GROUP ASSIGNMENT

FACULTY OF ENGINEERING AND THE BUILT ENVIRONMENT

DEPARTMENT OF MINING ENGINEERING AND MINE SURVEYING

BACHELOR OF ENGINEERING TECHNOLOGY

IN
MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT 2B

EMVMNB2

EXAMINER: Ms Carol Mgiba

MODERATOR: Mr Amuli Bukanga
Social Impact Analysis
Various social, economic, and environmental effects are linked to mining activity. They
provide economic support to the government and a sizable number of jobs. Nevertheless,
mining has certain unfavorable social implications, such as violence, child labor, a rise in
gender inequality, health effects, such as deforestation and pollution, and environmental
effects. Artisanal and small-scale mining (ASM) will be highlighted in this section. But we'll
investigate how mining for industrial sand affects the ecosystem.

The health of people can be impacted negatively by mining, which is a hazardous activity.
Mining has a number of negative effects on human health, including respiratory issues
brought on by breathing in tiny particles from the dust produced by mining operations,
including pneumoconiosis, asbestosis, and silicosis, accidents, explosions, and collapse-
related injuries and deaths, hearing problems and damage brought on by the loud noises of
mining machinery and equipment. Due to the radiation and chemicals released during the
mining process, cancer and other chronic disorders. Lung ailments and infections brought on
by the mines' poor ventilation and air quality. Poisoning and heavy metal pollution caused by
exposure to hazardous compounds like arsenic, lead, and mercury.

Despite its drawbacks, mining has economic advantages that must be taken into account.
Governments can exploit the industry's ability to create money and jobs to pay for necessary
services and infrastructure.One of the mining industry's main benefits is the employment
possibilities it creates. The mining industry requires a diverse workforce, including skilled
engineers, geologists, machinery operators, and support staff.By providing essential raw
materials for building, manufacturing, and energy production, mining acts as a driver for
economic growth.A significant benefit of mining is the contribution it makes to a country's
foreign exchange earnings and trade balance.One significant method that the mining sector
contributes to government revenue is through tax payments. Governments rely heavily on
corporate income taxes, which mining companies are required to pay.

Specialization in certain resources exposes nations and regions to serious hazards. External
shocks caused by price volatility, a lack of diversification, the consequences of the Dutch
disease, and environmental implications are just a few of the risks. Communities may incur
significant costs as a result, with occasionally meager advantages. Numerous of these
consequences have a strong spatial component and act as unfavorable externalities near and
around mining operations. Major problems include:
 income disparities between racial and ethnic groups
 Limited employment prospects and a skills gap for the local workforce
 Public infrastructure and services are under pressure.
 Housing market volatility, a lack of affordability, or abandonment
 Health effects, conflicts over land use, and the depletion of natural resources (such as the
degradation of air, land, and water quality)
 reduced civic engagement and weakened social cohesion.
Mining operations have the potential to disturb cultural customs and traditions, especially in
indigenous groups, which can be detrimental to the identity and welfare of the community.
Locals may be given training and development opportunities by mining corporations,
increasing their employability not only in the mining industry but also in other businesses.
Mining activities may introduce communities to cutting-edge techniques and technologies,
which may promote knowledge-sharing and skill development among the local populace.
Mining firms frequently make investments in neighborhood utilities, roads, schools, and
healthcare facilities. The quality of life for locals can be improved by these investments.

The effects of mining on cultural heritage can be profound, frequently resulting in the
destruction or change of vital cultural locations, activities, and traditions. These effects may
be caused by immediate bodily harm, community uprooting, and more significant
socioeconomic changes brought on by mining activity. Soil, rock, and other materials must
frequently be removed during mining operations, which can result in the destruction of
historical buildings, relics, and archaeological sites. These sites could include crucial details
on the past, present, and cultural development of a town. Large-scale mining operations have
the potential to uproot communities from their ancestral lands, upsetting social norms,
cultural traditions, and way of life. Communities that have been uprooted risk losing their
connection to places with strong cultural value. When used in the mining industry's branding
or marketing initiatives, cultural heritage places or traditions may occasionally be abused or
made into commodities, which can diminish their authenticity and spiritual significance.
Indigenous knowledge regarding resource management, traditional ecological practices, and
land usage can be endangered by mining activity. Cultural heritage may experience a cascade
of effects if these traditions are disrupted.
Policy and Ethical Considerations
Mining Regulations

To ensure safety, safeguard the environment, and responsibly extract resources, mining is
governed by a wide range of rules and regulations. From one nation to the next, and even
within the same nation, these laws might change significantly. Typical areas impacted by
mining regulations are listed below:

Health and Safety: Because mining activities can be hazardous, regulations are frequently put
in place to protect the well-being of employees. This contains instructions for emergency
response plans, equipment maintenance, ventilation, roof support, and more.

The Environment: Mining may result in a negative impact on the environment, including
things like soil erosion, water pollution, habitat destruction, and air pollution. Regulations
frequently cover water consumption, environmental effect reduction, trash disposal, and
reclamation plans.

Permitting and Licensing: To maintain compliance with local, regional, and federal
requirements, mining enterprises may need several licenses and permits. These licenses
typically cover things like air quality, water rights, and land use.

