.) into the earth’s atmosphere. These contaminants are quite
detrimental, and in some cases, pose serious health issues. Some causes that contribute to air
pollution are:
• Burning fossil fuels (Automobiles)
• Transportation
• Mining operations
• Exhaust gases from industries and factories

The effects of air pollution vary based on the pollutant. But generally, the impact of air
pollution range from:
• Increased risk of respiratory illness and cardiovascular problems
• Increased risk of skin diseases
• May increase the risk of cancer
• Global warming
• Acid rain
• Ozone depletion
• Hazards to wildlife
Furthermore, scientists have speculated an apocalypse-like scenario where air pollution, if
left unchecked, can bring about an extreme form of global warming called the runaway greenhouse
effect. Though this is purely speculative, it is a phenomenon that has already occurred on Venus.
Control on Air Pollution

Following are the measures one should adopt to control air pollution:
1. Avoid Using Vehicles
People should avoid using vehicles for shorter distances. Rather they should prefer public
modes of transport to travel from one place to another. This not only prevents pollution but also
conserves energy.
2. Energy Conservation
A large number of fossil fuels are burnt to generate electricity. Therefore, do not forget to
switch off the electrical appliances when not in use. Thus, you can save the environment at the
individual level. Use of energy-efficient devices such CFLs also controls pollution to a greater
level.
3. Use of Clean Energy Resources
The use of solar, wind and geothermal energies reduce air pollution at a larger level.
Various countries including India have implemented the use of these resources as a step towards a
cleaner environment.
2. Water Pollution
Water is one of the most vital natural resources on earth and has been around for a long
time. The earth has more than two-thirds of its surface covered with water. That is a lot of water,
however, less than 0.3% is accessible for human consumption. As commercialization and
industrialization have progressed, that number continues to dwindle down. Furthermore,
inefficient and outdated practices, lack of awareness and a plethora of other circumstances have
led to water pollution.

Water pollution is said to occur when toxic pollutants and particulate matter are introduced
into water bodies such as lakes, rivers and seas. These contaminants are generally introduced by
human activities like improper sewage treatment and oil spills. However, even natural processes
such as eutrophication can cause water pollution.
Other significant causes of water pollution include:

• Dumping solid wastes in water bodies
• Disposing untreated industrial sewage into water bodies (Industries)
• Human and animal wastes
• Agricultural runoff containing pesticides and fertilizers
• Urbanization
• Social and Religious Practices
The effects of water pollution are very pronounced in our environment. Furthermore, toxic
chemicals can be accumulate in living beings, and these chemicals can travel their way up the food
chain, ultimately reaching humans.
Consuming such foods can cause problems, some of which can render an individual
seriously ill. For instance, in 1932, a grave case of water pollution left the inhabitants of an entire
city in Japan with neurological diseases and mental illness for many decades. The local population
then consumed these fish, and this resulted in the manifestation of ill-effects and neurological
diseases.
Other consequences of water pollution include:
• Disruption of the ecosystem
• Threats to marine life
• Increased risk of water-borne diseases
• Increases toxic chemicals (such as mercury) in water bodies
• Eutrophication
Prevention of Water Pollution

Water pollution, to a larger extent, can be controlled by a variety of methods. Rather than
releasing sewage waste into water bodies, it is better to treat them before discharge. Practising this
can reduce the initial toxicity and the remaining substances can be degraded and rendered harmless
by the water body itself. If the secondary treatment of water has been carried out, then this can be
reused in sanitary systems and agricultural fields.
A very special plant, the Water Hyacinth can absorb dissolved toxic chemicals such as
cadmium and other such elements. Establishing these in regions prone to such kinds of pollutants
will reduce the adverse effects to a large extent.

Some chemical methods that help in the control of water pollution are precipitation, the ion
exchange process, reverse osmosis, and coagulation. As an individual, reusing, reducing, and
recycling wherever possible will advance a long way in overcoming the effects of water pollution.
3. Soil Pollution
Soil pollution, also called soil contamination, refers to the degradation of land due to the
presence of chemicals or other man-made substances in the soil. The xenobiotic substances
alter the natural composition of soil and affect it negatively. These can drastically impact life
directly or indirectly. For instance, any toxic chemicals present in the soil will get absorbed by the
plants. Since plants are producers in an environment, it gets passed up through the food chain.
Some of the common causes of soil pollution are:

• Improper industrial waste disposal
• Oil Spills
• Acid rain which is caused by air pollution
• Mining activities
• Intensive farming and agrochemicals (like fertilisers and pesticides)
• Industrial accidents
The effects of soil pollution are numerous. Specific wastes, such as radioactive
waste become particularly hazardous when they are not well-contained. A well-documented
example is a nuclear accident in Chernobyl, which has left an area of 2,600 km2 uninhabitable for
several thousand years.
Other effects of soil pollution include:

• Loss of soil nutrients, which renders the soil unfit for agriculture
• Impacts the natural flora and fauna residing in the soil
• Degrades vegetation due to the increase of salinity of the soil
• Toxic dust (such as silica dust) can cause respiratory problems or even lung cancer
4. Noise Pollution
Noise pollution refers to the excessive amount of noise in the surrounding that disrupts the
natural balance. Usually, it is man-made, though certain natural calamities like volcanoes can
contribute to noise pollution.

In general, any sound which is over 85 decibels is considered to be detrimental. Also, the
duration an individual is exposed plays an impact on their health. For perspective, a normal
conversation is around 60 decibels, and a jet taking off is around 15o decibels.
Noise pollution has several contributors , which include:

• Industry-oriented noises such as heavy machines, mills, factories, etc.
• Transportation noises from vehicles, aeroplanes, etc.
• Construction noises
• Noise from social events (loudspeakers, firecrackers, etc.)
• Household noises (such as mixers, TV, washing machines, etc.)
The noise pollution has now become very common due to dense urbanisation and industrialization.
Noise pollution can bring about adverse effects such as :
• Hearing loss
• Tinnitus
• Sleeping disorders
• Hypertension (high BP)
• Communication problems
5. Chemical pollution
Chemical pollution is defined as the presence or increase in our environment of chemical
pollutants that are not naturally present there or are found in amounts higher than their natural
background values. Most of the chemicals that pollute the environment are man-made, resulted
from the various activities in which toxic chemicals are used for various purposes.
Based on their chemical structure, chemical contaminants can be classified into naturally-
occurring and man-made categories. They can be organic or inorganic (organic compounds always
contain carbon and carbon-hydrogen bonds, whereas most inorganic compounds do not contain
carbon).
Examples of Chemical Pollutants

Chemical pollutants mostly result from various human activities like the manufacturing,
handling, storing, and disposing of chemicals. These occur in industrial places and activities such
as oil refineries, coal power plants, construction, mining & smelting, transportation, agricultural
use of pesticides and insecticides, as well as household activities.

The Effects of Chemical Pollution

The effects are usually related to the exposure to high amounts of chemicals. Chemical
pollution leads to various serious diseases, generally by consuming poisonous food, drinking
highly contaminated water, or breathing highly contaminated air.
Chemical intoxication can have severe health effects that may trigger immediate symptoms
and diseases or delayed effects which may appear after weeks or months since the exposure
occurred. This is based on the type of pollutants and on the amounts to which you are exposed.
Nuclear Hazards and Human Health Risk

According to International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) a nuclear and radiation
accidents/hazard is an event that has led to significant consequences to people, the environment or
the facility Nuclear hazards, risk or danger to human health or the environment exposed by the
radiation coming out of the atomic nuclei is called as nuclear hazard. Nuclear hazard is an actual
or potential release of radioactive material at a commercial nuclear power plant or a transportation
accident. The most common source of radiation is nuclear power plants.
However, other sources include;
• Spent fuel reprocessing plants
• by products of mining operations
• experimental research laboratories
Natural Sources of radiation
❖ They include cosmic rays from space. Cosmic radiation comes from extremely energetic
particles from the sun and stars that enter Earth’s atmosphere. Some particles make it to the
ground, while others interact with the atmosphere to create different types of radiation.
Radiation levels increase as you get closer to the source, so the amount of cosmic radiation
generally increases with elevation.
❖ Background radiation is present on Earth at all times. The majority of background radiation
occurs naturally from minerals and a small fraction comes from man-made elements.
Naturally occurring radioactive minerals in the ground, soil, and water produce background
radiation. E.g. -Terrestrial radiations from radio-nuclides present in earth’s crust such as
radium-224, uranium-238, thorium-232, potassium-40, carbon-14, etc.
Radiations that can be Potentially Harmful
Radiation is all around us (called background radiation), but that is not a reason to be afraid.
Different types of radiation behave differently, and some forms can be very useful. There are
four major types of radiation: alpha, beta, neutrons, and electromagnetic waves such as
gamma rays. They differ in mass, energy and how deeply they penetrate people and objects.
• Many of the naturally occurring radioactive materials in the earth, like uranium and
thorium, emit alpha particles. An example most people are familiar with is the radon in our

homes. Radon is a radioactive gas that forms during the decay of uranium, thorium or
radium. Rocks, soil, building materials, the water supply, and natural gas can all be sources
of radon in the home. Alpha particles can be blocked by a piece of paper and human skin.
But, if you inhale or ingest material that emits alpha particles, sensitive tissue like the lungs
can be exposed. This is why high levels of radon are considered a problem in your home.
• Tritium, which is produced by cosmic radiation in the atmosphere and exists all around us,
emits beta radiation. Carbon-14, used in carbon-dating of fossils and other artifacts, also
emits beta particles. Beta particles can penetrate through the skin, while they can be
blocked by some pieces of glass and metal. They can get into your body but can't go all the
way through. To be useful in medical imaging, beta particles must be released by a material
that is injected into the body. They can also be very useful in cancer therapy if you can put
the radioactive material in a tumour. The third is a neutron and is present in the nucleus of
an atom. Neutrons are commonly seen when uranium atoms split, or fission, in a nuclear
reactor. Neutrons, because they don't have any charge, don't interact with materials very
well and will go a very long way. The only way to stop them is with large quantities of
water or other materials made of very light atoms.
• The last kind of radiation is electromagnetic radiation, like X-rays and gamma rays. They
are probably the most familiar type of radiation because they are used widely in medical
treatments. Gamma rays and x-rays can penetrate through the body. These rays are like
sunlight, except they have more energy. The amount of energy can range from very low,
like in dental x-rays, to the very high levels seen in irradiators used to sterilize medical
equipment. Gamma rays can penetrate easily to human skin and damage cells on its way
through, reaching far, and can only be blocked by a very thick, strong, massive piece of
concrete. Shielding with dense materials like concrete and lead is used to avoid exposing
sensitive internal organs or the people who may be working with this type of radiation.
The use of nuclear energy has two very serious inherent problems:
1 Accidental leakage of radioactive radiation
2 Safe disposal of radioactive wastes.
Artificial Sources of Radioactive pollution

• Accidents in nuclear power plants as occurred in the Three Mile Island, Chernobyl and
Fukushima incidents
• Nuclear waste
• Nuclear weapon testing and explosion (Nuclear fallout). The fall Out contains radioactive
substances such as strontium-90, caesium-137, iodine-131, etc.
• Uranium mining and mining of other radioactive material like thorium (monazite is the
ore of thorium).
• Radiation therapy and direct exposures to radiation for diagnostic purposes (e.g. X-rays),
chemotherapy etc.
• The slow nuclear radiations can originate from a variety of sources viz. nuclear reactors,
laboratories, etc.

Biological Damage Due to Ionizing Radiations

• At low doses, such as what we receive every day from background radiation (<1 m rem),
the cells repair the damage rapidly.
• Continued small dose exposure to nuclear radiation can cause childhood leukaemia,
miscarriage, underweight babies, infant deaths, increased susceptibility to other
immune disorders.
• At high doses, nuclear radiation is lethal. But at slightly lower doses, it creates various
disorders, the most frequent of all being cancer. At higher doses (up to 100 rem), the cells
might not be able to repair the damage, and the cells may either be changed permanently
or die. E.g. radiation sickness. Cells changed permanently may go on to produce
abnormal cells when they divide and may become cancerous.
Radiation damage can be divided into two types:
(a) somatic damage (also called radiation sickness) - Somatic damage refers to damage to
cells that are not associated with reproduction. Effects of somatic radiation damage
include loss of hair, fibrosis of the lungs, a reduction of white blood cells, and the
induction of cataract in the eyes. This damage can also result in cancer and death.
(b) genetic damage - Genetic damage refers to damage to cells associated with reproduction.
This damage can subsequently cause genetic damage from gene mutation resulting in
abnormalities. Genetic damages are passed on to the next generation.
Disposal of Nuclear waste

Radioactive wastes are of two types
1. low-level radioactive wastes (LLW) which include civilian applications of radionuclides in
medicine, research and industry, materials from decommissioned reactors, protection gears worn
by persons working with radioactive materials or working in nuclear establishments. Disposal of
low-level waste is straightforward and can be undertaken safely almost anywhere.
2. High-level radioactive wastes (HLW) results from spent nuclear fuel rods and obsolete nuclear
weapons. Storage of spent nuclear fuel is normally under water for at least five years and then
often in dry storage. Deep geological disposal is widely agreed to be the best solution for final
disposal of the most radioactive waste produced. Burying it deep underground in insulated
containers is the strategy being pursued in many countries.
India has adopted closed fuel cycle option, which involves reprocessing and recycling of the spent
fuel. During reprocessing, only about two to three percent of the spent fuel becomes waste and the
rest is recycled. At the end the high-level waste will be emplaced in geological disposal facilities.
Some proposed methods of disposing nuclear waste are:

• Shoot it into space. The cost would be very high, and a launch accident should be
disastrous
• Bury it under the ice sheet of Antarctica or Greenland ice cap. The ice could be
destabilised by heat from the waste. The method has been prohibited by international law.

