EE 2043 – Electrical Measurements and Instrumentation

TEMPERATURE SENSOR
CALIBRATION

Instructed By: Mr.

Group Members
200138H Dissanayake D.M.B.S. Name : Erandi M.A.U
200149R Lakshitha E.G.M. Index No : 200161V
200150L Edririmanna S.H. Course : EE2043 – Electrical
Measurements & Instrumentation
200161V Erandi M.A.U. Group : G_04
200168A Fernando S.G.C.S. Date of Per : /03/2023
200169D Fernando T.R.R. Date of Sub : 07/04/2023
THEORY

1. Explain the working principle of the thermistor with equations.

Resistors whose resistance changes dramatically with changes in temperature are called as thermistors.
The thermistor begins self-heating its components as the ambient temperature changes. With relation to
this change in temperature, its resistance value changes. As a result, the voltage across the thermistor
changes, allowing for the detection of temperature differences.
To model the resistance-temperature behavior of a thermistor we can use The Steinhart-Hart equation
which is given by,
1/T = A + B ln(R/R₀) + C ln(R/R₀)^3
Where: T = Kelvin units (°C + 273.15), and ln(R) = natural logarithm of a resistance in ohms. A, B, C,
D, and E are the Steinhart-Hart coefficients that vary depending on the type of thermistor used and the
range of temperature being detected.

2. What do you mean by sensor calibration?

To ensure accuracy and reproducibility, measurement equipment such as sensors and measuring systems
are calibrated. To get precise, dependable, and repeatable measurement results, sensors must be
calibrated. One of the essential prerequisites for successful quality assurance is calibration.

Sensor calibration, in the context of measurement technology, describes the procedures used to establish,
under specific conditions, the correspondence between the values of a measuring output produced by a
measurement instrument such as a sensor or measuring system and the corresponding values of a
measuring instrument established with standards.
 3. The new temperature sensor is to be calibrated using the Wheatstone bridge principle. Design
a circuit to calibrate the temperature sensor and sketch it using the values calculated.

PROCEDURE

P
Q

Resistance of the thermistor (RTh) at 0 °C = 25 kΩ

To produce 0 V at 0 °C from the thermistor, voltage across P & Q need to be 0V.
According to Wheastone Bridge Theory ,
𝑅(𝑡ℎ) 𝑅3
if = VPQ = 0 V
𝑅𝑣 𝑅4

Rv (setted value of the variable resiter at 0 °C = 50 kΩ

According to the ratio between Rth and Rv ,
R3 = 10 kΩ
R4 = 20 kΩ
Therefore voltage across P & Q = 0 V

Hence at 0 °C produce voltage of the sensor = 0 V

.
Obtained voltage readings using the Wheatstone bridge by considering appropriate temperature
steps

Temp. ( C ) Voltage (V)

0 0
28.6 0.84
28.9 0.85
29.6 0.91
30.6 1.01
31.9 1.11
33.9 1.22
35.6 1.39
37 1.55
38.9 1.7
41.8 1.76
46 1.99
46.6 2.08
47.1 2.04
47.8 2.08
48.3 2.11
49.6 2.13
50.5 2.17
50.7 2.2
51.4 2.59
53.2 2.24
54.5 2.19
55.5 2.26
57.5 2.29
59 2.32
60.3 2.35
61.6 2.4
63.9 2.42
64.7 2.43
65.5 2.44
67.5 2.51
68.1 2.52
68.5 2.53
69.2 2.54
70.1 2.55
70.3 2.57
70.8 2.58
71.8 2.59
72.5 2.6
72.9 2.61
73.3 2.62
73.8 2.63
Best calibration equation;
y = -0.0003x2 + 0.0609x - 0.3575
R2 value for the above equation is 0.9335 and it is closer to 1.Therefor we can predict that curve
represents our detector response more accurately.

4. Based on your calibration equation obtained, determine the corresponding temperature value
for the sensor output of 1 V

y = -0.0003x2 + 0.0609x - 0.3575

let y =1
1 = -0.0003 (x) 2 + 0.0609 (x) - 0.3575

−( − 0.0609) ± √0.06092 − 4(0.0003)(1.3575)

X= 2(0.0003)

X = 177.5 °C or 25.5 °C

According to our observed graph x=177.5 is not valid.

Hence corresponding value for the sensor output of 1 V = 25.5 °C

Discussion

1. What are the issues in using the higher-order equations for calibration?

• Higher-order equations are often more complex than linear or polynomial equations, which
makes them potentially more challenging to use and computationally expensive.

• Higher-order equations can better match the data since they are more flexible and complex than
linear or polynomial equations. However,this might result in overfitting, when the model
underperforms on fresh, untested data because it becomes strongly customized to the particular
data used for calibration.

• Higher-order equations can be challenging to understand, particularly when there are numerous
terms included. Understanding the underlying relationship between the input and output
variables can be difficult as a result.

• The calibration data's range may limit how accurately higher-order equations extrapolate. This
indicates that predictions produced using the model outside of the calibration data's range may
not be accurate.

2. To make this calibration curve into a linear model, what type of approach do you suggest?
Briefly explain and determine the equation(s). Determine the maximum non-linearity error
based on the percentage of the full-scale deflection.

To make this equation in to a linear model we can use piecewise linear functions defined on a
collection of intervals. This method involves dividing the range of the independent variable (x) into
several intervals and fitting a straight line to each interval.
we can divide the range of x(temperature) into five intervals: [0, 20], [20, 40], [40, 60],[60,80] and
[80,100]. Then, we can fit a straight line to each interval using the method of least squares

For the first interval, we have the following data points: (0, -0.3575), (5,-0.0605), (10,0.2215), and
(15,0.4885).