Land Usage and Improvement: Regulations may outline the way mining companies are
required to reclaim and reclaim mined land after operations have concluded. This could entail
stabilizing the soil to stop erosion, replanting vegetation, and contouring the soil.

Community Involvement and Consultation: Local communities are frequently impacted by

mining. Companies may be required by regulations to interact with the neighbourhood’s
residents, solicit their opinions, and educate them of potential negative and positive effects.

Mining Policies

To monitor and control mining activities, governments, regulatory bodies, and industry
associations adopt policies. Responsible resource extraction, environmental protection,
worker and community safety, and sustainable development are the goals of these
regulations. Here are some important policies commonly associated with mining:

Laws and policies on mineral resources management: These laws and regulations relate to the
ownership, distribution, and management of mineral resources. They usually describe the
procedures for granting mining rights and licenses to mining companies.
Environmental protection policy: These policies aim to reduce the negative impact of mining
on the environment. These may include rules related to waste treatment, recovery, water use,
air quality, and biodiversity conservation.

 Financial Assurance Policies: These policies frequently compel companies involved in

mining to give financial guarantees (such as bonds or money) to pay the expenses of
restoration and environmental remediation if the company fails to meet its responsibilities.

Technology and Innovation Policies: Policies in this area encourage the adoption of novel
equipment and procedures that can improve the efficiency of mining operations while
minimizing the negative environmental effects.

Export and trade Policies: Some policies control the export and trading of minerals to assure
that they comply with international accords, avoid illegal mining and smuggling, as well as
promote ethical supply chains.

Due to differences in laws and regulations, cultural norms, and contexts, these policies may
differ significantly from one nation to another and area to region. Mining businesses
operating in a particular area must follow these policies and the appropriate rules in order to
ensure their company is environmentally friendly and ethical.

Ethical Considerations

In the mining industry, ethical considerations are essential for ensuring that mining activities
are carried out in an ethical, sustainable, and socially just way. Mining has an immense effect
on the environment, local communities, and society as a whole; therefore, it is critical to
address ethical problems to minimize negative consequences and promote beneficial
outcomes. Here are some major ethical concerns in mining:

Environmental Administration: Mining activities may damage habitats, cause soil erosion,
pollute water, and cause deforestation. Ethical ways of mining include reducing
environmental damage, implementing rehabilitation and restoration practices, and applying
sustainable mining procedures.

Community involvement and consent: Before beginning activities related to mining, ethical
mining involves communicating with local people and getting their consent. This helps with
ensuring that the priorities and concerns of impacted communities are considered and
respected.
Human rights and labor conditions: Mining operations must comply with fair labor practices,
provide workers with safe working conditions, reasonable wages, along with appropriate
benefits. Exploitative labor, involving child and forced labor, is prevented by ethical mining
firms.

indigenous rights: In locations where, indigenous communities have a long history with the

land, ethical mining methods include acknowledging and valuing their rights, engaging with
them, and obtaining their approval before beginning mining activities.

The role of government and engineers in ensuring responsible and sustainable mining
practices.

Every government and engineer have an important part to play in ensuring responsible and
sustainable mining activities. They successfully reduce negative social and environmental
effects while maximizing the advantages of resource extraction through organized
cooperation as well as concentrated efforts. Governments have a wide range of roles in
defining the mining industry's ethical landscape. They establish and uphold extensive
regulatory frameworks that control numerous aspects of mining operations, such as
environmental safeguards, safety procedures, working conditions, community participation,
and so on. These regulations establish an important regulatory framework under which
mining businesses must operate. Furthermore, governments strictly track license and permit
allocation, thoroughly examining enterprises' compliance with legal requirements. This
thorough procedure assures that only ethical and qualified organizations obtain permission to
operate in the field.

Furthermore, government agencies keep an eye on the environmental effects of mining

activities on a regular basis, with an environmental impact assessment (EIA) required before
licensing. They actively protect the environment by taking steps to prevent pollution,
maintain ecosystems, and ensure proper waste disposal. Governments also encourage
successful engagement between mining firms, local communities, and investors by forcing
companies to participate in public consultations and secure social licenses to operate,
showing their devotion to addressing local issues. Moreover, governments promote for
indigenous peoples' rights in locations where these tribes have a historical affinity with the
land.

To ensure that mining companies comply with their environmental obligations, governments
frequently request financial assurances, such as bonds or money. These mechanisms act as an
economic assurance, paying the expenses of environmental restoration and rehabilitation if
companies fail to honour their obligations. Governments are also supporting accountability
and openness by demanding detailed reporting of operations, financial transactions, and
environmental performance, as well as aiming to avoid corruption in the industry. By
investing in technical and regulatory capability, the government helps prepare itself to
effectively manage mining operations, including training inspectors, scientists, and
regulators.

At the same time, engineers have a huge impact on the ethical direction of mining companies.
They play an important part in the creation of mining operations with the smallest
environmental impact and the greatest safety for employees. This includes the creation of
waste disposal plans, restoring land, and the use of sustainable mining procedures. Engineers
also fight for environmental stewardship by implementing actions to limit the environmental
impact of mining operations, such as building safe waste facilities that avoid leaks,
optimizing water usage, and using conservation of energy methods. The addition of modern
technologies is at the centre of their work, helping to increase productivity and reduce
negative impacts. Engineers deploy modern detectors, automation, and remote monitoring
systems to boost the industry's environmental performance.