• Dump it into deep oceans by keeping the waste into glass and steel cases. But the
containers might leak and contaminate the ocean.
• Change it into harmless or less harmful isotopes. Currently, no method is known to do
that, and the method would be too costly.
Accidents at nuclear power plants
Nuclear fission in the reactor core produces a lot of heat which if not controlled can lead
to a meltdown of fuel rods in the reactor core. If a meltdown happens by accident, it will release
large quantities of highly dangerous radioactive materials in the environment with disastrous
consequences to the humans, animals and plants. To prevent this type of accidents and reactor
blow up, the reactors are designed to have a number of safety features.
In spite of these safety measures three disasters in the nuclear power plants are noteworthy
– Three Mile Island’ in Middletown (U.S.A.) in 1979, Chernobyl (U.S.S.R.) in 1986 and
Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster in 2011. In the first two cases, a series of mishaps and errors
resulted in overheating of the reactor core and a lot of radiation was released into the environment.
The leakage from the Three Mile Island reactor was low, and no one was injured immediately.
However, in the case of Chernobyl, the leakage was very heavy causing the death of some workers
and radiation spread over large areas scattered all over Europe. The latest one – Fukushima Daiichi
nuclear accident was triggered by an earthquake.
India's Worst Radiation Accident
Kalpakkam, 70 km from Chennai, has Department of Atomic Energy –run installations like
Madras Atomic Power station (MAPS) with two Pressurized Heavy Water Reactors and
reprocessing plants like Kalpakkam Reprocessing Plant (KARP). Reprocessing plants use
chemical processes to extract Uranium and Plutonium from spent fuel that has been irradiated in
nuclear reactors. On January 21, 2003, due to valve failure, high level waste entered a tank
designed for low-level wastes. This resulted in six workers receiving high doses of ra diation.
Solid Waste Management

Almost everything that we use degenerates and loses its utility over a period. Many things become unusable
after we use them only once. We then throw them away. Everything that we discard after it loses its usability
is known as solid waste or garbage. There are different sources from where solid waste or garbage is
generated everyday from individual households (domestic waste), and from industries and commercial
establishments. However, all such wastes are not uniform in nature. Broadly speaking, solid wastes can be
divided into two distinct categories biodegradable and non-biodegradable waste.
Environmental Pollution, Environmental Policies and Practices - 10 -

Projected waste generation, by region (millions of tonnes/year)
Global waste composition (in%) Global treatment and disposal of waste (in%)
Financing solid waste management systems is a significant challenge, even more so for ongoing
operational costs than for capital investments, and operational costs need to be taken into account upfront.
In high-income countries, operating costs for integrated waste management, including collection, transport,
treatment, and disposal, generally exceed $100 per tonne. Hence solid waste management is one of the
challenges before developed as well as developing countries.
Solid waste management refers to the supervised handling of waste material from generation at the
source through the recovery processes to disposal. So solid waste management can be termed as: Systematic
control of generation, collection, storage, transport, source separation, processing, treatment, recovery, and
disposal of solid waste.
The term Municipal Solid Waste (MSW) is generally used to describe most of the non-
hazardous solid waste from a city, town or village that requires routine collection and transport to a
processing or disposal site. Sources of MSW include private homes, commercial establishments and

institutions as well as industrial facilities. Municipal solid waste contains a wide variety of materials. It can
contain food waste such as vegetable and meat material, left-over food, egg shells, etc. which is classified
as wet garbage as well as paper, plastic, tetra packs, plastic cans, newspaper, glass bottles, cardboard boxes,
aluminum foil, metal items, wood pieces, etc. which is classified as dry garbage.
Issues relating to Waste Management Include:

1. Generation of waste
2. Waste minimization
3. Waste removal
4. Waste transportation
5. Waste treatment
6. Recycling and reuse
7. Storage, collection, transport, and transfer
8. Treatment
9. Landfill disposal
10. Environmental considerations
11. Financial and marketing aspects
12. Policy and regulation
13. Education and training
14. Planning and Implementation.
Types of Waste
Toxic Waste causes serious problem to our health and to the environment. Examples: dried paint, old bulbs,
old batteries
E-Waste causes serious problem to our health and to the environment. Examples: dried paint, old
bulbs, old batteries. E-waste consists of dismantled parts of computers, electronic appliances,
mobile phones, TV, floppy discs, pen drives. In India E-wastes are dumped into unsafe and
unauthorised dumping yards where they are dismantled manually and unscientifically, causing
great environmental and health risks as they contain dangerous contaminants,
Hospital Waste consists of various components containing infected human tissues or body fluids
and are called bio-hazardous. The needles, surgical knives, and other surgical instruments called
‘sharps’ have to be disposed of carefully, but many a time we find this does not happen. Being
pricked with infected needles can transmit diseases like HIV, Hepatitis B and C.
• Municipal Waste
• Domestic Residential Waste
• Commercial Waste
• Construction and Demolition Wastes
• Industrial Wastes
• Hazardous Wastes
• Sewage Wastes
• Institutional Wastes
• Plastics, etc.

Effects of Solid Waste Pollution

• Rubbish and trash can block the drains thus making breeding grounds for mosquitoes, which
spread diseases like malaria and dengue.
• Rotting garbage gives out foul smell that can render a locality inhospitable.
• Dumping places are usually also home to stray animals such as abandoned cows that
frequently block traffic on roads and occasionally lead to road accidents.
• Seeping of toxic chemicals from factories and garbage waste underground, can render
underground water unfit for human consumption.
• Accumulation of construction and demolition waste at places lessens the aesthetic beauty of
surroundings.
• Intake of solid non-biodegradable waste such as plastic by scavengers and stray animals like
pigs and abandoned cows can choke their windpipes and lead to death.
Methods of Waste Disposal

Here are the methods of solid waste disposal and management are:
1. Solid Waste Open Burning : Solid waste open burning is not the perfect method in the present
scenario.
2. Sea Dumping Process: This sea dumping process can be carried out only in coastal cities. This
is very costly procedure and not environment friendly.
3. Solid wastes sanitary landfills: Solid wastes sanitary landfills process is simple, clean and
effective. In this procedure, layers are compressed with some mechanical equipment and covered
with earth, leveled, and compacted. A deep trench of 3 to 5 m is excavated and micro-organisms
act on the organic matter and degrade them.
In this procedure, refuse depth is generally limited to 2m. Facultative bacteria hydrolyze complex
organic matter into simpler water soluble organics.
4. Incineration method: Incineration method is suitable for combustible refuse. High operation
costs and construction are involved in this procedure. This method would be suited in crowded
cities where sites for land filling are not available. It can be used to reduce the volume of solid
wastes for land filling.
5. Composting process: Composting process is similar to sanitary land-filling and it is popular in

developing countries. Decomposable organic matter is separated and composted in this procedure.
Yields are stable end products and good soil conditioners. They can be used as a base for fertilizers.
Two methods have been used in this process:
a) Open Window Composting
b) Mechanical Composting

6. Disposal by Ploughing into the fields : Disposal by ploughing into the fields are not commonly
used. These disposals are not environment friendly in general.
7. Disposal by hog feeding : Disposal by hog feeding is not general procedure in India. Garbage
disposal into sewers including BOD and TSS increases by 20-30%. Refuse is ground well in
grinders and then fed into sewers.
8. Salvaging procedure: Materials such as metal, paper, glass, rags, certain types of plastic and
so on can be salvaged, recycled, and reused.
9. Fermentation/biological digestion: Biodegradable wastes are converted to compost and

recycling can be done whenever possible. Hazardous wastes can be disposed using suitable
methods.
WASTE MANAGEMENT 5-R PRINCIPLE

Solid waste management refers to the collecting, treating, and disposing of solid material, which
discarded or is no longer useful. Solid waste management is an important aspect of urban area
management. Improper disposal of solid waste can create unsanitary conditions, which can lead to
environmental pollution, the outbreak of vector-borne disease and risk to flora and fauna including
human being.
The task of solid waste management presents complex technical challenges. They also pose
various economic, administrative, and social problems, which need urgent attention.
The major sources of solid waste are households; agricultural fields; industries and mining,
hotels and catering; roads and railways; hospitals and educational institutions; cultural centers and
places of recreation and tourism, etc. Plastic waste is also a solid waste.

One of the widely used waste reduction strategy can be used by people in towns and cities
and is known as 5-R principle. This strategy can reduce the waste and can also use it for energy
generation.
Reduce: The reduction of waste generation can bestarted from households by reducing the
packages of commodities, increasing durability, avoiding disposable or single use plastic items,
usage of jute bags or cloth bags for marketing etc. Reducing paperwork in homes and offices and
promoting e- mails ore-bills should be promoted.
Reuse: The habit of re-using the commodities should be promoted. One can donate the books, old
clothes, and electronics by getting in touch with the organizations that can direct you to the needful
people who may find need of these resources.
Recycle: Segregation of waste is paramount for recycling of waste. Segregation of paper, metals,
glasses, and plastics from the organic waste is very important. These wastes than can be used for
recycling and creating a new product that can be used widely. Recycling saves other resources and
is good for our environment. A ton of recycled paper can save 25-30 trees, 25000 liters of water
and 4000 kWh of energy.
Recover: Recovery is one of the methods where more resources are required i.e mechanical,
technical to convert and reprocess the waste into energy. This means that energy can be generated
in form of heat and can be converted into other forms as per requirement and resources.
Refuse: It is considered as a last resort to get rid of the waste generated and is dumped accordingly
in landfills and dumpsites. The waste collected from the city or town in these areas remain for a
longer period of time. These landfill sites are major concern for human population as they are
home to feral animals and also making the adjoining areas unfit for habitation due to foul smell,
leachate affecting water table and burningof waste causing air pollution.
Need for Reducing, Reusing and Recycling of Waste

• Waste management is necessary because if it is not done the waste may lead to environmental
and health problems harmful for mankind.
• It cuts back on global warming.
• It makes us more energy-efficient. It often takes a great deal more energy to create something
from scratch than to recycle it.
• It improves the quality of our groundwater.

• It reduces air pollution.

• It creates jobs. From manufacturing to processing, from collection to invention—it’s no
secret that recycling is a growth industry, earning billions of dollars annually.
Innovative methods of solid waste recycling-

1. Smart Waste Bins
When left to their own devices, people don’t always bother to sort their waste into the proper waste
or recycling bins. To help reduce improper recycling sorting, Polish company Bin-e designed a
smart waste bin that uses artificial intelligence-based object recognition to automatically sort
recyclables into separate compartments. After sorting, the machine compresses the waste and
monitors how full each bin is Smart waste bins take human error out of the initial sorting process,
making material processing faster and easier for recycling facilities. This can lower waste
management costs by as much as 80% and drastically improve employee efficiency.
2. Waste Level Sensors
Homes and businesses across the country rely on routine waste collection services to dispose of
their trash. Weekly services have been around for decades, but they aren’t always the most efficient
option.To help minimize unnecessary trips to and from landfills, companies and communities can
install waste level sensors in bins or dumpsters of any size. These devices collect and store data on
fill levels, allowing collection services to predict how often bins need to be emptied. This also
helps prevent public containers from overflowing and contaminating the surrounding area.
3. AI Recycling Robots
Recycling centers play a crucial role in reducing the amount of trash that ends up in landfills and
waterways each year. However, a reduced workforce during the COVID-19 pandemic has left
many centers struggling to keep up with demand. Fortunately, recycling robots powered by
artificial intelligence (AI) can help pick up some of the slack.
These robots are designed to accurately identify and sort recyclable materials, increasing efficiency
and reducing the need for human workers. This not only saves recycling centers money over time,
but also helps divert materials that would otherwise end up in landfills
4. Garbage Truck Weighing Mechanisms
Like waste level sensors, weighing mechanisms installed in garbage trucks can help predict fill
levels and reduce collection trips. They do this by measuring and storing the weight of waste
containers, then using the data to predict fill levels over time. Cities can use this technology to
more accurately predict how often they need to send their trucks out and reduce annual collection
costs.
5. Pneumatic Waste Pipes
As populations grow in urban areas, so does the need for waste management solutions that can
accommodate increasing amounts of trash. Some cities are taking on this challenge by installing
pneumatic waste disposal bins that connect to a series of underground pipes. Trash travels through
the pipes to a waste collection plant where it can be sorted or hauled away. This system eliminates
the need for traditional waste collection, reduces energy costs and increases overall efficiency.

6. Solar-Powered Trash Compactors

In an effort to increase collection efficiency and reduce trips to and from the dump, manufacturer
E cube Labs created a solar-powered trash compactor that can hold up to five times more than
traditional trash bins. These machines compress trash as it accumulates to increase bin capacity,
and they collect and transmit data on fill and collection times to help streamline the collection
process
7. E-Waste Kiosks
Electronic waste that is improperly disposed of can be harmful to both humans and the
environment. Fortunately, many companies and organizations have started e-waste recycling
programs that will accept — and even reimburse you for — old electronic devices.
Eco ATM, a smart recycling company, took this idea one step further by creating a line of e-waste
recycling kiosks that allow you to exchange your electronics for cash on the spot. While they won’t
always offer cash for devices that are broken or destroyed, they accept phones, tablets and MP3
players in any condition and ensure that they are recycled properly.
8. Recycling Apps
Sorting through contaminated waste is one of the biggest challenges for recycling centers. In an
effort to limit unrecyclable materials entering these centers, organizations have released apps like
Recycle Nation and I Recycle that make recycling easier for individuals. These apps provide
users with information on recycling rates and centre locations, and their comprehensive lists of
materials help users determine which items can be recycle.
Climate Change
Climate change in a broader sense includes present and previous (long-term) changes to Earth's
climate. This change may be because of natural, such as through variations in the solar cycle. But
since the 1800s, human activities have been the main driver of climate change, primarily due to
burning fossil fuels like coal, oil and gas. Climate change is a newcomer to international political
and environmental agenda, having emerged as a major policy issue. Anthropogenic (human-
caused) global climate change to be the topmost environmental issue today. Due to climate change,
deserts are expanding, while heat waves and wildfires are becoming more common. Increased
warming in the Arctic has contributed to melting permafrost, glacial retreat and sea ice loss. Rapid
environmental change in mountains, coral reefs, and the Arctic is forcing many species to relocate
or become extinct, however in recent years it is affecting adversely on human life, hence it becomes
most significant work area of this century. The fact is no country today is immune from the impacts
of climate change.
• According to the most recent research, climate change could drive 216 million people to
migrate within their own countries by 2050, with hotspots of internal migration emerging
as soon as 2030, spreading and intensifying thereafter.