Fitting a straight line to these points, we get:

y = 0.0549x – 0.3575
For the second interval, we have the following data points: (20,0.7405), (25,0.9775), (30,1.1995),
and (35,1.4065).

Fitting a straight line to these points, we get:

y = 0.0429x-0.0875
For the third interval, we have the following data points: (40,1.5985), (45,1.7755), (50, 1.9375),
and (55,2.0845).

Fitting a straight line to these points, we get:

y = 0.0309x+0.3925
For the forth interval, we have the following data points: (60,2.2165), (65,2.3335), (70,2.4355),
and (75,2.5225).

Fitting a straight line to these points, we get:

y = 0.0189x+1.1125

For the fifth interval, we have the following data points(80,2.5945), (85,2.6515), (90,2.6935), and
(95,2.7205).

Fitting a straight line to these points, we get:

y = 0.0069x+2.0725

Therefore, the piecewise linear approximation for the calibration curve is:

For 0 <= x < 20: y = 0.0549x – 0.3575

For 20< =x < 40: y = 0.0429x-0.0875
For 40 <= x <60: y = 0.0309x+0.3925
For 60<= x <80: y = 0.0189x+1.1125
For 80<= x <100: y = 0.0069x+2.0725

Max error = 0.03

FSD = max(y) - min(y) = 2.7205-(-0.3575) = 3.078

maximum_error_percentage = (max_error / FSD) * 100 = (0.03/ 3.078 ) * 100

=0.975%
3. Determine the measurement sensitivity of the sensor in the measurement range of 40 0C to 60 0C.

In the above part we have obtained a linear equation for the range 40<=x<60.
y = 0.0309x+0.3925
In case of a linear model sensitivity is equal to the slope of the linear equation.
Hence the sensitivity of the sensor in range of 40°C to 60°C = 0.0309V/°C

4. What are the other types of circuits that you can construct to measure temperature using
thermistors?

Operational Amplifier Circuit:

The voltage across the thermistor is amplified in this circuit by an operational amplifier. A feedback
resistor is connected between the amplifier's output and its inverting input, and a thermistor and a
fixed resistor are connected in series to the amplifier's non-inverting input. Temperature-dependent
changes in the output voltage of the amplifier can be used to calibrate the measurement of
temperature.

Voltage Divider Circuit:

In order to establish a voltage divider in this circuit, a thermistor and a fixed resistor are connected
in series. The output voltage of the circuit is then assessed across the temperature-sensitive
thermistor. Using a calibration curve, the voltage and temperature can be connected.

Self-Heating Circuit:
This circuit measures temperature using the thermistor's ability to self-heat. The thermistor is wired
in series with a constant current source, a fixed resistor, and other components. The temperature is
determined by keeping track of the thermistor's change in resistance as the circuit's current heats it
up.
5. If you want to use a thermocouple instead of a thermistor, what type of signal conditioning
circuits you require?

A signal conditioning circuit is needed to amplify and transform the small thermocouple voltage
into a useable signal that can be read by a data acquisition system or a temperature controller in
order to measure temperature using a thermocouple.

Some common types of signal conditioning circuits used for thermocouples:

Thermocouple Amplifiers:

The small voltage produced by the thermocouple is amplified by these amplifiers to a greater
voltage that can be monitored with ease. Different varieties of thermocouple amplifiers, including
differential, non-differential, and instrumentation amplifiers, are available.

Cold Junction Compensation Circuits:

The reference junction, also known as the cold junction, of the thermocouple must be kept at a
constant temperature to accurately measure the temperature. The temperature of the cold junction
is measured, and the temperature differential between the cold junction and the measurement point
is made up for, using a cold junction compensation circuit.

Linearization Circuits:
A temperature-dependent nonlinear voltage signal is generated by thermocouples. The nonlinear
signal is linearized into a temperature-proportional output using a linearization circuit.

Signal Isolation Circuits:

In order to avoid noise and interference, it is sometimes necessary to isolate the thermocouple
signal from the measurement or control system. Transformers and optocouplers are used in signal
isolation circuits to create electrical isolation between the thermocouple and the measurement or
control system.

A/D Conversion Circuits:

The thermocouple signal must first be digitized before it can be amplified, linearized, and adjusted.
A/D conversion circuits are used to turn the analog thermocouple signal into a digital signal that a
microcontroller or computer can read and process.
Reference
https://www.teamwavelength.com/thermistor-
basics/#:~:text=1%2FT%20%3D%20A%20%2B%20B,%2B%20E(lnR)4%E2%80%A6&text=A%2C%20B%2C
%20C%2C%20D,range%20of%20temperature%20being%20detected.
https://teachics.org/sensors-and-transducers/thermistor-construction-working-
types/#:~:text=The%20thermistor%20works%20on%20the,the%20type%20of%20thermistor%20used.

Bishop, C. M. (2006). Pattern Recognition and Machine Learning (1st ed.). Springer.
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-0-387-84858-7

Draper, N. R., & Smith, H. (1998). Applied Regression Analysis (3rd ed.). Wiley.
https://doi.org/10.1002/9781118625590

"Signal Conditioning for Thermocouples" by Texas Instruments

https://www.ti.com/lit/ml/slyp161/slyp161.pdf