Engineers create and uphold a safe work environment by safety regulations, air conditioning
systems, and rescue techniques to limit possible dangers and avoid accidents. Engineers are
also important in establishing sustainable approaches, using strategies to optimize resource
utilization and minimize the production of waste. In their attempt at ethical mining methods,
they promote material reuse and recycling, effectively lowering the industry's environmental
impact. Engineers are dedicated to the comprehensive restoration and rehabilitation of mines
following decommissioning, ensuring that the sites are stable and environmentally friendly.

They work alongside local communities, indigenous groups, and other stakeholders through
active stakeholder engagement, aligning project objectives with local aspirations and values.
direction. The teamwork mentality extends to a commitment to constant enhancement, as
engineers work in research and development regularly, constantly inventing ways to
encourage ethical and sustainable industrial processes in the face of obstacles. Technology is
changing, and new issues are arising.

At the same time, the government and engineers are working together to develop a legislative
structure that guarantees fitting mining methods. This mutually beneficial relationship
enables engineers to create creative solutions that influence business and society, protect the
environment, and optimize the advantages of the mining industry.

Environmental Analysis
An extensive evaluation of the effects that mining operations have on the country's
ecosystems, communities, and natural environment would include an environmental analysis
of mining in South Africa. Diamonds, gold, platinum, coal, and other minerals have
historically contributed significantly to South Africa's economy. But mining also presents
several environmental difficulties. An outline of some important elements of environmental
analysis about mining in South Africa is provided below:

 Water pollution occurs when mining operations use water for operations like ore
extraction, crushing, and processing. The discharging of dangerous chemicals and
heavy metals into water bodies could end up in water contamination. Acid mine
drainage (AMD), which causes the pollution of rivers and groundwater, is an ongoing
issue in South Africa, especially in areas with old and abandoned mines.
 Air pollution Dust and pollutants from mining operations, including blasting, drilling,
and the transportation of minerals, may pollute the air. Particularly in mining areas,
particles, and hazardous chemicals emitted into the air can have negative
consequences on air quality and the well-being of people.
 Land Degradation Open-pit mining and other methods of extraction can seriously
degrade the environment while harming habitats. Erosion, biodiversity loss, and
altered landscapes can be brought on by the removal of vegetation and soil
disturbance.
 Biodiversity Loss By destroying habitats and upsetting ecosystems, mining operations
can have a direct impact on the local flora and wildlife. Because of South Africa's
distinctive and varied biodiversity, it is crucial for safeguarding ecosystems.
 Social impacts Mining often displaces communities from their respective areas due to
mining projects that are intended to take place. This causes social conflicts and land
rights and cultural heritage issues, as well as livelihoods in general. It important to
ensure that mining projects are beneficial to local communities and respect human
rights.
 Regulatory Framework: South Africa has regulations and legislation in place to
address the environmental impacts of mining, such as the National Environmental
 Management Act (NEMA) and the Mineral and Petroleum Resources Development
Act (MPRDA). The effectiveness of these regulations in mitigating environmental
harm and ensuring responsible mining practices would be a critical aspect of analysis.
 Energy Consumption and Greenhouse Gas Emissions Mining operations require
large energy inputs, contributing to greenhouse gas emissions and climate change.
The energy-intensive nature of mining could exacerbate South Africa's carbon
footprint.

The above figure shows some of the engineering practices in mining industries.

Energy Consumption in Mining

The mining sector is one of the large industries in South Africa as it is rich in minerals. it
requires a lot of energy to keep in production due to activities taking place in this sector.
Large machinery used to extract minerals from the ground operates mostly on combustion
diesel fuel to do work. Large emissions of CO2 take place due to this combustion process.
Mining operations require considerably large amounts of energy for various activities
including activities such as extracting, transporting, and processing minerals. The energy
consumption can differ due to factors such as the type of minerals being mined, the mining
methods used, and the technology employed.

Greenhouse Gas Emissions

Mining activities are responsible for greenhouse gas emissions due to the energy consumed
and the processes involved. Emissions can occur in several different areas including:

 Energy Efficiency
 Renewable Energy

Greenhouse Gas Emissions: Mining activities are responsible for greenhouse gas emissions
due to the energy consumed and the processes involved. Emissions can occur at various
stages, including:

1. Direct Emissions: These come from the combustion of fossil fuels for on-site
operations, such as powering machinery and vehicles.
2. Indirect Emissions: These stem from the production of electricity used in mining
operations. If the electricity is generated from fossil fuels, such as coal, it contributes
to emissions.
3. Methane Emissions: In certain mining operations, methane, a potent greenhouse gas,
can be released from underground areas.
The figure above shows the percentage of emissions in energy industries. This includes the
mining industry, and the second figure shows the carbon emissions in the last 10 years.

Scanning the mining environment in South Africa will require data collection on the above
factors, conducting an environmental assessment, and working with various stakeholders
including government agencies, mining companies, environmental organizations, and local
communities. Such an analysis will help identify areas of concern, regulatory gaps, and
opportunities for sustainable mining practices. 