• Climate change could cut crop yields, especially in the world’s most food -insecure regions.
At the same time, agriculture, forestry, and land use change are responsible for about 25%
of greenhouse gas emissions. The agriculture sector is core to addressing the climate
challenge.
Reducing emissions and becoming more resilient are possible, but require major social, economic
and technological changes. Priorities for climate action also differ significantly across countries
and across sectors. The urgency and scale of the challenge requires countries to learn quickly from
each other, adapt to their own special circumstances, and be bold in implementing policies that
bend the emissions curve and improve livelihoods.
o The challenge for developing countries is that they no longer have an opportunity to
develop first in a high carbon-intensive way and then clean up and decarbonize later. They
need support today to make investments now to slow a changing climate and enable billions
to live safer, more prosperous, inclusive and sustainable lives.
o If they are well designed and implemented, the policies countries put in place for low -
carbon, resilient growth could also help them address poverty and inequality.
Definition
The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCC) adopted the
definition of climate change in article 1 as “a change of climate directly or indirectly due to human
activity that alters the composition, change of the global atmosphere and which is in addition to
natural climate variability observed over comparable time periods”.
Evidence of Some Facts of Climate Change:

• Temperature rises over 0.6°C since last century
• Increase of 4°C in Alaska, Western Canada and Eastern Russia
• Arctic sea has shrunk by 1/3rd and ice has shrunk by 40%
• 90% of the glaciers of Antarctica Peninsula are now retreating at the rate of 50m/year
• Mount Kilimanjaro has lost 85% of its famous ice cap
• Venezuela consist only two glaciers out of six
• The Himalayan glacier is melting very fast
• The disappearance of amphibians such as golden toads from the cloud forest of Costa Rica
• Sea level has risen worldwide approximately 15-20 cm in the past century
• Penguin population have declined by half over the past 50 years
• Coral reefs are bleached due to increasing temperature rise above 30°C (required is
21°C) Storms are becoming stronger and more damaging
• Droughts are becoming more frequent
Experiencing extreme events, etc.
Impact of Climate Change

Although accurate forecasting of impacts is still not possible, scientist severe impacts of climate
change on human societies, agriculture and national eco-system.

1. Increase in Temperature: It has resulted in melting of ice. In fact Polar region have
warmed much faster than rest of areas e.g. Bangladesh will be by battered floods.
2. Health Effects: Warmer temperature increases discomfort, risk of mortality from heat
stress. According to WHO, there is a potential for increased air pollution related morbidity
and mortality in world population due to the release of GHG’s.
3. Disruption of the Water Cycle: Intensification of water cycle will produce more severe
droughts in some places and floods in other. Droughts, floods, water and quantity are the
areas of concern especially in arid and semi-arid regions of the world.
4. Disturbance in Natural Forest and Biodiversity: Climate change can alter geographic
distribution of vegetation types drastically.
5. Changes in Economic Activity: Climate changes also affect the economic activity in
coastal areas. 90% of the people living in coastal areas will suffer due to flooding in these
areas and will generate climate refugees.
Global Warming
The most significant global environmental problem faced by the world community is related to global
environmental changes (GEC) consequent. Upon global warming resulting from a host of causal factors
mainly anthropogenic factors such as changes in atmospheric chemistry, ozone depletion, emission of
greenhouse gases at-alarming increasing rate, urbanization, land use changes mainly deforestation etc. The
probable net result of global warming and changes in atmospheric chemistry through air pollution and other
natural sources would be climatic changes at local, regional and global levels including both short-term and
long-term changes in weather and climate.
The major sources of global environmental problems have been identified as changes in
atmospheric chemistry through air pollution (both gaseous and solid particulates pollution), through rapid
rate of industrialization and urbanization, population growth at alarming rate, advances in productive
technology, major land use changes mainly deforestation etc. and efforts are afoot for tackling the problem
of global warming leading to climatic changes at international level. It is thus, necessary to discuss the
evidences of global warming, trend of global warming, processes of global warming including ozone
depletion and emission of greenhouse gases, effects of global warming, air pollution leading to changes in
atmospheric chemistry, and related environment.
Causes of Global Warming

Global warming occurs when carbon dioxide (CO 2 ) and other air pollutants collect in the
atmosphere and absorb sunlight and solar radiation that have bounced off the earth’s surface.
Normally this radiation would escape into space, but these pollutants, which can last for years to
centuries in the atmosphere, trap the heat and cause the planet to get hotter. These heat-trapping
pollutants—specifically carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, water vapor, and synthetic

fluorinated gases—are known as greenhouse gases, and their impact is called the greenhouse
effect.
Though natural cycles and fluctuations have caused the earth’s climate to change several times
over the last 800,000 years, our current era of global warming is directly attributable
to human activity—specifically to our burning of fossil fuels such as coal, oil, gasoline, and natural
gas, which results in the greenhouse effect. In the United States, the largest source of greenhouse
gases is transportation (29 percent), followed closely by electricity production (28 percent) and
industrial activity (22 percent). Learn about the natural and human causes of climate change.
Curbing dangerous climate change requires very deep cuts in emissions, as well as the use of
alternatives to fossil fuels worldwide. The good news is that countries around the globe have
formally committed—as part of the 2015 Paris Climate Agreement—to lower their emissions by
setting new standards and crafting new policies to meet or even exceed those standards. The not -
so-good news is that we’re not working fast enough. To avoid the worst impacts of climate change,
scientists tell us that we need to reduce global carbon emissions by as much as 40 percent by 2030.
For that to happen, the global community must take immediate, concrete steps: to decarbonize
electricity generation by equitably transitioning from fossil fuel–based production to renewable
energy sources like wind and solar; to electrify our cars and trucks; and to maximize energy
efficiency in our buildings, appliances, and industries.
A. Natural Causes of Global Warming

1. Continental drift and Plate tectonics : Earths outer shell is composed of plates. As the
estimation these palates move at a rate of about 3 cm per year; affect more land at higher latitudes:
• alter ocean currents and therefore heat transport
• alter global atmospheric circulation
• more glaciers over land, higher albedo, cooler temp
2. Ocean Currents : Oceans occupy 71% of the Earth and absorb about twice as much of the
sun's radiation as the atmosphere or the land surface. Huge amounts of heat across the planet, but
the oceans are surrounded by land masses, so heat transport through the water is through channels.
The coast of Peru and other adjoining regions are directly influenced by the Humboldt current that

flows along the coastline of Peru. The El Niño event in the Pacific Ocean can affect climatic
conditions all over the world.
4. Forest fires : Prevalence of higher temperature and dry climate can lead to forest fire. e.g.
Australia- Bush fire, US- wild fire
5. Volcanoes : Volcanoes are one of the largest natural contributors to global warming. The ash
and smoke emitted during volcanic eruptions goes out into the atmosphere and affects the climate.
6. Water Vapour : Water vapour is a kind of greenhouse gas. Due to the increase in earth’s
temperature more water gets evaporated from the water bodies and stays in the atmosphere adding
to global warming.
7. Melting Permafrost : Permafrost is there where glaciers are present. It is a frozen soil that has
environmental gases trapped in it for several years. As the permafrost melts, it releases the gases
back into the atmosphere increasing the earth’s temperature.
8. Forest Blazes : Forest blazes or forest fires emit a large amount of carbon-containing smoke.
These gases are released into the atmosphere and increase the earth’s temperature resulting in
global warming.
B. Man-made Causes of Global Warming

1. Deforestation : Plants are the main source of oxygen. They take in carbon dioxide and release
oxygen thereby maintaining environmental balance. The forests are being depleted for many
domestic and commercial purposes. This has led to an environmental imbalance thereby giving
rise to global warming.
2. Use of Vehicles : The use of vehicles even for very short distances results into various gaseous
emissions. Vehicles burn fossil fuels which emit a large amount of carbon dioxide and other toxins
into the atmosphere resulting in a temperature increase.
3. Chlorofluorocarbon C F Cs : With the excessive use of air conditioners and refrigerators,
humans have been adding CFCs into the environment which affects the atmospheric ozone layer.
The ozone layer protects the earth surface from the harmful ultraviolet rays emitted by the sun.
The CFCs has led to ozone layer depletion making way for the ultraviolet rays, thereby increasing
the temperature of the earth.
4. Industrial Development : With the advent of industrialization, the temperature of the earth has
been increasing rapidly. The harmful emissions from the factories add to the increasing
temperature of the earth. In 2013, the Intergovernmental Panel for Climate Change reported that
the increase in the global temperature between 1880 and 2012 has been 0.9 degrees Celsius. The
increase is 1.1 degrees Celsius when compared to the preindustrial mean temperature.
5. Agriculture : Various farming activities produce carbon dioxide and methane gas. These add
to the greenhouse gases in the atmosphere and increase the temperature of the earth.
6. Overpopulation : Increase in population means more people breathing. This leads to an
increase in the level of carbon dioxide, the primary gas causing global warming, in the
atmosphere.

Effects of Global Warming

Following are the major effects of global warming:
1. Rise in Temperature : Global warming has led to an incredible increase in earth’s temperature.
Since 1880, the earth’s temperature has increased by 1.4 degrees. This has resulted in an increase
in melting of glaciers which have led to an increase in the sea levels. This could have devastating
effects on coastal regions.
2. Threat to the Ecosystem : Global warming has affected the coral reefs that can lead to a loss
of plant and animal lives. Increase in global temperatures has made the fragility of coral reefs even
worse.
3. Climate Change : Global warming has led to a change in climatic conditions. There are
droughts at some places and floods at some. This climatic imbalance is the result of global
warming.
4. Spread of Diseases : Global warming leads to a change in the patterns of heat and humidity.
This has led to the movement of mosquitoes that carry and spread diseases.
5. Loss of Natural Habitat : A global shift in the climate leads to the loss of habitats of several
plants and animals. In this case, the animals need to migrate from their natural and many of them
even get extinct. This is yet another major impact of global warming on biodiversity.
Mitigations and Adaptations:

• Energy efficiency: introducing standards for consumer appliances and equipment, such as
lighting, air conditioners and motors, and stronger building codes.
• Renewable energy: commercializing and scaling technologies like solar, wind, small hydro,
bio power and geothermal energy.
• Policy: introducing feed-in tariffs, reverse auctions and other market-based mechanisms and
financial instruments to speed up investments in clean energy.
Evidences of Global Warming

On the other hand, the global warming potential is used as a tool to compare the relative warming
effect of various gases emitted from anthropogenic sources such as carbon dioxide, carbon
monoxide, nitrogen oxides, methane, sulphur dioxide, chlorofluorocarbon etc. It may be
mentioned that only those evidences may yield fruitful results in demonstrating any trend of rise
in air temperatures which is the only indicator of global warming which are temperature-dependent
evidences. The following evidences support the theory of gradual rise in air temperature and
consequent global warming.
1. Global temperature is rising :The planet's average surface temperature has risen about 2
degrees Fahrenheit (1 degrees Celsius) since the late 19th century, a change driven largely by
increased carbon dioxide emissions into the atmosphere and other human activities. Most of the
warming occurred in the past 40 years, with the seven most recent years being the warmest. The
years 2016 and 2020 are tied for the warmest year on record .

2. Warming of ocean water at global level : The ocean has absorbed much of this increased heat,
with the top 100 meters (about 328 feet) of ocean showing warming of more than 0.6 degrees
Fahrenheit (0.33 degrees Celsius) since 1969. Earth stores 90% of the extra energy in the ocean.
3. Ice Sheets are shrinking : The Greenland and Antarctic ice sheets have decreased in mass.
Data from NASA's Gravity Recovery and Climate Experiment show Greenland lost an average
of 279 billion tons of ice per year between 1993 and 2019, while Antarctica lost about 148
billion tons of ice per year.
4. Glaciers are retreating: Glaciers are retreating almost everywhere around the world —
including in the Alps, Himalayas, Andes, Rockies, Alaska, and Africa.
5. Snow cover is decreasing: Satellite observations reveal that the amount of spring snow cover
in the Northern Hemisphere has decreased over the past five decades and the snow is melting
earlier.
6. Sea level is rising : Global sea level rose about 8 inches (20 centimetres) in the last century.
The rate in the last two decades, however, is nearly double that of the last century and
accelerating slightly every year.
7. Artic Sea ice is declining: Both the extent and thickness of Arctic Sea ice has declined rapidly
over the last several decades.
8. Extreme Events Are Increasing in Frequency : The number of record high temperature
events in the United States has been increasing, while the number of record low temperature
events has been decreasing, since 1950. The U.S. has also witnessed increasing numbers of
intense rainfall events.
9. Ocean Acidification Is Increasing : Since the beginning of the Industrial Revolution, the
acidity of surface ocean waters has increased by about 30%.13,14 This increase is due to
humans emitting more carbon dioxide into the atmosphere and hence more being absorbed into
the ocean. The ocean has absorbed between 20% and 30% of total anthropogenic carbon dioxide
emissions in recent decades (7.2 to 10.8 billion metric tons per year).