Sustainable Engineering Practices in the Mining Industry

Sustainable engineering practices in the mining sector aim to minimize the negative
environmental, social, and economic impacts associated with mining operations while
maximizing positive outcomes for all stakeholders involved. Here are some key sustainable
engineering practices in the mining sector:

1. Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA): Conduct thorough assessments of

potential environmental impacts before starting mining operations. This includes
evaluating water quality, air quality, biodiversity, and soil quality to identify potential
risks and develop mitigation strategies.

2. Resource Efficiency and Recycling: Implement efficient resource use practices to

reduce waste generation and promote recycling. This includes optimizing mineral
 extraction processes, using advanced technologies to recover valuable minerals from
waste materials, and minimizing water and energy consumption.

3. Water Management: Develop comprehensive water management strategies to

reduce water consumption, minimize pollution, and manage mine water discharges.
This includes strategies for treating and reusing process water, managing acid mine
drainage, and protecting local water bodies.

4. Energy Efficiency: Utilize energy-efficient technologies and practices to reduce

greenhouse gas emissions and overall energy consumption. This can involve using
renewable energy sources, optimizing equipment design, and adopting energy-saving
measures.

5. Biodiversity Conservation: Implement measures to protect and restore local

ecosystems and biodiversity. This may involve reclamation and rehabilitation of
mined areas, establishing buffer zones, and preserving critical habitats.

6. Community Engagement and Social Responsibility: Engage with local

communities, stakeholders, and indigenous groups to understand their concerns and
needs. Develop strategies to minimize negative social impacts, provide local
employment opportunities, and contribute to community development.

7. Health and Safety: Prioritize the health and safety of workers by implementing
rigorous safety protocols, providing proper training, and ensuring compliance with
occupational health and safety regulations.

8. Innovation and Research: Invest in research and development to discover and

implement innovative technologies that improve efficiency, reduce environmental
impacts, and enhance the overall sustainability of mining operations.

9. Lifecycle Assessment: Consider the full lifecycle of mining operations, from

exploration and development to closure and post-closure activities. This approach
ensures that potential impacts are considered throughout the entire lifecycle of the
mine.

10. Transparency and Reporting: Maintain transparency by regularly reporting on

environmental and social performance. This helps build trust among stakeholders and
allows for continuous improvement.
 11. Regulatory Compliance: Ensure compliance with local, national, and international
regulations related to mining activities, environmental protection, and social
responsibility.

12. Closure and Reclamation Planning: Develop comprehensive closure and

reclamation plans that outline how the site will be restored to its natural state after
mining operations cease. This includes addressing water quality, soil stability, and
vegetation restoration.

13. Collaboration and Partnerships: Collaborate with industry associations, non-

governmental organizations (NGOs), government agencies, and local communities to
collectively address sustainability challenges and share best practices.

Sustainable engineering practices in the mining sector require a multi-faceted approach that
considers environmental, social, and economic factors. By adopting these practices, mining
operations can contribute to long-term sustainability while minimizing negative impacts on
the environment and society.

Research and Data Collection

People have utilized stone, ceramics, and eventually, metals discovered near the Earth's
surface since the dawn of civilization. These were utilized to construct the first tools and
weapons; for instance, flint tools were made from high-quality flint that was found in Poland,
southern England, and northern France. I.e. There have been discovered feldspar mines in
chalk regions where subterranean shafts and galleries followed the stone's veins. According
to radiocarbon dating, the Ngwenya Mine in Eswatini, Swaziland, is the oldest known mine
in the archaeological record, dating back approximately 43,000 years. where hematite was
extracted to produce ochre, a red pigment. Similar-aged mines in Hungary are thought to
have been used by Neanderthals to extract flint for tools and weaponry. Subsequently,
between 2613 and 2494 BC, major construction projects necessitated trips outside of Egypt to
the Wadi Maghareh region to obtain minerals and other resources that were unavailable there.
Wadi Hammamat, Tura, Aswan, and several other Nubian cities were also home to copper
and turquoise quarries.

However large-scale mining techniques, particularly the utilization of copious amounts of

water delivered to the mine head by several aqueducts, were invented by the Romans.
Romans prospected for ore veins using hydraulic mining techniques on a massive scale. One
particularly outdated way of mining was called hushing. The primary goals of the mining
sector in the early Middle Ages were the extraction of iron and copper. Additional precious
metals were also employed, primarily for coinage or gilding. At first, rather than using deep
mine shafts, ore was mostly taken out of shallow depths to extract metals by open-pit mining.
The increasing usage of armor, stirrups, horseshoes, and weaponry around the 14th century
significantly raised the need for iron.

Large multinational firms have emerged in the globalized mining industry at the start of the
twenty-first century. Concerns about peak minerals and their effects on the environment have
also grown. Demand for some elements has started to rise as a result of new technologies,
especially for rare earth minerals.

DATA COLLECTION (Master, 2020)

 An estimated 180 million tons of toxic chemicals are released into water bodies
globally each year by mining, causing extensive harm to fish stocks and tainted
drinking water.

 The Aikwa River and the Arafura Sea receive an annual inflow of around 80 million
tons of waste from the Grasberg Mine, accounting for a startling 44.4% of the global
total.

 Conflict with sand miners, sometimes known as the "sand mafia," is thought to have
claimed 418 lives between 2020 and 2022.

 Compared to other crocodilian species, the Indian gharial is a big, slender-snouted

species that is far more sensitive to environmental disturbances.

 It was discovered that just 20 adult gharials were remaining in the sanctuary in 2021,
down from 72 in 2016.
  The fact that coal mining gives people access to cheap fossil fuels is likely the reason
that 40% of the world's population today uses coal-powered electricity.

 Burning coal is presently responsible for about 40% of global carbon dioxide
emissions, which is a major contributor to human-caused climate change.

 At least 83 persons were attacked by saltwater crocodiles in the islands between 2013
and 2022, with 32 of the attacks resulting in fatalities. Many of these attacks happened
in and around both active and closed tin mines.

 The Ok Tedi Mine in the Western Province of Papua New Guinea severely damaged
the ecosystem for about thirty years along the Fly River and its tributary, the Ok Tedi
River.

Negative Impact:

Mining has a significant impact on the environment, often leading to a range of negative
consequences for ecosystems, biodiversity, water resources, air quality, and еvеn local
communities. Some of the key environmental impacts of mining include:

Habitat Destruction and Biodiversity Loss: Mining activities often require the removal of
vegetation and topsoil, leading to the destruction of habitats for plants and animals. This can
result in the loss of biodiversity and disrupt local ecosystems, sometimes leading to species
extinction.

Water Pollution: Mining can contaminate water sources through the release of heavy metals,
acids, and other chemicals used in the extraction process. This can lead to the pollution of
rivers, lakes, and groundwater, posing risks to aquatic life and drinking water supplies.

Soil Degradation: The removal of topsoil during mining can lead to soil erosion and
degradation, reducing the fertility of land and making it difficult for vegetation to grow. This
can have long-lasting effects on local agriculture and ecosystems.

Air Pollution: Dust and particulate matter generated during mining operations can lead to air
pollution, impacting air quality and potentially causing respiratory issues for both humans
and animals in the surrounding areas.
Deforestation: Large-scale mining operations often require the clearing of forests to access
mineral deposits. This contributes to deforestation, which can result in the loss of valuable
carbon sinks, disruption of ecosystems, and еxacеrbation of climate change.

Acid Mine Drainage: When sulfur-bеaring minerals are exposed to air and water during
mining, they can react to form acidic runoff. This acidic mine drainage can contaminate
water bodies and harm aquatic life, leading to long-term ecological damage.

Land Subsidence and Sinkholes: Certain mining methods, such as underground coal mining,
can lead to land subsidence and the formation of sinkholes, posing risks to infrastructure and
safety in mining-affected areas.

Community Displacement: In cases where mining activities require the relocation of

communities, the affected people can lose their homes, land, and traditional livelihoods. This
displacement can lead to social and economic challenges for these communities.

Energy Consumption and Greenhouse Gas Emissions: Mining operations, particularly those
involving heavy machinery and equipment, can be еnеrgy-intеnsivе. The extraction,
transportation, and processing of minerals contribute to greenhouse gas emissions and the
depletion of finite energy resources.

Waste Generation: Mining operations generate large amounts of waste, including tailings
(waste rock and processing byproducts) that can contain hazardous materials. Proper
management of these waste materials is crucial to prevent environmental contamination.

Efforts are being made to decrease these environmental effects through better mining
techniques, tougher laws, the application of best management practices, and the development
of sustainable mining technology. The objective is to strike a balance between the economic
advantages of mining and the need to safeguard the environment and human welfare.

Positive Impact:

While mining is often associated with negative environmental impacts, there are also
instances when mining can have positive effects on the environment, albeit in a limited and
specific context. Some potential positive impacts include:
Habitat Creation: Some reclaimed mining sites can be transformed into habitats that support
biodiversity. These areas can provide a new home for plant and animal species that are
adapted to the unique conditions created by mining activities.

Ecological Restoration: Progressive rehabilitation and restoration practices can improve the
condition of degraded lands by returning them to a more natural state. This can include rе-
vеgеtation, erosion control, and the reintroduction of native species.

Innovative Reclamation: Mining companies are developing innovative reclamation methods

that aim to restore ecosystems in ways that might improve or diversify their function
compared to the original environment.

Water Management: Certain mining operations, like constructed wetlands used for treating
acid mine drainage, can help mitigate water pollution by naturally purifying contaminated
water.

Research and Conservation Funding: In some cases, mining activities can generate revenue
that supports environmental research and conservation efforts. Funds from mining operations
may contribute to initiatives aimed at protecting local ecosystems.

Indigenous Knowledge Preservation: In areas where mining occurs on lands traditionally

owned or inhabited by indigenous communities, mining companies might work with these
communities to incorporate their traditional knowledge into mining practices, leading to
better land and resource management.

It's important to note that while these potential positive impacts exist, they are often
contingent on responsible mining practices, strict regulatory oversight, and a commitment to
long-term sustainability. Mining activities still generally carry a higher risk of negative
environmental impacts, and efforts to minimize these impacts are crucial for achieving a
more balanced relationship between mining and the environment.
Data Collection

As per the statistics of September 2021

Deforestation and Habitat Loss:

The World Resources Institute estimated that mining and logging are responsible for about
73% of deforestation in the Amazon rainforest.

Globally, mining has been responsible for a significant amount of habitat destruction and
biodiversity loss, especially in ecologically sensitive areas.