Impact on Environment:
The impacts of the change of climate is clearly depicted under the following heads:
• Increase of Human Diseases
• Rise in Sea Level
• Effects on Living Organisms
• Effects on Agriculture
• Rising of East Antarctica
1. Increase of human diseases:

In the 20th century, the global temperature increased by 0.6ºC. The Earth’s mean temperature may
increase by 1.5 to 5.5ºC by 2050. The moisture carrying capacity will increase. The temperature
of the troposphere will increase, whereas the temperature of stratosphere will decrease. This causes
more rain at higher latitudes and less at lower latitudes. The extreme drought and floods will be
increased. In tropical and subtropical areas, human diseases will be increased.’
2. Rise in sea level
The rise in sea level results in global warming. Thermal expansion of ocean and melting of glaciers
and polar ice sheets and increase in sea level. The sea level increases at the rate of 1 to 2 mm/year
during 20th century. Increase by 3ºC would increase the sea level by 0.2 to 1.5 meters over the
next 100 years. The 1 meter rise of sea level will inundate many cities like Sydney, Cairo,
Bangkok, etc. The rise in sea level leads to negative impact on human settlements, fisheries,
tourism, agriculture and coastal ecosystems.
3. Effects on living organisms
The Distribution pattern of organism changes and many species will shift to mountain areas. The
rapid rise in temperature leads to the trees to die and it would result in creation of scrub vegetation.
Many species disappear due to inability to migrate fast.
4. Effects on agriculture
The increase in plant diseases, pests and weeds resulting in the reduction of crop productivity. In
temperature region, small increase in temperature may increase the crop production but more
temperature decreases the crop productivity. In tropical and subtropical regions, small rise in
temperature decreases crop productivity. A rise by 2ºC is quite harmful to crops. The vectors

causing diseases adapt to the increased temperature but the crops do not adapt. So heat, drought
and pest resistant crops have to be developed.
5. Rising of East Antarctica
In the recent findings, it was discovered that the surface of east Antarctica appears to be growing
higher by about 1.8 cm per year as snow and ice pile up. The accumulation of snow and ice occurs
across 2.75 million sq.m. This corresponds to a gain of 45 billion tons of water a year or,
equivalently the removal of the top 0.12 mm world’s oceans. The gain in east Antarctica snow
partly offsets the rise in sea level caused by the melting of ice and snow in other parts. The earth’s
warming temperature would increase the amount of moisture in the air and lead to greater snow
fall on the eastern Antarctica. This is a blessing in disguise because global warming helps in piling
up of ice over east Antarctica particularly, instead of melting ice there.
6. Climate change and its Impact on Agriculture
Based on some of the past experiences indicated above, impact of climate change on agriculture
will be one of the major deciding factors influencing the future food security of mankind on the
earth. Agriculture is not only sensitive to climate change but also one of the major drivers for
climate change. Understanding the weather changes over a period of time and adjusting the
management practices towards achieving better harvest are challenges to the growth of agricultural
sector as a whole. The climate sensitivity of agriculture is uncertain, as there is regional variation
in rainfall, temperature, crops and cropping systems, soils and management practices. The inter-
annual variations in temperature and precipitation were much higher than the predicted changes in
temperature and precipitation. The crop losses may increase if the predicted climate change
increases the climate variability. Different crops respond differently as the global warming will
have a complex impact. The tropics are more dependent on agriculture as 75% of world population
lives in tropics and two thirds of these people’s main occupation is agriculture. With low levels of
technology, wide range of pests, diseases and weeds, land degradation, unequal land distribution
and rapid population growth, any impact on tropical agriculture will affect their livelihood. Rice,
wheat, maize, sorghum, soybean and barley are the six major crops in the world grown in 40%
cropped area, and contribute to 55% of non-meat calories and over 70% of animal feed (FAO,
2006). Consequently, any effect on these crops would adversely affect the food security.
Main projections for climate change at Global Level:

The projections of future climate patterns are largely based on computer-based models of the
climate system that incorporate the important factors and processes of the atmosphere and the
oceans, including the expected growth in greenhouse gases from socio-economic scenarios for the
coming decades.
The IPCC has examined the published results from many different models and on the basis of the
evidence has estimated that by 2100-
• The global average surface warming (surface air temperature change) will increase by 1.1 -
6.4 °C.

• The sea level will rise between 18 and 59 cm. The oceans will become more acidic.
• It is very likely that hot extremes, heat waves and heavy precipitation events will continue
to become more frequent.
• It is very likely that there will be more precipitation at higher latitudes and it is likely that
there will be less precipitation in most subtropical land areas.
• It is likely that tropical cyclones (typhoons and hurricanes) will become more intense, with
larger peak wind speeds and heavier precipitation associated with ongoing increases of
tropical sea surface temperatures.
Likely Effects of climate change on key sectors at Global Level:

The IPCC Fourth Assessment Report of the Working Group II: Impacts, Adaptation and
Vulnerability describe the likely effects of climate change, including from increases in extreme
events. The effects on key sectors, in the absence of countermeasures, are summarized as follows.
1. Water: Drought affected areas are likely to be more widely distributed. Heavier
precipitation events are very likely to increase in frequency leading to higher flood risks.
By mid-century, water availability is likely to decrease in mid -latitudes, in the dry tropics
and in other regions supplied by melted water from mountain ranges. More than one sixth
of the world‘s population is currently dependent on melt water from mountain ranges.
2. Food: While some mid latitude and high latitude areas will initially benefit from higher
agricultural production, for many others at lower latitudes, especially in seasonally dry and
tropical regions, the increases in temperature and the frequency of d roughts and floods are
likely to affect crop production negatively, which could increase the number of people at
risk from hunger and increased levels of displacement and migration.
3. Industry, settlement and society: The most vulnerable industries, settlements and
societies are generally those located in coastal areas and river flood plains, and those whose
economies are closely linked with climate sensitive resources. This applies particularly to
locations already prone to extreme weather events and especially to areas undergoing rapid
urbanization. Where extreme weather events become more intense or more frequent, the
economic and social costs of those events will increase.
4. Health: The projected changes in climate are likely to alter the health status of millions of
people, including increased deaths, disease and injury due to heat waves, floods, storms,
fires and droughts. Increased malnutrition, diarrhea disease and malaria in some areas will
increase vulnerability to extreme public health, and development goals will be threatened
by long term damage to health systems from disasters.

Ozone layer depletion

The ozone layer is a layer in Earth's atmosphere which contains relatively high concentrations of ozone
(O3). This layer absorbs 93-99% of the sun's high frequency ultraviolet light, which is potentially damaging
to life on earth. Over 91% of the ozone in Earth's atmosphere is present here. It is mainly located in the
lower portion of the stratosphere from approximately 10 km to 50 km above Earth , though the thickness
varies seasonally and geographically. The ozone layer was discovered in 1913 by the French physicists
Charles Fabry and Henri Buisson. Its properties were explored in detail by the British meteorologist G. M.
B. Dobson, who developed a simple spectrophotometer (the Dobson meter) that could be used to measure
stratospheric ozone from the ground. Between 1928 and 1958 Dobson established a worldwide network of
ozone monitoring stations which continues to operate today.
Ozone : Without ozone, life on Earth would not have evolved in the way it has. The first stage of single
cell organism development requires an oxygen-free environment. This type of environment existed on earth
over 3000 million years ago. As the primitive forms of plant lif e multiplied and evolved.
Ozone Hole : In some of the popular news media, as well as in many books, the term "ozone hole" has and
often still is used far too loosely. Frequently, the term is employed to describe any episode of ozone
depletion, no matter how minor. Unfortunately, this sloppy language trivializes the problem and blurs the
important scientific distinction between the massive ozone losses in Polar Regions and the much smaller,
but nonetheless significant, ozone losses in other parts of the world. Technically, the term "ozone hole"
should be applied to regions where stratospheric ozone depletion is so severe that levels fall below 200
Dobson Units (D.U.), the traditional measure of stratospheric ozone.
Ozone Layer : The ozone layer is not really a layer at all, but has become known as such because most
ozone particles are scattered between 19 and 30 km (12 to 30 miles) up in the Earth's atmosphere, in a
region called the stratosphere. The concentration of ozone in the ozone layer is usually under 10 parts ozone
per million. Without the ozone layer, a lot of ultraviolet (UV) radiation from the Sun would not be stopped
reaching the Earth's surface, causing untold damage to most living species. In the 1970s, scientists
discovered that chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) could destroy ozone in the stratosphere. Ozone is created in
the stratosphere when UV radiation from the Sun strikes molecules of oxygen (O2) and causes the two
oxygen atoms to split apart. If a freed atom bumps into another O2, it joins up, forming ozone (O3). This
process is known as photolysis. Ozone is also naturally broken down in the stratosphere by sunlight and by
a chemical reaction with various compounds containing nitrogen, hydrogen and chlorine. These chemicals
all occur naturally in the atmosphere in very small amounts. In an unpolluted atmosphere there is a balance
between the amount of ozone being produced and the amount of ozone being destroyed. As a result, the
total concentration of ozone in the stratosphere remains relatively constant. At different temperatures and
pressures (i.e. varying altitudes within the stratosphere), there are different formation and destruction rates.
Thus, the amount of ozone within the stratosphere varies according to altitude. Ozone concentrations are
highest between 19 and 23 km.
Ozone Layer Recovery: The ozone depletion caused by human-produced chlorine and bromine
compounds expected to gradually disappear by about the middle of the 21st century as these compounds
are slowly removed from the stratosphere by natural processes. This environmental achievement is due to
the landmark international agreement to control the production and use of ozone-depleting substances. Full
compliance would be required to achieve this expected recovery. Without the Montrea l Protocol and its
Amendments, continuing use of chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) and other ozone-depleting substances would
have increased the stratospheric abundances of chlorine and bromine tenfold by the mid -2050s compared

with the 1980 amounts. Such high chlorine and bromine abundances would have caused very large ozone
losses, which would have been far larger than the depletion observed at present. In contrast, under the
current international agreements that are now reducing the human-caused emissions of ozone-depleting
gases, the net troposphere concentrations of chlorine- and bromine-containing compounds started to
decrease in 1995. Because 3 to 6 years are required for the mixing from the troposphere to the stratosphere,
the stratospheric abundances of chlorine are starting to reach a constant level and will slowly decline
thereafter. With full compliance, the international agreements will eventually eliminate most of the
emissions of the major ozone-depleting gases. All other things being constant, the ozone layer would be
expected to return to a normal state during the middle of the next century. This slow recovery, as compared
with the relatively rapid onset of the ozone depletion due to CFC and bromine-containing halons emissions,
related primarily to the time required for natural processes to eliminate the CFCs and halons from the
atmosphere.
Causes of Ozone Depletion

There are many substances that lead to ozone layer depletion such as hydro chlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs)
and volatile organic compounds (VOCs). Such substances found in vehicular emissions, by-products of
industrial processes, aerosols and refrigerants. All these ozone-depleting substances remain stable in the
lower atmospheric region, but as they reach the stratosphere, they get exposed to the ultra violet rays. This
leads to their breakdown and releasing of free chlorine atoms which reacts with the ozone gas, thus leading
to the depletion of the ozone layer.
Ozone depletion occurs when the natural balance between the production and destruction of stratospheric
ozone is tipped in favour of destruction. Although natural phenomena can cause temporary ozone loss,
chlorine and bromine released from man-made compounds such as CFCs are now accepted as the main
cause of this depletion . It was first suggested by Drs. M. Molina and S. Rowland in 1974 that a man-made
group of compounds known as the chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) were likely to be the main source of ozone
depletion. However, this idea was not taken seriously until the discovery of the ozon e hole over Antarctica
in 1985 by the Survey. Chlorofluorocarbons are not "washed" back to Earth by rain or destroyed in reactions
with other chemicals. They simply do not break down in the lower atmosphere and they can remain in the
atmosphere from 20 to 120 years or more. As a consequence of their relative stability, CFCs are instead
transported into the stratosphere where they are eventually broken down by ultraviolet (UV) rays from the
Sun, releasing free chlorine. The chlorine becomes actively involved in the process of destruction of ozone.
Effects of ozone layer depletion

Few possible effects of the ozone layer depletion on the earth’s living environment. The
depletion of ozone layer allows entering of UV rays from sun into the earth’s atmosphere which
is associated with a number of health related and environmental issues such as:
Skin Cancer: Exposure to UV rays from sun can lead to increased risk for developing of several
types of skin cancers. Malignant melanoma, basal and squamous cell carcinoma are the most
common cancers caused by exposure to UV rays.
Eye Damage: UV rays are harmful for our eyes too. Direct exposure to UV rays can lead to
Cataract problems, and also Photokeratitis or snow blindness.

Damage to Immune system: Human immune system is also highly vulnerable to UV rays.
Increased exposure to UV rays can lead to weakening of the response of immune system and even
impairment of the immune system in extreme cases.
Aging of skin: Exposure to UV rays can lead to acceleration of the aging process of your skin.
This will result in you looking older than what you actually are. It can also lead to photo allergy
that result in outbreak of rashes in fair skinned people.
Impact of UV rays on other life forms:

Amphibians: UV rays affect other life forms too. It adversely affects the different species of
amphibians and is one of the prime reasons for the declining numbers of the amphibian species. It
affects them in every stage of their life cycle; from hampering the growth and development in the
larvae stage, deformities and decreases immunities in some species and to even retinal damage and
blindness in some species.
Marine ecosystem: UV rays also have adverse effect on the marine ecosystem. It adversely
affects the planktons which plays a vital role in the food chain and oceanic carbon cycle. Affecting
phytoplankton will in turn affect the whole ocean ecosystem.
Plants: UV rays will also affect the plants. UV radiations can alter the time of flowering in some
plant species. It can also directly affect the plant growth by altering the physiological and
developmental processes of the plants.
Measures / Steps to Control ozone layer depletion

• Ozone layer depletion is not something that affects any specific country or region. The
whole world is vulnerable to its after effects. That makes it important for each and every
one of us to take actions to reduce ozone layer depletion.
• International agreements such as Montreal protocol in 1987 have helped in reducing and
controlling industrial emission of Chlofluoro carbons. More and more of such international
agreements between countries is necessary to bring down ozone layer depletion.
• At individual level each and every one also can contribute towards reducing ozone layer
depletion. Buying and using recycled products, saving of energy, using of public transport
can do a lot in combating ozone layer depletion.
• The most important thing that we can do is spreading awareness. Our individual efforts
will go a long way in saving the earth’s blanket and keep our planet earth liveable for us
and our future generations.