Water Pollution and Acid Mine Drainage:

The United Nations Environment Program (UNEP) reported that mining activities are
responsible for approximately 8% of global freshwater withdrawals.

Acid mine drainage from abandoned mines continues to impact water quality in numerous
regions, leading to long-lasting pollution of water bodies.

Air Pollution:

The World Health Organization (WHO) estimates that outdoor air pollution contributes to
about 4. 2 million premature deaths worldwide each year. Mining activities, especially in
coal mining regions, are a significant contributor to air pollution.

Greenhouse Gas Emissions:

Mining contributes to greenhouse gas emissions through activities such as energy

consumption, transportation, and the release of methane from coal mines. The exact
percentage varies based on the type of mining and the energy sources used.

The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) has highlighted the mining sector’s
role in global emissions.

Land Degradation:

The United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD) estimated that mining
and quarrying activities are responsible for around 50% of all human-induced land
degradation.

Waste Generation:
The amount of waste generated by mining is substantial. For example, the World Bank
reported that one ton of gold ore yields around 5-10 tons of waste.

Tailings, the waste left over after minerals are extracted from ore, can pose significant
environmental risks if not properly managed.

Community Displacement:

The Internal Displacement Monitoring Centre (IDMC) reported that between 2008 and 2017,
around 16 million people were displaced due to conflict and violence related to mining and
other resource extraction activities.

Case Studies

Environmental Impacts of Mining Operations: a Case

Study: Monitoring the Impacts of Abu Tartour Phosphate
Mine, Egypt
Mining operations describe either mines or any of the various work functions that are performed
in mines, from exploration to waste disposal. The long-term environmental impacts of
uncontrolled mining and quarrying operations are disruption of the hydrological cycle, loss of
biological diversity, acceleration off deforestation and desertification in fertile areas and poor
sustainable development for the future.
Adopted from: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/25735161
Figure 2.1 : Mine in Eqypt
Environmental and Social Impacts

Environmental and social impacts of mining have been well-documented and ample
literature exists on this topic. The following discussion summarizes those environmental
and social issues that formed the basis for the Mining and Critical Ecosystems
framework. Environmental and social impacts are divided into waste management issues,
impacts on biodiversity and habitat, indirect impacts, and poverty alleviation and wealth
distribution.

Mining activities result in land use and changes. Mines are associated with an impact on
social and environmental systems. These impacts can be both advantageous and
disadvantageous, and they can occur directly or indirectly. Mining has the potential to
provide societies with a variety of advantages, but it can also lead to disputes, especially
concerning how land above and below the surface is utilized. In the same way, mining can
modify environments, yet efforts to fix and alleviate these changes can reinstate the balance
of systems. Northern wooded and polar areas are notably vulnerable to the consequences of
development, which influence both social and environmental systems. Native ecosystems and
native human communities, including those of indigenous people, are commonly confronted
with multiple pressures, such as shifts in climate and pollution. Negative impacts on the
environment, including deforestation, erosion, contamination and alteration of soil profiles,
and contamination of local water streams can lead to waterborne diseases. Additionally
increase in noise level, dust, and emissions.

Mining may have both beneficial and harmful effects on people and civilizations. Negative
consequences include, for example, those on human health and living standards. Mining is
also known to influence the traditional practices of Indigenous peoples living in adjacent
areas, and land use disputes are common, as are other social repercussions such as those
connected to public health and human well-being Mining is frequently a source of local
employment and may contribute to local and regional economies. Remediation of possible
environmental damages, such as water treatment and ecological restoration, can have a net
beneficial influence on environmental systems. Mine abandonment, decommissioning, and
repurposing can potentially have both beneficial and negative consequences.

The impact of coal mining on the environment and community quality of life: a
case study investigation of the impacts and conflicts associated with coal mining
in the Mpumalanga Province, South Africa

Coal is South Africa's major primary energy source, and plays a significant role in
supplying the chemicals and steelmaking industries. The benefits of coal production
are relevant in light of South Africa's development priorities of job creation and
economic growth. Even so, primary metal production and coal-based power
generation industries, through their operations and activities, pose a significant and
irreversible risk to the surrounding environment. The impact on the environment
further manifests on the health of local communities and sustainable livelihoods, and
frequently also presents a long-term economic burden and loss of valuable resources.
Despite changes in legislation and improved social and environmental performance
 by the industry, there is growing concern over the impacts and conflicts associated
with coal mining, with continuing claims by communities and civil society of
associated health issues, cattle and livestock death, and destruction of livelihoods.
Adopted from: https://open.uct.ac.za/handle/11427/28127
Figure 2.2: Coal Mining
Mining makes the water and land dirty, causing problems for plants, animals, and people who
rely on clean water. Mining damages the land and makes it unhealthy, affecting farms and
natural places. Dust and bad air from mining can make the air unhealthy to breathe and hurt
people and nature. Mine explosion causes the houses of the residents to crack and in danger,
their lives. The pollution from mining makes people sick, and they have health issues because
of it. Mining can destroy farms and other ways people make a living, making life harder for
them. The bad effects of mining can make it tough for towns to do well and for people to
have enough money. The damage from mining keeps hurting the environment and people's
lives for a long time, causing trouble that's hard to fix. Pollution takes away things like good
land for farming and clean water for people and animals.