Acid Rain
Acid rain, or acid deposition, is a broad term that includes any form of precipitation with acidic components,
such as sulfuric or nitric acid that fall to the ground from the atmosphere in wet or dry forms. This can
include rain, snow, fog, hail or even dust that is acidic.
Acid rain generally leads to weathering of buildings, corrosion of metals, and peeling of paints on
surfaces. Erupting volcanoes contains some chemicals that can cause acid rain. Apart from this, burning of
fossil fuels, running of factories and automobiles due to human activities are few other reasons behind this
activity.
Presently, large amounts of acid deposition is witnessed in the southeastern Canada, northeastern
United States and most of Europe, including portions of Sweden, Norway, and Germany. In addition, some
amount of acid deposition is found in parts of South Asia, South Africa, Sri Lanka, and Southern India.
It was discovered way back in 1800s during the Industrial Revolution. A Scottish chemist, Robert
Angus Smith, was first to discover this phenomenon in 1852 as a relationship between acid rain
and atmospheric pollution in Manchester, England. But it gained public attention mainly in 1960s. The term
was coined in 1972 when the NY Times published reports about the climate change effects which started
arising due to the occurrence of acid rain.
Damage from acid rain is widespread in North America, Europe, Japan, China and Southeast Asia.
In the US coal burning power plants contribute to about 70% of sulfur dioxide. In Canada oil refining, metal
smelting and other industrial activities account for 61% of sulfur dioxide pollution. Motor vehicle exhaust
fumes are the main source of nitrogen oxides.
Causes of Acid Rain

Acid rain results when sulphur dioxide (SO 2 ) and nitrogen oxides (NO X ) are emitted into the atmosphere
and transported by wind and air currents. The SO 2 and NOX react with water, oxygen and other chemicals
to form sulphuric and nitric acids. These then mix with water and other materials before falling to the
ground.
While a small portion of the SO2 and NOX that cause acid rain is from natural sources such as volcanoes,
most of it comes from the burning of fossil fuels. The major sources of SO 2 and NOX in the atmosphere
are:
• Burning of fossil fuels to generate electricity. Two thirds of SO 2 and one fourth of NO X in the
atmosphere come from electric power generators.
• Vehicles and heavy equipment.
• Manufacturing, oil refineries and other industries.
• Winds can blow SO2 and NOX over long distances and across borders making acid rain a problem for
everyone and not just those who live close to these sources.
Forms of Acid Rain

Wet Deposition:
When the wind blows the acidic chemicals in the air to the areas where the weather is wet, the acids
fall to the ground in the form of rain, sleet, fog, snow or mist. It removes acid from the atmosphere and
deposit them on the earth’s surface. When this acid flows through the ground, it affects large number of

plants, animals and aquatic life. The water from drain flows into rivers and canals which is them mixed up
with sea water, thereby affecting marine habitats.
Dry Deposition:
If the wind blows the acidic chemicals in the air to the areas where the weather is dry, the acidic
pollutants slip into dust or smoke and fall to the ground as dry particles. These stick to the ground and other
surfaces such as cars, houses, trees and buildings. Almost 50% of the acidic pollutants in the atmosphere
fall back through dry deposition. These acidic pollutants can be washed away from earth surface by
rainstorms.
Sources of Acid Rain

A. Natural Sources
The major natural causal agent for acid rain is volcanic emissions. Volcanoes emit acid producing
gases to create higher than normal amounts of acid rain or any other form of precipitation such as fog and
snow to an extent of affecting vegetation cover and health of residents within the surrounding.
B. Man-made sources
Human activities leading to chemical gas emissions such as sulfur and nitrogen are the primary contributors
to acid rain. The activities include air pollution sources emitting sulfur and nitrogen gases like factories,
power generations facilities, and automobiles. In particular, use of coal for electrical power generation is
the biggest contributor to gaseous emissions leading to acid rain. Automobiles and factories also release
high scores of gaseous emissions on daily basis into the air, especially in high ly industrialized areas and
urban regions with large numbers of car traffic.
Effects of Acid Rain

Acid rain has significant effects on the global environment as well as on public health.
1. Effect on Aquatic Environment:
Acid rain either falls directly on aquatic bodies or gets run off flow into streams, rivers and lakes.
The acidic water get accumulated in the water body and change its pH level. The aquatic plants and animals
need a particular pH level of about 4.8 to survive. Acid rain has tendency of altering pH and aluminum
concentrations greatly affects pH concentration levels in surface water, thereby affecting fish as well as
other aquatic life-forms. At pH levels below 5, most fish eggs cannot hatch and can be kill adult fish. Acid
rain runoff from catchment areas has also affects the biodiversity.
2. Effect on Forests:
It makes trees vulnerable to disease, extreme weather, and insects by destroying their leaves,
damaging the bark and arresting their growth. Forest damage due to acid rain is most evident in Eastern
Europe – especially Germany, Poland and Switzerland.
3. Effect on Soil:
Acid rain highly impacts on soil chemistry and biology. The soil needs to maintain an optimum pH
level for the continuity of biological activity. When acid rains seep into the soil, it means higher soil pH,
which damages or reverses soil biological and chemical activities. Hence, sensitive soil microorganisms
that cannot adapt to changes in pH are killed. High soil acidity also denatures enzymes for the soil microbes.

4. Vegetation Cover and Plantations:

The damaging effects of acid rain is more at high altitude forests and vegetation cover because they
are mostly encircled by acidic fogs and clouds. Besides, the widespread effects of acid rain on ecological
harmony have leads to stunted growth and even death of some forests and vegetation cover.
5. Effect on Architecture and Buildings:
Acid rain on buildings, especially those constructed with limestone, react with the minerals and
corrode them away. This makes the building weak and susceptible to decay. Modern buildings, cars,
airplanes, steel bridges and pipes are all affected by acid rain. Irreplaceable damage can be caused to the
old heritage buildings.
6. Effect on Public Health:
When in atmosphere, sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxide gases and their particulate matter
derivatives like sulfates and nitrates, degrades visibility and can cause accidents, leading to injuries and
deaths. Human health is not directly affected by acid rain because acid rain water is too dilute to cause
serious health problems. However, the dry depositions also known as gaseous particulates in the air which
in this case are nitrogen oxides and sulfur dioxide can cause serious health problems when inhaled.
Intensified levels of acid depositions in dry form in the air can cause lung and heart problems such as
bronchitis and asthma.
7. Other Effects:
Acid rain leads to weathering of buildings, corrosion of metals, and peeling of paints on surfaces.
Buildings and structures made of marble and limestone are the ones especially damaged by acid rain due
to the reactivity of the acids in the rain and the calcium compounds in the structures. The effects are
commonly seen on statues, old grave stones, historic monuments, and damaged buildings. Acid rain also
corrodes metals like steel, bronze, copper, and iron.
Solutions from Acid Rain

1. Cleaning up Exhaust Pipes and Smokestacks
Washing coal, use of coal comprised of low sulfur, and use of devices known as “scrubbers” can
provide technical solution to SO2 emissions. “Scrubbing” also called flue -gas desulfurization (FGD)
typically work to chemically eliminate SO2 from the gases leaving smokestacks. It can eliminate up to 95%
of SO2 gases. Power generation facilities can also shift to using fuels that emit much less SO2 such as
natural gas instead of burning coal. These methods are simply called emission reduction strategies.
2. Restoring Damaged Environments
Use of limestone or lime, a process called liming, is a practice that people can do to repair the
damage caused by acid rain to lakes, rivers and brooks. Adding lime into acidic surface waters balances the
acidity. It’s a process that has extensively been used, for instance in Sweden, to keep the water pH at
optimum. Even though, liming is an expensive method and has to be done repeatedly. It helps to restore
and allow the survival of aquatic life forms by improving chronically acidified surface waters.
3. Alternative Energy Sources
Besides fossil fuels, there is a wide range of alternative energy sources that can generate electrical
power. These include wind energy, geothermal energy, solar energy, hydropower, and nuclear power. Fuel
cells, natural gas, and batteries can also substitute use of fossil fuel as cleaner energy sources. The only
solution is using sustainable energy that can protect the future.

4. Individual, National/State, and International Actions

Millions of people directly and indirectly contribute to SO2 and NOx emissions. Mitigation of this
challenge requires individuals to be more informed about energy conservation and ways of reducing
emissions such as: turning off lights or electrical appliances when not using them; use public transport;
use energy efficient electrical appliances.
Environmental Legislation
Environmental laws are an important part of governance body. It comprises a set of laws and
regulations concerning air quality, water quality, and other aspects of the environment.
Environmental legislation is a set of laws and regulations which aim at
protecting the environment from harmful actions.
Legislation may take many forms, including regulation of emissions that may lead to
environmental pollution, taxation of environment- and health-damaging activities, and
establishing the legal framework for trading schemes, for example, carbon emissions. The
environmental laws in India are a direct reflection of what was envisaged in the constitution. The
need for protection and conservation of the environment and sustainable use of natural resources
is reflected in the constitutional framework of India and also in the international commitments of
India.
Need for environmental legislation

In the recent past, numerous environmental problems have become threatening for human welfare.
An important aspect of environmental problems is that their impact is not confined to the source
area but spills over far and wide area.

Effective legislation is needed in order to prevent misuse and degradation of the

environment. To curb the destructive practices of people, forest mafia groups, poachers, polluters
and over exploitation of environmental resources, effective legislation is necessary. Pollution is an
important factor, and it does not observe political territories or legislative jurisdictions. Thus,
environmental problems are basically global in nature. Therefore, to prevent such problems
environmental legislation is not needed only at the national level but also at the international level
1. The Wildlife Protection Act, 1972

The Government of India enacted Wild Life (Protection) Act 1972 with the objective of effectively
protecting the wild life of this country and to control poaching, smuggling and illegal trade in
wildlife and its offshoots.
The Act was amended in January 2003 and punishment and penalty for offences under the
Act have been made more stringent. The objective is to provide protection to the listed endangered
flora and fauna and ecologically important protected areas.
Objectives:
• To maintain essential ecological processes and life supporting systems.
• To preserve the biodiversity
• To ensure protection and conservation of wild life.
• To provide regulations for hunting wild animals and birds
• To establish sanctuaries and national parks, tiger reserves
• To provide regulations for trade in wild animals, animal products and trophies, and
• To judicially impose penalties for violating the Act
Key Features:
• Harming endangered species listed in Schedule 1 of the Act is prohibited throughout India.
• Hunting species, like those requiring special protection, big game (hunting of large animals
for meat, for other animal by-products or for trophy or for sport) and small game is
regulated through licensing.
• Prohibition of Hunting endangered species of animals.
• Prohibiting picking and uprooting of specified plants.
• A few species classified as vermin (pest/insect) as per Schedule - V, may be hunted without
restrictions.
• Wildlife wardens and their staff administer the act.
• An amendment to the Act in 1982, introduced a provision permitting the capture and
transportation of wild animals for the scientific management of animal population.
• Several conservation projects for individual endangered species like lion (1972), tiger
(1973), crocodile (1974) and brown antlered deer (1981) were started under this act.

Penalties and Fine for violation of the provisions:

A person violating any provision of this act shall be punished with imprisonment or a fine or both.
Any person who contravenes any provision of this Act will fact following fine and penalties;
a) imprisonment for a term which may extend to three years or with fine which may extend
to twenty-five thousand rupees or both
b) offence related to hunting in a sanctuary or a National Park or altering the boundaries of a
sanctuary or a National Park, shall be punishable with imprisonment for a term which shall
not be less than three years but may extend to seven years and also with fine which shall
not be less than ten thousand rupees
c) offence related to hunting in the tiger reserve or altering the boundaries of the tiger reserve,
shall be punishable on first conviction with imprisonment for a term which shall not be less
than three years but may extend to seven years, and also with fine which shall not be less
than fifty thousand rupees but may extend to two lakh rupees; and in the event of a second
or subsequent conviction with imprisonment for a term of not less than seven years and
also with fine which shall not be less than five lakh rupees but may extend to fifty lakh
rupees.
d) in case of an offence against this Act, the court may order that any captive animal, wild
animal, meat, ivory imported into India or an article made from such ivory, any specified
plant, or part and any trap, tool, vehicle, vessel or weapon, used in the commission of the
said offence be forfeited to the State Government and that any license or permit, held by
such person under the provisions of this Act, be cancelled.
e) or possession of any arm with which an offence against this Act has been committed, shall
be cancelled and that such person shall not be eligible for a license.
Other Provisions:
1) State Govts have to seek prior permission of the Supreme Court before submitting the
proposal for diversion of forest land in National Park, sanctuaries
2) In accordance with Wildlife (Protection) Amendment Act, 2002 “no alternation of
boundaries / national park / sanctuary shall be made by the state govt. Except on
recommendation of the National Board for Wildlife (NBWL)”.
3) Only after permission of de-reservation / denotification of Wildlife Sanctuary /National
Park for hydro project has been accorded by Stand ing Committee of NBWL and is
ratified by Hon’ble Supreme Court, such proposal for de-reservation/ de-notification can
such project be entertained by Ministry of Environment and Forest, GOI
4) The central government may appoint a Director of wildlife preservation, Assistant Director
of wildlife preservation and other required officers and employees.
5) The state government may appoint a Chief Wildlife warden, Wildlife wardens and other
required officers and employees.
6) The state government or union territory may constitute a Wildlife Advisory Board. It
advises the state government about selection of areas to be declared as sanctuaries and

national parks formulation of the policy for protection and conservation of wildlife and
specified plants.
7) The Chief Wildlife Warden may grant permission to any person on payment of the
prescribed fee, allowing him to hunt any wild animal for the purpose of education,
scientific research, collection of specimens and collection of snake venom for the
manufacture of life saving drugs.
8) The central government shall constitute a body to be known as Central Zoo Authority for
taking care of the animals kept in a zoo, assessment of the functioning of the zoos and
identification of endangered species of wild animals for the purpose of captive breeding.
Powers of Chief Wildlife Warden and authorized officers:

a) Power of cancellation of gun license of any person who has committed offence against this
act.
b) The director or forest officer or any police officer not below the rank of a Sub Inspector
has the power to stop any vehicle in order to conduct search.
c) If any person possess any captive animal, wild animal, animal article, meat etc., in his
custody is considered as offence committed against this act. Arrest such a person with
warrant and detain him.
2. Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974

The Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act was enacted in 1974. The main objectives
of the Water Act are to provide for the prevention and control of water pollution, and for the
maintaining or restoring of wholesomeness of water in the country.
The Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974, defines water pollution, as the
direct or indirect discharge of sewage, industrial effluents or any liquid, gaseous or solid substance
into water which alters the physical, chemical or biological properties of water to make it harmful
or injurious to public health and health of animals or of aquatic organisms’
Objectives:
a) Prevention and control of water pollution
a) Maintaining or restoring healthy and hygienic water.
b) Establishment of Central board and State board for the prevention and control of water
pollution.
Key Features:
The Water Act, 1974 is an extensive legislation with more than sixty sections for the prevention
and control of water pollution. Among other things, the Act provides for;
1) constitution of Central and State Pollution Control Boards for preventing water pollution,

2) empowers boards to take water samples and their analysis, discharge of sewage or trade
effluents (liquid waste discharged from premises being used for a business, trade or
industrial process)
3) appeals, revision, minimum and maximum penalties
4) publication of names of offenders, cognizance of offences by companies and Government
departments
5) water laboratories, analysis etc.
Prevention and control of water pollution is achieved through a permit or ‘consent
administration’ procedure. Discharge of effluents is permitted by obtaining the consent of the
State Water Board, subject to any condition they specify.
Penalties and fines

Section 42 of the of the Water (Prevention & Control of Pollution) Act, 1974 states penalties and
fines. Whoever contravenes any of the provisions of this Act or fails to comply with any order or
direction given under this Act, for which no penalty has been elsewhere provided in this Act, shall
be punishable with imprisonment which may extend to three months or with fine which may
extend to ten thousand rupees or with both, and in the case of a continuing contravention or
failure, with an additional fine which may extend to five thousand rupees for every day during
which such contravention or failure continues after conviction for the first such contravention or
failure.
Provisions of the act: (Central Water Pollution Control Board):

a) To lay down standards for streams and wells and to promote their cleanliness.
b) To advise and provide technical assistance to the central government on matters
concerning the prevention and control of water pollution.
c) To prepare manuals or guides for treatment and disposal of sewage and industrial
effluents and to establish or recognize laboratories for analysis of water samples.
Provisions of the act: (State Water Pollution Control Board)

1) Planning a comprehensive programme for prevention, control and abatement of
pollution of streams and wells.
2) Advising the state government regarding water pollution control or location of
industries.
3) Conducting and encouraging research relating to different aspects of water pollution.
4) To collaborate with the central water board for training personnel for handling water
pollution programmes.
5) Inspecting industrial effluents and waste water treatment plants.
6) Evolving economical and reliable methods of disposal, treatment and reuse of waste water
in agriculture.

7) Laying down the standards of treatment of sewage and industrial effluents to be

discharged into any stream.
8) Establishing or recognizing laboratories for analysis of water samples.
Powers of the board:

a) The water pollution control board officers have the power to take samples of water of any
stream or well or effluents discharged from the industry for analysis.
b) Without the proper consent of the water pollution control board, no person shall
establish any industry which is likely to discharge any sewage or effluents into stream or
well or on land.
The Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Cess Act, 1977

The Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Cess Act was enacted in 1977, to provide for the
charge and collection of a cess on water consumed by persons operating and carrying on certain
types of industrial activities. This cess is collected with a view to augment the resources of the
Central Board and the State Boards for the prevention and control of water pollution constituted
under the Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974. The Act was last amended in
2003.
According to Water Pollution Cess Act, 1977, anyone consuming water has to pay certain
amount of cess depending on:
• Whether the industry is using water for industrial cooling, spraying in mine pits or boilers
feed,
• For domestic purposes.
• In processing, whereby water gets polluted and pollutants are easily biodegradable.
• In processing whereby, water gets polluted and the pollutants are not easily biodegradable
and are toxic.
Those industries that had installed a suitable treatment plant for the treatment of industrial
effluents can get a rebate of 70 per cent on the cess payable.
The Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act amendment 1988

The Act was amended in 1988. The government formulated this act to prevent the pollution of
water by industrial, agricultural and household waste water that can contaminate our water sources.
Waste waters with high levels of pollutants that enter wetlands, rivers, lakes, wells as well as the
sea are serious health hazards. It is designed to assess pollution levels and punish polluters. The
Central Government and State Government have set up Pollution Control Boards to monitor water
pollution.

3. The Forest (Conservation) Act, 1980

The Forest Conservation Act, 1980 was enacted to control deforestation; it ensured that forestlands
could not be de-reserved without prior approval of the Central Government. This was created as
some states had begun to de-reserve the Reserved Forests for non-forest use. These states had
regularized encroachments and resettled ‘Project Affected People’ from development projects
such as dams in these de-reserved areas. The need for a new legislation became urgent. The Act
made it possible to retain a greater control over the frightening level of deforestation in the country
and specified penalties for offenders The Act came into force on the 25th day of October, 1980.
Objectives:
a) Protection and conservation of forests.
b) To ensure judicious use of forest products.
Provisions:
1) Restriction on the de-reservation of forests or use of forest land for non-forest
purpose.
2) This act was enacted with a view to check indiscriminate diversion of forest land to non-forest
purposes.
3) Under this act prior approval of central government is required before any reserved forest is
declared as de-reserved or forest land is diverted to non-forest purposes.
4) If diversion is permitted, compensatory afforestation is raised over equivalent area of non-
forest lands.
5) According to this act six regional offices have been set up for monitoring forest conservation
matters by department of environment, forests and wildlife.
6) No State Government or other authority shall make, except with the prior approval of the
Central Government, any order directing that –
• any forest land or any portion thereof may be used for any non-forest purpose; "non-forest
purpose" means the cultivation of tea, coffee, spices, rubber, palms, oilbearing plants,
horticultural crops or medicinal plants and any purpose other than reforestation.
• any forest land or any portion thereof may be assigned by way of lease or otherwise to any
private person or to any authority, corporation, agency or any other organisation not owned,
managed or controlled by Government;
7) any forest land or any portion thereof may be cleared of trees which have grown naturally in
that land or portion, for the purpose of using it for reforestation.
8) Any work relating or related to conservation, development and management of forests and
wildlife, namely, the establishment of check-posts, fire lines, wireless communications and
construction of fencing, bridges and culverts, dams, waterholes, trench marks, boundary marks,
pipelines or other like purposes are out of the restriction.

Powers of the central government:

a) The land that has been notified or registered and mentioned in government records as forest
land, may not be used for non-forest purpose. If the state government wants to convert the
forest land into non forest purpose, it should get prior permission from the central government.
b) The state forest department should not have power to provide lease any forest land to any
person or agency or organization without prior approval of central government.
c) This act also prohibits the cutting of naturally grown trees in the forest land for the purpose of
reforestation.
Constitution of Advisory Committee

The Central Government may constitute a Committee consisting of such number of persons as
may deem fit to advise that Government with regard to the grant of approval and any other matter
connected with the conservation of forests which may be referred to by the Central Government.
a. Penalty and punishment
i. Penalties for offences in Reserved Forests:
No person is allowed to make clearing or set fire to a reserved forest. Cattle are not
permitted to trespass into the reserved forest. Cutting, collecting of timber, bark or leaves,
quarrying or collecting any forest products is punishable with imprisonment for a term of six
months or with a fine which may extend to Rs. 500 or both.
ii. Penalties for offences in protected Forests:

A person who commits any of the following offences like cutting of trees, stripping the
bark or leaves of trees, set fire to such forests or permits cattle to damage any tree, shall be
punishable with imprisonment for a term which may extend to six months or with a fine which
any extend to Rs. 500 or both. Any forest officer even without an order from the magistrate or a
warrant can arrest any person against whom a reasonable suspicion exists.
iii. Penalty for contravention of the provisions of the Act.

Whoever violates any of the provisions of Section 2, shall be punishable with simple
imprisonment for a period which may extend to fifteen days.
iv. Offences by the Authorities and Government Departments.

Where any offence under this Act has been committed by any department of Government,
by any authority, any person/s in-charge at the time the offence was committed or responsible for
it shall be deemed to be guilty of the offence and shall be liable to be proceeded against and
punished accordingly.
b. Power to make rules.

The Central Government may, by notification in the Official Gazette, makes rules for carrying out
the provisions of this Act.

4. The Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1981

The Central Government used Article 253 to enact this law and made it applicable throughout
India. This Act defines air pollutant as ‘any solid, liquid or gaseous substance (including noise)
present in the atmosphere in such concentration as may be or tend to be injurious to human beings
or other living creatures or plants or property or environment’.
The Government passed this Act in 1981 to clean up our air by controlling pollution. It
states that sources of air pollution such as industry, vehicles, power plants, etc., are not permitted
to release particulate matter, lead, carbon monoxide, sulphur dioxide, nitrogen oxide, volatile
organic compounds (VOCs) or other toxic substances beyond a prescribed level. This Act is
created to take appropriate steps for the preservation of the natural resources of the Earth which
among other things includes the preservation of high-quality air and ensures controlling the level
of air pollution.
Objectives:
a) To provide for the prevention, control and abatement of air pollution.
b) Maintaining the quality of air
c) To provide for the establishment of Central Pollution Control Board and State Pollution
Control Boards with a view to implement the Act.
d) To confer on the Boards the powers to implement the provisions of the Act and assign to
the Boards functions relating to pollution.
Key Features:
It is a comprehensive legislation with more than fifty sections. It makes provisions, among
others, for;
• power to declare pollution control areas,
• restrictions on certain industrial units,
• authority of the Boards to limit emission of air pollutants,
• power of entry, inspection, taking samples and analysis,
• penalties, offences by companies and Government and cognizance of offences etc.
Powers and Functions of the Boards under The Air Act:

Central Pollution Board:
• The main function of the Central Board is to implement legislation created to improve the
quality of air and to prevent and control air pollution in the country.
• The-Board advises the Central Government on matters concerning the improvement of air
quality.
• Coordinates activities, provides technical assistance and guidance to State Boards.
• Lays down standards for the quality of air.

• It collects and disseminates information in respect of matters relating to air pollution and
performs functions as prescribed in the Act.
State Pollution Control Boards:
• Have the power to advise the State Government on any matter concerning the prevention
and control of air pollution.
• Have the right to inspect any control equipment, industrial plant, or manufacturing process
and give orders to take the necessary steps to control pollution.
• The presence of pollution beyond certain Limits due to various pollutants discharged
through industrial emission is monitored by the State PCBs set up in every state.
• The Act specifically empowers State Government to designate air pollution areas and to
prescribe the type of fuel to be used in these designated areas.
• According to this Act, no person can operate certain types of industries including the
asbestos, cement, fertilizer and petroleum industries without consent of the State Board.
• They are expected to inspect air pollution control areas at intervals or whenever necessary.
• They are empowered to provide standards for emissions to be laid down for
different industrial plants with regard to quantity and composition of emission of air
pollutants into the atmosphere.
• A State Board may establish or recognize a laboratory to perform this function.
• Give instructions to ensure standards of emission from automobiles and restriction
on use of certain industrial plants.
• The particulate matter and gases that are released by industry and by cars, buses
and two wheelers is measured by using air-sampling equipment. The Board can grant
its consent upon the fulfilment of certain conditions.
Penalties:
a) The persons managing industry are to be penalized if they produce emissions of air
pollutants in excess of the standards laid down by the State Board.
b) The Board also makes applications to the court for restraining persons causing air pollution.
c) Whoever contravenes any of the provision of the Act or any order or direction issued is
punishable with imprisonment for a term which may extend to three months or with a fine
of Rs. 10,000 or with both, and in case of continuing offence with an additional fine which
may extend to Rs 5,000 for every day during which such contravention continues after
conviction for the first contravention.
5. The Environmental (Protection) Act, 1986 [EPA]

The Environment (Protection) Act was enacted in the year 1986. The Act is one of the most
comprehensive legislations relating to protection and improvement of environment. This act
defines environment as ‘water, air and land and the interrelationship which exists among and

between water, air and land, and human beings, other living creatures, plants, micro- organism and
property’. It defines hazardous substance as ‘any substance or preparation which, by reasons of its
chemical or physiochemical properties or handling, is liable to cause harm to human beings, other
living creatures, plants, micro-organism, property or the environment’.
From time to time various legislations have been enacted in India for prevention of
pollution and protection of air, water and living organisms. However, all legislations prior to the
1986 were more specific in nature and concentrated on a more specific type of pollution and
specific categories of hazardous substances. However, the 1986 Act was a general legislation
enacted under Article 253 of the Constitution, adhering to international obligations of India. India
was a signatory to the Stockholm Conference of 1972 where the world community had resolved
to protect and enhance the environment.
Objectives
The main objective of the Act was to provide the protection to and improvement of environment
and for matters connected therewith. Other objectives of implementation of the EPA are:
• To implement the decisions made at the UN Conference on Human Environment held at
Stockholm in June, 1972.
• To enact a general law on the areas of environmental protection which were left uncovered
by existing laws.
• To co-ordinate activities of the various regulatory agencies under the existing laws
• To provide for the creation of an authority/authorities for environmental protection
• To provide a preventive punishment to those who endanger human environment, safety
and health.
Powers of Central Government to take measures to Protect and Improve