Although there are many negative impacts there are also some positive ones associated with
the industry. Here are a few potential positive impacts of coal mining that are often
considered:

Economic Growth and Job Creation:

Coal mining can provide employment opportunities and contribute to the economy of mining
regions. It creates jobs in mining operations, transportation, and related industries, helping to
support local communities.

Energy Production:

Coal is a significant source of energy, and coal-fired power plants contribute to supplying
electricity for industries, businesses, and homes. This reliable energy source can support
economic development and meet energy demand.

Although there are many positive impacts on society, there are fewer or no positive impacts
of mining on the environment.

Waste management
By nature, mining involves the production of large quantities of waste, in some cases
contributing significantly to the nation’s total waste. For example, a large proportion of the
material flow inputs and outputs can be attributed to fossil fuel, coal, and metal mining ends
up as waste. Disposing of such huge quantities of waste poses unimaginable challenges to the
mining industry and may significantly impact the environment.

Example: The Mount Polley mine is a copper and gold mine located in British
Columbia, Canada. In August 2014, the mine experienced a tailings pond breach,
resulting in a massive release of mine waste and water into nearby rivers and
lakes.

The problem stemmed from the improper design and construction of the tailing’s
storage facility. The dam holding the tailings pond breached, releasing around 25
million cubic meters of water and tailings into the surrounding environment. This
mixture contained toxic heavy metals, affecting aquatic ecosystems, and posing risks
to human health.

Consequences: The breach had significant environmental consequences,

including fish kills, water pollution, and damage to local ecosystems. The spill
also impacted the drinking water of nearby communities and raised concerns
about the long-term effects of the contamination.
The incident prompted investigations into the mining practices and regulations in
Canada. It highlighted the importance of proper tailings management, engineering
design, and environmental assessments in mining operations. Regulatory reforms
were proposed to prevent similar incidents in the future, focusing on more stringent
tailings dam design, monitoring, and emergency response plans.

• Biodiversity and Habitat

Mining may result in additional indirect impacts that emanate far from the mine site.
To provide charcoal for pig-iron smelters, Fearnside estimated that the Carajás
project in the Brazilian Amazon would result in the deforestation of 72,000 hectares
of forest per year over the 250year life of the project (Fearnside, 1989: 142). The
sensitivity of specific ecosystems to mining is examined in Box A2.1. The most
 obvious impact on biodiversity from mining is the removal of vegetation, which in
turn alters the availability of food and shelter for wildlife. On a broader scale, mining
may impact biodiversity by changing species composition and structure. For example,
acid drainage and high metal concentrations in rivers generally result in an
impoverished aquatic environment. Some species of algae and invertebrates are more
tolerant of high metals and acid exposure and may thrive in less competitive
environments (Kelly, 1998:86). Exotic species (e.g., weedy plants and insect pests)
may thrive while native species decline (Ripley, 1997: 94). Some wildlife species
benefit from the modified habitat provided by mines, such as bighorn sheep that use
coal mine walls as shelter (MacCallum, 1989).

• Water Use in Mining

Mining and mineral processing operations often have high water footprints as many
stages require the use of water. Examples include dust mitigation, removing soluble
particles, sieving and separation processes, and creating tailings dams for waste
management. Although some stages, such as the separation of minerals, can reuse and
recycle the water, other stages such as spraying to remove airborne dust will lead to
pollution of the water, preventing water from being recycled. High water use in mining
operations can lead to reduced access for local people to uncontaminated freshwater
supplies and can result in a local area suffering from water stress.

However, compared to other industries, mining has a relatively small water usage, and
often a large fraction of the water used is saline so does not have much use in other
industries or domestically. For example, the US has one of the highest rates of mineral
production in the world after China and Australia; however, the water used for mining
only makes up about 1% of the total national water use with 47% of this water being low-
quality saline water.
Chart showing water use from different sectors in the US.

• Mining Pollution

There have been many documented instances of environmental pollution caused by

mining operations, which are often caused by leakages of mining tailings. Mining tailings
are the materials left behind after the economically valuable fraction of material has been
extracted. These materials are often stored in large tailings dams to prevent
environmental damage as tailings are often radioactive, toxic, or acidic. Tailings consist
of valuable substances used in the extraction process such as cyanide, mercury, or
arsenic; therefore, modern mining programs often aim to remove these harmful but
valuable chemicals to reuse for further mineral separation. In addition to improving
efficiency and cutting costs, this minimizes the risk of environmental damage by
reducing the toxicity of the tailings.

As a result of strict international regulations, pollution caused by mining has been

dramatically reduced; however, it is still an ongoing problem in many developing countries
where illegal small-scale operations known as ‘artisanal mining’ occur. These low-tech,
subsistence mining operations are often unsafe, and the poor management of sites leads to
environmental pollution in the region. The problems associated with artisanal mining remain
complex as it is difficult to identify and shut down all these small operations. Furthermore,
although artisanal mining can result in dangerous environmental pollution, it does help to
alleviate the estimated 40 million people who participate in this industry from poverty.

Another key environmental problem associated with mining projects is the land use
change that occurs, not only from drilling and excavating open pit mines but also the
changes that occur as a result of the development of surrounding infrastructure. The latter
can include camps to provide accommodation for the miners as well as the railways and
roads needed to transport the mined materials. The infrastructure created by mining
operations in remote, untouched landscapes can lead to improved access to these regions
which may result in further human-caused disturbance to the local ecological systems.