Environment
According to the provisions of the Act, the Central Government shall have the power to take all
such measures as it thinks necessary or useful for the purpose of protecting and improving the
quality of the environment and for preventing and controlling environmental pollution.
Chapter III of the EPA deals with prevention, Control and abetment of Environmental
Pollution. Some important provisions of this chapter are;
• No person carrying on any industry, operation or process shall discharge or emit any
environmental pollutant in excess of such standards as may be prescribed.
• No person shall handle any hazardous substance except in accordance with procedure and
after complying with safe guards as may be prescribed.
• Where the discharge of any environmental pollutant in excess of the prescribed standards
occurs or is suspected to occur due to any accident or other unforeseen act or event, the

person responsible for such discharge and the person in charge of the place at which the
discharge occurs shall be bound to prevent or mitigate the environmental pollution
• The person responsible will intimate the fact of such occurrence or apprehension of such
occurrence. And is bound to render all assistance if called upon.
• The expenses incurred by any authority or agency may be recovered from the person
concerned
Penalties:
A. Section 15 provides for Penalties for violating of the provisions of the Act as well
as the Rules, Orders and Directions.
• Whoever fails to comply with or contravenes any of the provisions, rules, orders or
directions of this Act shall be punishable with imprisonment for a term which may
extend to five years or with fine which may extend to one lakh rupees, or with both.
In case the failure or contravention continues, with additional fine which may extend to
five thousand rupees for every day during which such failure or contravention continues.
• If the failure or contravention continues beyond a period of one year after the dat e of
conviction, the offender shall be punished with imprisonment for a term which, may extend
to seven years.
B. Offences by Companies are dealt with under Section16
• Where any offence is committed by a company, every person who, at the time the offence
was committed, was directly in charge of, and was responsible to, the company for the
conduct of the business of the company shall be believed to be guilty of the offence.\
• Where the offence has been committed with the consent or connivance of or is attributable
to any neglect on part of, any director, manager, secretary or other officer of the company,
such person shall be deemed to be guilty of the offence
C. As per the provisions of Section 19 of the EPA, no court shall take cognizance of
any offence under this Act except on a complaint made by:
• (a) the central Government or any authority or officer authorized in this behalf by that
Government; or
• (b) any person who has given notice of not less than 60 days, of the alleged offence and his
intention to make a complaint, to the Central Government or the authority or officer
authorized.
D. Section 22 provides that no civil court shall have jurisdiction to entertain any suit or
proceeding in respect of anything done, action taken or order or direction issued by the Central
Government or any other authority or officer in pursuance of any power conferred under the Act.
The National Environment Appellate Authority

The National Environment Appellate Authority (NEAA) was set up under EPA as an independent
body to address cases in which environmental clearances granted by the ministry of environment
are challenged by civil society

Montreal Protocol
The Montreal Protocol, finalized in 1987, is a global agreement to protect the stratospheric ozone
layer by phasing out the production and consumption of ozone-depleting substances (ODS). The
stratospheric ozone layer filters out harmful ultraviolet radiation, which is associated with an
increased prevalence of skin cancer and cataracts, reduced agricultural productivity, and disruption
of marine ecosystems.
After the Montreal Protocol was signed, new data showed worse-than-expected damage to the
ozone layer. In 1992, the Parties to the Protocol decided to alter the terms of the 1987 agreement
to end production of halons by 1994 and Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) by 1996 in developed
countries.
The Montreal Protocol has proven to be innovative and successful, and is the first treaty to achieve
universal ratification by all countries (endorsement by 200 signatories in 2017) in the world.
Drawing worldwide participation, the Montreal Protocol has sent clear signals to the global market
and placed the ozone layer, which was in danger, on a path to repair. The United States ratified the
Montreal Protocol in 1988 and has joined four subsequent amendments.
Since its adoption in 1987 and as of end-2014, it has successfully eliminated over 98 percent of
controlled Ozone Depleting Substances, helping reverse the damage to the ozone layer. Full
implementation of the Montreal Protocol is expected to result in avoidance of more than 280
million cases of skin cancer, approximately 1.6 million skin cancer deaths, and more than 45
million cases of cataracts in the United States alone by the end of the century, with even greater
benefits worldwide.
The Montreal Protocol’s Scientific Assessment Panel estimates that with implementation of the
Montreal Protocol we can expect near complete recovery of the ozone layer by the middle of the
21st century.
The Montreal Protocol has been further strengthened through six Amendments, which have
brought forward phase out schedules and added new substances to the list of substances controlled
under the Montreal Protocol. The Amendments are:
• The London Amendment 1990
• The Copenhagen Amendment 1992
• The Vienna Amendment 1995
• The Montreal Amendment 1997
• The Beijing Amendment 1999
• The Kigali Amendment 2016
The Montreal Protocol has been repeatedly strengthened by both controlling additional
ozone depleting substances (ODS) as well as changing schedule (by moving up the date) by which
already controlled substances must be phased out. The transition from CFCs (high ozone depleting
potential or ODP) to intermediate hydrochlorofluorocarbons [HCFCs (with lower ODP)] has been

completed, and the final transition is to alternatives that have zero ODP. The challenge is to
develop/select alternatives (mainly in refrigeration, air-conditioning, and foam products) that are
also climate friendly.
United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) supports developing countries eliminate
ODS. UNDP is also funding similar programmes in countries with economies in transition. UNDP
services include technology transfer and technical assistance, formulation and implementation of
country and sector strategies, capacity building, accessing funding from different sources, and
facilitating public/private partnerships. UNDP has assisted 120 partner countries to access $733.5
million in funding, helping to eliminate 67,870 tonnes of ODS while also reducing 5.08 billion
tonnes of CO2- equivalent greenhouse gas emissions.
UNDP is assisting these countries comply with the hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFC)
consumption freeze and the 10% reduction targets. As lead agency in 29 countries and cooperating
agency in 18 others, UNDP supports implementation of national HCFC Phase-Out Management
Plans (HPMPs). Combined, these countries represent 77% of the global consumption of HCFCs.
UNDP also supports countries convert manufacturing processes to non-HCFC climate-friendly
alternatives in the foam, refrigeration, air-conditioning, solvents and other sectors.
Kyoto Protocol
The Kyoto Protocol is an international agreement linked to the United Nations Framework
Convention on Climate Change (UNFCC), which commits its Parties by setting internationally
binding emission reduction targets. The Kyoto Protocol was adopted in Kyoto, Japan, on 11
December 1997 and entered into force on 16 February 2005.
Recognizing that developed countries are principally responsible for the current high levels of
Greenhouse Gases (GHG) emissions in the atmosphere as a result of more than 150 years of
industrial activity, the Protocol places a heavier burden on developed nations under the principle
of "common but differentiated responsibilities."
The detailed rules for the implementation of the Protocol were adopted at Conference of Parties
(COP) 7 in Marrakesh, Morocco, in 2001, and are referred to as the "Marrakesh Accords." Its
first commitment period started in 2008 and ended in 2012. During the first commitment
period, 37 industrialized countries and the European Community committed to reduce GHG
emissions to an average of 5 percent against 1990 levels.
In Doha, Qatar, on 8 December 2012, the "Doha Amendment to the Kyoto Protocol" was
adopted.
The amendment includes:

• A revised list of greenhouse gases (GHG) to be reported on by Parties in the second
ommitment period; and

• Amendments to several articles of the Kyoto Protocol

• New commitments for Parties to the Kyoto Protocol who agreed to take on commitments
in a second commitment period from 1 January 2013 to 31 December 2020. During the
second commitment period, Parties committed to reduce GHG emissions by at least 18
percent below 1990 levels in the eight-year period from 2013 to 2020; however, the
composition of Parties in the second commitment period is different from the first.
Under the Protocol, countries must meet their targets primarily through national measures.
However, the Protocol also offers them an additional means to meet their targets by way of three
market-based mechanisms.
The Kyoto mechanisms are:
• International Emissions Trading - Emissions trading, allows countries that have
emission units to spare (emissions permitted them but not "used") to sell this excess
capacity to countries that are over their targets. Since carbon dioxide is the principal
greenhouse gas, people speak simply of trading in carbon.
• Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) - Operational since the beginning of 2006, the
mechanism allows a country with an emission-reduction or emission-limitation, to commit
under the Kyoto Protocol to implement an emission-reduction project in developing
countries. Such projects can earn saleable certified emission reduction (CER) credits, each
equivalent to one tonne of CO2, which can be counted towards meeting Kyoto targets. A
CDM project activity might involve, for example, a rural electrification project using solar
panels. The mechanism stimulates sustainable development and emission reductions, while
giving industrialized countries some flexibility in how they meet their emission reduction
or limitation targets.
• Joint implementation (JI) - allows a country with an emission reduction or limitation to
commit under the Kyoto Protocol to earn emission reduction units (ERUs) from an
emission reduction or emission removal project in another country, each equivalent to
one tonne of CO2, which can be counted towards meeting its Kyoto target. Joint
implementation offers Parties a flexible and cost-efficient means of fulfilling a part of their
Kyoto commitments, while the host Party benefits from foreign investment and technology
transfer.
The mechanisms help to stimulate green investment and help Parties meet their emission targets
in a cost-effective way.
Monitoring emission targets under the Protocol involves monitoring of records of trades,
submission of annual emission inventories and national reports at regular intervals by the Parties.
Registry systems track and record transactions by Parties under the mechanisms. A compliance
system ensures that Parties are meeting their commitments and helps them to meet their
commitments if they have problems doing so.
The Kyoto Protocol, is also designed to assist countries in adapting to the adverse effects
of climate change. It facilitates the development and deployment of technologies that can help
increase resilience to the impacts of climate change. The Adaptation Fund was established to

finance adaptation projects and programmes in developing countries that are Parties to the Kyoto
Protocol. In the first commitment period, the Fund was financed mainly with a share of proceeds
from CDM project activities. The Kyoto Protocol is seen as an important first step towards a truly
global emission reduction regime that will stabilize GHG emissions, and can provide the
architecture for the future international agreement on climate change.
The Convention on Biological Diversity

The Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) is an international legally-binding treaty with three
main goals: conservation of biodiversity; sustainable use of biodiversity; fair and equitable sharing
of the benefits arising from the use of genetic resources. Its overall objective is to encourage
actions, which will lead to a sustainable future. The Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD)
was opened for signature at the Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro on 5 June 1992 and entered into
force on 29 December 1993. To date, there are 193 Parties.
The conservation of biodiversity is a common concern of humankind. The Convention on
Biological Diversity covers biodiversity at all levels: ecosystems, species and genetic resources.
In fact, it covers all possible domains that are directly or indirectly related to biodiversity and its
role in development, ranging from science, politics and education to agriculture, business, culture
and much more.
The CBD’s governing body is the Conference of the Parties (COP). This ultimate authority
of all Parties (or governments of countries) that have ratified the treaty meets every two years to
review progress, set priorities and commit to work plans. The Secretariat of the Convention on
Biological Diversity (SCBD) is based in Montreal, Canada. Its main function is to assist
governments in the implementation of the CBD and its programmes of work, to organize meetings,
draft documents, and coordinate with other international organizations and collect and spread
information. The Executive Secretary is the head of the Secretariat.
In 2010, Parties to the CBD adopted the Strategic Plan for Biodiversity 2011–2020, a ten-
year framework for action by all countries and stakeholders to safeguard biodiversity and the
benefits it provides to people. As part of the Strategic Plan, 20 ambitious but realistic targets,
known as the Aichi Biodiversity Targets, were adopted (Aichi is a district in Japan & Nagoya its
Capital).
To support countries in their efforts to achieve the Aichi Biodiversity Targets, the
Secretariat of the CBD, together with various partners, is convening a series of capacity-building
workshops. Parties have agreed to develop national and regional targets and report thereon to the
Conference of the Parties at its eleventh meeting (COP-11). Parties have committed to revising
and/ or updating their National Biodiversity Strategies and Action Plans (NBSAPs) in light of the
new strategic plan and to implement them as policy instruments by COP-12

Facts and Figures

• Components of biodiversity are all the various forms of life on Earth including ecosystems,
animals, plants, fungi, microorganisms, and genetic diversity.
• With its three objectives, the CBD is often seen as the key international instrument for
sustainable development.
• Ecosystems, species and genetic resources should be used for the benefit of humans, but
in a way that does not lead to the decline of biodiversity.
• Substantial investments are required to conserve biodiversity, but it will bring significant
environmental, economic and social benefits in return.
• The Ecosystem Approach, an integrated strategy for the management of resources, is the
framework for action under the Convention.
• The Precautionary Principle states that where there is a threat of significant reduction
or loss of biological diversity, lack of full scientific certainty should not be used as a
reason for postponing measures to avoid or minimize such a threat.
On 29 January 2000, the Conference of the Parties to the Convention on Biological Diversity
adopted a supplementary agreement to the Convention known as the Cartagena Protocol on
Biosafety. The Protocol entered into force on 11 September 2003 and seeks to protect biological
diversity from the potential risks posed by Living Modified Organisms (LMOs) resulting from
modern biotechnology. It establishes an Advance Informed Agreement (AIA) procedure for
ensuring that countries are provided with the information necessary to make informed decisions
before agreeing to the import of such organisms into their territory. The Protocol contains reference
to a precautionary approach. The Protocol also establishes a Biosafety Clearing-House to facilitate
the exchange of information on Living Modified Organisms and to assist countries in the
implementation of the Protocol.
The Nagoya Protocol on Access to Genetic Resources and the Fair and Equitable Sharing of
Benefits Arising from their Utilization to the Convention on Biological Diversity is an international
agreement which aims at sharing the benefits arising from the utilization of genetic resources in a
fair and equitable way. It entered into force on 12 October 2014. The Nagoya Protocol applies to
genetic resources that are covered by the CBD, and to the benefits arising from their utilization.
The Nagoya Protocol also covers traditional knowledge (TK) associated with genetic resources
that are covered by the CBD and the benefits arising from its utilization.
The Chemical Weapons Convention

The Chemical Weapons Convention (CWC) is a multilateral treaty that bans chemical weapons
and requires their destruction within a specified period of time. The treaty is of unlimited duration
and is far more comprehensive than the 1925 Geneva Protocol, which outlaws the use but not the
possession of chemical weapons. CWC negotiations started in 1980 in the UN Conference on
Disarmament. The convention opened for signature on January 13, 1993, and entered into force

on April 29, 1997. The CWC is open to all nations and currently has 193 states parties. Israel has
signed but has yet to ratify the convention. Three states have neither signed nor ratified the
convention (Egypt, North Korea and South Sudan).
The Chemical Weapons Convention prohibits:
• Developing, producing, acquiring, stockpiling, or retaining chemical weapons.
• The direct or indirect transfer of chemical weapons.
• Chemical weapons use or military preparation for use.
• Assisting, encouraging, or inducing other states to engage in CWC-prohibited activity.
• The use of riot control agents “as a method of warfare.”
The CWC is implemented by the Organization for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons (OPCW),
which is headquartered in The Hague. The OPCW receives declarations from State-Parties
(countries) detailing chemical weapons-related activities or materials and relevant industrial
activities. After receiving declarations, the OPCW inspects and monitors states-parties’ facilities
and activities that are relevant to the convention, to ensure compliance.
Declaration Requirements
The CWC requires states-parties to declare in writing to the OPCW their chemical weapons
stockpiles, chemical weapons production facilities (CWPFs), relevant chemical industry facilities,
and other weapons-related information. This must be done within 30 days of the convention's entry
into force for each member state.
Other weapons-related declarations states-parties must make include:
• Chemical weapons production facilities on their territories since January 1, 1946.
• Facilities (such as laboratories and test sites) designed, constructed, or used primarily for
chemical weapons development since January 1, 1946.
• “Old” chemical weapons on their territories (chemical weapons manufactured before 1925
or those produced between 1925 and 1946 that have deteriorated to such an extent that they
are no longer useable).
• “Abandoned” chemical weapons (abandoned by another state without consent on or
after January 1, 1925).
• Plans for destroying weapons and facilities.
• All transfers or receipts of chemical weapons or chemical weapons-production equipment
since January 1, 1946.
• All riot control agents in their possession.
Destruction Requirements- The convention requires states-parties to destroy:
• All chemical weapons under their jurisdiction or control.
• All chemical weapons production facilities under their jurisdiction or control.
• Chemical weapons abandoned on other states’ territories.
• Old chemical weapons.