The impact of mining operations on the surrounding land is also closely linked to the
ecological setting of the mining sites. For example, the deforestation of primary forests
caused by mining for iron ore in the tropical rainforests of Gabon is likely to leave more
devastating and longer-term ecological damage compared to mining iron ore in the
deserts of northern Australia.
Other Real cases

Mariana Dam Disaster, Brazil

Background: The Mariana Dam disaster occurred in 2015 in the state of Minas
Gerais, Brazil. A tailings dam at the Samarco iron ore mine collapsed, releasing a
massive amount of mine waste into the environment.

Social Impact: The disaster resulted in the loss of 19 lives, displacement of hundreds
of people, and destruction of entire communities downstream. The affected
communities faced not only physical harm but also economic and social disruptions
as their homes and livelihoods were destroyed.

Environmental Impact: The dam breach caused a massive release of toxic sludge that
flowed into nearby rivers, reaching the Atlantic Ocean. The waste contained heavy
metals and pollutants, leading to widespread water pollution, destruction of aquatic
ecosystems, and long-lasting environmental damage.

Response and Lessons Learned: The Mariana disaster prompted widespread outrage
and calls for accountability. The mining companies responsible for the dam's
operation faced legal actions and significant financial penalties. The disaster also
highlighted the need for improved safety regulations, stricter monitoring of tailings
 storage facilities, and more transparent communication between mining companies,
regulatory agencies, and affected communities. Ok Tedi Mine, Papua New Guinea

Background: The Ok Tedi Mine is a large copper and gold mine located in Papua New
Guinea. The mine has been operating since the 1980s and has had significant social and
environmental impacts on the surrounding region.

Social Impact: The mine's operations have resulted in the displacement of local
indigenous communities, leading to the loss of traditional lands and livelihoods.
Additionally, the influx of mine workers and associated activities has led to social
disruptions and conflicts within these communities. The mine's presence has strained
local resources and cultural heritage.

Environmental Impact: One of the most significant environmental issues associated

with the Ok Tedi Mine was the practice of dumping mine tailings directly into the Ok
Tedi and Fly rivers. This resulted in severe water pollution, loss of aquatic life, and
degradation of water quality downstream, impacting the livelihoods of downstream
communities and ecosystems.

Both case studies illustrate how mining operations can have profound social and
environmental impacts. They underscore the importance of responsible mining practices,
through environmental assessments, and effective regulatory oversight to mitigate
negative consequences and protect communities and ecosystems.

Recommendations
Responsible and sustainable mining methods are unquestionably critical for the health of the
environment, local people, and the industry itself. Here are some recommendations for mining
stakeholders, legislators, and engineers to consider:

Stakeholders in the Industry:

1. Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA): Before beginning any mining project, conduct
complete EIAs. Identify possible environmental consequences and devise mitigation solutions.

2. Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR): Adopt CSR activities that go above and beyond what is
required by law. Participate in local communities, invest in education, healthcare, and infrastructure,
and promote long-term economic growth.
3. Transparency and Accountability: Promote transparency in production, income, and
environmental effect reporting. To create trust, engage in open communication with communities and
non-governmental organizations.

4. Collaboration: Work with non-governmental organizations (NGOs), governments, and local

communities to ensure that mining projects uphold human rights, environmental standards, and social
well-being.

5. Research and innovation: Invest in research and technology to develop more efficient and
ecologically friendly mining practices. Investigate alternatives to time-consuming processes.

Policymakers Should Know:

1. Regulation and Enforcement: Create and implement tough regulations requiring mining
corporations to follow environmental and social norms. Regular inspections and strong fines for
infractions are required.

2. Community Involvement: Include local communities in mining project decision-making

processes. Companies should be required to participate in meaningful conversations and seek consent
before advancing.

3. Rehabilitation and Closure Plans: Require mining firms to submit detailed rehabilitation and
closure plans. Make certain that money is made aside for rehabilitation to avoid abandoned and
dangerous places.

4. Sustainability Incentives: Provide incentives such as tax rebates or grants to enterprises who
adopt sustainable mining techniques, invest in research, and participate in community development.

5. Transparency and Reporting: Ensure that standards for transparent reporting of output, income,
and environmental consequences are met. Make this information widely available to the general
audience.

For engineers:

1. Innovative Mining Techniques: Create and apply novel mining technologies that decrease waste,
energy consumption, and environmental effect.

2. Efficient Resource Use: Improve resource use by lowering water consumption, reducing trash
output, and enhancing material recycling and reuse.
3. Ecosystem Protection: Mine operations should be designed to safeguard and minimize impacts to
local ecosystems. Implement biodiversity preservation and restoration initiatives.

4. Health and Safety: Put workers' health and safety first by employing cutting-edge safety practices
and technology to avoid accidents and occupational health concerns.

5. Data Monitoring and Analysis: Use data analytics to monitor and analyze mining operations,
assisting in the identification of areas for improvement and the formulation of real-time choices to
optimize processes.

Stakeholders, legislators, and engineers may help to create a more sustainable and responsible mining
sector that balances economic development with environmental and social concerns by implementing
these ideas.