On-Site Activity
The convention establishes three types of on-site activities that aim to generate confidence in
states-parties’ CWC compliance. These include:
• “Routine inspections” of chemical weapons-related facilities and chemical industry
facilities to verify the content of declarations and to confirm that activities are consistent
with CWC obligations.
• “Challenge inspections” which can be conducted at any facility or location in states parties
to clarify questions of possible noncompliance. (To prevent abuse of this measure, the
OPCW’s executive body can vote by a three-quarters majority to stop a challenge
inspection from going forward.)
• Investigations of alleged use of chemical weapons
Trade:
The convention encourages trade among states-parties, calling upon them not to maintain
restrictions on one another that would hamper the trade of chemical-related items to be used for
peaceful purposes. The CWC requires exporting states-parties to obtain an end-use certificate from
importing states. The convention does restrict trade with non-states-parties.
Penalties for Non-compliance
If states-parties are found to have engaged in prohibited actions that could result in “serious
damage” to the convention, the OPCW could recommend collective punitive measures to
statesparties involved.
In cases of “particular gravity,” the OPCW could bring the issue before the UN Security
Council and General Assembly.
States-parties must take measures to address questions raised about their compliance with the
CWC. If they do not, the OPCW may, inter alia (among other actions), restrict or suspend
their CWC-related rights and privileges (such as voting and trade rights).
Nature Reserve
A nature reserve is also known as a wildlife refuge or sanctuary, biosphere
reserve (bio-reserve), natural or nature preserve, or nature conservation area. It is
a protected area of importance for flora, fauna, or features of geological or other special interest,
which is reserved and managed for purposes of conservation and to provide special opportunities
for study or research. Nature reserves may be designated by government institutions in some
countries, or by private landowners, such as charities, and research institutions. Nature reserves
fall into different IUCN categories depending on the level of protection afforded by local laws.
Normally it is more strictly protected than a nature park. Various jurisdictions may use other
terminology, such as ecological protection area or private protected area in legislation and in
reserves' official names.

Nature reserves can be classified into different categories. Many countries have adopted
the International Union for the Conservation of Nature (IUCN) system of categorization to classify
their protected area in accordance to their management objectives. The different categories consist
of:
▪ Strict Nature Reserve
▪ Wilderness Area
▪ National Park
▪ Natural Monument of Feature
▪ Habitat/Species Management Area
▪ Protected Landscape/ Seascape
▪ Protected Area with sustainable use of natural resources
Tribal Population and Rights

The word ‘Tribe’ denotes a group of people living in primitive and ruthless conditions.
These tribes are a social group living in a fixed territory having no such specialization of functions
and the people living in these social groups are known as tribes or tribal people. Scheduled Tribes
are mainly spread across the forests and hilly regions of India. Tribes in India are mainly
characterised by their geographical location and distinct culture. These people are economic
backwardness and illiterate.
According to 2011 Census of India, BHIL is the most popular tribe with a total population
of 4,618,068 constituting 37.7% of the total ST population. GOND is the second largest tribe, with
a population of 4,357,918 constituting of 35.6% MADHYA PRADESH has more than 1.6 Cr. ST
population. MIZORAM and LAKSHADWEEP had the highest percentage of ST population but
as number one think CHATTISGARH will top the list.
Constitutional Provisions
According to Art.342 of Constitution of India, the President after consulting with the state
governments concerned, has promulgated nine order so far. This promulgation has clearly
specified the Scheduled Tribes in relation to concerned State and Union territories. As per 2011
Census, India's 8.6% (10.42 Cr.) population was tribe. In all, 698 Scheduled Tribes exist in India.
Constitutional Provisions / Safeguards for Scheduled Tribes, can be divided into two parts i.e. 1.
Protective. 2. Development.
Educational & Cultural Safeguards

They have their own way of life to maintain all privileges in matters connected with marriage and
succession, according to their customary tribal faith.
• Art. 15(4) - Special provisions for advancement of other backward classes (which includes
STs);
• Art. 29 - Protection of Interests of Minorities (which includes STs);
• Art. 46 - The State shall promote, with special care, the educational and economic interests
of the weaker sections of the people, and in particular, of the Scheduled Castes, and the
Scheduled Tribes, and shall protect them from social injustice and all forms of exploitation,

• Art. 350 - Right to conserve distinct Language, Script or Culture;

• Art. 350 - Instruction in Mother Tongue.
Social Safeguard
• Art. 23 - Prohibition of traffic in human beings and beggar and other similar form of forced
labour
• Art. 24 - Forbidding Child Labour.
Economic Safeguards
• Art.244 - Clause(1) Provisions of Fifth Schedule shall apply to the administration & control
of the Scheduled Areas and Scheduled Tribes in any State other than the states of Assam,
Meghalaya, Mizoram and Tripura which are covered under Sixth Schedule, under Clause
(2) of this Article.
• Art. 275 - Grants in-Aid to specified States (STs &SAs) covered under Fifth and Sixth
Schedules of the Constitution.
Political Safeguards
• Art.164 (1) - Provides for Tribal Affairs Ministers in Bihar, MP and Orissa
• Art. 330 - Reservation of seats for STs in Lok Sabha
• Art. 332 - Reservation of seats for STs in State Legislatures
• Art. 334 – 10 years period for reservation (Amended several times to extend the period
• Art. 243 - Reservation of seats in Panchayats
• Art. 371 - Special provisions in respect of NE States and Sikkim
• Fifth and Sixth schedules of Indian constitution
Safeguards under various laws

• The Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes (Prevention of Atrocities) Act,1989 and the
Rules 1995 framed there under. Bonded Labour System (Abolition) Act 1976 (in respect
of Scheduled Tribes);
• The Child Labour (Prohibition and Regulation) Act1986;
• States Acts & Regulations concerning alienation & restoration of land belonging to STs;
Forest Conservation Act 1980; Forests Right's Act 2006;
• Panchayatiraj (Extension to Scheduled Areas) Act 1996;
• Minimum Wages Act 1948.
Human - Wildlife conflict in Indian context

The growing human population, deforestation, loss of habitat and decline in their prey
species are few major reason behind the Human wildlife conflict in India. Natural wildlife territory
is overlaps with the humans existence and various forms of human–wildlife conflict occur with
various negative results.

1. Leopard Attack
Leopard attacks on humans are regularly reported only in
India,The Panthera pardus or the leopards kill more humans in
India than all other carnivores. Human–leopard conflict regions
of the country are West Bengal, Maharashtra and Assam
where most of the deadly leopard attack incident happened.
2. Tiger Attack Most of the Tiger attacks in India appeared in the Sundarbans
mangrove forest National Park of West Bengal. Sundarbans host
largest population of tigers in the world due to its densely
covered mangrove forests and climate. In the recent tiger attacks
on Human was, A tiger attacked forest rangers on an Elephant
in the Kaziranga National Park of Assam, in the north-east state
of India. The tigers are known as Man-Eaters and Sundarbans is
one of the famous place to spot these big cats, there are
only 1706 tigers are left in the wild India.
3. Elephant Attack
Elephant is one of the holy animal in India, especially in Kerala
but due to elephant attack some 500 people are killed by each
year. There are many incident of elephant attacks occurred in
the villages of Kerala and other parts of India.
4. Bear Attack
A sloth bear attacked and killed one person and seriously
injured three others in India, major zone includes Madhya
Pradesh and Chhattisgarh where most of the incident occurred.
5. Jim Corbett National Park

The Corbett National Park of Uttarakhand is famous for notable
man-eaters leopard, responsible for at least 400 attacks on
humans. Leopard of Panar, Leopard of Rudraprayag and
Leopard of the Mulher Valley have claimed thousand of human
and cattle lives. Leopards are still one of the most dangerous
animal in India and responsible for many human life alone
among the other four big cats of India.

6. Sundarbans National Park

The largest Swamp and mangroves forest of India is also home
to over 500 Bengal tigers, who killed from 50-250 people per
year in India and Bangladesh. Tiger attacks in the Sundarbans is
the best example of human interaction and conflict between
local people and wild animals. The Man-Eating Tigers of
Sundarbans and Human wildlife Conflict rate has dropped
significantly due to better management techniques.
Reason Behind The Human Interaction

• Deforestation
• Loss of Habitat
• Decline in Prey
• Injured or Old Animal
• Growing Human Population
Results of Human Wildlife Conflict

• Crop Damage
• Animal Deaths
• Loss of Human Life
• Injuries to People
• Injuries to Wildlife
• Livestock Depredation
Solutions to Reduce Human Interaction and Wildlife Conflict

• Fencing
• Land-Use Planning
• Livestock Protection
• Avoid stepping out After Dark
*****

Module - 3 Environmental Pollution Envt Policies and Practices WNcVRhIzKx

Uploaded by

Document Information

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Module - 3 Environmental Pollution Envt Policies and Practices WNcVRhIzKx

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Semester - II F.Y. B. Sc. (Comp. Sci.

ENVIRONMETAL POLLUTION, ENVIRONMENTAL POLICIES AND

B Environmental Policies and Practices

Environmental Pollution, Environmental Policies and Practices -1-

Environmental Pollution, Environmental Policies and Practices -2-

Control on Air Pollution

Environmental Pollution, Environmental Policies and Practices -3-

Other significant causes of water pollution include:

Prevention of Water Pollution

Environmental Pollution, Environmental Policies and Practices -4-

Some of the common causes of soil pollution are:

Other effects of soil pollution include:

Environmental Pollution, Environmental Policies and Practices -5-

Noise pollution has several contributors , which include:

Examples of Chemical Pollutants

Environmental Pollution, Environmental Policies and Practices -6-

The Effects of Chemical Pollution

Nuclear Hazards and Human Health Risk

Environmental Pollution, Environmental Policies and Practices -7-

Artificial Sources of Radioactive pollution

Environmental Pollution, Environmental Policies and Practices -8-

Biological Damage Due to Ionizing Radiations

Disposal of Nuclear waste

Some proposed methods of disposing nuclear waste are:

Environmental Pollution, Environmental Policies and Practices -9-

Solid Waste Management

Environmental Pollution, Environmental Policies and Practices - 10 -

Projected waste generation, by region (millions of tonnes/year)

Environmental Pollution, Environmental Policies and Practices - 11 -

Issues relating to Waste Management Include:

Environmental Pollution, Environmental Policies and Practices - 12 -

Effects of Solid Waste Pollution

Methods of Waste Disposal

5. Composting process: Composting process is similar to sanitary land-filling and it is popular in

Environmental Pollution, Environmental Policies and Practices - 13 -

9. Fermentation/biological digestion: Biodegradable wastes are converted to compost and

WASTE MANAGEMENT 5-R PRINCIPLE

Environmental Pollution, Environmental Policies and Practices - 14 -

Need for Reducing, Reusing and Recycling of Waste

Environmental Pollution, Environmental Policies and Practices - 15 -

• It reduces air pollution.

Innovative methods of solid waste recycling-

Environmental Pollution, Environmental Policies and Practices - 16 -

6. Solar-Powered Trash Compactors

Environmental Pollution, Environmental Policies and Practices - 17 -

Evidence of Some Facts of Climate Change:

Impact of Climate Change

Environmental Pollution, Environmental Policies and Practices - 18 -

Causes of Global Warming

Environmental Pollution, Environmental Policies and Practices - 19 -

A. Natural Causes of Global Warming

Environmental Pollution, Environmental Policies and Practices - 20 -

B. Man-made Causes of Global Warming

Environmental Pollution, Environmental Policies and Practices - 21 -

Effects of Global Warming

Mitigations and Adaptations:

Evidences of Global Warming

Environmental Pollution, Environmental Policies and Practices - 22 -

Environmental Pollution, Environmental Policies and Practices - 23 -

1. Increase of human diseases:

Environmental Pollution, Environmental Policies and Practices - 24 -

Main projections for climate change at Global Level:

Environmental Pollution, Environmental Policies and Practices - 25 -

Likely Effects of climate change on key sectors at Global Level: